Cdma & Is-95

Pulsetone Industries 1
A Maheswaran
Pulsetone Industries
magi@mageeacademy.com

CDMA Basics & IS-95 System
CDMA Basics
What is CDMA?
CDMA is Code Division Multiple Access
Also called Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DS-SS)
Belongs to broader communication systems
called Spread Spectrum
This is a wideband system having many
advantages
Immune to narrow band interferences
Exploits multipath propagation
Better handover due to soft handover
Increased capacity (users / sq km / MHz)
Understanding Spread Spectrum
Normally RF bandwidth is conserved
In spread spectrum communication bandwidth is
deliberately increased
Evolved out of military communication
In avoiding detection and jamming
For preventing eavesdropping
There are 2 types of Spread Spectrum
Freq. Hopped SS (FH-SS) Carrier frequency is
changed periodically Bandwidth remains the same
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS)
Suitable for data transmission & original data
spread manifold (say 8 to 1024 times) - This will
be our focus
Direct Sequence Spreading
Here, the binary message bit sequence is
multiplied (Ex-Ored) with a bipolar (binary) code
(chip) sequence
If L chips multiply every bit, then the BW of the
message seq. increases L times
Usually we choose L of the form L = 2
k
The Coding (or Spreading) Gain of the system is
3k dB
T
c
T
b
DS-SS Transmitter
Spread Spectrum
Transmitter

R
Information
Transmitted
Signal
freq.
W
Processing Gain = W/R >> 1
Spreading
Code
freq.
DS-SS Receiver
Information
freq.
Spread Spectrum
Receiver

R
Received
Signal
Despreading
Code
freq. W
Interference Rejection In SS
Frequency Frequency
Spectral
Density
Spectral
Density
Interfering
signal
Desired
signal
Desired
signal
Interfering
signal
a) At the SS receiver input b) Correlator output after
despreading
Proc.
Gain
DS-SS techniques useful for multi access purpose
Same wide band used by different users
Spread sequences (or codes) of users to be different
and mutually orthogonal
This is called Code Division Multi Access
Orthogonal codes ensure signals do not interfere
with each other
Code used for despreading at the receiver has to be
exactly the same
Otherwise decorrelation occurs
Orthogonal codes need to generated by simple
process
Using DS-SS For Multiple Access
Spreading gain allows weaker signals to be
received without errors
Being a wide band signal, this is immune to
multipath fading and narrow band interference
Many orthogonal codes are available
Walsh Codes
PN Sequence Long codes
PN Sequence Short codes
Orthogonal codes allow efficient means of
sharing a given RF spectrum by different users
Using DS-SS For Multiple Access
Properties Of Orthogonal Codes
Orthogonal property
Two codes C
1
& C
2
having a periodicity over T are
orthogonal, if and only if
C
1
* C
2
= 0 (over the period T)
Walsh codes derived from Hadamard matrixes have good
properties for use as orthogonal codes
Hadamard matrices are square matrices with n x n binary
elements
All rows of this matrixes are mutually orthogonal, (if we
consider an agreement as having a weight of +1 and
disagreement as having a weight of 1)
Hadamard Matrices
0 0
0 1
H
2
=
0
H
1
=
A 2
n
x 2
n
Hadamard Matrix can be generated by
following the recursive procedure
H
4
=
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0
H
2N
=
H
N

H
N

H
N

H
N

All 2N rows of matrix are mutually
orthogonal
H
2N

Walsh Codes
The rows of Hadamard matrix are used as code
words and these are called Walsh codes
Walsh codes are extensively used in CDMA systems
both for spreading and modulation
In IS-95 system, 64 x 64 Walsh codes are used for
spreading on forward link and for modulation on
reverse link
When it is used for spreading, the spreading
factor is 64
When it is used for modulation, the spreading
factor is (64 / 6) since 6 bits will be represented
by 64 chips
Using Walsh Code For Spreading
Walsh Code
Generator (W
i
)
1.2288 Mcps
+
Traffic data
of
i
th user
(data rate of
19.2 kbps)
Output after
spreading
In every symbol time (1 bit), we have 64 Walsh chips W
i
or inversion of W
i
being sent depending upon whether the
bit is 0 or 1
Using Walsh Code For Spreading (Contd.)
Though Walsh codes have excellent properties by
way of orthogonality, the transmitter and receiver
need to have a perfectly synchronised copies
otherwise orthogonality is not guaranteed

If {0 0 1 1} is used as code word, then this can
result in {0 1 1 0}. Hence Walsh code is used for
spreading on forward link where perfect
synchronisation can be assured
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0
Walsh
Code

