B

GIO D C V O T O

TR NG I H C QUY NHN
*********

H DUY NGHA

PHNG TRNH TRN NHM ABEL H U H N

LU N VN TH C S TON H C

Quy Nhn - 2011

GIO D C V O T O

TR NG I H C QUY NHN
*********

H DUY NGHA

PHNG TRNH TRN NHM ABEL H U H N

Chuyn ngnh: i s v l thuy t s M s : 60 46 05

LU N VN TH C S TON H C

Ng i h ng d n khoa h c
TS. NGUY N AN KHNG

Quy Nhn - 2011

M CL C

M cl c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L im u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chng 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 c trng c a nhm abel h u h n

i 1 3 3 6 8 10 14 16 16 16 19 24 27 32 32 32 36 43 46 46 53

Khi ni m v cc tnh ch t c b n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H th c tr c giao c a cc c trng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Th ng d b c hai, k hi u Legendre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c trng trn tr ng h u h n Fq , t ng Gauss . . . . . . . . . c trng mun k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . phng trnh trn nhm abel h u h n

Chng 2 2.1

Bi n i Fourier trn nhm Abel h u h n . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 Khi ni m v cc tnh ch t c b n . . . . . . . . . . . Lu t thu n ngh ch b c hai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bi n i Fourier c a hm c trng . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

Phng trnh x1 x2 xk

a.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chng 3 3.1

phng trnh ng d b c cao

T ng Jacobi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 3.1.2 Khi ni m v cc tnh ch t c b n . . . . . . . . . . . M t s d ng m r ng c a t ng Jacobi . . . . . . . . .

3.2 3.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phng trnh ng d A1 xm A2 xm  A p mod pq . . . . . . 1 2 3.3.1 S nghi m c a phng trnh A1 x3 A2 x3  A p mod pq 1 2 3.3.2 S nghi m c a phng trnh A1 x4 A2 x4  A p mod pq 1 2
1 2

k Phng trnh 1 x11 n xkn n

ii

3.3.3

i u ki n phng trnh A1 xm1 A2 xm2 1 2

 A p mod pq
56 61 62

c nghi m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K t lu n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ti li u tham kh o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

L IM

M t trong nh ng bi ton trung tm c a l thuy t s l tm nghi m v xt tnh ch t nghi m h u t c a phng trnh. Nghi m c a m t phng trnh trn cc nhm Abel h u h n ( c bi t l trn cc tr ng h u h n) c quan h m t thi t v i nghi m h u t cng nh nghi m ph c c a phng trnh . Phng trnh trn nhm Abel h u h n l m t i t ng c cc nh ton h c nghin c u t lu v n nay v n cn c quan tm r ng ri. M t trong cc kha c nh nghin c u c a v n ny l bi ton xc nh s nghi m c a phng trnh trn nhm Abel h u h n. Lu n vn Phng trnh trn nhm Abel h u h n nh m tm hi u v nghi m c a phng trnh trn nhm Abel h u h n v nghi m c a cc phng trnh ng d trn vnh cc s nguyn. Ngoi ph n m u, k t lu n v ti li u tham kh o, lu n vn c chia thnh ba chng, trong n i dung chnh c a lu n vn c trnh by Chng 2 v Chng 3. Trong ph n u c a Chng 1 chng ti trnh by khi ni m cc c trng c a nhm h u h n v cc khi ni m c n thi t cho cc ph n sau. Ti p theo chng ti trnh by chi ti t v nhm cc c trng v h th c tr c giao c a cc c trng. Ngoi ra, chng ti cn trnh by m t s c trng c th trn tr ng h u h n Fq cng nh ngha c a n qua t ng Gauss trn tr ng h u h n (cc M nh 1.4.9, 1.4.11). Trong Chng 2 chng ti trnh by v php bi n i Fourier trn nhm Abel h u h n v m t s ng d ng. Chng ti b t u t vi c xy d ng cc

nh ngha, v d cng nh nh ng tnh ch t c b n c a php bi n i Fourier trn nhm Abel h u h n ( ng th c Parseval, cc M nh 2.1.10, 2.1.12). Sau chng ti s d ng cc tnh ch t c a bi n i Fourier ch ng

minh Lu t thu n ngh ch b c hai v gi i bi ton tm s nghi m c a phng trnh trn nhm Abel h u h n. Ph n cu i c a chng l ch ng minh nh l Fermat trn tr ng h u h n. Trong Chng 3 chng ti trnh by v t ng Jacobi v ng d ng c a n. Ph n u chng ti gi i thi u khi ni m v cc tnh ch t c s c a t ng Jacobi. T chng ti lm r c v i m i s nguyn t p c d ng p  4f Jacobi tm s nghi m c a phng 1 xk1 n xkn 1 n
m A 1 x1 1

1 u
ng Fp .

l t ng c a bnh phng c a hai s nguyn. Ph n sau chng ti s d ng t ng

 trn tr

ng th i gi i m t s bi ton v s nghi m c a phng trnh ng d d ng

A2xm  A pmod pq trn vnh cc s 2

2

nguyn. Ngoi ra, chng ti

cn s d ng ph n m m Maple ki m tra l i cc k t qu tnh ton t cc v d minh h a. Cu i cng, cho php ti c by t lng bi t n su s c n th y TS. Nguy n An Khng, ng i t n tnh h ng d n, gip ti th c hi n lu n vn ny. Nhn y, ti xin chn thnh c m n n Ban Gim Hi u, Phng Sau i h c, Khoa Ton Tr ng i h c Quy Nhn; Tr ng THPT Phan nh Phng -kLk t o i u ki n thu n l i cho ti hon thnh kha h c. Ti xin trn tr ng c m n qu th y c Khoa Ton gi ng d y v gip ti trong qu trnh h c t p, nghin c u khoa h c cng nh th c hi n ti. Ti xin c m n gia nh, b n b ng nghi p cng chia s , ng vin v gip ti trong su t qu trnh h c t p v th c hi n lu n vn. M c d b n thn r t c g ng v c s h ng d n nhi t tnh c a th y gio h ng d n, nhng do nng l c c a b n thn v th i gian cn h n ch nn lu n vn kh trnh kh i nh ng thi u st. Chng ti r t mong nh n c s gp c a qu th y c v cc b n lu n vn c hon thi n hn.

Chng 1
C TRNG C A NHM ABEL H U H N

Cho G l m t nhm Abel h u h n c p n. Trong chng ny chng ti trnh by cc khi ni m, tnh ch t c b n v c trng c a G. Bn c nh , chng ti cng gi i thi u m t c trng mun k c a vnh cc s nguyn Z v cc c trng c a tr ng h u h n Fq . Ki n th c trong chng ny c chng ti trnh by d a trn cc ti li u [4], [5], [9], [10].

1.1

Khi ni m v cc tnh ch t c b n

nh ngha 1.1.1. Cho G l m t nhm Abel h u h n c p n vi t theo l i c ng. M t c trng c a nhm G l m t ng c u t G vo nhm nhn C cc s ph c khc khng. Ni cch khc, m t c trng c a nhm G l m t hm : G C th a mn pa bq  paqpbq v i m i a, b G. K hi u l 0 l c trng t m th ng, t c l 0 paq  1 v i m i a G. Ch 1.1.2. T nh ngha ta c paqn paq chnh l cn b c n c a n v

 pnaq  p0q  1 v i a G. Do v paq  paq1  paq.

nh ngha 1.1.3. Gi s v I l hai c trng c a nhm G. Tch c a hai c trng v I l nh x c xc nh b i I : G C a I paq : paqI paq. R rng nh x ny cng l m t c trng c a G. Hn n a, t p h p t t c cc c trng c a G l p thnh m t nhm giao hon v i php ton nhn nh trn. C th , ta c nh l sau.

nh l 1.1.4. T p cc c trng c a nhm G l p thnh m t nhm giao

p hon, k hi u l G, v i php ton nhn c xc nh nh trn. p Ch ng minh. D dng ch ng minh c G l m t nhm giao hon v i n

v l 0 .
p nh ngha 1.1.5. Nhm G c g i l nhm i ng u c a nhm G.

V d 1.1.6 ( c trng c a nhm Zn ). G i

 e l cn b c n c a n v , cc nh x j : Zn C xc nh b i j paq  ja , j Z l cc c trng c a Zn . Th t v y, ta c j paq C v j pa bq  j pabq  j paqj pbq, j Z.

2i n

Nn j l c trng c a Zn . Ngoi ra ta c cc s ki n sau.

 k n u v ch n u j  k pmod nq. Th t v y, v j  k nn j p1q  k p1q. Do j  k hay j  k pmod nq. Ng c l i, n u j  k p mod nq th J  ktn  k . Hay j  k . piiq j  j1. Th t v y, v i m i a Zn ta c
j j paq  ja Do ta c j
x piiiq Zn

piq

 paqj  p1paqqj .

 e2i  1  0. Ngoi ra, gi s t n t i 0 nI n sao cho nI  0 . Khi n|nI . i u ny x x v l. V y Zn l nhm xyclic c p n, hay Zn  t0 , ..., n1 u. x pivq Zn ! Zn. T piiiq ta c ng c u trong pivq.
x xyclic c p n. Ta c 1 l ph n t sinh c a nhm Zn v n

 j1.  t0, ..., n1u. Th

x t v y, ta ch c n ch ng minh Zn l nhm

M nh 1.1.7. Cho h : G1 b i h

trng c a nhm G2 . ng c u n i c a b i h c k hi u l h xc nh

G2 l m

t ng c u nhm v l m t c

 h (h

p thnh c a v h) l m t c trng c a nhm G1 .

Ch ng minh. Suy ra tr c ti p t quy t c h p thnh c a hai ng c u.

M nh 1.1.8. N u G1 , G2 l hai nhm Abel h u h n v ng c u v i nhau

x x th hai nhm i ng u G1 , G2 tng ng c a chng cng ng c u v i nhau.

Ch ng minh. Gi s h : G1 nhm G2 , xt s

G2 l m
G1 C
h /

t ng c u v 2 l c trng c a

CC CC 2 1 CCC ! 

G2 C

Theo M nh 1.1.7, ta c ng c u n i 2

h l

c trng c a nhm G1 ,

nn m i c trng 1 c a nhm G1 l ng c u n i no gi a 2 v h. Khi nh x

x h : G2 x G1 2 h p2 q : 2 h

l ton nh. By gi ta c n ch ng h l m t ng c u v n nh. Th t v y, theo nh ngha c a c trng h ta c h p2 I2 q

V y h l m t ng c u.

 t1, 2u g i 0 l c trng t m th ng c a Gj , khi n u h 2  0 th 2 hpaq  1 v i m i a G1 , v h song nh nn suy ra 2  0 . Do Ker ph q  IdG l nh x ng nh t . x

ng c u. Hn n a v i m i j
1 j 2 2

 hp2qhpI2q nn suy ra h l m

p x x p x x Khi cc nhm i ng u tng ng G, G1 , G2 th a mn G  G1 G2 .

M nh 1.1.9. G i G  G1 G2 l tch tr c ti p c a hai nhm G1 v G2 .

Ch ng minh. Ta c G  tpx1 , x2 q; x1 2
x G2 xt tng

G1, x2 G2u.

Khi v i 1

x G1 ,

ng :G

C px1, x2q px1, x2q : 1px1q2px2q.

D th y l m t nh x . Ta s ch ng minh l m t c trng c a G. Th t v y, v i m i px1 , x2 q, py1 , y2 q G ta c ppx1 , x2 q py1 , y2 qq  px1 y1 ; x2 y2 q  1 px1 y1 q2 px2 y2 q

 1px1q2px2q1py1q2py2q  px1; x2qpy1; y2q.

V y l m t c trng c a nhm G. Ti p theo ta ch ng minh nh x
x x : G1 G2 p G p1, 2q p1, 2q :

l m t ng c u. Tr c h t ta th y r ng l m t ton c u. Th t v y, v i
p G ta c px1, x2q  px1, 0qp0, x2q  1px1q2px2q, do lun t n x x t i p1 , 2 q G1 G2 sao cho p1 , 2 q  . Hay l m t ton c u. Hn x x n a, v i p1 , 2 q, pI1 , I2 q G1 G2 , gi s p1 , 2 q  pI1 , I2 q ta c

m i

px1 , x2 q  1 px1 q2 px2 q  I1 px1 qI2 px2 q  I px1 , 0qI p0, x2 q  I px1 , x2 q. Do  I , hay l n c u. T suy ra c l m t ng c u.
p H qu 1.1.10. G ! G.

Ch ng minh. V G l m t nhm h u h n nn G M nh 1.1.9 ta c nhm i ng

1

! Zn Zn v theo y p y p u G ! Zn Zn . Do G ! G.
1 k k

1.2

H th c tr c giao c a cc c trng

M nh 1.2.1 ([4, Proposition 1.1]). V i m i c trng khng t m th ng c a G ta lun c

aG

paq  0.

