GIS in biodiversity conservation - The technology trend

Depiction of ecosystem harbouring around 120,000 known plants and perhaps another 400,000
as yet undescribed species of plants, microbes and animals is possible with the recent
technological advances.

Biodiversity is receiving the attention of various scientists/planners/decision-makers due to its

importance as a natural reservoir with tremendous economic potential. Conservationists have
focussed attention on this fast depleting resource. In-situ conservation using ecosystem approach
is popular which also protects various ecological services offered by forest ecosystem. Examples
of such services are soil and water conservation, pollutant sink, noise reduction, shelter belts,
microclimatic effects etc. Emphasis is on identifying most valuable biodiversity spots that harbour
non-timber forest species such as endangered flora and fauna, medicinal plants and wild relatives
of cultivated crops. While identifying such spots, it is also important to take into account the
landuse and human activities around the forest.

Conservation programmes for the 21stcentury are increasingly focused at the ecosystem level.
IUCN/UNEP/WWF observe that "conserving biological diversity equals conserving ecosystems".
The key question in this case is "Where are such ecosystems and how one is important in
comparison to another?"

Comprehensive, quality information on the distribution, status and utilisation of India’s biodiversity
is the cornerstone for planning its conservation. While a lot of information exists, it is dispersed
widely across the subcontinent among a large number of organisations. Moreover, some of it is
not easily accessible or available in readily usable electronic form. Also, there are significant gaps
in database in many areas.

Hence, assessing biodiversity of megadiversity country like India is enormous task. Depiction of
ecosystem harbouring around 120,000 known plants and perhaps another 400,000 as yet
undescribed species of plants, microbes and animals is possible with the recent technological
advances. Over the years, scientists have tried to find practical and simplified approaches to
identify vegetation unit that represents unique species composition and diversity. Thus, the term
"vegetation type" became popular among ecologists, which can be defined as ‘the assemblage of
dominant growth forms of plant species sharing common habitat i.e. landform.

In early 90’s, the efforts were focussed on supplementing field-based observations with the
remote sensing based observations. The challenge was to prove that units identified on remote
sensing data represents unique composition. In pioneer studies carried out at Indian Institute of
Remote Sensing, Dehradun, vegetation communities in dry deciduous forests were mapped
using Landsat TM data. Field data collected using stratified random sampling was analysed
statistically to identify communities existing in the forest. The results showed vegetation units
identified on remote sensing image show total agreement with the results of field based
observations (Ravan, Roy and Sharma, 1995). The advantage of remote sensing is that it also
identifies the vegetation /landuse units which may likely to miss during field surveys because of
limitations in sampling techniques.

Recent publications from Centre for Ecological Sciences (Indian Institute of Science) have
verified above concept in Western Ghats forest by classifying ecological entities differentiated in
terms of their composition/configuration to which field investigations of biodiversity can be linked
(Nagendra and Gadgil, 1999). Thus, the efforts have resulted in wide acceptance of remote
sensing technology in various studies such as wildlife ecology, biodiversity assessment, wetland
ecology, biodiversity prioritization, forest and wildlife management etc.

The technology that has given many more dimensions to the applicability of remote sensing
based vegetation type map is ‘Geographic Information System (GIS)’. To name one, Landscape
Ecology is benefited most with the availability of spatial analysis tool like GIS.

Landscape ecology considers vegetation as a mosaic of patches of vegetation with unique

landform, species composition and disturbance gradient and focuses on parameters such as
patch sizes, patch shapes, patch isolation, interspersion (adjacency of various
landuses/landcover), juxtaposition (relative importance of adjacent patches), fragmentation,
patchiness etc. All these parameters have direct bearing on the status of biodiversity within forest
ecosystem.

Spatial analytical capabilities of GIS allow quantifying all above parameters with the remote
sensing based vegetation type map alone. Roy et al, 1996 have used GIS to characterise habitat
of endangered animal, Mountain Goral, using GIS for evaluating principles of landscape ecology.
Ravan and Roy, 1998 have again proved potential of GIS in landscape ecology by mapping
disturbance zones in natural ecosystem and quantifying its impact on the biodiversity and
biomass accumulation along the disturbance gradient. GIS was used in this study for quantifying
patch sizes, shapes, porosity and patchiness of vegetation types. GIS was also used to
extrapolate results of ground based estimations such as species richness, diversity index and
biomass values.

The results of above studies have assured the success in identifying bioprospecting zones for
conservation prioritization at regional level by making use of GIS, remote sensing and landscape
ecology. With the initiatives of Department of Space and Department of Biotechnology, the
concept of Landscape Ecology is being verified in the biodiversity hot-spots of Western Ghats
and Himalayas.

GIS technology, besides its contribution in scientific studies, has been accepted as the most
effective tool for decision-makers. Maharashtra Forest Department, under the leadership of J.S.
Grewal (Conservator of Forest) has established GIS for forestry at Nagpur. GIS for forestry at
Maharashtra is contributing in 4 different areas such as working plans, biodiversity, village
ecodevelopment, and plantation inventory for Forest Development Corporation. Similar efforts
have been put in by H.C. Mishra in Andhra Pradesh Forest Department. Many other state
governments are also making use of GIS for forest management, the results of such efforts would
be visible in near future.