Chip
# 1

Chip
# 2

Chip
# 4

Chip
# 5

Chip
# 6

W
0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

W
1

1

-1

1

-1

1

-1

1

-1

W
2

1

1

-1

-1

1

1

-1

-1

W
3

1

-1

-1

1

1

-1

-1

1

W
4

1

1

1

1

-1

-1

-1

-1

W
5

1

-1

1

-1

-1

1

-1

1

W
6

1

1

-1

-1

-1

-1

1

1

W
7

1

-1

-1

1

-1

1

1

-1

Chip
# 3
Chip
# 7
Chip
# 8
Using Walsh Code For Spreading & Multiaccess
For demonstrating CDMA (using DS-SS
techniques for multi access purpose) we will do
the following:
Spreading
(User1)
Spreading
(User2)
Despreading
(User2)
Despreading
(User1)
User1
Data
(0101)
User2
Data
(0011)
W
1

W
5
W
1

W
5
Decoded
User1 Data
(0101)
Decoded
User2 Data
(0011)
Code Division
Multiplexed
Output
User1 Data 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
W
1
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Output1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
User2 Data
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
W
5
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
Output2 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
Sum 2 -2 2 -2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2 2 -2 2
W
1
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Product 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2 -2 -2 -2
Total
= +8 = -8
User1 Data (+8/8 = +1 >0) 0 (-8/8 = -1 <0) 1
W
5
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
Product 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2
Total
= +8 = +8
User2 Data (+8/8 = +1 >0) 0 (+8/8 = +1 >0) 0
User1 Data 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
W
1
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Output1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
User2 Data -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
W
5
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
Output2 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1
Sum 0 0 0 0 2 -2 2 -2 -2 2 -2 2 0 0 0 0
W
1
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Product 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 -2 -2 -2 -2 0 0 0 0
Total
= +8 = -8
User1 Data
(+8/8 = +1 >0) 0 (-8/8 = -1 <0) 1
W
5
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
Product 0 0 0 0 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 0 0 0 0
Total
= -8 = -8
User2 Data
(-8/8 = -1 <0) 1 (-8/8 = -1 <0) 1
Using Walsh Code For Modulation
Walsh code is used in reverse traffic channel of IS-
95 for modulating user traffic data
In everys symbol time (6 bits), we send chips of a
particular Walsh code depending upon the 6 bit
combination
Modulator
using
Walsh Code
Traffic data
of
i
th user
(data rate of
28.8 kbps)
Output after
Modulation
(307.2 kcps)
Symbol
Generator
4.8 ksps (6
bits / symbol)
Using Walsh Code For Modulation (Contd.)
This improves reception at the base station
detecting forward link is more difficult due to Near-
Far problem and non-coherent detection
Modulation using orthogonal Walsh codes enhances
the decision making algorithm at the receiver and
is computationally efficient
We can view this Walsh modulation as a form of
block error correcting code with (n,k) = (64,6)
with d
min
= 32 (in fact the distance between any
code word is 32)
Using Walsh Code For Modulation
Data rate
k bits per sec
Rate k/3 symbols per
sec (3 bits / Symbol)
Modulation
Using Walsh
Codes
Serial to
Parallel
Converter
Modulated output
(k*8/3 chips per sec)
{W
0
,

W
1
,

W
2
,

W
3
,
W
4
,

W
5
,

W
6
, W
7
}
Modulation Scheme
Symbol Bits Walsh code
chosen for
modulation
D
2
D
1
D
0

0 0 0 W
0
0 0 1 W
1
0 1 0 W
2
0 1 1 W
3
1 0 0 W
4
1 0 1 W
5
1 1 0 W
6
1 1 1 W
7
Illustrating Modulation Using Walsh Code
Bit Sequence to be transmitted (101011001110)
Converting to symbols with 3 bits / symbol
[101 011 001 110]
Modulating with Walsh codes as per table yields
{W
5
W
3
W
1
W
6
}
Corresponding chips are
{1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1}
Illustrating Modulation Using Walsh Code (Contd.)
Correlation
Receiver
Correlation
Receiver
Correlation
Receiver
Correlation
Receiver
Correlation
Receiver
Correlation
Receiver
Correlation
Receiver
Correlation
Receiver
Threshold
Decision
Maker
W
0

W
2

W
4

W
6

W
7

W
1

W
3

W
5

Received
Chips
Decoded
Symbol
(Contd.)
Demodulation is done by correlating the received
chips with various Walsh chips and finding the
match with maximum likelihood decoding
Taking the chips in the first symbol {1-11-1-11-
11} and doing this for W
0

1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
= 0 (Minimum matching)
For W
1
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1
(Contd.)
For W
2

1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1
1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1
1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
For W
3

For W
4

(Contd.)
For W
5

1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 8 (Maximum matching)
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1
1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1
1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1
For W
6

