Wireless Networking

Network Topology

IEEE 802.11 is limited in scope to the

Physical (PHY) layer and Medium
Access Control (MAC) sublayer, with
MAC origins to IEEE802.3 Ethernet
standard.
The basic topology of an 802.11
network an ad hoc network, or
Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS)
is shown in Figure.
 Network Topology

The basic topology of an 802.11 network an ad hoc

network, or Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS)
 Network Topology
In most instances, the BSS contains an
Access Point (AP). The main function
of an AP is to form a bridge between
wireless and wired LANs.
When an AP is present, stations do not
communicate on a peer-to-peer
basis. All communications between
stations or between a station and a
wired network client go through the
AP.
Infrastructure versus Ad Hoc
 Network Topology

The Extended Service Set (ESS) shown

in figure 2 consists of a series of
overlapping BSSs (each containing
an AP) connected together by means
of a Distribution System (DS).
Although the DS could be any type of
network, it is almost invariably an
Ethernet LAN. Mobile nodes can roam
between APs and seamless campus-
wide coverage is possible.
Network Topology
 Radio Technology

IEEE 802.11 provides for two variations

of the PHY. These include two RF
technologies namely Direct
Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS),
and Frequency Hopped Spread
Spectrum (FHSS).
Both FHSS and DSSS PHYs currently
support 1 and 2 Mbps. However, all
11 Mbps radios are DSSS.
 Radio Technology

Region Allocated Spectrum

US 2.4000 - 2.4835 GHz
Europe 2.4000 - 2.4835 GHz
Japan 2.471 - 2.497 GHz
France 2.4465 - 2.4835 GHz
Spain 2.445 - 2.475 GHz
 Radio Technology

Regardless of whether the data rate is 1, 2,

5.5, or 11 Mbps, the channel bandwidth is
about 20 MHz for DSSS systems.
Therefore, the ISM band will accommodate
up to three non-overlapping channels
 WiFi’s Radio Technology
(Cont’d)
 WiFi radios that work with the 802.11b and
802.11g standards transmit at 2.4 GHz,
while those that comply with the 802.11a
standard transmit at 5 GHz.
 Normal walkie-talkies normally operate at
49 MHz. The higher frequency allows
higher data rates.
 WiFi radios use much more efficient coding
techniques (process of converting 0’s and
1’s into efficient radio signals) that also
contribute to the much higher data rates.
 WiFi’s Radio Technology
(Cont’d)
 The radios used for WiFi have the ability to
change frequencies.
 For example, 802.11b cards can transmit
directly on any of three bands, or they can
split the available radio bandwidth into
dozens of channels and frequency hop
rapidly between them.
 The advantage of frequency hopping is
that it is much more immune to
interference and can allow dozens of WiFi
cards to talk simultaneously without
interfering with each other.
 802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g
 802.11b was first to reach the
marketplace. It is the slowest and least
expensive of the three. 802.11b transmits
at 2.4 GHz and go up to 11 Mbps.
 802.11a was next. It operates at 5 GHz
and can handle up to 54 Mbps.
 802.11g is a mix of both worlds. It
operates at 2.4Ghz (giving it the cost
advantage of 802.11b) but it has the 54
megabits per second speed of 802.11a. It
is also backward compatible to 802.11b.
 Most WiFi cards nowadays are capable of
all three of these radio technologies.
 IEEE Wireless Standards
Wireless 802.11b 802.11g 802.11a
Standard

Frequency 2.4 – 2.4835 2.4 – 2.4835 5.725 -

Range GHz GHz 5.850 GHz

Max Speed 11 MBPS 54 MBPS 54 MBPS

Max 128 bit WEP 128 bit WEP 152 bit WEP
Encryption 256 bit AES
Discrete 3 3 8
Channels
Natively 802.11b, 802.11b, 802.11a
Compatible 802.11g 802.11g
Potential Entry level Larger Large
user and home networks, business
networks small concerned
business with
 CHANNELS 802.11b & 802.11g
Both 802.11b and 802.11g operate in the 2.4 GHz
frequency band, specifically between 2.400 GHz (2400
MHz), and 2.484 GHz (2484 MHz). Each Channel is of 22
Mhz. The picture below shows the number of channels
in the frequency band. As can be seen adjacent
channels over lap and there are 3 over lapping
channels, viz. 1, 6 and 11.