Ch ng minh. t S

b G sao cho pbq $ 1, v i m i $ 0 . Khi ta c pbqS T suy ra S ppbq 1q  0 hay S

aG

paq. Ta s ch ng minh S

aG

 0. Th

t v y, ch n

aG

paqpbq 

pa bq 

abG

pa bq  S.

 0.
6 9 8n, 9 70,

H qu 1.2.2. Cho G l m t nhm Abel h u h n c p n. Khi (i) N u l m t c trng c a G th

6 9 8n, 9 70,
xG

xG

pxq 

n u  0 , n u $ 0 .

(ii) N u x G th

p G

pxq 

n u x  0, n u x $ 0. 0 pxq
xG

Ch ng minh. piq N u

 0 th

th theo M nh 1.2.1 ta suy ra c

piiq V i x G, xt nh x

 1  n  |G|. N u $ 0 xG pxq  0.

p : G C

pq : pxq.
p D th y l m t c trng c a G v do theo trn ta c
p G

pq

9 9

6 9 p 8G ,

n u  0 , n u $ 0 n u pxq  1, n u pxq $ 1

70, 6 9 8n, 70,

9 9

6 9 8n,

n u pxq  0 pxq, n u pxq $ 0 pxq n u x  0, n u x $ 0.

70, 6 9 8n, 70,

T suy ra i u ph i ch ng minh. H qu 1.2.3 (H th c tr c giao t ng qut). Cho G l m t nhm Abel h u h n c p n. Khi

(i) N u ,

p G th

aG

paq paq 

6 9 8n, 9 70,

n u  , n u $ . n u a  b, n u a $ b.

(ii) N u a, b G th

p G

paqpbq 

6 9 8n, 9 70,

Ch ng minh. piq N u  th paqpaq  paq1 paq  1. Do

aG

paq paq  n.

N u $ th l m t c trng khng t m th ng. Do theo M nh 1.2.1 ta c i u ph i ch ng minh.

piiq N u a  b th

p G

paqpbq 

p G

|paq|2  n. N u a $ b th
pb aq  0.

p G

paqpbq 

p G

T suy ra i u ph i ch ng minh.

1.3

Th ng d b c hai, k hi u Legendre

nh ngha 1.3.1. Cho m l m t s nguyn dng, s a c g i l th ng d b c hai theo mun m n u CLNpa, mq x2

 a p mod mq c nghi m. N u ng

 1 v phng trnh

ng d

c l i ta ni a khng l th ng d b c hai

theo mun m. nh ngha 1.3.2. G i a l m t s nguyn v p l m t s nguyn t l . K hi u Legendre l s c xc nh nh sau

 6 9 90, 9 9 9 8

a p

 91,

n u p|a, n u phng trnh x2

9 9 9 9 7 1,

 a p mod pq c nghi m, n u phng trnh x2  a p mod pq v nghi m.

M nh 1.3.3. G i a, p l nh ng s nh trn. Khi ta c

(i) (ii) (iii)

a p 1 p

 a p mod pq pTiu chu

p 1 2

n Eulerq;

 1, p1
b p

 p1q ;
p 1 2

a p

ab p

;

a p

(iv) N u a  b p mod pq th

b p

Ch ng minh. Ta ch c n ch ng minh piq, cc k t qu ra t

ch ng minh piq tr c h t ta ch ng minh r ng phng trnh x2 c nghi m n u v ch n u a x2

p 1 2

piq.

piiq, piiiq, pivq

c suy

 a p mod pq c nghi m x. Khi

xp1

 1 p mod pq. Th
p 1 2

 a p mod pq

t v y, gi s phng trnh

 a p mod pq.

T suy ra

 xp1 p mod pq. Ngoi ra, theo nh l Fermat nh ta c xp1  1 p mod pq nn suy ra c a  1 p mod pq. Ng c l i, ta gi s a  1 p mod pq v g i b l ph n t sinh c a nhm pZ{pZq , khi lun t n t i s n sao cho a  bn . Do ta c
a
p 1 2 p 1 2 p 1 2

n p 1 2

pq

 1 p mod pq.
n

pp 1q t c l n 2 x2  a p mod pq.
x2

Hn n a, b l ph n t sinh c a nhm pZ{pZq nn npp2 1q ph i chia h t cho

ph i l s ch n. Do b 2 l nghi m c a phng trnh

Ti p theo ta ch ng minh cho hai tr ng h p cn l i l phng trnh

 a p mod pq v nghi m v pa. |  1 p mod pq. Tr ng h p 1: V i p|a ta c a  0. Suy ra a p

p 1 2

10

Tr ng h p 2: V i

thnh p1 c p sao cho tch t ng c p ng d a theo mun p. T suy ra 2

 1 t c l phng trnh x2  a p mod pq v nghi m. Khi v i m i 1 i p 1 t n t i duy nh t j v i 1 j p 1 sao cho i.j  a p mod pq. Hi n nhin l i $ j, nn ta c th nhm cc s 1, ..., p 1
a p

pp 1q!  a p mod pq.

p 1 2

Do , theo nh l Wilson ta c

1  a p mod pq.
p 1 2

1.4

c trng trn tr ng h u h n Fq , t ng Gauss

Cho Fq l tr ng h u h n v i q l ly th a c a m t s nguyn t . Ngoi c trng c a nhm Abel pFq , q v c trng trn nhm giao hon pF , .q q c c p, trong ph n ny ta s xt c trng trn tr ng Fq . C th ta c cc nh ngha sau. nh ngha 1.4.1. M t c trng c ng tnh c a tr ng Fq l c trng c a
p nhm pFq , q, t c l v i m i Fq v v i m i a, b Fq ta c

piq pa bq  paqpbq; piiq p0q  1; piiiq paq  paq.

V d 1.4.2. Cho Fp l tr ng h u h n v i p ph n t v Fq l tr ng h u h n v i pk ph n t (p nguyn t , q

 pk q, v
2

i m i x Fq ta nh ngha
k 1

trpxq : x xp xp v y, ta c a pxq C v i m Khi hm a pxq

xp .
t

e

tr ax p

p q

v ia

Fq l c trng c ng tnh c a Fq . Th i x Fr v a p0q  1. Ngoi ra, ta c

k 1

trpapx1 x2 qq  apx1 x2 q ap px1 x2 qp ap

px1 x2qp 
k 1

11

 apx1 x2q appxp xpq ap pxp xp q 1 2 1 2  trpax1q trpax2q.

k 1 k 1 k 1

T suy ra a px1 x2 q  a px1 qa px2 q. V y a l c trng c ng tnh c a tr ng Fq . nh ngha 1.4.3. M t c trng nhn tnh c a tr ng Fq l c trng c a nhm nhn pF , .q m r ng ln Fq b ng cch t p0q q T c l v i m i

$ 0 v v

i m i a, b Fq ta c

0v

$ 0.

piq pabq  paqpbq; piiq p1q  1, p0q  0; piiiq pa1q  paq.

V d 1.4.4. Cho p l m t s nguyn t . K hi u Legendre paq

xc nh trn Zp . Ngoi ra, v i m i a, b Zp ta c

  

c trng nhn tnh c a Zp . Th t v y, tr c h t ta th y r ng pxq hon ton ab b pabq   a p  paqpbq, p p  1 p1q   1, p0q  0, p pa1 q  p1qp paqq1

a p

 paq  paq.

V y l c trng nhn tnh c a Zp . Hn n a c trng c c p hai. nh ngha 1.4.5 (T ng Gauss). G i l c trng c ng tnh v l c trng nhn tnh c a tr ng Fq . Khi t ng Gp, q 

aFq

paq paq

c g i l t ng Gauss trn tr ng Fq .

12

M nh 1.4.6. V i hai c trng v c xc nh nh trn ta c (i) Gp0 , 0 q  q 1; (ii) Gp0 , q  0 n u

$ 0;

(iii) Gp, 0 q  1 n u $ 0 . Ch ng minh. piq Ta c 0 p0q  0 nn t nh ngha ta suy ra Gp0 , 0 q  q 1.

piiq Ta c Gp0, q  paq. Do n u $ 0 th theo M nh aF ta suy ra Gp0 , q  0. piiiq Tng t , n u $ 0 th

q

1.2.1

Gp, 0 q 

aF q

paq 

aFq

paq

p0q  1.

nh l 1.4.7 ([4, Theorem 6.6]). N u v l n l t l hai c trng c ng tnh v c trng nhn tnh khng t m th ng th

|Gp, q|  cq.
Ch ng minh. Ta c

|Gp, q|2  |Gp, q||Gp, q|   

aF bF q q

aFq bFq

paqpbq paq pbq pac aq pcq, c  ba1 .

pb aq pba1 q 

bF q aFq

Khi c  1, thay vo trn ta c

Do v y, khi c $ 1 ta c

aF q

pcq

papc 1qq.

aF bF q q

papc 1qq  0. Suy ra

cF q c $1

aF q

papc 1qq  1.

|Gp, q|2  p1qpq 1q

pcqq

cF q

pcq  q.

13

T suy ra

|Gp, q|  cq.
ga

nh ngha 1.4.8. Cho p l m t s nguyn t . Khi t ng

p 1 t 1

t 2iat e p p

c g i l t ng Gauss b c hai trn tr ng Fp . V i nh ng k hi u nh trn, cc m nh sau gip ta hi u r hn t ng Gauss c bi t ny. M nh 1.4.9. ga Ch ng minh. N u a

 p a qg1. p
2ia p t

 0 pmod pq th e khi a  0 p mod pq ta cng c a  0. p N u a % 0 p mod pq th ta c



 1, do
p 1

p 1 t 1

t p

 0, ngoi ra

a ga p

 

p 1 t 0 p 1 at0

a p

  

2ia t e p t p

2ia at e p t p

t 0 p 1 

2ia at e p t p

x 0

2i x epx p

 g1.

T suy ra ga

a g1 . p

nh ngha 1.4.10. Cho m l m t s nguyn. Khi t ng Gp pmq 

p 1 k 0

2 2i p mk

c g i l t ng Gauss trn vnh cc s nguyn theo mun p. M nh 1.4.11. N u m l m t s nguyn dng khng chia h t cho s
p 1 k 0 p 1 k 0

nguyn t l p th Gp pmq  e
2 2i p mk

k p

2i p mk

 gm.

14

Ch ng minh. G i Q1 l t p con c a Zp bao g m nh ng ph n t l th ng d b c hai, Q0 l t p con c a Zp bao g m nh ng ph n t khng l th ng d b c hai. Khi |Q1 |  pp1q , |Q0 |  pp1q v 2 2

kZp

2 2i p mk

12

kQ0

kQ1

2i p mk

Ngoi ra, ta c

kZp

2i p mk

k p

kQ1

2i p mk

2i p mk

12 12 
T suy ra
p 1 k 0

kQ1

e e

2i p mk

1 e

kQ1
2i p mk

2i p mk

k Q0

2i p mk

2i p mk

kZp

kQ1

2 2i p mk

kZp

2i p mk

0
.

p 1 k 0

2 2i p mk

p 1 k 0

k p

2i p mk

1.5

c trng mun k

nh ngha 1.5.1. Cho a v k l cc s nguyn dng nguyn t cng nhau. Khi s nguyn dng nh nh t x th a mn phng trnh ng d ax

 1 p mod kq g

i l b c c a a theo mun k, k hi u l x  ordk a.

nh ngha 1.5.2. Cho r v k pk q

 ordk r th r g i l cn nguyn th y c a n v theo mun k, t rpkq  1 p mod k q v pk q l s nguyn t b nh t th a rt  1 p mod k q.

V d 2p5q

0 l hai s

nguyn t cng nhau. N u c l

1.5.3. S 2 l cn nguyn th y c a n v theo mun 5. V ta c nguyn dng nh nh t 24

 1 p mod 5q v p5q  4 l s

 1 p mod 5q.

15

Hm : Z C c xc nh b i paq 
6 9 8 a 9 70,

nh ngha 1.5.4. Cho l m t c trng c a nhm pZ{kZq , v i k

Z.

p kZq,

n u CLN(a,k)  1, n u CLN(a,k) 1

c g i l m t c trng mun k. Ch 1.5.5. 1q c trng mun k cn c g i l c trng Dirichlet mun k. 2q Cho : Z C l m t c trng mun k. Khi ta c

piq N u m  n p mod kq th pmq  pnq; piiq l m t c trng nhn tnh, ngha l pmnq  pmqpnq v i m i m, n Z. 3q T n t i m t song nh gi a t p cc c trng mun k v t p cc c trng c a nhm pZ{kZq .
V d 1.5.6. c trng paq 

a p

l m t c trng mun p.