For W
7

Other Spreading Codes
CDMA systems use multiple spreading, each
spreading serving a different purpose
So we need many classes of spreading codes
User specific codes: A large number of mobiles
need to be allotted spreading codes and these
have to be administered & synchronised
Station Specific codes: On the forward link we
need to spread the combined signal to have a
station specific spreading to provide isolation
between transmissions of different base stations
Scrambling codes: Not all Walsh codes
generate wide band signals (like W
0
) we need to
scramble the data so that the resulting signal is
truly wideband
Properties Of Spreading Code
Desired Randomness Properties
P1: Balance Property
Relative frequencies of occurrence of 1s and
0s should be 1/2
P2: Run Length Property
Run lengths of 1s and 0s are as expected in
a coin-flipping experiment
1/2 of all run lengths are unity,
1/4 of the run lengths are 2,
1/8 of the run lengths are 3, and so on
P3: Delay and Add Property
Equal number of agreements and
disagreements between a sequence and its
shifted version
PN Sequences
Psuedo-random Noise (PN) Sequences
A deterministically generated sequence that
`nearly satisfies properties P1 to P3 , within
extremely small discrepancies
Maximum Length Shift Register (MLSR)
generated sequences
Are PN sequences which nearly satisfy P1 to
P3
Also called as m-sequence, where m is the
number of shift registers used to generate the
sequence
Period of an m-sequence P, is given by
1 2 =
m
P
MLSR Sequence Generator
Generating Function, G(D), is given by
[G(D) is the generated sequence]
Characteristic polynomial, f(D), is given by
[(D) gives the tap connections of Seq Gen]
D: Delay
operator
=
=
r
i
i
i
D c D f
1
1 ) (
=
=
0
) (
n
n
n
D a D G
=

=
r
i
i n i n
a c a
1
1
c
2
c
r
c
D D D
r n
a

2 n
a
1 n
a
No connection
Connection
=
, 1
, 0
i
c
3-stage MLSR Sequence Generator
+
D
D D
Sequence No

X
0

X
1

X
2

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

2

0

1

0

3

1

0

1

4

1

1

0

5

1

1

1

6

0

1

1

7

0

0

1

PN Sequence
Output
Clock
Generating PN Sequence With Offset
Initial State

Output Sequence

0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 1

1 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 1 1

0 1 0

0 1 0 1 1 1 0

1 0 1

1 0 1 1 1 0 0

1 1 0

0 1 1 1 0 0 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 0 0 1 0

0 1 1

1 1 0 0 1 0 1

PN Sequences
with known
offset can be
generated by
starting with an
Initial State
(seed)
PN codes are
generated
unique to
mobiles by
using ESN as
seed at both MS
and BS
Autocorrelation Function Of PN Sequence
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 PN Period = N Tc
Binary
PN Seq.
Tc
1 1 1
1/N
Tc
Tc
ACF
c T s t
For large N, 0
1
N
t
t
Near-Far Problem
CDMA base station receives signals from all mobile
stations
All of them transmit on the same wideband
channel with only channelisation codes / PN long
codes to discriminate the signals
If we assume that all of them transmit with same
power
The signal from far off mobile will be
comparatively weaker than the signal from a
near by mobile
This has to be detected in the presence of a
stronger signal from a nearby mobile
Near-Far Problem (Contd.)
This problem is called Near-Far Problem and this
problem gets further compounded by fading and
other short term variations that take place due to
the channel
Solution is to tightly control the power transmitted
by all mobiles so that they are seen with equal
power at the base station
This is done by closed loop power control
whereby the mobiles are asked to vary power
continuously to meet the target
Rake Receiver Principles
Multipath creates ISI (inter symbol interference)
problem in conventional data transmission
However, in the case of CDMA the chip rate
being much is handled differently by
constructively combining the multipath
signals to improve signal to noise ratio
This is done in RAKE receiver where a
separate correlator (called RAKE finger) is
assigned for each multipath signal
Typically MS has 4 RAKE fingers and out of
these 3 are used for combining signals and 1
is used as a searcher
Rake Receiver Principles (Contd.)
DEMOD
Code
Generator
Input
Data
MOD
t
2

t
3

t
1
a
1

a
2

a`
3

a
3

a`
2

a
1

+
+
+
+
Output
data
c(t-t
1
)

c(t-t
3
)

c(t-t
2
)