NGO sectors such as World Wide Fund for Nature-India (WWF-India) and Tata Energy Research
Institute (TERI) have also stepped in the biodiversity conservation efforts using GIS. WWF-India
has already computerised third edition of forest cover maps of FSI in GIS environment. In
addition, baseline database on important national parks/sanctuaries are also developed. The
attempts have also been made to link taxonomic details of rare and endangered species to GIS
database. All these NGOs need the support from the custodians (generally govt. organisations) of
primary data on biodiversity.

Many Research Institutes working in the area of biodiversity conservation have started use of GIS
technology. Prominent among them is Wildlife Institute of India. Other institutions are G.B. Pant
Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Centre for Ecological Sciences (Indian
Institute of Science), Kerala Forest Research Institute, Gujrat Institute of Desert Ecology etc.

The above trends give impression that Research Institutes, State Forest Departments, Central
Government Agencies such as FSI, and NGO Sector can put hands together to save biodiversity,
the most valuable resource, of the country.

The huge amount of databases being generated by various organisations needs to be structured
for evolving information system for forest management. Such information system is scientific tool
for the forest managers to perform better in the area of forest/wildlife management and
biodiversity conservation.
Biodiversity characterisation at landscape level using satellite remote sensing and GIS
A project sponsored by Department of Biotechnology and Department of Space (DOS). The
experiences of the R&D work done at Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun has resulted
into the nation-wide efforts of identifying the bioprospecting areas for conservation. The objectives
of the project are

 preparation of biome/ecological zone maps using satellite remote sensing data,

incorporating topographical details and biogeographical classification of India,
 Landscape characterisation to identify disturbance gradient and
 prioritise area (bioprospecting) for biodiversity conservation.

The project is being executed in the Western Ghats and eastern and western Himalayas. DOS
has prepared project manual explaining standard methodology for execution of the project. The
project has made landmark contribution in the field of GIS. The software ‘BIO_CAP’ has been
customized over Arc/Info GIS and can operate on different standardized databases. It provides
facilities for display, overlay, integration, analysis, statistics, modelling of landscape.

Phase I of the project is implemented under coordination of Indian Institute of Remote Sensing,
Dehradun. The main organizations involved in the project are Natioanal Remote Sensing Agency,
Forest Survey of India, Wildlife Institute of India, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment
and Development, Botanical Survey of India, French Institute (Pondicherry), Maharashtra Remote
Sensing Applications Centre, respective State Forest Departments etc. The contact person is Dr.
P.S. Roy, Dean, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, who is also Project Director.

A GIS application for weather analysis and forecasting

Abstract
With technological progresses and associated need for more and more human comfort, the
demands for accurate weather forecasts for different spatial and temporal scales are also
increasing. In this context, application of emerging technologies for increasing accuracy and skill
of the weather forecast calls for special attention. Use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
software viz. Arc View to develop an application, for plotting, analysis, visualization, and
interpretation of weather data, to serve as an aid in the prognostication of weather is attempted in
this paper. The application developed can help the meteorologists in instantaneous plotting of
synoptic weather data from different locations at various isobaric levels of the atmosphere.
Analysis of this data, for visualization and interpretation of weather systems over wide geographic
areas become possible with less effort and error. Facilities available include, provision for
superimposition of synoptic weather maps of the past with the present for tracking of movement
of weather systems, computation of their persistence, tendencies and trends. Weather maps at
different levels, or different days (past, present and future) can be superimposed and removed
with the click of the mouse for analysis and visualization of weather developments. Advancing the
weather systems forward or backward geographically for visualization of past and future (as
forecasted) movement of weather systems across geographical areas becomes easier.
Climatological data can also be plotted, departures from normals, tendencies, etc. calculated and
presented as charts. Satellite pictures, topographical information, etc. can also be plotted and
superimposed with other weather parameters for assistance in weather forecasting.

Introduction Atmosphere is the gaseous envelope of the earth in which all its flora and fauna
survive. As weather is the statement of its physical conditions at an instant, its forecasting is of
concern to one and all living over the earth. As such, since time immemorial weather forecasting
was a subject of grave concern for the physical scientists. But, due to extremely complex nature
of various physical processes of the atmosphere, which lead to weather, these endeavors have
always been met with limited success.

Various methods were developed and used by meteorologists for weather forecasting. The most
important methods in vogue currently are the conventional Synoptic, and Numerical Weather
Prediction (NWP) methods. The former method is human subjective, and the latter is objective
and deterministic. Skill of these forecasts can be enhanced through use of GIS by relating
different features of the atmosphere and their proper visualization.

Conventional synoptic method

In this subjective method, conventional forecasting tools like, trend, persistence, Climatology, and
analogue of weather systems, are popularly employed. Each of these methods makes use of
some basic assumptions for extrapolating the weather into the future. The forecaster blends
these extrapolations with his own experience and the location specific weather quirks like
topography, land sea distributions etc.