16

Chng 2
PHNG TRNH TRN NHM ABEL H U H N

N i dung chnh c chng ti trnh by trong chng ny l s d ng tnh ch t c a bi n i Fourier trn nhm Abel h u h n ch ng minh Lu t thu n ngh ch b c hai, gi i bi ton v s nghi m c a phng trnh trn nhm Abel h u h n cng nh ch ng minh nh l Fermat cu i cng trn tr ng h u h n. Ki n th c trong chng ny c chng ti trnh by d a trn cc ti li u [4], [14].

2.1
2.1.1

Bi n i Fourier trn nhm Abel h u h n

Khi ni m v cc tnh ch t c b n

Cho G l m t nhm Abel h u h n c p n. G i CG

 tf | f : G Cu l

t p t t c cc hm t G vo C. D th y r ng CG l m t khng gian vect n chi u. Trong khng gian ny ta nh ngha tch v h ng 1 xf, gy  n

aG

f paqg paq.

(2.1)

Khi v i tch v h ng c nh ngha, khng gian CG tr thnh khng

p gian Euclid ph c (khng gian Unita). Hn n a ta s th y G l m t c s tr c

giao c a khng gian ny.

p M nh 2.1.1. G l m t c s tr c giao c a CG .

Ch ng minh. V i m i ,

p G, ta c
aG

1 x, y  n

paq paq  0, $ .

17

p Do h cc vect c a G l c l p tuy n tnh. Ngoi ra dimCG p nn G l c s tr c giao c a CG .

 |G|  n

M nh 2.1.2. N u f Ch ng minh. V h ta c th vi t d

CG th f 

p G

xf, y .
i hm f

tiun01 l c s tr c giao c a CG nn m i n1 i d ng f  i i , i C. Ngoi ra, ta c

g
i0 n1 i0

CG

xf, j y 
T suy ra

i i , j

p G

n1 i0

j xi , j y  j .

f H s

xf, y .

xf, y g

i l h s Fourier c a hm f. 6
9 81, 9 70,

By gi ta xt hm s ptq  Khi t p s

n u s  t,

 ts, s Gu l c s

n u s $ t. tr c chu n c a CG . T suy ra r ng

t n t i m t nh x tuy n tnh F : CG v s

s. nh x

CG bi u di n m

p i lin h gi a G

c bi t ny c g i l m t "php bi n i Fourier" trn

CG , c th ta c nh ngha sau. nh ngha 2.1.3. Bi n i Fourier c a hm f c xc nh b V d

aG

p CG l hm fp : G C p i f pq  f paqpaq  xf, y , G.

2.1.4. Xt hm

CG xc nh b
paq 
6 9 81, 9 70,

n u a  0, n u a $ 0.

(2.2)

Ta c bi n i Fourier c a hm nh sau
p p q 
aG

paqpaq  p0q  1.

18

p nh ngha 2.1.5. Bi n i Fourier ng c c a hm f l hm f c xc

nh b i f paq  V d

1 f pqpaq. n p
G

p 2.1.6. Bi n i Fourier ng c c a hm trong V d 2.1.4 l

paq 

1 p 1 pqpaq  paq. n p n p
G G

M nh 2.1.7 ( ng th c Parseval).

xf, gy 
e

1 e i f, g . n

Ch ng minh. Theo cng th c tch v h ng (2.1), ta c f, g

i

  

p G

f pqg pq 

p G aG

f paqpaq

p G aG bG

f paqpaqg pbqpbq 

bG

g pbqpbq

bG

aG

f paq

g pbq

p G

paqpbq

aG

f paqg paqn  n xf, g y .

i

V y xf, g y 

1 n

f, g .

T M nh 2.1.7, ta c h qu sau. H qu 2.1.8.

n }f } 

    f  .

nh ngha 2.1.9. Cho hai hm f, g

l m t hm trong CG c xc nh nh sau, v i m i x G

CG. Tch ch
f py qg px y q.

p c a hai hm f v g

pf gqpxq 

y G

M nh 2.1.10. Bi n i Fourier c a tch ch p hai hm f v g b ng tch c a hai bi n i Fourier tng ng c a hai hm . T c l

p p{qpq  fppqgpq, f g p v i G.

19

Ch ng minh. Theo cng th c bi n i Fourier, ta c

p{qpq  f g 

aG

pf gqpaqpaq 

aG

paq

bG

f pbqg pa bq

bG

 fppqgpq.
p p p V y p{qpxq  f pqg pq, v i G. f g

cG bG

pcqpbqf pbqg pcq 

cG

pcqg pcq

pbqf pbq

nh ngha 2.1.11. V i m i x G, ton t t nh ti n c a f v i s G c nh ngha l f s pxq  f px sq. M nh 2.1.12. f s pq  psqf pxq. Ch ng minh. Theo cng th c bi n i Fourier, ta c f s pq 

aG

f paqpaq 
s

aG

f pa sqpaq f ptqptqpsq

 

tG

f ptqpt sq 

tG

p f ptqptqpsq  psqf pxq.

t G

T suy ra f s pq  psqf pxq.

2.1.2

Lu t thu n ngh ch b c hai

Lu t tng h b c hai hay cn g i l Lu t thu n ngh ch b c hai l m t nh l quan tr ng trong l thuy t s . nh l c nu ra b i Euler v Legendre v l n u tin c ch ng minh hon ton b i Gauss. Gauss g i l nh l vng v r t t ho v n, n m c ng ti p t c tm ra tm ch ng minh khc cho n cho n cu i i. Ti li u [7] nu ra th m c cho 196 ch ng minh khc nhau c cng b c a nh l ny. Sau y l m t cch pht bi u v ch ng minh nh l d a trn php bi n i Fourier.

20

nh l 2.1.13 ([14, Quadratic Reciprocity Law]). N u p, q l hai s nguyn t l th

 

p q

q p

 p1q

p 1q 1 2 2

ch ng minh nh l, tr c h t chng ti xy d ng bi n i Fourier c a hm f xc nh trn nhm G

 pZ{pZq v ch

ng minh m t s b lin

quan gi a t ng Gauss v bi n i Fourier trn nhm ny. Sau chng ti s d ng cc b ny vo vi c ch ng minh chi 4 t nh l. ti B 2i j x ep , j Zp . Do ta D th y r ng t p gi tr c a Zp c d ng nh ngha bi n i Fourier c a hm f xc nh trn Zp nh sau. nh ngha 2.1.14. V i m i x trn Zp xc nh b i cng th c
p f x
x p

Zp, bi n
p 1 a0

i Fourier c a hm f xc nh

p q

f paqe

2iax
p

B 2.1.15. Cho p l m t s nguyn t l v hm hp pxq cho b i cng th c hp pxq  . Khi

Ch ng minh. Tr

pxq  hppxqppp1q. h c h t ta th y r ng hm hp pxq xc nh trn nhm Z{pZ.

pp h

Ngoi ra nh ngha c a php bi n i Fourier ta c

pp h

pxq 

p 1 a0

hp paqe


2iax p

p 1 a0

2iax a e p . p

Do , n u x $ 0 th ta t b  ax v i a, b pZ{pZq . Khi ta c
pp h

pxq 

p 1 b1

2ib x 1 b e p p

x 1 p

 p 1  b
b1

2ib p

T suy ra p p pxq  h
pp h

x p

pp h

p1q  hppxqppp1q. Ngoi ra, n u x  0 th h

a p


pxq 

p 1 a1

 0 v hpp0q  0.

T suy ra i u ph i ch ng minh.

21

Nh n xt 2.1.16. V hp pxq c
6 9 8Gp x ,

y ZP

2ixy y
p

nn theo M nh 1.4.11 ta

piq hppxq  9

pq

n u x $ 0, n u x  0.

70,

piiq g1  ppp1q. h
2 M nh 2.1.17. g1

 p1q p.
p 1 2

Ch ng minh. Theo cng th c bi n i Fourier ng c, ta c php pxq  L y x  1 ta c

2 g1 p 1 a0

pp a e h

pq

2iax p

p  pppxq  pppxqppp1q. h h h

 phpp1q  p p1


 p1q p.
p 1 2

B 2.1.18. V i g1 xc nh nh trn, n u p, q l hai s nguyn t l phn bi t th

q g11

2 g1 q

p mod qq.

Ch ng minh. B ny c suy ra tr c ti p t tiu chu n Euler. B 2.1.19. N u p v q l hai s nguyn t l phn bi t th

ppppxqqq  pppqxq p mod qq, h h

trong ng d c xt trn vnh Zre
2i p

s.

Ch ng minh. V i m i s nguyn dng u, v ta u c

pu vqq  puq vq q p mod qq.

Do p d ng tnh ch t ny trn vnh Zre
2i p

ppppxqqq  h

p 1 a1

2iax a e p p

q

s ta cng c
2iax a e p p

p1 a1

q

p mod qq

22

p 1 a1

2iaqx a e p p

p mod qq,

q

a p

a p

 pppqxq p mod qq. h

By gi ta ch ng minh nh l 2.1.13. Ch ng minh nh l 2.1.13. T B 2.1.19, ta ch n x  1 khi
q g1

 pppp1qqq  pppqq p mod qq h h  q  p g1 p mod qq (theo B

q g1

2.1.15).

Do , ta c


2 g1

q g1 p mod q q. p


(2.3)

Nhn c hai v c a (2.3) v i g1 v theo B 2.1.18, ta c

2 g1 q

q 2 g1 p mod q q. p

(2.4)

V hai v c a ng d th c (2.4) l nh ng s nguyn nn theo tnh ch t c a ng d ta suy ra c

2 g1 q

q p

p mod qq.
q p

(2.5) phng trnh (2.5)

Ngoi ra do q l s l v ta suy ra

q p

 1 ho
p 1 2

c


 1 nn t

p1q p  q  . q p
q p

T suy ra

 

p q

 p1q

p 1q 1 2 2

V d

2.1.20. Ch ng minh r ng phng trnh ng d sau v nghi m x2

 2018 p mod 2011q.

23

L i gi i: Ta c

2018 2011

7 . 2011
 

Ngoi ra theo Lu t thu n ngh ch b c hai ta c

7 2011

2011 7

p1q

p71qp20111q
4

2 7

p1q  1,

2 7

1

T suy ra c nghi m. V d

2018
2011

 1, hay phng trnh x2  2018 pmod 2011q khng

2.1.21. Ch ng minh r ng phng trnh y2

 x3 k

(2.6)

 p4n 1q3 4m2 trong m, n l nh ng s nguyn v s nguyn t p c d ng p  4f 3 khng l c c a m. L i gi i: Gi s phng trnh p2.6q c nghi m px, y q. Ta ch ng minh i u ny l v l. Th t v y, n u k  p4n 1q3 4m2 th phng trnh (2.6) tr thnh
khng c nghi m nguyn n u k c d ng k y2 Do y 2

 x3 p4n 1q3 4m2.

 px3 1q pmod 4q. Ngoi ra, do phng trnh y2  3 pmod 4q v nghi m nn ta suy ra x  1 p mod 4q. Ti p theo, t a  4n 1. Khi , ta
c y 2 4m2

 x3 a3  px aqpx2 ax a2q  1 p mod 4q, p v a  1 p mod 4qq.  4f 3 l

c c a y 2 4m2 ,

T suy ra, t n t i s nguyn t p d ng p hay y 2 4m2 trnh y 2

2 M t khc, ta c 4m p

 0 p p. mod q

 4m2 p mod pq v nghi m. i u ny mu thu

  1 p v p  4f 1q, nn suy ra phng

1 p

n v i gi thi t. V y

phng trnh (2.6) v nghi m.

24

2.1.3

Bi n i Fourier c a hm c trng

nh ngha 2.1.22. Cho G l nhm Abel h u h n c p n v A l m t t p con c a G. Hm fA

CG xc nh b
fA paq 

i n u a A, n uaA

6 9 81, 9 70,

c g i l hm c trng c a t p A. M nh 2.1.23. Cho A v B l hai t p con c a nhm G. Khi ta c 1 xfA, fB y  n |A B | . Ch ng minh. Theo cng th c tch v h ng (2.1), ta c 1 xfA, fB y  n

aG

fA paqfB paq 

Nh n xt 2.1.24. V fA paq  1 v i m i a A nn ta c

1 1 fA paqfB paq  |A B | . n aAB n

piq fApq 

aG

paqfA paq  0 paq 

aA

aA

paq;

piiq fAp0q 

aA

1  |A| .
3 A

M nh 2.1.25. G i pAq v i m i t p A ch

p  max fpApq : G, $ 0 n a trong G th a |A| th pAq |A| . 2 2

. Khi n u

p Ch ng minh. Theo H qu 2.1.8, ta c }fA }2  2 p  nfA 

 n}fA}2  |A|, nn

p G

2 p fA

p f A 0

p q pn 1q pAq2  |A|2 pn 1q pAq2.