RAKE
receiver
Multipath channel
Rake Receiver Principles (Contd.)
RAKE fingers are used in the Mobile Rx for
combining multipath components
3 fingers for tracking and demodulating
upto 3 different multipath signals of Forward
channel
1 searcher for searching and estimating
signal strength on different pilots, coarse
timing of different multipaths
to select desired (strongest) base station in
idle mode
to provide hypothesis testing and coarse
timing estimation
to generate pilot strength information
messages during traffic mode to enable
Handoff
Power Control On Reverse Link
Transmitter
Receiver
Gain
Duplexer
Open Loop Power
Control
Transmitter
Receiver
Gain
Duplexer
Transmitter
Receiver
Duplexer
Base Station
Mobile Station
Closed Loop Power
Control
Control path for closed
loop power control
Power Control
To combat the effect of fading, shadowing and
distance losses
Transmit only the minimum required power to
achieve a target link performance (e.g., FER)
Minimizes interference
Increases battery life
Forward Link Power Control
To send enough power to reach users at cell
edge
Reverse Link Power Control is very critical
To overcome near-far problem in DS-CDMA
Handoffs In IS-95 CDMA
Types of Handoff
Soft Handoff
Mobile commences communication with a
new BS without interrupting communication
with old BS
same frequency assignment between old and
new BS
provides different site selection diversity
Softer handoff
Handoffs between sectors in a cell
CDMA-to-CDMA Hard Handoff
Mobile transmits between two base stations
with different frequency assignment
Micro Vs Macro Diversity
Diversity principles are used to improve RF signal
quality
This is based on the fact that statistical
properties of two or more paths will be
uncorrelated
When one path is experiencing deep fade, the
other one is unlikely to experience deep fade
In space diversity we may receive through 2
antennas separated in space and combine the
signals to improve the performance
We call this Micro Diversity
RAKE receiver combining mulipaths from the
same BS can also be called some form of
micro diversity
Micro Vs Macro Diversity (Contd.)
What we do during soft hand off is Macro Diversity,
where 2 or more BSs are beaming the same signal
toward the same MS
The received signals are combined in RAKE
receiver
Resulting signal will be much better than any
individual one
Transmission by MS is received by all BSs and the
best signal received is selected at the BSC / MSC
Macro diversity is a boon in CDMA system
Handoffs In IS-95 CDMA (Contd.)
Basis for Handoff
MS does measurements on Pilot channels on
serving base station + other base stations
Search finger in RAKE receiver helps Ms
Information about neighbouring PN offsets
provided by BS in System_Parameter helps
MS classifies the Pilots into 4 categories
Active Set
Candidate Set
Neighbour Set
Remaining Set
These sets are dynamically updated based
upon the measurements
Handoffs In IS-95 CDMA (Contd.)
Pilot Sets
Active Set
Pilots associated with Forward Link traffic
channels assigned to the mobile in soft
handoff
Candidate Set
Pilots that are not in Active Set but are
received by the mobile with sufficient
strength
Neighbour Set
Pilots not in Active or Candidate Set but are
likely candidates for handoff
Remaining Set
Set in the current system on current freq
assignment, excluding the above 3 sets
Soft Handoff Architecture
Mobile
BSC
BSC
BTS BTS
BTS
New Link
Old Link
MSC
To other switch
Energy measurements are made at
the mobile
Frame Selection:
MSC selects the bit stream with
lower error rate
BTS
Micro Vs Macro Diversity (Contd.)
Time or Distance
E
C
/I
t
Pilot 1
Pilot 2
Active Set
Total E
C
/I
t

Dynamic Soft
Handoff Region
Handoff Example
Time
Pilot
Strength
(1)
T_ADD
T_DROP
(2) (3)
(4) (5) (6) (7)
Neighbour
Set
Candidate
Set
Active Set
T_TDROP
Neighbour
Set
Handoff Example (Contd.)
(1) Pilot strength exceeds T_ADD. Mobile sends a
Pilot Strength Measurement Message
(PSMM) to base station and transfers pilot to the
Candidate Set
(2) Base station sends a Handoff Direction
Message (HDM)
(3) Mobile transfers pilot to Active Set and sends
Handoff Completion Message (HCM)
(4) Pilot strength drops below T_DROP. Mobile
starts handoff drop timer
(5) Handoff drop timer expires. Mobile sends a
PSMM
(6) Base station sends a HDM
(7) Mobile moves pilot from Active Set to Neighbour
Set and sends a HCM
Recap Of CDMA
Being a wideband system, this is immune to
multipath propagation
RAKE receiver exploits multipath to improve
reception
No frequency planning is required since the same
frequency can be used in nearby cell also
Offers advantage of soft capacity and soft handoff
Suffers form Near-Far problem
Tight closed loop power control is required to
overcome this problem
Offers more capacity than FDMA or TDMA systems
Advantages of CDMA
In mobile environment multi path propagation is a
serious issue resulting in ISI
Multi path is not resolvable in narrow band
systems where symbol time is comparable to
multi path delay
GSM has symbol time of 3.69 sec vis--vis
delay spreads of 3-8 sec
CDMA is a wideband system (IS-95 symbol time is
about 0.8 sec, much smaller than multi path
delay)
Multi path can be resolved and constructively
combined using RAKE receivers
Thus we are able to exploit the multi path
propagation for improving the signal to noise
ratio
IS-95 System
Overview Of IS-95 System
IS-95 is a proprietary design by Qualcomm
Developed to overcome capacity issues in AMPS
Network architecture greatly influenced by GSM
Meant for supporting circuit mode voice services
Has been enhanced for supporting data services
DS-SS on both Forward and Reverse links
Universal frequency reuse requiring no frequency
planning
64 Walsh Codes used supporting a theoretical
maximum of 64 active users
Channel of 1.25 MHz wide (1.2288 Mcps chip rate)
Overview Of IS-95 System (Contd.)
Fast power control to combat Near-Far problem
RAKE receiver to take advantage of multipath
Soft handoff making use of macro diversity
Qualcomm 9600 bps Code Excited Linear Predictive
(QCELP) speech coder with a variable data rate from
9600 bps to 1200 bps is used
CDMA system is interference limited with soft capacity
Interference reduction is a dominant theme
Variable rate coding for reducing the duty cycle
Closed loop power control
Is-95 Network Architecture
U
m