None of these methods seems perfect, as the weather sometimes manifest differently, deviating
considerably from the basic concepts on which these methods are founded. The inadequate
human understanding of the various complex atmospheric processes leading to the weather
development itself is one of the major problems associated with this method.

NWP method
To forecast weather, the NWP method makes use of numerical solutions (high speed super
computers are generally required for this task) of complex system of mathematical prognostic
equations/models representing both the physical and dynamical processes occurring in the
atmosphere. These models are commonly known as Global Circulation Models (GCMs). In order
to integrate the GCM forward in time, the model equations need initialization with precise
knowledge of the current state or initial conditions of the atmosphere. To achieve this task, global
observations of various atmospheric parameters e.g. temperature, wind speed and direction and
humidity, made routinely at standard synoptic hours are usually assimilated into the model using
a process known as Variation Analysis. The model integrations into the future automatically
produce charts of important parameters such as surface pressure, wind circulations, etc. The
forecaster interprets these charts for weather forecasting at the locations of his interest.

Medium Range Weather Forecasting in India

The National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) was established in
India under the Department of Science and Technology for issuing weather forecasts in the
medium range i.e. 3 to 10 days in advance. The GCM used in the Medium-range Analysis
Forecast System (MAFS) of the NCMRWF is an adapted version from NCEP (NMC, 1988). It is a
Global Spectral Model having T80 horizontal resolution (about 150 km) and 18 layers in the
vertical. The model uses climatological boundary conditions for the sea surface temperature,
albedo, ice, snow, soil moisture, soil temperature, and roughness length and plant resistance.
The MAFS operational at NCMRWF consists of (1) data processing and quality control, (ii)
utilization of non-conventional data, (iii) data assimilation, (iv) model integration, (v) post
processing and diagnostic studies, and (vi) preparation of location specific forecasts.

Limitations of NWP weather forecasts

As of today, there are many limitations in the GCM based method of weather forecasting, firstly,
the GCM produced charts represent the atmosphere in general only at levels well above the land
surface, due to inadequate representation of land surface processes and topography in the
model. In addition, errors in the model forecasts are known to be due to 1) inadequate
representations of the initial conditions of the atmosphere, 2) inadequate finite resolution of the
model - presents difficulty in the representation of orography, giving rise to differences in station
levels, 3) Inadequate parameterizations of the boundary layer and other physical processes, and
4) incorrect representation of ground conditions. These lead to deficiencies in the forecast fields,
with the surface forecast being particularly erroneous. Owing to the inherent shortcomings of the
NWP model forecasts, human interpretations of the meteorological data generated by the models
become a necessity. There have been tremendous improvements in the dynamical and statistical
models used in NWP in the last few decades, but still, it will be awhile before totally automated
forecasts based on unmodified model output, will be of skill comparable with those produced by
human forecasters who modify such output based on their broad meteorological knowledge and
forecasting confidence (Doswell et al., 1995). Sousounis et al. (1999) also opines that despite
improvements in GCMs, Statistical models, forecast decision making trees, and forecast rules of
thumb, etc. in automated weather forecasting, human synoptic interpretation of meteorological
information for a particular situation can yield superior results. It was also, reported that the value
added by humans over model forecast quality can be significant at times, especially when the
forecast involves convective situations or shallow cold air outbreaks, which operational models
still do not handle well (Cortinas and Stensrud, 1995). As such, a man machine mix approach is
currently advocated for preparation of weather forecasts from GCM runs, especially in the
medium range.

Keeping the above limitations of NWP based medium range weather forecasts in view, this paper
focuses at improving the human component of the man-machine mix philosophy for improving
forecast skill by making use of new technological tools like Geographical Information System
(GIS) software for plotting, analyses and visualization of observed meteorological parameters,
superior to the conventional techniques otherwise followed for the purpose. The GIS software -
ArcView has been made use of for developing the application tool for the purpose, and
demonstrated how this tool can help the human forecaster in his efforts at producing a better
forecast from the model output products.

Materials and Methods for the Study

The GIS used for the application development is the ArcView GIS of ESRI with extensions of
Spatial analyst, and Image analyst.

The weather data utilized is the T80 model analysis (initial conditions) for the weather parameters
viz. Wind Speed, Wind Direction, temperature and Geopotential height at vertical levels of the
atmosphere at 850 hPa and 500 hPa at the T80 model grid points (approximately 150 km apart)
over the globe. The 5-day weather forecasts for the same parameters based of the above initial
conditions (analysis) were made use of as weather forecasts.

Discussion
The synoptic weather chart is the main tool of the forecaster. A forecaster need analyze, and
interpret numerous weather charts of the past period, before he gets a grip of the current weather
situation, in order to evolve likely changes in the weather systems as time advances. Weather
analysis is the process of drawing isobars, isohyets, isotachs, etc. and locating pressure systems,
fronts, etc. on a base map of an area on which the weather observations from a wide area are
plotted, following meteorological conventions. The forecast in general is generated from the
observations. Fig. 1. provide the locations of the synoptic weather observation stations over the
globe.