Do , ta c V y pAq2

|A| . 2

|A|2 pn 1q pAq2 n |A| .

25

M nh 2.1.26. Cho A l m t t p con c a nhm G. Khi ta c (i) pAq  pGzAq; (ii) pAq  pkAq, v i kA  tka | a Au , CLNpk, nq  1; (iii) pAq  pa Aq, v i a A  tu a | u Au v i m i a G. Ch ng minh. piq Theo M nh 1.2.1, ta c Nn ta c

aG

aG

p paq  0, v i G, $ 0 .

p paq  0, v i G, $ 0 .

Do , ta c

aA

paq 

apGzAq

p paq, v i G, $ 0 .

T suy ra

a aA fA

pq

bpGzAq

b , v i

pq

p G, $ 0,

hay

p p q p q G, $ 0. V y pAq  pGzAq. piiq V CLNpk, nq  1 nn |A|  |kA|. Ngoi ra, do k Z, a A nn ka  looooomooooon . Do , ta c a a

k l n

fpGzAq , v i

pkaq  paq....paq  ...paq  I paq. looooomooooon

k l n

T suy ra

kakA

pkaq 
C

aA

I paq.
C

Hay

5 I a , I max aA

pq

p $ 0, I G 

5 max a , aA

pq

p $ 0 , G

26

piiiq Ch

V y pAq  pkAq.

ng minh pAq  pu Aq, v i u A  tu a | a A, u Gu.

bG

Tng t , ta cng c
p faA pq 

pbqfaA pbq 

uaG

pu aqfuA pu aq

uaGzuA

 

uauA

pu aqfuA pu aq pu aqfuA pu aq 
p faA

pu aqfuA pu aq

uauA

aA

pu aq.

T suy ra

p q pq p q

p u fA

p fA .

p q

V y pAq  pu Aq. a, b Fq , a $ 0. Khi H qu 2.1.27. Cho A l m t t p con c a Fq c d ng A  tuk | u Fq u v paA bq  pAq.

Ch ng minh. Tr c h t, g i 1 l c trng khng t m th ng c a nhm

pFq , q, v

c a nhm pFq , q. Ngoi ra ta cng ch ng minh c m i c trng c a nhm pFq , q u c d ng a , v i a Fq .

p Khi , v i Fq , $ 0 ta c p faA pq 
ataA

i m i a, b Fq ta t a pbq  1 pabq. Khi a l m t c trng

Ti p theo, ta th y r ng cc ph n t c a t p aA c d ng ta.uk | u patq 

C
ataA

Fq u.

a ptq 

t A

a ptq.
C

T suy ra

Hay pAq  paAq. minh.

5 max a t , a tA

pq

p $ 0, a Fq 

5 max t , t A

pq

p $ 0, Fq

Ngoi ra, theo ph n piiiq c a M nh 2.1.26 ta suy ra i u ph i ch ng

27

2.2

Phng trnh x1 x2 xk

a

Cho G l m t nhm Abel h u h n c p n. G i A1 , A2 , ..., Ak l nh ng t p con c a G v a l m t ph n t c nh c a G. Ta s xc nh s nghi m c a phng trnh x1 x2 xk

 a, pxi Ai, i  1, 2, ..., kq.

(2.7)

Tr c h t ta th y r ng s nghi m c a phng trnh (2.7) s khng thay i n u ta thay th Ak b i Ak a  tu a | u Ak u. Do , s nghi m c a phng trnh (2.7) chnh l s nghi m c a phng trnh x1 x2 xk

 0, pxi Ai, i  1, 2, ..., kq.

(2.8)

V i gi thi t nh v y, cc m nh ti p theo sau y s l l i gi i c a bi ton c nu. M nh 2.2.1 ([4, Theorem 3.1]). S nghi m c a phng trnh (2.8) l N trong mi
1  |Ai| v R  n

 m1....mk R n
p fAi pq.

(2.9)

p G i1 $0

Ch ng minh. G i l hm c xc nh b i cng th c (2.2). Khi m i b

px1, .., xk q l nghi m c

N

a phng trnh (2.8) ta u c px1 x2 xk q  1. 1 px1 xk q n p px ,...,x q k G 1

k xi Ai

i u ny suy ra r ng s nghi m c a phng trnh (2.8) chnh l

1 n

px1 ,...,xk q xi Ai

k G i1

px1 xk q 

xi Ai

pxi q

1 n

p G i1

p fAi pq

28

 
s nghi m c

k 1 1 fAi p0 q n i1 n

G$0 i1

f A i p q

k 1p fA p0 q R. n i1 i

H qu 2.2.2. Cho A1 , A2 , A3 l nh ng t p con c a G v a

G. G i N l a phng trnh x1 x2 x3  a, pxi Ai , i  1, 2, 3q. Khi |A1||A2||A3| pA q|A ||A |. N

Ch ng minh. p d ng M nh 2.2.1 cho tr ng h p k N v i R

1 n

p G $0

 |A1||A2||A3| R, n

 3. Ta c

p p p fA1 pqfA2 pqfA3 pq. Ti p theo ta p d ng b t ng th c

Cauchy-Schwarz nh gi R nh sau. Ta c 1 |R | n

p G $0

|fpA pq||fpA pq||fpA pq|

1 2 3

1 pA3 q |fpA1 pq||fpA2 pq| n p

G

1 n pA3q

p G

2

|fpA pq|
1

1 2  2

p G

|fpA pq|  
2

pA3q |A1||A2|.
T suy ra
N |A1||A2||A3| pA q |A ||A |.

pA3 q H qu 2.2.3. N u |A3|

1 |An| |A2| th phng trnh

x1 x2 x3

 a pxi Ai, i  1, 2, 3q

(2.10)

c t nh t m t nghi m.

29

Ch ng minh. Theo cch ch ng minh H qu 2.2.2, ta c |R| pA3 q Do theo gi thi t ta suy ra c R

|A1||A2|.

|A1||A2||A3| .
n

Ngoi ra theo M nh 2.2.1, ta c N

 m ....m R, nn suy ra N 0. Hay n

1 k

phng trnh (2.10) c t nh t m t nghi m. Sau y l m t s m nh m n i dung c a n l cng c ch ng minh nh l Fermat trn tr ng h u h n. M nh 2.2.4. Cho s nguyn dng k v i k |pq 1q. G i A l nhm con

V i m i a F , ta nh ngha i paq  i paAq. Khi i l c trng c a Fq q v v i m i c trng c ng tnh c a Fq ta c

p fA 1 k 1 Gp, i q. k i0

ch s k trong F v 0 , ..., k1 l nh ng c trng c a nhm thng F {A. q q

p q

Ch ng minh. Hi n nhin i pi  1, ..., k 1q l cc c trng c a Fq . Hn n a theo cng th c t ng Gauss ta c

k 1 i0

Gp, i q 

aF q

paq

k 1 i0

i paq  k

aA

paq.

Ngoi ra, v i a A ta c i paq  i p0q  1. T suy ra

p fA

p q

M nh 2.2.5. G i A l m t nhm con c a nhm pF , .q. Khi q pAq

1 k 1 Gp, i q. k i0

cq.  tak | a F, k|q 1u q i m i x, y H pq, k q ta c

l m t nhm con c a nhm pF , .q. Th t v y, v q

Ch ng minh. Tr c h t ta ch ng minh t p H pq, k q

30

x  ak , y

 bk pa, b Fq q nn x.y  ak .bk  pa.bqk H pq, kq. Do H pq, kq ng v i php ton nhn. Ngoi ra, 1  1k H pq, k q v ph n t ngh ch o c a x  ak H pq, k q l x1  pa1 qk . V y H pq, k q l m t nhm con c a nhm pF, .q v d dng suy ra c H pq, kq  H pd, kq v i d  CLNpq 1, kq. q T nh ng i u trn ta th y r ng cc nhm con c a nhm pF , .q s c d ng q b.H pq, k q  tb.ak | a F u. Hn n a, theo H qu 2.1.27 ta c paA bq  pAq q nn ch ng minh m nh ta c th gi s A  H pq, k q. G i 0 , ..., k1 l nh ng c trng c a nhm thng pF {Aq. Khi theo q
M nh 2.2.4 ta c
p fA

p q

T suy ra pAq

cq.

1 k 1 1 |Gp, iq| k p1 pk 1qcqq cq. k i0

Fq . G i N l s nghi m c a phng trnh x y z

M nh 2.2.6. G i k |pq 1q l m t s nguyn v A1 , A2 l hai t p con c a

F. Khi q

 zk v
1 2

ix

A1, y A2 v

|A1||A2|pq 1q k |A ||A |q.

 tak | a Fu  H pq, kq v g i N I l s nghi m c a q phng trnh x y  u px A1 , y A2 , u A3 q. Tr c h t ta th y r ng |A3|  pq1q v phng trnh zk  u c k nghi m trn Fq nn N  kN I. k
Ch ng minh. G i A3 Ngoi ra, theo H qu 2.2.2 ta c
I N |A1||A2||A3| pA q |A ||A | |A ||A |q.

(2.11)

T suy ra

|A1||A2|pq 1q k |A ||A |q.

nh l 2.2.7 ([4, Fermats Last Theorem over finite fields]). Cho k l m t

s nguyn, q l ly th a c a m t s nguyn t v q xk y k

k4 4. Khi phng trnh

(2.12)

 zk

31

c t nh t m t nghi m khng t m th ng trn Fq .

Ch ng minh. G i A1

 A2  tak | a Fu. Khi A1, A2 F v k  q||1 . q q A

xy

Do theo M nh 2.2.6, ta c s nghi m N c a phng trnh

 zk px A1, y A2, z Fq q
3 pq 1q pq 1qcq.

(2.13)

th a mn i u ki n

k2q

Hay

pq 1q3 pq 1qcq. N
k2q

Ngoi ra, theo gi thi t c a nh l ta c q Do , ta c

k 4 nn k q 1
4 4

1 q

pq 1q3 pq 1qcq 0.
k2q

T suy ra phng trnh (2.13) c t nh t m t nghi m khng t m th ng trn Fq . M t khc, m i nghi m c a phng trnh (2.13) l b

A2 v z F, nn t n t q ch ng t pa, b, z q l m t nghi m c
y

px, y, zq v i x A1, i a, b F sao cho x  ak v y  bk . i u ny q

a phng trnh (2.12). Hay ni cch khc

phng trnh (2.12) c t nh t m t nghi m khng t m th ng.

32

Chng 3
PHNG TRNH NG D B C CAO

Trong chng ny ta s xt bi ton tm s nghi m c a phng trnh trn tr ng h u h n Fp , v i p l m t s nguyn t . ng th i lin h n v n s nghi m c a phng trnh ng d trn vnh cc s nguyn Z. c trng c a Fp l c trng nhn tnh c hi u theo nh ngha 1.4.3 v t ng Gauss trn Fp c c p trong chng, c d ng Gpq  [5] v [10].
p 1 k 0

pk qe

2i p k

Ki n th c trong chng ny c chng ti trnh by d a trn cc ti li u

3.1
3.1.1

T ng Jacobi
Khi ni m v cc tnh ch t c b n

nh ngha 3.1.1. Cho , l hai c trng c a tr ng Fp v a, b Fp . Khi t ng J p, q  c g i l t ng Jacobi. M nh 3.1.2. Cho v l nh ng c trng khng t m th ng c a Fp . Khi ta c cc kh ng nh sau (i) J p0 , 0 q  p; (ii) J p0 , q  0; (iii) J p, 1 q  p1q;

ab1

paqpbq

33

(iv) N u $ 0 th J p, q 

Ch ng minh. piq Ta c J p0 , 0 q 

GpqGpq . Gpq

ab1

piiq Ta c J p0, q  0 paqpbq  pbq  0. ab1 ab1 a p 1a q. piiiq Ta c j p, 1q  paq1pbq  p a q  b

ab1

0 paq0 pbq 

ab1

0 pabq  p.

c

pcq p1q  p1q. 1a c$1 cFq pivq Theo cng th c c a t ng Gauss Gpq ta c a GpqGpq 

a

, khi J p, 1 q 

pcq 

ab1 b$0

a$1

paqe

2i p a

pbqe

2i p b

 
Do n u t  0 th

abt

a,b

paqpbqe

abt

2i p

pabq

2i p t

paqpbq e

ab0

n u t $ 0 th ta t a  taI , b  tbI . Khi paqpbq 

aI bI t

paqpbq 

paqpaq  p1q

paq  0, v

ptaI qptbI q  ptqJ p, q.

T suy ra GpqGpq  J p, q

ptqe

2i p t

 GpqJ p, q.