MS
BTS BSC
A
bis

MSC A
TR-45 / 46 Reference Model
HLR VLR
AC EIR
C B
H
F
D
MSC
E
Other
VLR
G
PSPDN
PSTN
ISDN
PLMN
M
i
D
i
A
i

P
i
IWF
AUX OS
L X
O
WPT2
TAP
WPT1
WPT0
TE2
TE2
TE1
R
m

S
m

S
m

Logical Channels In Is-95 System
Control Channels
Forward Reverse
Pilot Sync Paging
Access
Dim &
Burst
Traffic Channels
Speech or Data Associated Signaling
Full Rate
1/2 Rate 1/4 Rate
1/8 Rate
Blank &
Burst
Power Control
(Forward)
Forward And Reverse Channels
Forward Channels (making up a total of max 64)
1 Pilot Channel
1 Synchronisation Channel
Upto 7 Paging Channels
Traffic Channels
Reverse Channels
Access Channels called Random Access
Channels
Traffic Channels
Forward Link Channel Arrangement

. . . . . . . . . .
Forward CDMA Link (1.2288 MHz
channel transmitted by base station
Pilot
Sync
W
0

W
7

W
8

W
63

W
32
W
1

PCH#1 PCH#7
Code#1
Code#N
Code#P
Code#55
Code#M
FTCH
FTCH with multiple code channel
Fundamental
Code Channel
Mobile Power
Control Subchannel
General Transmission Scheme - Forward
Data rate ranges from 1200 to 9600 bps
This rate is made upto 19200 bps by rate coding
and repetition of 8 to 1
This data is spread to a channel chip rate of
1.2288 Mcps using combination of techniques
Each IS-95 channel occupies 1.25 MHz of spectrum
Channel chip rate is 1.2288 Mchips/s
64 orthogonal Walsh functions are used in forward
channel for spreading purpose
Pilot Channel
Pilot channel is the first channel mobile looks for
Its power level is kept 4 to 6 dB above traffic
channels
Provides phase reference for coherent
demodulation
Allows pilot strength measurement for handoff
This is carried on Code Channel 0 (uses W
0
)
Results in transmitting the station PN sequence
with a length of 32,768 {(2
15
-1) PN Sequence
plus a 0}
Corresponds to a period of 26.667 msec
All base stations use the same PN sequence, with
unique offsets in increments of 64 chips
Base stations are identified by their unique offset
Modulation Structure Of Pilot Channel
1.2288 Mcps
I-Chl Pilot
PN Seq
Q-Chl Pilot
PN Seq
Balanced
QPSK
Pilot takes 15-20% of total Tx power
Walsh Function 0
(all zeros)
all zeros
Station Specific PN Short Codes & Offsets
32,768 Chips
Short
code 0
Short
code i
Short
code I+1
Short
code k
Short
code 0
64
Chips
64 Chips
Short
code 511
64 Chips
.
1 Chip
Short
code 1
Synchronisation Channel
This always operates at a fixed data rate of 1200 bps
After rate convolutional coding and repetition (of
2) the date rate becomes 4800 bps
This gets spread by Code Channel 32 (W
32
) operating
at 1.2288 Mcps
Sync Channel message has the following information
System Identification (SID), Network Identification
(NID), Pilot short PN sequence offset index
(PILOT_PN), Long Code State, System time,
Paging channel data rate (4.8 or 9.6 kbps), etc.
Modulation Structure Of Synchronisation
Channel
Convolutional
Encoder
and Repetition
r =1/2, K = 9
Sync.
Data
Block
Inter-leave
1.2288 Mcps
4.8 Kbps
Walsh
Code 32
I-Chl Pilot
PN Seq
Q-Chl Pilot
PN Seq