Figure 1: Locations of global synoptic weather data observing stations (source: ECMWF, U.K.)
At NCMRWF, data are received from thousands of weather observing stations over the globe for
weather analysis and forecasting. After plotting the observations following a synoptic model, the
analyst checks the chart for erroneous and inconsistent values of weather parameters, frequently,
it becomes necessary for the analyst the suspected reading with neighboring stations and or
previous observations and analyses or observations at other levels in the vertical. The Arc View
plotted maps can be utilized for comparing the values of a particular parameter with the
neighboring stations, at different levels and between observations and analyses for past days, for
properly assessing the accuracy of the observation for inclusion in the analysis or exclusion

The observations coming from the observing stations, through several processing steps are
transferred into weather forecasts. First step in this process is to plot the observations over a
base map of the region, global or regional according to the area of interest, after removing
possible observational and communication errors.

Figure 2: Wind analysis for 500 hPa on 17th Dec. 2000 at 5.30 A. M. over India and
neighborhood areas.

Figure 3: Geoptoential height analysis at 850 hPa level on 17th Dec. 2000 at 5.30 A. M. over
India and neighborhood areas.

The plotted maps are analyzed to bring out different weather systems in action in the atmosphere
at that particular instant of observation. Fig. 2. shows, such an analyzed chart generated using
ArcView GIS at NCMRWF for 5.30 A.M. observation time on 17th December 2000. In the figure,
the red arrows represent the wind at 500-hPa level of the atmosphere. The hollow head of the
arrow represents the direction towards which the wind is blowing. Fig. 3. presents the
geopotential height analysis at 850 hPa on the same day and time.

The forecaster draws contours or isobars of pressure and marks the fronts, lows highs etc. on the
chart. The contouring can be done by Arc View plotted map using the necessary analysis tools. In
this application, Troughs, ridges, highs and lows can be drawn on the chart in appropriate color
and style, and saved as a part of the chart or a separate view. The successive movement of
these systems also can be drawn on the same chart by super imposing the successive charts.
The trends and rate of movement of the systems can be studied either directly from the charts or
using the theme attribute table.

Fig. 4. Wind flow pattern over India and neighborhood at 500 hPa on 17th Dec. 2000 at 5.30 A.M
(IST). The green line represents the low pressure troughs. The same trough as manifested at 850
hPa is also marked in the chart.

Through combining analyses at various levels with past analyses, the weather forecaster
endeavors to visualize in his mind the weather processes at work, like the large-scale vertical
motion, convection, radiative or advective cooling, etc. Fig. 4. is an ArcView generated map of the
wind flow pattern at 500 hPa with the low pressure trough marked in green. The same trough as
manifested at 850 hPa also is marked in the same chart by superimposing the 850 hPa wind flow
pattern over the 500 hPa wind flow pattern. The locations of the trough at various levels of the
atmosphere helps the forecaster in understanding the tilt, if any of the trough with elevation,
which has high bearing on the expected weather of the trough.

A forecaster studying the sequence of evolution of a weather system in a current chart requires
analyzed chart for the previous hour of observation, and indicate the movement of weather
systems like centers of low and high pressure, trough and ridges, etc. This is commonly done by
marking positions of the centers of the system at the 6-hourly intervals and joining the successive
points by a broken line, resulting tracks give ideas on movement of the system. In the Arc View
plotted analyzed maps, the time sequence of maps can be super imposed and locations marked.
The distance between successive locations is automatically obtained form the tools available.
Conventionally, this work is done by the synoptitian using an illuminated tracing or 'light' table.
The successive charts are placed one above the other and successive positions of the systems
are marked.

In figure 5, the movement of the trough along the 500 hPa level during the period 11th to 19th
December 2000 is shown. Superimposing the 500 hPa wind flow pattern successively, for these
days in the ArcView GIS created the map. Such maps help the forecaster study the speed and
intensity of the trough in the past days for forecasting its behavior in the coming days. In the GIS
distance between successive locations of the trough is readily available through the click of the
mouse at the locations of interest, for calculation of its speed of progression.

Fig. 5. Locations of a low pressure trough in the westerlies at 500 hPa at 5.30 A. M. IST during
11th to 19th Dec. 2000.

Once the forecaster is able to explain the recent weather evolutions taking place, he will be in a
position to make prognosis of their future behavior from the knowledge of the physical and
dynamical processes taking place in the atmosphere. It is of paramount importance that the
forecaster is able to explain the processes realizing the current situation perfectly well before an
attempt on forecasting its future behavior.