802.11b Spectrum Coverage

 CHANNELS 802.11b & 802.11g
As shown below, Channels 1, 6, and 11 are "non-overlapping,"
meaning they can all be used in the same area without causing "co-
channel interference" (CCI). In this way, users can be load balanced
across three channels, each providing up to 11Mbps of throughput,
thereby effectively providing up to 33 Mbps of aggregate bandwidth.
Therefore, larger scale WLAN deployments utilize these three
channels in a "geographic space" overlapping fashion to maximize
coverage area while prnting channel interference
 CHANNELS 802.11b & 802.11g
Non-overlap Channel Placement
 Multiple Access
The basic access method for 802.11 is the
Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) which
uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision
Avoidance (CSMA / CA)
This requires each station to listen for other users. If
the channel is idle, the station may transmit.
However if it is busy, each station waits until
transmission stops & then enters into a random
back off procedure.
This prevents multiple stations from seizing the
medium immediately after completion of
preceding transmission
 Multiple Access

The period between completion of

packet transmission and start of the
ACK frame is one Short Inter Frame
Space (SIFS)
ACK frames have a higher priority than
other traffic
Fast acknowledgement is one of the
salient features of the 802.11
standard, because it requires ACKs to
be handled at the MAC sublayer
 Multiple Access
Transmissions other than ACKs must wait at
least one DCF inter frame space (DIFS)
before transmitting data.
If a transmitter senses a busy medium, it
determines a random back-off period by
setting an internal timer to an integer
number of slot times.
Upon expiration of a DIFS, the timer begins
to decrement. If the timer reaches zero,
the station may begin transmission.
However, if the channel is seized by another
station before the timer reaches zero, the
timer setting is retained at the
decremented value for subsequent
Multiple Access
 Multiple Access
The method described above relies on the
Physical Carrier Sense
The underlying assumption is that every
station can "hear" all other stations. This is
not always the case.
Referring to Figure 8, the AP is within range
of the STA-A, but STA-B is out of range.
STA-B would not be able to detect
transmissions from STA-A, and the
probability of collision is greatly increased.
This is known as the Hidden Node.
Multiple Access
 Multiple Access
To combat this problem, a second carrier sense
mechanism is available.
Virtual Carrier Sense enables a station to reserve
the medium for a specified period of time through
the use of RTS/CTS frames. (Request / Clear - to send)
In the case described above, STA-A sends an RTS
frame to the AP. The RTS will not be heard by
STA-B. The RTS frame contains a duration/ID field
which specifies the period of time for which the
medium is reserved for a subsequent
transmission.
The reservation information is stored in the Network
Allocation Vector (NAV) of all stations detecting
the RTS frame.
 Multiple Access
Upon receipt of the RTS, the AP responds
with a CTS frame, which also contains a
duration/ID field specifying the period of
time for which the medium is reserved.
While STA-B did not detect the RTS, it will
detect the CTS and update its NAV
accordingly.
Thus, collision is avoided even though some
nodes are hidden from other stations.
As mentioned above, DCF is the basic media
access control method for 802.11 and it is
mandatory for all stations
 Multiple Access
The collision will result in an undecipherable
message to the intended receivers (listeners).
What we need is a polite contention method to get
access to the medium; this is the collision
avoidance part of CSMA/CA.
802.11 has come up with two ways to deal with this
kind of collision.
One uses a two-way handshake when initiating a
transmission.
The other uses a four-way handshake.
 2 Way Handshake
Node with packet to send monitors channel.

If channel idle for specified time interval called

DIFS, then node transmits.

If channel busy, then

node continues to monitor until channel idle for
DIFS.
At this point, terminal backs-off for random time
(collision avoidance) and attempts transmitting
after waiting this random amount of time.
 2 Way Handshake
If the node does not back-off the random
time, then it will definitely collide with
another node that has something to send.

Reason for random back-off time is that if I

choose a random time and you choose a
random time, the probability that we
choose the same random time is slim.

This way we both back-off transmitting and

will therefore will probably not interfere
with each other when we are ready to
transmit.
 2 Way Handshake (Cont’d)
 First way of the 2 way handshake was for
the transmitter to send its information
packet to the destination node, after
following the collision avoidance method
described above.

 If the packet reaches the destination

without problems, the destination sends a
short packet over the wireless medium
acknowledging the correct reception.