1.2Kbps
Balanced
QPSK
4.8 Kbps
Sync. Channel typically has about 10%
of the Tx power of the Pilot
Paging Channel
Paging channel is used to transmit control
information at either 4.8 or 9.6 kbps
The format is similar to that of Sync channel
message
8 bit length indicator, 2-1146 bits long data, 30
bit CRC
Paging message can use synchronised capsules
that end on a half frame boundary or
unsynchronised capsules that can end
anywhere
Synchronised capsules use padding bits to
reach the nearest half frame boundary
Synchronised paging messages carry
multiple of 48 bits (4.8 kbps) and 96 bits
(9.6 kbps)
Paging Channel (Contd.)
Eight paging channel half-frames are combined to
forma a paging channel slot of length 80 msec
(384 bits at 4800 bps and 768 bits at 9600 bps)
Type of messages carried by paging channel
include
System parameter message
Access parameter message
Neighbour list message
CDMA carrier list message
Slotted page / Page message
Order messages
Channel assignment messages
Authentication challenge message
Modulation Structure Of Paging Channel
Convolutional
Encoder
(and Repetition
for 4.8 kbps)
r =1/2, K = 9
Paging
Data
Block
Inter-leave
1.2288 Mcps
19.2Kbps
Walsh
Code p (1-7)
I-Chl Pilot
PN Seq
Q-Chl Pilot
PN Seq

9.6Kbps
4.8Kbps
Balanced
QPSK
19.2 Kbps
Totally, the Paging Channels have about
75% of the Tx power of the Pilot
Long Code
generator
Decimator
Long code mask
for p
th
paging
channel
1.2288 Mcps
Scrambling
Code -- 19.2Kcps
Slotted Operation Of Paging Channel
I=0, T=2 =1; PGSLOT = Slot number 6 out of every 16 slots
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 2047 0
1 Slot Cycle 1.28
Seconds
80 ms
Mobile in
Nonactive State
Mobile in
Nonactive State
Paging Channel
Slot
Reacquisition
Time
8 Paging Channel
Half- Frame
Forward Traffic Channel
This channel is used for carrying user traffic
Data rates are 9600, 4800, 2400 and 1200 with
lower data rates being associated with low voice
activity
Convolutional coding, symbol repetition and block
interleaving make the data rate 19.2 kbps
Scrambling of user data is achieved using long
code generated with mobiles ESN as long code
mask and used for scrambling user data after a
decimator block
Power control subchannel @ 800 bps is added by
stealing the scrambled bits
Walsh code W
i
(for the ith channel) spreads this
rate to 1.2288 Mcps
Modulation Structure Of Forward Traffic
Channel
Convolutional
Encoder
and Repetition
r =1/2, K = 9
User data
(Taffic)
Block
Interleaver
(24x16)
Long Code
generator
Decimator
Decimator

M
U
X

Long code
for i
th
user
1.2288 Mcps
1.2288 Mcps
19.2 kbps
Power
Control
Bit
800 Hz
Walsh
Code i
(use 1/64x24)
Scrambling
(use 1/64)
I-Chl Pilot
PN Seq
Q-Chl Pilot
PN Seq
9600 bps
4800 bps
2400 bps
1200 bps
Balanced
QPSK
(Short Code of BS;
2
15
-1=26.67msecs)
Access Channel
Access channel is used by the mobile to transmit
control information like call origination and response
to paging
Data rate is 4800 bps
Each access channel is identified by a distinct long
code sequence having an access number, a paging
channel number associated with the access
channel and other system data
Types of access channel messages are
Registration message, Order message, Origination
messages, Page response message,
Authentication challenge response message and
so on
Modulation Structure of Access Channel
Convolutional
Encoder
and Repetition
r =1/3, K = 9

Block
Interleaver
32x18

Long Code
generator
Long code Mask of
Access Channel
1.2288 Mcps
Pilot PN
Seq I Chl
4800 bps
28.8 Kbps
64-ary
Orthogonal
Modulator
Pilot PN
Seq Q Chl
Data
burst
randomizer
Code
symbol
Walsh
chip
307.2 Kcps
{ 28.8 (64/6) }
D
1/2 chip
delay
Modulator
Offset
QPSK
Reverse Traffic Channel
This channel is used for carrying user traffic
Data rates are 9600, 4800, 2400 and 1200 with
lower data rates being associated with low voice
activity
Convolutional coding (rate 1/3), symbol repetition
and block interleaving make the data rate 28.8
kbps
Interleaved data at 28.8 kbps is modulated using
Walsh code with 6 bits being used as symbol to
select one of 64 Walsh codes to get modulated data
at 307.2 ksps
PN long code generated using users ESN as seed is
used for taking out the repeated data and for
spreading this 4-fold to 1.2288 msps
Finally the Pilot PN code is used for scrambling
Modulation Structure of Reverse Traffic Channel
Convolutional
Encoder
and Repetition
r =1/3, K = 9