In the processes of generating satisfactory explanation for weather systems, the forecaster need
examine the weather charts of different levels of past few days back and forth. There is a
necessity of superimposing the analyzed maps of different weather parameters one above the
other for studying the physical processes at work in the atmosphere leading to the manifested
weather. . In the figure Fig. 6. the specific humidity analysis is superimposed on the wind flow
pattern using GIS, to study the moisture distribution and convergence in the atmosphere, in order
to identify potential areas for fog, cloud, and rain formation. Conventionally a forecaster does this
manually, and connecting between the weather systems available in the charts is done mentally.
Success of this - procedure depends on the mental alertness of the forecaster, his experience
and knowledge in the subject. In the case of the weather charts generated through GIS, these
works can be carried out any number of times with the click of the mouse. The GIS platform
provides opportunity for connecting the weather systems physically across the charts of different
days and levels.

Fig. 6. Super imposition of the wind flow pattern and specific humidity (gm/kg) at 5.30 A.M. IST
 on 17th Dec. 2000. The red arrows show the wind flow, and the white contour lines with blue
colored numbers across show the specific humidity distribution. The multicolored background is
the surface created out of the specific humidity values.

Fig. 7. Super imposition of the wind flow pattern and specific humidity (gm/kg) at 850 hPa level at
5.30 A.M. IST on 17th Dec. 2000, over the surface topography. The red arrows show the wind
flow, and the green contour lines with blue colored numbers across show the specific humidity
distribution. The multicolored background is the surface created out of the ten minute interval
orography of the area.

A forecaster need examine the occurrence of all systems of cloud, precipitation, fog, stratus,
drizzle, etc. in relation to orographic influences, coastal influences, etc, and also give special
attention to diurnal cycles in weather behavior. Only by long experience and close examination of
successive weather charts and particularly of current ones, which can be related by the forecaster
to the existing weather in his own area, can ability be acquired in applying to actual weather
forecasting the physical principles and other meteorological information underlying the weather
process as such. The capability of GIS in superimposing the surface topographic features over
the atmospheric analysis for interpretation of the dynamics and physical processed in the
atmosphere is given in Fig. 7.

Fig. 8. Super imposition of the wind flow pattern and specific humidity (gm/kg) at 850 hPa level at
5.30 A.M. IST on 17th Dec. 2000, over the surface topography. The red arrows show the wind
 flow, and the green contour lines with blue colored numbers across show the specific humidity
distribution. The purple colored contours with black numbers across represent the ten minute
interval orography of the area.

In fig. 8, the same information provided in Fig. 7 is provided with contour values of topography
instead of the orographic surface. This figure shows an example of various ways of presentation
of the weather parameters in order to study and understand atmosphere with various angles and
perspectives. It is also possible to superimpose the various satellite pictures of cloud, moisture
etc. over the weather maps for better interpretation and forecasting of weather. Use of GIS in
weather forecasting will certainly improve the capability of the meteorologist in forecasting
weather with better skill and accuracy in the days to come.

Summary
A GIS application has been developed using ArcView of ESRI to serve as an aid in the man -
machine - mix approach for preparation of medium range weather forecasts. Weather and climate
are integral parts of the geography of a place. In order to prepare weather forecasts, the
forecaster plots information of the atmosphere around the globe on a weather chart. The plotted
data is analyzed with the help of contours and surfaces to bring out the weather systems in the
atmosphere at various levels. The analyzed weather becomes initial condition for the
conventional synoptic weather forecasts and GCMs for prognostication of weather in the coming
days. The capability of GIS software in handling the spatial data in an easier way coupled with the
different analysis tools available make it a viable tool for its adoption in weather forecasting.

Role of Remote Sensing in Forest Management

Abstract
The satellite aplications for effective forest management on a more scientific basis
commensurating with the priorities set at state, District and Micro levels studies. The shift in
priority of forest management towards ecologically sustainable forest resources management call
for reliable spatial database with a provision to update and retrieve for management decisions at
various levels. The application of satellite data for various priorities & objectives leading to
resources assessment have been discussed. The utilisation of GIS for data base creation and
requirement of forest resources information system involving effective inventory data analysis
packages supporting volume yield and cull factor analysis has been discussed in detail. The
concept of NRIS in the country using remote sensing has been emphasised.

Introduction
Historically Forestry has been concerned mainly with the assessment of timber resources and the
management and utilisation of closed forests for the production of wood. Actention was
occassionally given to the other resources of the land sustaining closed forest. In the 19th century
some working plant in continental Europe considered not only timber production but also wild life
and or for protection. Forestry in urope based on conifers was also aidly expanded, but in the
tropics, subtropics and north America, the closed natural forests were increasingly exploited for
timber.

During the british regime, the forest survey and sound forest management was extended to all
lands bearing trees in India and to minor forest products (e.g. gum arabic). As early as in 1856 a
forest department was established in Burma by the British and the concepts of environmental
Forestrywere being applied in India before the end of the nineteennth century. As viewed by the
FAO established by the Bretton wood conference in 1944, forest have become widely recognised
as " all lands bearing a vegetation association dominated by trees of any size, exploited or not
capable of producing wood or other products, of exerting an influence on climate or on the water
regime or providing shelter for live stock and wildlife (Loetsch and Holler 1964). It was not,
however until the oil crisis of 1973 that world wide interest was re-focussed on the long-standing
importance of forests as the major source of energy in may countries. Arecent European study
(ECE, 1986)

Suggest that over 40% of one votoe european Forests is used as a source of energy and that
energy remains the single most important use of wood in volume terms.