H qu 3.1.3. N u v l hai c trng khng t m th ng th

|J p, q|  cp.
Ch ng minh. N u v l nh ng c trng khng t m th ng th theo ph n piv q c a M nh 3.1.2 ta c J p, q  GpqGpq . Gpq

(3.1)

L y mun ph c hai v c a phng trnh (3.1) ta c i u ph i ch ng minh.

34

Nh n xt 3.1.4. piq N u p  1 p mod 4q th t n t i a, b Z sao cho p  a2 b2 . Th t v y, v p Nh v y t

p  1 pmod 4q nn t n t i m t c trng Fp c c p b n. c p gi tr c a l ti, i, 1, 1u, i  1. Ngoi ra, theo nh ngha

t ng Jacobi ta c J p, q  Suy ra t ng J p, q

s t 1

psqptq.

Zris. Hay ta c th vi t J p, q  a bi v i a, b Z. Do , theo H qu 3.1.3 ta suy ra p  |J p, q|2  |a bi|2  a2 b2 . piiq N u l c trng c a Fp c c p ba v p  1 p mod 3q th t ng J p, q c vi t d i d ng J p, q  a b, trong  e , a  1 p mod 3q, v b  0 p mod 3q. Th t v y, n u l c trng c a Fp c c p ba th theo M nh
2i 3

3.1.2 ta c

GpqGpq . Gpq Nhn hai v c a phng trnh (3.2) v i Gpq ta c J p, q  Gpq3

(3.2)

 GpqGpqJ p, q  Gp2qGpqJ p, q  Gp1qGpqJ p, q  GpqGpqJ p, q  p1qGpqGpqJ p, q  p1qpJ p, q  pJ p, q.

3

Ngoi ra, ta c Gpq T suy ra Gpq3 M t khc ta cng c

p 1 k 0

p k q e
3

3.2i p k

p mod 3q  1 p mod 3q.

 pJ p, q  a b  1 p mod 3q.

 pJ p, q  a b  1 p mod 3q, c nn suy ra bp q  0 p mod 3q. Do b 3  0 p mod 3q, hay b  0 p mod 3q. Cu i cng, do a b  1 p mod 3q nn a  1 p mod 3q.

Gpq3

35

1, g l cn nguyn th y c a n v theo mun p v l c trng mun p c c p ba v i pg q   e . Khi t n t i duy nh t hai s nguyn a3 , b3 th a mn a2 3b2  p, a3  1 p mod 3q v 3b3  p2g 1qa3 p mod pq. 3 3 Ngoi ra, cc gi tr c a t ng Jacobi J pm , n q, v i 0 m, n 2 xc nh
2i 3 p 1 3

p  3f

Nh n xt 3.1.5 (Xem [5, tr.104-107]). piq Cho p l m t s nguyn t d ng

nh sau.
HH H

n
HH

HH H m

0 p 0 0

2 0

0 1 2

2 a3

c p qp ib3 3q
-1

2 a3

c p qp ib3 3q

-1

B ng 3.1: Cc t ng Jacobi c a c trng mun p c c p 3.

piiq Cho p l m
pg q 

t s nguyn t d ng p

 4f 1, g l cn nguyn th

c a n v theo mun p v l m t c trng mun p c c p b n v i

 i. Khi t
a2 b2 4 4

n t i duy nh t cc s nguyn a4 , b4 th a


 p, a4 

2 p

p mod 4q v b4  a4g p mod pq.

p 1 4

0 m, n 3 nh sau.
H HH H

Ngoi ra, ta cng xc nh c cc gi tr c a t ng Jacobi J pm , n q, v i

n
HH HH

0 p 0 0 0

1 0

2 0 a4

3 0

0 1 2 3

p1qf pa4 ib4q a4 ib4 p1qf

ib4
-1

a4

ib4

p1qf a4 ib4 p1qf pa4 ib4q

B ng 3.2: Cc t ng Jacobi c a c trng mun p c c p 4.

36

3.1.2

M t s d ng m r ng c a t ng Jacobi

nh ngha 3.1.6. Cho 1 , ..., k l nh ng c trng c a Fp v 1 , ..., k Khi t ng J p1 , ..., k q  c g i l t ng Jacobi m r ng. Ch 3.1.7. piq Khi k v

1 k 1

Fp.

1 p1 q...k pk q

 1p1q  1p1q  1. 1 piiq J p1, ..., k q  J pp1q, ..., pkqq, trong tp1q, ..., pkqu l m t hon c a t p t1, . . . , k u. 1t
ng Jacobi J p1 q
1

M nh 3.1.8 ([5, Theorem 10.1.1]). Cho 1 , ..., k l nh ng c trng c a Fp . Khi J p1 , ..., k q 

6 9 k 1 8p , 9 70,

n u i

 0, pi  1, 2, .., kq,

n u ch m t s c trng l t m th ng.

Ch ng minh. N u 1 , ..., k l t m th ng th J p1 , ..., k q 

1 k 1

1 p1 q...l pk q 

1 k 1

1  p k 1 .

N u ch c m t s c trng i l t m th ng th ta s p th t tr l i sao cho 1 , ..., s v i 1 s k 1 l nh ng c trng khng t m th ng v s1 , ..., k l nh ng c trng t m th ng. Khi , ta c J p1 , ..., k q 

1 k 1

1 p1 q...k pk q 1 p1 q...s ps q

s1 k 1 s

 

1 ...k 1

1 ,..,s

1 p1 q...s ps q

 p k s 1

1 p1 q...

s ps q  0.

37

nh ngha 3.1.9. Cho 1 , ..., k l nh ng c trng c a Fp v 1 , ..., k Khi t ng J0 p1 , ..., k q 

1 k 0

Fp.

1 p1 q k pk q

c g i l t ng Jacobi m r ng d ng c bi t. Ch 3.1.10. piq Khi k J0 p1 q 

1  0

 1, t
6 9 81, 9 70,

ng Jacobi J0 p1 q c xc nh nh sau n u 1 l c trng t m th ng, n u 1 khng l c trng t m th ng.

1 p1 q 

v c a t p t1, . . . , k u.

iiq J0 p1 , ..., k q  J0 pp1q , ..., pkq q, trong t p1q, ..., pk qu l m t hon

M nh 3.1.11 ([5, Theorem 10.1.2]). Cho 1 , ..., k l nh ng c trng c a Fp . Khi

6 9 k 1 9p , 9 9 9 8 9 9 9 9 70,

 0, pi  1, .., kq, J0 p1 , ..., k q  pp 1qJ p1 , ..., k q, i $ 0 , 1 ...k  0 , pi  1, ..., k q, 9

n u i trong cc tr ng h p cn l i . Ch ng minh. Theo nh ngha c a t ng Jacobi m r ng ta c

Fp 1 k 

1 p1 q...k pk q 1 p1 q k pk q

$0 t1 tk 1

 J0p1, ..., k q
6 9 8J0 1 , ..., k

1 k 0

1 pt q k pt q

$0 1 k 

1 p1 q...k pk q

 J0p1, ..., k q J p1, ..., k q p1...k qp q

$0

9

p q Jr p1, ..., k qpp 1q, 7J p , ..., q, 0 1 k

 0 , n u 1 ...k $ 0 .
n u 1 ...k

38

Ngoi ra, ta c

Fp 1 k 

1 p1 q...k pk q 

1 p1 q

k pk q

9
Do , ta c

6 9 k 8p , 70,

n u i

 0, pi  1, ..., kq,

n u c t nh t m t i khc 0 .

J0 p1 , ..., k q pp 1qJ p1 , ..., k q  0 n u hi : i

$ 0 v tch 1...k  0, J0 p1 , ..., k q pp 1qJ p1 , .., k q  pk n u i  0, pi  1, ..., k q, J0 p1 , ..., k q  0 n u 1 ...k  0 .

T , theo M nh 3.1.8 ta c c i u ph i ch ng minh. M nh 3.1.12. N u 1 , ..., k l nh ng c trng khng t m th ng c a Fp v tch 1 ...k l m t c trng t m th ng th J0 p1 , ..., k q  k p1qpp 1qJ p1 , ..., k1 q. Ch ng minh. Theo nh ngha c a t ng Jacobi m r ng d ng c bi t ta c J0 p1 , ..., k q 

1 k 0

1 p1 q...k pk q

  

k $ 0

1 k1 k

1 p1 q...k1 pk1 q k pk q 1 p1 q...k1 pk1 q k pk q



1 k1 k

 1...k p1qJ p1, ..., k1q

k $0

p1...k pk qJ p1, ..., k1qq k pk q

k $0

1 ...k pk q

 k p1qJ p1, ..., k1qpp 1q.

39

T hai M nh 3.1.11, 3.1.12

trn ta c h qu sau.

H qu 3.1.13. N u 1 , ..., k l nh ng c trng khng t m th ng c a Fp v tch 1 k l m t c trng t m th ng th J p1 , ..., k q  p1qJ p1 , ..., k1 q. M nh 3.1.14 ([5, Theorem 10.2.1]). N u 1 , ..., k , pk trng khng t m th ng c a Fp th J p1 , ..., k q  Ch
6 9 8 pJ 1 , ..., k1 ,

2q l nh

ng c

p q n u 1 ...k1  0 , 9 7J p ... , qJ p , ..., q, n u ... 1 k 1 k 1 k 1 1 k 1 $ 0 . ng minh. V i k 2, theo nh ngha c a t ng Jacobi m r ng ta c

1 k 1

J p1 , ..., k q 

1 p1 q...k pk q 1 p1 q...k pk q

1 k 1 k $1

 

1 k 1 k 1

1 p1 q...k pk q

1 k 0

1 p1 q...k1 pk1 q

1 k1 1k

 J0p1, ..., k1q

k $

k pk q

1 p1 q...k1 pk1 q

 J0p1, ..., k1q J p1...k1, k q 1...k1p0qJ p1, ..., k1q.

Ngoi ra, theo M nh 3.1.11 ta c J0 p1 , ..., k1 q  v 1 ...k1 p0q 
6 9 8

k $1

1 ...k1 p1 k qk pk qJ p1 , ..., k1 q

pp 1qJ p1, ..., k1q,

6 9 81, 9 70,

9 70,

 0 , n u 1 ...k1 $ 0
n u 1 ...k1

 0 , n u 1 ...k1 $ 0 .
n u 1 ...k1

40

T suy ra J p1 , ..., k q 
6 9 8 pJ 1 , ..., k1 ,

p q 9 7J p ... , qJ p , ..., q, 1 k 1 k 1 k 1

 0 , n u 1 ...k1 $ 0 .
n u 1 ...k1

nh l 3.1.15 ([5, Theorem 10.2.4]). Cho p l m t s nguyn t d ng

p  3f mun p c c p 3 xc nh b i pg q  e

1, g l cn nguyn th  p,
a3

y c a n v theo mun p v l c trng

2i 3

. G i a3 , b3 l cc s nguyn xc
p 1 3

nh b i a2 3b2 3 3

 p2qpa3 ib3q. G

 1 p mod 3q,

i n1 , n2 l nh ng s

 p2g 1qa3 p mod pq, v nguyn dng v i n1 n2 1. Ta

3b3
n2 -l n

t t

Jn1 ,n2

2 2  p, ..., , looomooonq, loomoon , ..., n1 -l n

trong n1 l s cc c trng , n2 l s cc c trng 2 . Khi

6 9 1 9 1 p2n1 n2 3q 3 pn1 2n2 3q , 3 9 9 9 8

Jn1 ,n2

 9

n u n1 2n2

9 9 1 9 p2n n 1q 1 pn 2n 2q 9 3 1 2 7 3 1 2 ,

1 3

1 p2n1 n2 2q 3 pn12n2 1q ,

 0 p mod 3q, n u n1 2n2  1 p mod 3q, n u n1 2n2  2 p mod 3q.

2

Ch ng minh. Ta c lo mo n . loomoon ... 2 ...2 o o r ng n u n1 2n2 Jn1 ,n2 N u n1 2n2

n1 -l n n2 -l n

 n 2n . Theo M nh
1 1 2 1 2

3.1.14 ta th y

 0 p mod 3q th n 2n  0, v n 2n 2  1, do
1 2 1 2 1 2

 J p, 2qJn ,pn 1q  p1qJn ,pn 1q  Jn ,pn 1q.  1 p mod 3q th n 2n  v n 2n 2  2, do

1 2 1 2

Jn1 ,n2 N u n1 2n2

 J p2, 2qJn ,pn 1q  Jn ,pn 1q  Jn ,pn 1q.

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

 2 p mod 3q th n 2n  2 v n 2n 2  0, do
Jn1 ,n2

 pJn ,pn 1q.