Block
Interleaver
32x18

Long Code
generator
Long code Mask
for user i
1.2288 Mcps
Pilot PN
Seq I Chl
9600 bps
4800 bps
2400 bps
1200 bps
28.8 Kbps
64-ary
Orthogonal
Modulator
Pilot PN
Seq Q Chl
Data
burst
randomizer
Code
symbol
Walsh
chip
307.2 Kcps
{ 28.8 (64/6) }
D
1/2 chip
delay
Modulator
Offset
QPSK
Power Control
Types of Power Control
Open Loop Power Control
Closed Loop Power Control based on feedback
Open Loop Power Control (on forward link)
Channel state on the forward link is estimated by
mobile
Reverse link transmit power made proportional to
forward link channel loss
Works well if forward link and reverse link are
highly correlated
which is generally true for slowly varying
distance and shadow losses
but not true with fast multipath Rayleigh
fading
Closed Loop Power Control in Reverse Link
Reverse link subjected to
Inner Loop Power control for overcoming Near-
Far problem
Control bits are punctured into the traffic data
stream
Closed loop power control step size is +/- 1 dB
Errors on account of power control bits recovered by
error decoding
Outer Loop Power control for maintaining
performance of individual links
Done by means of messages
Takes somewhat longer time to effect changes
Both open (outer) and closed (inner) loops drive the
transmit power to ensure a target FER of 1-2 %
Base station measures the received Eb/Io
Compares it with the `Target Eb/Io and
generates power UP/DOWN command
Sends UP/DOWN command to mobile asking it to
increase or decrease the transmit power
PC rate must be fast enough (approx 10 times the
max Doppler BW) to track multipath fading
At 900 MHz Carrier frequency and 120 km/h
mobile speed, Doppler = 100 Hz
In IS-95A, closed loop power control is
operated at 800 Hz update rate
Propagation and processing delays are critical to
loop performance
Closed Loop Power Control in Reverse Link
(Contd.)
Position Of Power Control Bits
20 21 22 23 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 131415 16 17 18 19 2021 22 23 0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1 Frame (20 ms) consists of
16 Power Control Groups
1.25
msec
1.25 msec = 24 scrambled
traffic data bits
Power Control Bit
repeated twice
20212223
0 0 1 1
The values of these 4 bits determine the
location of power control bit in the subsequent
frame (1100 equals 12 and hence this starts
at bit position 12)
Generating Long Code
110001111
(9 bits)
Access Channel
Number
Paging Channel
Number (3 bits)
Base Station
Identification (16 bits)
Pilot Offset of
Forward Channel
(9 bits)
(5 bits) (16 bits) (9 bits)
Access Channel
Reverse Traffic Channel
1100011000
(10 bits)
Permuted ESN (32 bits)
Permuted ESN = (E0, E31, E22, E13, E4, E26, E17, E8, E30,
E21, E12, E3, E25, E16, E7, E29, E20, E11, E2, E24, E15, E6,
E28, E19, E10, E1, E23, E14, E5, E27, E18, E9)
(3 bits)
Operation Of Data Burst Randomizer
Data Burst
Randomiser
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
14
Operating at 2.4 kbps
PCG Bits
transmitted
1.25 msec
(1 PCG)
Operating at 2.4 kbps
20 msec (16 PCGs)
Forward And Reverse Key Differences
Forward Reverse
Synchronous CDM Walsh
codes provide channelisation
Asynchronous CDMA Long
codes provide channelisation
Short code provides
scrambling code, helps in
identifying a BS and also
provides pilot channel for
timing recovery
Short codes provide
scrambling code and helps in
identifying BS
Data rate made up to 19.2
kbps by repeating
Data rate made up to 28.8
kbps by repeating and the
extra bits are removed by
randomiser
Walsh codes provide
orthogonal spreading
unique for each channel
Walsh codes enablle 64-ary
orthogonal modulation
Forward And Reverse Key Differences (Contd.)
Forward Reverse
Rate Convolutional
coding is used for error
control
More robust rate 1/3 rate
Convolutional coding is
used for error control
Simple open loop power
control used
Open loop power control
as well as closed inner
loop and closed outer
loop power controls are
used
QPSK modulation is used Balanced OQPSK is used
to get a tighter control of
spectrum
Forward / Reverse Traffic Channel Payload
171 bits
0
F=12 T=8
80 bits F=8 T=8
40 bits
T=8
T=8
16 bits
48 bits (20 msec)
96 bits (20 msec)
24 bits (20 msec)
192 bits (20 msec)
F Frame Quality Indicator
bits (CRC bits)
T Tail bits (all zeros)
Blank And Burst & Dim And Burst
Signaling / Secondary Traffic Bits (168)
1
Primary traffic bits (80)
Primary traffic
Bits (40)
Primary
traffic (16 bits)
172 bits
0/1
1
1 0/1
0/1
11
00
01
1 0/1 10
Signaling / Secondary
Traffic Bits (88)
Traffic Bits (128)
Traffic Bits (152)
- MM bit (1) - TT bit (1)
- TM bits (2)
BB
Blank &
Burst
Format
DB
Dim &
Burst
Formats
MM Mixed Mode TT Traffic Type TM Traffic Mode
Transmission Formats (Full Rate)
MM
Bit
TT
Bit
TM Bits Voice Bits
(Primary)
Data Bits
(Secondary)
Signaling
Bits
0