With the uncertainity of energy prices in the future and of the growth world wide in the
consumption of energy, predicted to exceed 2% a year , the demand for wood energy can be
expected continued increasing. Within a decade the most urgent need of many local communities
in the developing countries will be the massive harnessing of their resources to renew forest
supplied through plantations and agro- Forestry, and where preactised the "Slash - and burn" of
natural forests based on short cutting cycles. In response to the situation remote sensing can be
expected to be used increasingly to collect urgently needed data, especially as related to
monitoring changes in forest cover, assessing landus and frorest land degradation, evaluationg
the productivity of the land and providing information not only for forest inventory but also for
direct inputs to forest management and strategic planning.

The increased awareness due to mounting population exerting pressure on forests for fuel and
timber besides grazing for cattle. This has led to most of India's forest left with poor carrying
capacity. The forests began to dwindle. And now the country have much less of its land area
under forest cover than is required to maintain its environmental stability and ecological security.
The extent of biotic pressure on forests could be judged from the fact that with less than 2% of
the total forests areas in the world, India supports 15% of the world population and nearly 14% of
the cattle population.

Considering the fact, India is currently carrying out biennial monitoring of forest cover using
satellite data on 1:250,000 scale. However the system of forest management in India is almost
120 years old and remained as a state subject. The policy formulation and strategic planning is at
the central level. For effective management of forest resources the various basic requirements
and priorities are essentially of three tier system i.e., State level District level and Micro level
information requirements. The priorities are (1) distribution (3) plantation monitoring (4) estimation
of forest growing stock (5) forest inventory and volume estimation (6) preparation of stock tables
and yield calculation (7) preparation of treatment/ zonation areas (8) assessment of ecological
and bio-diversity (9) forest change and conversion studies (10) Forest damage assessment due
to forest fires (11) Grassland identification & productivity assessments (12) biomass and fuel
wood assessments (13) GIS applications (14) implementation of forest resources in formation
system and (15) future thrust areas on forecasting and prediction models using remote sensing
and other collateral data.

The present scenario of remote sensing applications in forest management is widely applied in
the areas of:

Forest Cover Monitoring/ Surveillance

The forest cover at the national level is being biennially monitored using remote sensing data and
it is estimated that India has 19.47% of forest cover (1989-91) out of the total expected 33% of
forest cover as per India's forest policy. So far Forest Survey of India (FSI) has broughtout
sucessfully four assessments on the status of forest cover in India (Table.)

This information is more relevant in the context of assessing rate of degradation grossly at the
state/district level in terms of closed and open forests. However, the extended use of this
information for effective utilisation for the management purpose at the state level could be better
achieved by supplementing the data each reserve forest boundaries thereby enlisting the districts
having ore degraded areas. This approach enables to prepare treatment area maps at the state
level which would serve as a strategic plan inputs for prioritisation and categorisation of areas for
better silvicultural practics.
Table 1 Status of Forest Cover in India (Based on Satellite Remote Sensing) Area in million
Hectares within brackets
Forest Category 1972-75 1981-83 1985-87 1987-89 1989-91
Dense/ 14.12 10.99 11.51 11.71 11.72
Closed (46.45) (36.14) (37.84) (38.50) (38.55)
7.38 8.41 7.83 7.60 7.61
Open
(24.28) (27.65) (25.74) (24.99) (25.04)
0.10 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13
Mangrove
(0.30) (0.40) (0.42) (0.42) (0.42)
21.60 19.52 19.47 19.44 19.47
Total%
(71.03) (64.20) (64.01) (63.92) (64.01)

The extended use surveillance maps for the treatment area maps would need a serious
consideration by all the state forest departments for prioritisation:

CLOSED FORESTS (40% and above crown density) treatment area I for consideration to
conservation zone.

OPEN FORESTS (less than 40% crown density) treatment area II for consideration as forest
produce zone for careful management.

DEGRADED FORESTS (less than 10% crown density) treatmen area III for gap planting, JFM
activities by peoples involvement.

Thus for the above treatment area maps the satellite based remote sensing especiallyusing the
digital methods would prove to be an effecctive tool and in generation of information within a short
span of ltime and a digital data base.

Forest Type Mapping and Assessment of Distribution:

India has been divided into broadly sixteen forest types by Champion and Seth (1968) based on
rainfall and altitude. However, with changing climate and man's impact on environment
particularly in forests, change the composition of tree species resulting spatial disturbances on
the occurrence of forest types. In this context the study of spatial ditribution of forest types. In this
context the study of spatial distribution of forest types would help greatly in forest management
for accounting the changes that have resulted in the chaning quality and composition of forests.
The case studies carried out in parts of Western Gahts Viz. Coorg district and Uttar Kanara
District, brings out the feasibility of satellite aplications in preparation of spatial forest maps at the
block level. The changing scenario of natural forests into artificial forests could well be discerned
by generation of a baseline data of forest types which are independent of each district. The
availability of such maps have greater ecological significance and provide better insights to the
working plan officials as to what type of species need to be introduced by replacement of natural
forests or regener4ation of degraded forests in the area on a more scientific and reliable
distribution at the block level on 1:50 ,000 scale would prove an essential component in the
scientific management of forests.