1 2

41

T suy ra

Jn1 ,n2

 9Jn ,pn 1q,

1 2

6 9 9 J 9 n1 ,pn2 1q , 9 9 8

9 9 9 9 7 pJn1 ,pn2 1q ,

 0 p mod 3q, n u n1 2n2  1 p mod 3q, n u n1 2n2  2 p mod 3q.

n u n1 2n2

n u n1 2n2

Do , b ng quy n p ta c

Jn1 ,n2

 9

6 9 1 9 1 pn1 1q 1 pn2 1q p 3 pn1 n2 2q , 3 3 9 9 9 8

9 9 1 9 n 1 pn 1q 1 pn n 1q 9 3 1 3 2 7 p3 1 2 ,

1 3

pn1 1q 1 n2 p 1 pn1 n2 1q , 3 3

 0 p mod 3q, n u n1 2n2  1 p mod 3q, n u n1 2n2  2 p mod 3q.

Ngoi ra, ta c p  nn t trn ta suy ra

6 9 1 9 3 p2n1 n2 3q 1 pn1 2n2 3q , 3 9 9 9 8

Jn1 ,n2

 9

n u n1 2n2

9 9 1 9 p2n n 1q 1 pn 2n 2q 9 3 1 2 7 3 1 2 ,

1 3

p2n1 n2 2q 1 pn12n2 1q , 3

 0 p mod 3q, n u n1 2n2  1 p mod 3q, n u n1 2n2  2 p mod 3q.

nh l 3.1.16 ([5], Theorem 10.3.1). Cho 1 , ..., k l nh ng c trng khng t m th ng c a Fp . Khi J p1 , .., k q 
6 9 Gp1 q...Gpk q 8 , 9 Gp1 q...Gpk q 7 ,
p Gp1 ...k q

$ 0 , n u 1 ...k  0 .
n u 1 ....k
Gp1 q Gp1 q ,

(3.3)

Ch ng minh. Ta ch ng minh nh l b ng quy n p. Tr c h t ta ki m tra (3.3) ng v i k (3.3) l ng. N uk

 1; 2. Th

t v y, n u k

 1 th J p1q  1 

do

 2 v tch 12 l m

t c trng khng t m th ng th theo M nh Gp1 qGp2 q . Gp1 2 q

3.1.2 ta suy ra J p1 , 2 q  N uk

 2 v tch 12  0 th 2  1. Do , ta c

42

Gp1 qGp2 q  Gp1 qGp1 q  1 p1qGp1 qGp1 q  p1qp. Ngoi ra, theo M nh 3.1.2 ta c J p1 , 1 q  1 p1q. T suy ra J p1 , 2 q  Gp1 qGp2 q . p

Do , c hai tr ng h p trn (3.3) u ng. Ti p theo, ta g i N l m t s nguyn v i N k c trng khng t m th v ik

N

3 v gi s (3.3) ng v i ng p1 k N 1q. Ta ch ng minh (3.3) ng

c trng khng t m th ng. Th t v y, ta xt cc tr ng h p sau

Tr ng h p 1 1 ....N 1

 0. Ta c

Tr ng h

 ppGp1q...GpN 1qq p  Gp1q...GpN 1qqGpN q . Gp1 ...N p 2 1 ....N 1 $ 0 v 1 ....N  0 . Trong tr

J p1 , ...., N q  J p1 ...N 1 qJ p1 , ..., N 1 q

J p1 , ..., N q  pJ p1 , ..., N 1 q

ng h p ny theo

M nh 3.1.14 ta c

p q  N p1q GGp1...GpN 1q 1 ...N 1 q q...G N 1  N p1q Gp1Gp pGpqGpN q Nq Nq ...Gp  N p1q Gp1qp1qp N q N  Gp1q...GpN q .
p ng h p ny theo

Tr ng h p 3 1 ....N 1

$ 0 v 1....N $ 0. Trong tr

M nh 3.1.2, M nh 3.1.14 v gi thi t quy n p ta c J p1 , ..., N q  J p1 ...N 1 , N qJ p1 , ..., N 1 q 

43

T 3 tr ng h

... 1 p q  Gp1GpN...qGqpN q GGp1...GpN 1q 1 N 1 ...N 1 q p q  GGp1...GpqN q . 1 ...N p trn, ta suy ra nh l ng v i k  N . Do theo nguyn

l quy n p ta c i u ph i ch ng minh. H qu 3.1.17. 1 , ..., k l nh ng c trng khng t m th ng c a Fp th

|J p1, ..., k q|  9
l 3.1.16 v M nh 1.4.6 ta c

6 9 k1 8p 2 , 7p k2 , 2

 0 , n u 1 ...k $ 0 .
n u 1 ...k

Ch ng minh. N u tch 1 ...k l c trng khng t m th ng th theo nh

|Gp1q| ... |Gpk q|  pp qk  p . |J p1, .., k q|  |Gp ... q| p 1 k

1 2 1 2 k 1 2

N u tch 1 ...k l c trng t m th ng th theo nh l 3.1.16 ta c

k |J p1, .., k q|  |Gp1q| ... |Gpk q|  pppq  p . p
1 2 k 2 2

3.2

Phng trnh 1xk1 nxkn 1 n


i l m t c

B 3.2.1. Cho k l m t s nguyn dng v

trng c a Fp c c p d  CLNpk, p 1q. Khi s nghi m c a phng trnh xk

Fp. G

 trn tr

ng Fp l N px
k

 q 

d 1 j 0

j p q.

(3.4)

Ch ng minh. Ta xt cc tr ng h p sau y. N u xk

 c nghi m duy nh

d 1 j 0

t x  0. Ngoi ra, ta c t ng p q 
j d 1 j 0

 0 th phng trnh

j p0q  1.

44

Do (3.4) l ng. N u xk

 khng c nghi m. Hn n
N u

$ 0 v khng l ly th
a

d1
j 0

a b c k trong Fp , khi phng trnh

d j p q  11 pp qq

 0. i u ny ch

ng

t (3.4) cng ng.

$ 0 v l ly th a b c k trn Fq khi phng trnh xk  c d1 d1 d nghi m. Ngoi ra, ta c p q  1 v j 0 j p q  j 0 1  d. Do

N pxk

 q 

d1 j 0

j p q.

S d ng b trn ta c k t qu th v sau y. M nh 3.2.2. Cho p l m t s nguyn t l . Khi s nghi m c a phng trnh x2

 a trn tr

ng Fp l N px2

 aq  1

a , p

trong

a p

l k hi u Legendre.

nh l 3.2.3 ([5, Theorem 10.4.2]). Cho k1 , ..., kn l nh ng s nguyn dng, 1 , ..., n tng

F, Fp. G i i l c trng nhn tnh c a tr ng Fp c c p p ng di , v i di  CLNpki , p 1q, pi  1, ..., nq. Khi s nghi m N
1 xk1 2 xk2 n xkn 1 2 n

c a phng trnh

(3.5)

c xc nh b i

6 1 9pn1 d1 ... dn 1 j1 p1 q...jn p1 qJ pj1 , ..., jn q, 9 n u $ 0, 9 1 1 1 n n n 9 8 j1  1 jn 1 d1 dn 1 1 j1 1 N 9pn1 pp 1q ... 1 p1 q...jn pn 1 qJ pj1 , ..., jn q, n u  0. 1 n n 9 9 j1 1 jn  1 9 7
11 ...jn 0 n
j

Ch ng minh. N u F th theo B 3.2.1 ta c p N

1 n 

N p1 xk1 1

 1q...N pnxk  nq  n
n

45

   

1 n 

k N px11

 1 11q...N pxk  n 1nq n

n

1 n  d1 1 j 1 0

d1 1 j1 0

j1 p1 1 1 q ... 1

d1 n jn 0

jn pn 1 n q n

... ...

d1 n d1 n jn 0 jn 0

j1 p1 1 q...jn pn 1 q 1 n

1 n 

j1 p1 q....jn pn q 1 n

d1 1 j 1 0

j1 p1 1 q...jn pn 1 qJ pj1 , ..., jn q 1 1 n n

...
d1 n jn 1

p

n1

d1 1 j1 1

j1 p1 1 q...jn pn 1 qJ pj1 , ..., jn q. 1 1 n n

N u  0 th pq  1. Do theo B 3.2.1 ta cng c N

 

d1 1 d1 1 j1 0 j1 0

... ...

d1 n d1 n jn 0 j n 0

j1 p1 1 q...jn pn 1 q 1 n

1 n 

j1 p1 q....jn pn q 1 n

j1 p1 1 q...jn pn 1 qJ0 pj1 , ..., jn q 1 1 n n

d1 1 j1 1

p

n1

p p 1q

...

d1 n j n 1

j1 p1 1 q...jn pn 1 qJ pj1 , ..., jn q. 1 1 n n

j 11 ....jn n

0

K t qu sau y l h qu tr c ti p c a nh l trn. Tuy nhin chng ti s a ra cch ch ng minh ring t ng minh. H qu 3.2.4. S nghi m c a phng trnh x2 y 2 N px2 y 2

 1q  7

6 8 p

 1 trn tr

ng Fp l

1, p 1,

n u p  1 p mod 4q,

n u p  3 p mod 4q. N px2

Ch ng minh. Ta c N px2 y 2

 1q 


a, b Fp . Hn n a theo M nh N px
2

 aqN px2  bq, trong ab1 2 3.2.2, ta c N px  aq  1 a . Do p

a p

y  1q  p
2

b p

ab1

 

a p

b . p

46

Ngoi ra, v Ta c

a
a p

 0 v  
a

b
b p

 0 nn ta ch
p

c n tnh

a b
ab1 p p

a b
p p

ab1

ap1aq
p

aF p

aF p a2 1 1 a p p

1 a2 p a 1q

 p1q

p 1 2

 p1q

p 1 2

cFp zt1u

c p

 p1q
Do , n u p  1 p mod 4q th

p1
2

 p1q

p 1 2

a Fp

1 1 a
p

c
p

cFp

1
p

.
p p

a b
ab1

 1. V y
a b
p p

N px2 y 2

 1q  p 1.  1q  p 1.

N u p  3 p mod 4q th p 1  2 p mod 4q. Do N px2 y 2 T suy ra N px2 y 2

6 8 p

ab1

 1. V y

 1q  7

1, p 1,

n u p  1 p mod 4q, n u p  3 p mod 4q.

3.3
3.3.1

Phng trnh ng d A1xm1 A2xm2 1 2

S nghi m c a phng trnh A1 x3 A2 x3 2 1

 A p mod pq

 A p mod pq
2i 3

theo mun p, g i l c trng mun p c c p 3 sao cho pg q  e th a a2 3

Cho p l s nguyn t d ng p  3f 1 v g l cn nguyn th y c a n v . Khi

theo Nh n xt 3.1.5 ta th y r ng t n t i duy nh t cc s nguyn a3 , b3

3b2  p v 3

i a3

 1 pmod 3q, 3b3  p2g 1qa3 pmod pq. T

p 1 3

nh ng gi thi t nh v y, nh l sau cho ta xc nh c s nghi m c a phng trnh A1 x3 A2 x3 1 2

 A p mod pq,

trong A, A1 , A2

Z, A1A2 % 0 p mod pq.

47

nh l 3.3.1. Cho p s nguyn v

 3f 1 l m t s nguyn t v A, A1, A2, l nh ng i tch A1 A2 % 0 p mod pq. Khi s nghi m N c a phng trnh
A1 x3 A2 x3 1 2

 A p mod pq

(3.6)

l
N

9

6 9p 2 pAA A q pAA A q pA q2 pA q 2 pA qpA q, 8 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 7p pp 1qppA1 q2 pA2 q 2 pA1 qpA2 qq,

n u p 1 A, n u p#A

trong  p2qpa3 ib3 3q, v i a3 , b3 c xc nh nh trn. Ch ng minh. Theo nh l 3.2.3, ta ch n k1 tng ng l d1

  dn  3 v cc

  kn  3. Khi cc di

c trng tng ng u c c p ba. Do

v y, n u ta g i l c trng mun p c c p ba th s nghi m c a phng trnh (3.6) c xc nh nh sau. N u A % 0 p mod pq th N

p

2 2 j1 1 j2 1

j1 j2 pAqj1 pA1 qj2 pA1 qJ pj1 , j2 q 1 2

 p 2pAqpA1qpA1qJ p, q 3pAqpA1q2pA1qJ p, 2q 1 2 1 2 3pAq2pA1qpA1qJ p2, q 4pAq2pA1q2pA1qJ p2, 2q. 1 2 1 2

Hn n a, ta c p  . v t cc gi tr c a t ng Jacobi N B ng 3.1 ta suy ra

 p 2pAA1A2q pAA1A2q pA1q2pA2q 2pA1qpA2q.  p p p 1q

2 2 11 22 0
j j

N u A  0 p mod pq th N
j1 1 j2 1

j1 pA1 qj2 pA1 qJ pj1 , j2 q 1 2

 p pp 1q pA1q2pA1qJ p, 2q 2pA1qpA1qJ p2, q 1 2 1 2  p pp 1qppA1q2pA2q 2pA1qpA2qq.