-

-

-

171

-

-

1

0

1

1

-

-

168

1

1

1

1

-

168

-

1

0

0

0

80

-

88

1

1

0

0

80

88

-

1

0

0

1

40

-

128

1

1

0

1

40

128

-

1

0

1

0

16

-

152

1

1

1

0

16

152

-

General Transmission Scheme - Reverse
Data rate ranges from 1200 to 9600 bps
This rate is made upto 19200 bps by rate 1/3
coding and repetition of 8 to 1
64 orthogonal Walsh codes are used in
modulation
This data is spread to a channel chip rate of
1.2288 Mcps using user specific long code PN-
sequence and (BS specific) Pilot PN short code
sequence
Each IS-95 channel occupies 1.25 MHz of
spectrum
Channel chip rate is 1.2288 Mchips/s
Traffic channels power control is as per base
station command
Reverse Link Channel Arrangement

. . . . . . . . .
Reverse CDMA Link (1.23 MHz
channel received by base station
. .
Access
Channel
(PCH1)
Access
Channel
(PCH1)
Access
Channel
(PCHN)
Traffic
Channel
# 1
Traffic
Channel
# T
Addressed by Long Code PN
Fundamental
Code Channel
IS-95 Key Facts
CDMA/FDD based technology
No need for frequency planning
Walsh codes used in forward link for channelisation
and in reverse for modulation
Supporting voice coding at 9.6 (4.8, 2.4, 1.2) kbps
Channel spacing of 1.25 MHz
Per user gross rate of 19.2 kbps
Power control in reverse and forward link for
interfere reduction
Soft handoff improves handoff efficiency
Hard handoff (make before break) not supported
Offered at least three fold spectral efficiency
IS-95 Evolution To IS-95B
Voice quality in IS-95 was not adequate
Data rates in IS-95A was enhanced to 14.4, 7.2, 3.6 &
1.8 kbps (called Rate Set 1 or RS1) in addition to IS-95
rates of 9.6, 4.8, 2.4 & 1.2 kbps (Rate Set 2 or RS2)
Main idea was to support QCELP-13
IS-95B defined forward and reverse traffic channels
having 1 fundamental code channel and up to 7
supplementary channels
Data rates of up to 76.8 kbps in RS1 (8 x14.4) or
115.2 kbps in RS2 (8 x 14.4) can be supported
Data Inter Working Function (IWF) was defined for
supporting packet data using these traffic channels
Inter frequency hard handoff supported in addition to
soft handoff leading to better interworking
Forward Traffic Channel Arrangement In IS-95B

. . . . . . . . . .
Forward CDMA Link (1.2288 MHz
channel transmitted by base station
Pilot
Sync
W
0

W
7

W
8

W
63

W
32
W
1

PCH#1 PCH#7
Code#1
Code#N
Code#P
Code#55
Code#M
FTCH
FTCH with multiple code channel
Fundamental
Code Channel
Mobile Power
Control Subchannel
Supplementary
Code Channel
Reverse Traffic Channel Arrangement In IS-95B

. . . . . . . . .
Reverse CDMA Link (1.23 MHz
channel received by base station
. .
Access
Channel
(PCH1)
Access
Channel
(PCH1)
Access
Channel
(PCHN)
Traffic
Channel
# 1
Traffic
Channel
# T
Addressed by Long Code PN
Fundamental
Code Channel
Supplementary
Code Channel
Supplementary
Code Channel
. . . .

Cdma & Is-95

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