Forest Stock Mappping and Preparation of Working Plan Inputs

The satellite data analysis is found adequate for differentiating three levels of stocking i.e. closed
(40 and above), open (10-40%) and degraded (below 10%) crown cover classes on 1:250,000
scale. However, the property of stocking levels generally required at the working plan level is of
20% crown cover intervals, The adoption of spectral based stock maps appear get saturated
beyond40% crown cover, However, in certain areas of Madhya pradesh it is found, based on tone
and texture associated with spectral separability as a function of time has been found suitable to
provide 40 60% stocking level in addition. This study indicated greater scope for future
exploitation and utilisation of various algorithms for optimising time window and spectral bands
may be feasible to explore satellite based forest stock map preparation. The studies using NDVI
as a function of stocking level needs review as it provide information pixel level on the vigour of
the canopy with lwss degree structural relationship of canopy closure. The studies within NRSA
indicate the saturation of NDVI levels beyond 40% cover is observed. However the development
of suitable algorithms using textureal function might prove to be an effective method for quick
assessment of stocking levels. The terrain contributed noise due to change in aspect and
elevation could also be integrated by development of suitable digital elevation models as
background to minimise the noise for preparation of dependable stock maps. While the spectral
based models appear feasible the spatial resolution would contribute only interms of small
patches and their associated stocking levels. With the experience on IRS LISS II data, is
adequate for accounting canopy closure level as that much spatial resolution would be minimum
required as a spectral function from a representable area of the forests for coorelations on the
ground cover conditions.

The studies carried out in Uttar Kannara by comparitive evaluation of detailed stock map
prepared from aerial photograbphy and confirmity and confidence in adopting satellite data for
preparation of stock maps with suitable modifications. However, the satellite based stock maps
showed. The aggregation of patches due to the limitation of resolution and contribution of terrain
noise, In any case the level of information obtained with respect to stocking is of the order of 70%
and above. The study broughtout the scope of reconnaisance level stock map preparations at the
district level for preparation of management plans.

Forest Inventory and Sampling

The forest enumeration and surveying is generally carried out at the district level for detailed
working plan inputs preparation generally on 1:15,840 (4' = 1 mile) on predecided percent area
enumeration (5% , 10% etc.) The working plan enumeration inputs is based on chain surveys
across the forests on a systematic way. The conventional way of systematic sampling suffer due
to accounting various strata and burdened with intense field work & expensive procedures, The
satellite data facilitate in generation of primary stratifucation units at the district level either
throudh use of forest density maps or forest type classification it is possible to stratify the area
into homogenous forest strata. Based on the apriori knowledge the minimum sample size can be
selected and the field inventory can be accomplished by suitable proportional allocation of
samples in all the strata The stratified sampling procedures provide a reliable quantification of
forest resources depending on the objective set during the inventory.

The study carried out in parts of western Ghats of Karnataka demonstrated the feasibility and to
build volume from the enumerated data on a time & cost effective manner.

The Forest Volume Estimation and Generation of Volume Tables

The satellite based multi phase approach forest inventories with defined objectives provide ample
data for further processing and computation of volume and yield tables. The enumerated data
during the inventory could be systematically organised strata wise ad a suitable local and stand
regressions could be generated fr further computation of species wise volumes. The predominant
species volume equations thus generated would form the base for computation of tatal standing
volume based on the plot enumeration data. The inventory data analysis in the Uttar kanara
Circle using satellite base stratification sampling approaches have yielded better observations in
development of local and stand tables and to compute stand volume. The standing volume
information through inventory data analysis would form as a baseling data to bring out correlation
with ground crown density maps. This in a way to say once the relationships are established
which are generally local specific with respect to volume and density it is possible to estimate the
total growing stock of the area by generation of stack maps and conversion through establised
volume functions. The experience in generation of such stock to volume estimations in western
Gats have shown promissing to explore to avoid cumber some, field inventories. The study also
discussed in detail the importance of cull factor for estimating merchantable yield.

Stock Tables Prepartion and Yield Calculation

From the stratifield sampling and inventory data analysis it is feasible to calculate and generate
stock tables with respect to number of species diameter and height wise distribution. Such an
information with the available knowledge of minimum girth area for extraction it is possible to
calculate the yield and also to compute the annual coupes based on equiproductive areas. The
technique of data analysis and generation of stock tables developed in parts working plans
project have revealed greater scope for extending towards management information system
specifically for the working plans at district level on stock tables and yield calculations.