T suy ra i u ph i ch ng minh.

48

V d

3.3.2. Xc nh s nghi m c a phng trnh ng d x3 2x3 1 2

 1 p mod 37q.

(3.7)

L i gi i: Ta c 2 l cn nguyn th y c a n v theo mun 37. Do , p d ng nh l 3.3.1 cho vi c xc nh s nghi m phng trnh (3.7) ta ch n g

 2. G

i l c trng mun 37 c c p ba xc nh b i p2q 

e

2i 3

c  37, a3  1 p mod 3q, b3  2 p mod 37q,  p2qpa3 ib3 3q c ta xc nh c a3  5, b3  2 v  p2qp5 i2 3q. Hn n a, ta c

a2 3b2 3 3 p1q  1, p2q  p2q  . T suy ra s nghi m c a phng trnh (3.7) l N

Khi , theo cng th c

 37 2p2q p2q p q  37 10 1  48.

Ngoi ra, s d ng ph n m m Maple ta c th li t k c cc nghi m c a phng trnh (3.7) nh sau. (11, 36); (12, 6); (12, 8); (12, 23); (16, 6); (16, 8); (1, 23); p17, 5q; p17, 13q; (1, 0); (7,18); (7, 24); (7, 32); (9, 6); (9, 8); (9, 23); p10, 0q; p11, 11q; p11, 27q;

p17, 19q; (18, 21); (18, 25); (18, 28); (22, 5), (22, 13); (22, 19); (24, 21); p24, 25q; (24, 28); (26, 0); (27, 11); (27, 27); (27, 36); (32, 21); (32, 25); p32, 28q; p33, 18q; (33, 24); (33, 32); (34, 18); (34, 24); (34, 32); (35, 5); p35, 13q; p35, 19q; p36, 11q;
(36, 27); (36, 36). V d 3.3.3. Xc nh s nghi m c a phng trnh ng d 3x3 5x3 1 2 L i gi i: Tng t , ta ch n g xc nh b i p2q 

 7 p mod 19q. c

(3.8)

c i3  p2qpa3 ib3 3q  7 2

e

 2 v g

i l c trng mun 19 c c p ba i5  12

2i 3

. Khi ta xc nh c a3 3 ,

 4, b3  1 v c
3 .

49

Ngoi ra ta cng c

 , p5q  p216 q  16  , p7q  p26 q  6  1.

Nh v y s nghi m c a phng trnh (3.8) l N

p3q  p213 q  13

 19 2  17 2Repq  18.
nh l 3.3.1 cho l p phng trnh

Sau y chng ti t ng qut k t qu

ng d b c ba t ng qut hn. Tr c h t, chng ti gi i thi u cc k hi u sau. n v theo mun p, l c trng mun p c c p ba th a pg q  e g i a3 , b3 l nh ng s nguyn xc nh b i a2 3b2 3 3 3b3 Cho p l m t s nguyn t d ng p  3f 1. G i g l cn nguyn th y c a
2i 3

 p2g

p 1 3

l nh ng s

 p, a3  1 pmod 3q, c 1qa3 p mod pq. Ta t  p2qpa3 ib3 3q. G i A, A1, ..., An nguyn, trong A1 ...An % 0 p mod pq. Ta t
0

 1,  pA1q pA2q ... pAnq, 1  pA1A2q pA1A3q ... pAn1Anq, 2

..........
n

pA1 A2 ...An q,

E1

 pA1...Anq

n j 0 j n p mod 3q n

j n 3 3

j 2n3
3

E2

 pAA1....Anq

E3

 pA2A1....Anq

j 0 j pn1q p mod 3q n

j n 2 3

j 2n1
3

j 0 j pn1q p mod 3q

j n 1 3

j 2n2
3

50

nh l 3.3.4 ([5, Theorem10.6.1]). Xt phng trnh ng d A1 x3 An x3 1 n

 A p mod pq,

(3.9)

trong p l m t s nguyn t , A1 , ..., An , A

6 9 n1 8p

Z v A1...An % 0 pmod pq.

G i N l s nghi m c a phng trnh (3.9). Khi , ta c

9

E1 E2 E3, 7pn1 pp 1qE , 1

n u A % 0 p mod pq, n u A  0 p mod pq.

Ch ng minh. Theo nh l 3.2.3, ta ch n k1

  dn  3. Xt l m t c trng pg q  e . Khi , n u A % 0 p mod pq th

d1
2i 3

 

kn

3. Khi

mun p c c p ba sao cho

p

n1

2 j1 ,...,jn 1

j1 jn pAqj1 pA1 q...jn pA1 qJ pj1 , ..., jn q. 1 n

Ti p theo, ta ch n c p s nguyn pn1 , n2 q sao cho 0 n1

n, 0 n2 n, n1 n2  n,
c trng

trong n1 l s cc c trng c ly th a j c ly th

 1 v n2 l s cc a j  2. Khi ta c j1 jn  n1 2n2 . Ta k hi u
2 2 J pj1 , ..., jn q  J p, ..., , looomooonq  Jn1 ,n2 . loomoon , ..., n1 -l n n2 -l n

Nh v y, s nghi m c a phng trnh (3.9) l N

p p

n1

n n1 ,n2 0 n1 n2 n

n1 2n2

pAqJn ,n
1

2
2

j1 ,...,jn 1 n1 ch s ji b ng 1 n2 ch s ji b ng 2

j1 pA1 q...jn pAn q

n1

pA1...Anq

n n1 ,n2 0 n1 n2 n

n1 2n2 pAqJn1 ,n2

n1

Ngoi ra ta c n1 2n2

 t0, 1, 2u p mod 3q, nn theo nh l 3.2.3, ta c

51

n n1 ,n2 0 n1 n2 n n1 2n2 0 p mod 3q

n1 2n2 pAqJn1 ,n2

n n1 0 n1 2n p mod 3q

n1

n1 n 3 3

n1 2n3
3

n1

 1pA1...AnqE1.

n n1 .n2 0 n1 n2 n n1 2n2 1 p mod 3q

n1 2n2 pAqJn1 ,n2

n

n1

 pAq

n1 0 n1 p2n1q p mod 3q

n1 n 3 3

n1 2n3
3

n1

 1pA1...AnqE2.

n n1 ,n2 0 n1 n2 n n1 2n2 2 p mod 3q

n1 2n2 pAqJn1 ,n2

n

n1

 2pAq

T suy ra N

 pn1 E1 E2 E3. N u A  0 p mod pq th theo nh l 3.2.3 ta cng c

N

n1 0 n1 p2n2q p mod 3q

n1 n 3 3

n1 2n3
3

n1

 1pA1...AnqE3

p

n1

p p 1q

n j1 ,...,jn 1 j1 jn 0 p mod 3q

j1 pA1 q...jn pA1 qJ pj1 , ..., jn q. 1 n

Ti p t c ch n n1 , n2 nh trn ta c N

p

n1

pp 1q

n1 ,n2 0 n1 n2 n n1 2n2 0 p mod 3q

Jn1 ,n2

2 j1 ,..,jn 1 n1 ch s ji b ng 1 n2 ch s ji b ng 2 n

j1 pA1 q...jn pAn q

n1

 pn1 pp 1qpA1...Anq  pn1 pp 1qpA1...Anq  pn1 pp 1qpA1...Anq

n1 ,n2 0 n1 n2 n n1 2n2 0 p mod 3q n

Jn1 ,n2

n1 ,n2 0 n1 n2 n n1 2n2 0 p mod 3q n pj n3q{3 j 0 j n p mod 3q

j n 3 3

n1 2n2 3 3

n1

n1 2n2 3 3

52

 pn1 pp 1qE1.
H qu 3.3.5 ([5, Theorem 10.6.4]). Cho p l m t s nguyn t d ng p  3f
c p 3 v i pg q 

1,

g l cn nguyn th y c a n v theo mun p, l m t c trng mun p c

e

2i 3

, t

 Gpq. Khi s

nghi m N c a phng trnh (3.10)

x3 x3 x3 1 2 n c xc nh nh sau.

 A p mod pq

iq N u A % 0 p mod pq th N

pA  pn1 3 q p qn 2p 2 qn p2 qn 2 pAq p qn p 2 qn 2p2 qn

1 3p p qn p 2 qn p2 qn iiq N u A  0 p mod pq th N

 pn1 p 3p 1 p qn p 2 qn p2 qn

i

Ch ng minh. Theo nh l 3.3.4, ta ch n A1


n

  An  1. Khi

n , i  0, 1, ..., n. i


Do , ta c 1 E1  p E2 n jn j2n 3 3 , j


 

pAq p

j 0 j n p mod 3q n

E3

2 pAq p

j 0 j pn1q p mod 3q n j 0 j pn1q p mod 3q

n jn1 j2n2 3 3 , j n jn2 j2n1 3 3 . j

53

Ngoi ra, theo cng th c khai tri n nh th c ta c

Gpq Gpq

n n n

  

  

Gpq Gpq
2

j 0 n j 0 n j 0

n Gpqj Gpqnj , j n Gpqj Gpqnj 2pnj q , j n Gpqj Gpqnj nj . j

Gpq Gpq
2

Do , c ng v theo v c a bi u th c trn ta c

Gpq Gpq

n j 0

Gpq Gpq

2 Gpq 2 Gpq

n nj Gpqj Gpq p1 nj 2pnj q q j

n

3  

j 0 j n p mod 3q

n Gpqj Gpqnj j
n

3 pGpqGpqqn 3 pn
nj

j 0 j n p mod 3q

n 2nj Gpqj n Gpq j

2n j 3

j 0 j n p mod 3q nj

n j

ppq
j n 3

j n 3

, v GpqGpq  p, Gpq3

 p

3

j 0 j n p mod 3q

n j

pq

2n j 3

 3pE1.
n n

Tng t , ta cng c
G G

p q Gpq
n

G G

p q Gpq 2 p q Gpq
2

2G
2

p q Gpq

p q 2Gpq  3pAqGpqE3,
2

p q Gpq  32pAqGpqE2.

Do , theo nh l 3.3.4 ta suy ra i u ph i ch ng minh.

3.3.2

S nghi m c a phng trnh A1 x4 A2 x4 1 2

 A p mod pq
1, khi theo

Trong ph n ny ta xt p l m t s nguyn t d ng p  4f

54

Nh n xt 3.1.5 ta lun c c m t c trng mun p c p b n sao cho pg q  i, v i g l cn nguyn th y c a n v theo mun p. B ng cc d li u trn, nh l sau y cho ta cch xc nh s nghi m c a phng trnh

A1 x4 A2 x4 1 2

 A p mod pq.

nh l 3.3.6. Cho p l m t s nguyn t d ng p  4f 1, g l cn nguyn th y c a n v theo mun p, l c trng mun p c c p b n sao cho

 G i a4, b4 l nh ng s nguyn xc nh duy nh t th a a2 b2  p, i. 4 4 2 a4  p p mod 4q, b4  a4 g p mod pq v t  p1qf pa4 ib4q. Khi s nghi m c a phng trnh A1 x4 A2 x4  A p mod pq, v i A, A1 , A2 Z, 1 2 A1 A2 % 0 p mod pq c xc nh nh sau. piqN u A % 0 p mod pq th
p 1 4

pg q

 p p1qf pA1q3pA2q p1qf 2pA1A2q 3pA1qpA2q pAqppA1q2pA2q 2pA1qpA2qqpa4 ib4q p1qf 2pAqppA1A2qpa4 ib4q 3pA1A2qpa4 ib4qq 3pAqp2pA1q3pA2q 3pA1q2pA2qqpa4 ib4q.

piiq N u A  0 p mod pq th N  p p1qf pp 1q pA1 q3 pA2 q p1qf 2 pA1 A2 q 3 pA1 qpA2 q .

Ch ng minh. piq Ta xt k1

  kn  4. Khi , theo nh l 3.2.3 ta c d1   dn  4, 1   n  l c trng mun p c c p b n. Do , n u A % 0 p mod pq th

N

p

n1

3 3 j1 1 j2 1

j1 j2 pAqj1 pA1 qj2 pA1 qJ pj1 , j2 q 1 2

p 2pAq3pA1A2qJ p, q 3pAA1q2pA2qJ p, 2q 3pAA2q2pA1qJ p2, q 2pAqpA1A2qJ p3, 3q pA1q3pA2qJ p3, q pAA1q2pA2qJ p3, 2q

55

3pA1qpA2qJ p2, q pAA2q2pA1qJ p2, 3q 2pA1A2qJ p2, 2q p p1qf pA1q3pA2q p1qf 2pA1A2q 3pA1qpA2q pAqppA1q2pA2q 2pA1qpA2qqpa4 ib4q p1qf 2pAqppA1A2qpa4 ib4q 3pA1A2qpa4 ib4qq 3pAqp2pA1q3pA2q 3pA1q2pA2qqpa4 ib4q. piiq Tng t
N , n u A  0 p mod pq th

 p p1qf pp 1q pA1q3pA2q p1qf 2pA1A2q 3pA1qpA2q

3.3.7. Xc nh s nghi m N c a phng trnh 2x4 7x4 1 2

V d

 9 p mod 13q.

(3.11)

L i gi i: Ta p d ng nh l 3.3.6 cho vi c tm nghi m c a phng trnh trn. Th t v y, t phng trnh (3.11) ta c p v g

 2 l cn nguyn th a4  3, b4  2 v

 13, f  3, A1  2, A2  7, A  9

y mun 13 c a n v . Do ta xc nh c

pA1 q  p2q  i, pA2 q  p7q  p26 q  1, pAq  p9q  p28 q  piq8 T suy ra N

 1.

 13 1 p1 iqp3 2iqpip3 2iq ip3 2iqqp1 iqp3 2iq  16.

S d ng ph n m m Maple ta c th li t k c cc nghi m c a phng trnh (3.11) nh sau. (1, 1); (1, 5); (1,8); (1, 12); (5, 1 ); (5, 5); (5, 8); (5, 12); (8, 1); p8, 5q; p8, 8q;

p8, 12q; p12, 1q; (12, 5); (12, 8); (12, 12).

56

3.3.3

i u ki n phng trnh A1 xm1 A2 xm2 1 2 c nghi m.

 A p mod pq

x Tr c h t ta th y r ng, n u g i l ph n t sinh c a nhm Fp th c

trng i
1 1

 pi  1, ..., nq l c trng t m th ng c a Fp khi v ch khi j j d d Z. T n u ta g i tpd1 , ..., dn q l s cc b cc s nguyn j j pj1, ..., jnq, v i 1 ji di 1, pi  1, ..., nq sao cho d d Z th
p 1 di n n 1 n 1 n

tpd1 , ..., dn q pd1 1q pdn 1q. V i n  2, ta xc nh chnh xc c tpd1 , d2 q b i b sau. B 3.3.8. tpd1 , d2 q  CLNpd1 , d2 q 1. Ch ng minh. G i pa, bq l b hai s nguyn th a 0 a d1 , 0 b d2 v ad2 bd1 G id
2 1

 d1d2.

 CLNpd1, d2q, dI2  dd , dI1  dd . Khi adI2 bdI1  ddI1dI2. Ngoi ra CLNpd, dI q  1 nn a  jdI1 , b  pd j qjdI2 . Nh v y s cc b pa, bq chnh l s cc s nguyn j v i 1 j d 1. Do , tpd1 , d2 q  d 1.
T i u ny, cc k t qu sau y cho ta i u ki n phng trnh (3.5)

v phng trnh A1 xm1 A2 xm2 1 2

 A p mod pq c nghi m.
i di

nh l 3.3.9 ([5, Theorem 10.8.1]). Cho k1 , ..., kn l nh ng s nguyn dng, 1 , ..., n

F v Fp. G p

 CLNpki, p 1q, N

l s nghi m

c a phng trnh (3.5) trn tr ng Fp . Khi ta c

|N pn1| 9

6 9 8 d1

p 7tpd , .., d qpp 1qp , 1 n

n 2 2

2 1q...pdn 1q p1 p 21 qtpd1, .., dnq p n1 , n u $ 0,

n u  0.

57

Ch ng minh. Theo nh l 3.2.3, ta xt hai tr ng h p sau. N u  0 th

N

pn1 

d1 d1 1 n ... j1 1 ...jn n 1 J j1 , ..., jn 1 n n j 1 j 1 1 1 n 1 j1 ...jn 0 n

q p q

pp 1q

d1 1 j1 1
j

...

d1 n jn 1

j1 jn J 1 , ..., n

11 ...jn 0 n
n 2 2

pp 1qp

d1 1 j1 1
j

...

d1 n jn 1

 pp 1qp tpd1, .., dnq.

n 2 2

11 ...jn 0 n

N u $ 0 th
N

pn1

 pp q p

d1 1 d1 1 j 1 1
j

j 1 1

... ...

d1 n d1 n jn 1 jn 1

d1 d1 1 n 1 ... j1 1 1 ...jn n 1 J j1 , ..., jn 1 n n j 1 j 1 1

q p

j j J 11 , ..., nn

j1 jn J 1 , ..., n

d1 1 j1 1
j

...

d1 n j n 1

j1 jn J 1 , ..., n

p tpd1, ..., dnq p ppd1 1q...pdn 1q tpd1, ..., dnqq  p pd1 1q...pdn 1q p1 p qtpd1, ..., dnq .
n 2 2 n 1 2 n 1 2 1 2

11 ...jn 0 n

11 ...jn $0 n

Nh n xt 3.3.10. N u ta ch n k1 th phng trnh (3.5) tr thnh

  kn  3, 1   n   1  1.  3f 2 th s


x3 y 3

(3.12) nghi m N

Theo nh l trn, n u p l s nguyn t d ng p c a phng trnh th a

|N p| p1 1qp1 1q p1

1 cp qp1 1q

cp.

58

Suy ra N

N u p l s nguyn t d ng p  3f 1 th s nghi m N c a phng trnh (3.12) th a

 p.

|N p| p3 1qp3 1q p1
Hay

1 cp q2

cp.
(3.13)

|N p| 2 2cp.
 5. B

V d 3.3.11. piq Theo nh n xt trn, s nghi m c a phng trnh (3.12) trn

tr ng F5 l N ng ph n m m Maple ta xc nh c cc nghi m l

p0, 1q; p1, 0q; p2, 2q; p3, 4q; p4, 3q. piiq Tng t
, cc nghi m c a phng trnh (3.12) trn tr ng F13 l

p0, 1q; p0, 3q; p0, 9q; p1, 0q; p3, 0q; p9, 0q.
Nh n th y r ng, s nghi m ny th a mn i u ki n (3.13). V i nh ng k hi u nh nh l 3.3.9, h qu sau cho ta i u ki n

phng trnh 1 xk1 n xkn 1 n v F . Khi phng trnh p

 c nghi m.

H qu 3.3.12 ([5, Corrollary 10.8.2]). Cho n l m t s nguyn l n hn 1

1 xk1 n xkn 1 n trn tr ng Fp c nghi m n u p


2  n1

(3.14)

pd1 1qpdn 1q p1

1 cq tpd1, ..., dnq

.
2 n1

Ch ng minh. N u p

1 pd1 1q...pdn 1q p1 cq qtpd1, ..., dnq

th theo

nh l 3.3.9 ta suy ra c s nghi m N c a phng trnh (3.14) lun dng. Do phng trnh (3.14) lun c nghi m.

59

H qu

3.3.13. Cho A1 , A2 , A3 l nh ng s nguyn khng chia h t cho s

nguyn t p v m1 , m2 l nh ng s nguyn dng. G i d1 d2

 CLNpm2, p 1q, d  CLNpd1, d2q. Khi n u

p

 CLNpm1, p 1q,
2

pd1 1qpd2 1q p1

1 cp qpd 1q

th phng trnh A1 xm1 A2 xm2 1 2

 A p mod pq c nghi m.

Ch ng minh. Theo B 3.3.8 v H qu 3.3.12 ta suy ra i u ph i ch ng minh. H qu 3.3.14. Cho p l m t s nguyn t sao cho p

AA1 A2 . Khi

phng trnh ng d A1 x3 A2 x3 1 2 lun c nghi m tr khi p  7. Ch ng minh. Trong H qu 3.3.13, ta ch n m1 ho c p  2 p mod 3q th d1

 A p mod pq

(3.15)

 d2  1, do phng trnh (3.15) l c nghi m. N u p  1 p mod 3q th d1  d2  3. Do , theo H qu 3.3.13 n u

p

 m2  3. Khi , n u p  3

4 2p1

1 cp q

2

(3.16)
2

th phng trnh (3.15) c nghi m. T suy ra r ng, n u p 13 th phng

1 trnh (3.15) lun c nghi m. N u p  7 th 7 4 2p1 c7 q

do theo

H qu 3.3.13 ta suy ra c i u ph i ch ng minh. V d 3.3.15. Ch ng minh r ng phng trnh sau c nghi m x5 2x3 1 2 L i gi i: Ta c

 3 p mod 11q.
2

(3.17)

1 11 4.0 p1 c q.0 . 11 nn theo nh l 3.3.13 ta suy ra phng trnh (3.17) c nghi m.

60

Ngoi ra s d ng ph n m m Maple ta c th li t k cc nghi m c a phng trnh (3.17) nh sau. (0, 6); (1, 1); (2, 7); (3, 1); (4,1); (5, 1); (6, 7); (7, 7); (8, 7); p9, 1q; p10, 7q.

61

K T LU N
Trong lu n vn ny chng ti tm hi u v trnh by nh ng v n sau. 1. Trnh by nh ng khi ni m c b n v ch ng minh chi ti t m t s tnh ch t c a c trng c a nhm Abel h u h n. 2. Trnh by c h th ng nh ng khi ni m c b n, nh ng tnh ch t quan

tr ng c a php bi n i Fourier trn nhm Abel h u h n. Chng ti ch ng minh chi ti t cc k t qu (cc M nh 2.1.7, 2.1.10, 2.1.12, 2.1.26) t ti li u [4].
3. Trnh by cch ch ng minh Lu t thu n ngh ch b c hai b ng cc tnh ch t c a php bi n i Fourier trn nhm Abel h u h n ( nh l 2.1.13). 4. Trnh by l i gi i bi ton tm s nghi m c a phng trnh trn nhm Abel h u h n d a trn php bi n i Fourier. Hn n a, chng ti s d ng tnh ch t c a php bi n i Fourier ch ng minh chi ti t nh l Fermat trn tr ng h u h n (M nh 2.2.1, nh l 2.2.7). 5. Trnh by t ng Jacobi trn tr ng Fp v cng th c tm s nghi m c a cn trnh by m t phng php tm s nghi m c a phng trnh x2 y 2 (H qu 3.2.4). 6. Trnh by chi ti t cch tm s nghi m c a cc phng trnh ng d
A 1 x3 A 2 x3 1 2

phng trnh 1 xk1 n xkn 1 n

 trn tr

ng Fp . Bn c nh , lu n vn

1

 A p mod pq, A1x4 A2x4  A p mod pq v a ra m 1 2

t s v d

minh h a. ng th i, lu n vn cn trnh by phng php xc nh s nghi m c a phng trnh d ng A1 x3 An x3 1 n

7. Trnh by i u ki n c nghi m.

 A p mod pq ( nh l 3.2.3). phng trnh A1 xm A2 xm  A p mod pq 1 2

1 2

62

TI LI U THAM KH O

Ti ng Vi t 1. Nguy n H u Vi t Hng (1998), i s i cng, Nh xu t b n Gio d c. 2. H Huy Khoi (2003), S h c v thu t ton: C s l thuy t v tnh ton th c hnh, Nh xu t b n i h c Qu c Gia H N i. 3. Nguy n Ti n Quang (2007), C s l thuy t tr ng v l thuy t Galois, Nh xu t b n i h c s ph m. Ti ng Anh 4. Babai, L. (2002),The Fourier transform and equations over finite abelian groups: An introduction to the method of trigonometric sums, Bi gi ng i n t http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/laci/reu02/fourier.pdf 5. Berndt, B. C., Evans, R. J., and Williams, K. S. (1998) Gauss and Jacobi Sums, A Wiley-Interscience Publication. John Wiley & Sons Inc.. 6. Cohen, H. (2007), Number Theory Volume I:Tools and Diophantine Equations, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. 7. Lemmermeyer, F. (2000), Reciprocity Law from Euler to Eisentein, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 8. Lidl, R., Niederreiter, N. (2003), Finite Fields, Cambridge University Press. 9. Luong, Bao (2009), Fourier Analysis on finite abelian groups, Birkhauser.

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10. Ireland K. ,Rosen M. (1990) A Classical Introduction to Modern Number Theory, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 11. Isaac, I.M. (1976), Character Theory of Finite Groups, Academic, SanDiego. 12. Nagell, T. (1964), Introduction to Number Theory, Chelsea, New York. 13. Schmidt, W. M. (1976), Equations over Finite Fields: An Elementary Approach, Lect. Notes in Math. Vol. 536, Springer. 14. Terras, A. A. (1999), Fourier Analysis on Finite Groups and Applications, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 15. Weil, A. (1949), "Numbers of solutions of equations in finite fields", Bull. Amer. Math. Soc., 55:497508.