Ecological Consideration and Zonation of Forests

With the increased pressure on forest all over the world as well as in India the growing concern of
forest management has shown shift in its priority from production foresty to conservation Forestry.
In the light of thi the scientific management of forest and categorisation of the area into different
zones have been adopted by the Karantaka State forest department as part of Western Ghats
Eco-restoration project. Towards this NRSA and Karnataka Forest Department jointly carrying out
a project in a area of 10,280 sq. km in Uttar Kanara forest circle by generation of multi-thematic
information on 1:25,000 scale using aero-space techniques. The thematic information generated
are forest density and height maps, forest type maps, slope and aspect maps, drainage map upto
first order channels, volume class maps besides consultation of contour maps with the available
topographical sheets. The availability of such an enormous data base when feed into the
Geographic Information System enhances interpretability of the data and to classify the area into
different zones required for effective forests management practices on a scientific footing.
Accordingly the forests are proposed for categorization of zones for specific management
practices, the zonation is the process of describing the physical consequences of the
management plans, which have been understood for sustainable forests resources in the area. It
is essentially link between management practices. The zonation in the process of describing the
physical consequences of the management plans which have been understood for sustainable
forests resources in the area. It is essentially link between management objectives and physical
operations on the ground.

Accordingly using multi-thematic information the zonation of any area could be prepared with the
below given logic. (Table 2)

The below given process com The study carried out in the parts of Western Ghats showed
adequacy of the tool and approach.

Table 2 Forest Zonation Matrix

RF D H(M) Slope% Elevation (M) Village Type
Zone 1 + 4.5 >20 >50 High Nil+ Managroves Grassland
Zone 2 + 3.5 >20 >35-50 Medium Sparse/Nill Any Type
Zone 3 + 2.3 >20 >35-50 Medium Inhabited Any Type
Zone 4 + <0.25 All >35 Rolling Habitated -Do-
Zone 5 Reve All Lands Falling in "C" and "D" Lands W. L

Remote Sensing and Biodiversity Studies

The forest management while through its forest inventory and zonation of the area can revolve
ecologically sensitive and diversity wish rich areas through use of satellite data applications in
conjunctive use of other ancillary data discussed as above in the zonation. It is estimated that the
tree diversity is estimated to around 200 species in the northern parts as Western Ghats exhibited
a great diversity between the plots and along the gradients. The extended application of forest
inventory and enumeration including shrub layer and herb layer would enhance forest
management system for preservation of ecologically rich zones and to account diversity of the
areas. The initial probabilistic diversity zones should be narrow down using satellite data and the
consistency of patchiness as a function of landscape dynamics could be used as an element for
bio-diversity studies.

Forestry Conversion Studies

With the rapid destruction of forests and encroachment the use of multi-temporal satellite data
using digit analysis procedure provide spatial change maps by image differencing methods and
logical operations. The study carried out using multi-temporal satellite data of 1983 & 1993 in
parts of Andhra Pradesh of Adilabad District showed the area decreased upto 25% of the total
area studied whereas improvement in the quality of the area is only 6-7% out of the 1,512 sq. km
area studied, The methodology recommends for detailed investigations at district level for
accounting forest changes over the years within the reserved forests areas.

Forest Fire Damange

The use of multi-mission IRS data has demonstrated amply the feasibility to identify forest ground
fire damaged areas with the combined use of IRS 1A and IRS 1B. The studies carried out during
1991 in parts of Nagarghole wild life sanctuary facilitated accounting damage of an area of 68 sq.
km. Quite recently in the month of March 1994 the central part of the India in the Simplipal
reserve forests the extent of fire damage was assessed using IRS 1B and estimated the ground
fire damage to an area of 600 sq. km against 200 sq. km reported. The use of in season data
would enhance capability in identifying hot spot areas which are annually prone to fires could be
of use to the forest management for mounting fire operation measures during the vulnerable
periods.

GIS Applications in Forestry

The scientific and effective forest management information could be operationalised using the
GIS approach at district level as a functional unit. The organization of data base, data inputting,
updating, retrieval and analysis for specific purposes and to obtain outputs apparently is feasible
cost effectively at the district level rather than aiming at state level as a central facility. The data
base in GIS should necessarily preceded by generation of reliable spatial maps preferably on
1:25.000 scale to begin with which can be later inputted to GIS for proper data utilization and to
obtain outputs with greater degree of accuracy relevant for district level management decision.
The organization of data feasibility adopting micro scale to macro scale may be a viable approach
rather than adopting top to bottom approach stasr6ting with coarse resolution data which may fail
to reveal any meaningful outputs required at the working level. The organization and aggregation
of data base at district level would enhance efficient forest working most needed in the district
level. The use of GIS at taluk level for preparation of zonation map revealed micro scale details
without sacrificing accuracies for management decisions.

While the GIS data base is being parallel evolved simultaneously with the improved spatial maps
the requirement on development of forest resources information system at the district level in the
form of MIS should form a major management aspect which facilitate aggregation at the state
level for strategic decisions The concept of National Natural Resources Information System
(NRIS) as part of NNRMS activity of Dept. Of Space would be the fore runner in evolving a
reliable operational forest management information system.