 This packet is typically called an ACK

packet. ACK is the second way of the 2
way handshake.
 4 Way Handshake
 “Listen before you talk”

 If medium is busy, node backs-off for a

random amount of time after waiting DIFS,
just as before.

 But now, instead of packet, sends a short

message: Ready to Send (RTS). This
message is basically attempting to inform
others that “I have something to send.”
 4 Way Handshake (Cont’d)

 RTS contains destination address and

duration of message.
 RTS tells everyone else to back-off for the
duration.
 If RTS reaches the destination okay (no
one else collides with this message), the
destination sends a Clear to Send (CTS)
message after waiting a prescribed
amount of time, called SIFS.
 4 Way Handshake (Cont’d)
 After getting the CTS, the original
transmitter sends the information packet
to its destination.

 In these systems, the transmitter cannot

detect collisions. The receiver uses the
CRC to determine if the packet reached
correctly. If it does then, it sends out an
ACK packet.

 If the information packet not ACKed, then

the source starts again and tries to
4 Way Handshake (Cont’d)
Access
Point Laptop

RTS

CTS

Data

ACK
Components required for WiFi

 A PC, laptop or PDA, running

Windows 98 or above.
 A wireless PCMCIA card, or a

wireless adapter. Now a days all

the latest LAPTOPS are coming
with in built CENTRINO
Components required for WiFi
 A Network Interface Card (optional)
- Only if a LAN connection is
required)
 An Access Point - essentially a
compact radio transmitter with an
antenna that connects to a wired
connection, such as an Ethernet,
DSL, or Cable Network.
 A valid internet connection (Usually
a Broad Band).
 Components required for a
larger environment
 Multiple Access Points - To
provide overlapping coverage
throughout a site. Access points
can be installed almost
anywhere.
 Components required for a
larger environment
 Network switch - A device that joins
multiple computers together. A set of
Access Points can be connected to a
single network switch.
 Wireless LAN bridge (optional) – A
wireless LAN workgroup bridge
enables connection between two
different hotspot networks.
 Components required for a
larger environment
Wireless Router - It integrates an Access
point, IP Router & Ethernet switch.
The Switch connects the integrated
Access point & the Router internally &
allows for external wired ethernet LAN
devices as well as single WAN devices
such as DSL modem or Cable modem.
It allows to configure all devices through
central configuration utilities (An
integrated web server).
 Components required for a
larger environment
Authentication and Billing Server –
Enables control access to the Wi-Fi
hotspot network by conducting
authentication checks similar to credit
card or member ID authentication. Also
tracks wireless usage for billing
purposes and provides payment
transaction services.
 Components required for a
larger environment

Wireless Access Gateway – A device

which connects wireless subscribers
to the wired network. It employs
one Ethernet port to interface with
the router and one wireless
subscriber port that supports IEEE
802.11b/g standard .
PCMCIA wireless card

Used For
Portables:
PCI and USB adapters
Used For
PCI adapterDesktops: USB adapter
(inside) (outside)
 Important Specifications of
Access Points
 Transmit Power [30 mw, 100 mw, 200
mw, 500 mw, 1 W]
 Automatic/Manual Power Control
 Provision for Connecting External
Antenna
 Multiple SSIDs/VLANs
 Security WPA/WPA-2[802.11i] and
Security Configuration per SSID
 QOS support
 Rogue Access Point detection
 Manageability [SNMP]
 Important Specifications of
Access Points
 WDS [Wireless Distribution
System]
 Single Radio/Dual Radio
 Mesh Networking
Client Isolation or Intra Cell
Blocking
POE [Power Over Ethernet]
Radius Authentication and
Accounting Support
 Automatic Configuration
 Auto Channel Selection
1 Mbps DSSS

2 Mbps DSSS

5.5 Mbps DSSS

11 Mbps DSSS
 How much distance can be
supported by one AP
(802.11b)
 50M : 11 Mbps
 80M : 5.5 Mbps
 120M : 2 Mbps
 150M : 1 Mbps
 How much distance can be
supported by one AP
(802.11g)
 20M : 54 Mbps
 40M : 27 Mbps
 80M : 6 Mbps
 100M : 1 Mbps
Microsense
Microsense
Microsense
 Antenna Basics
• An antenna propagates and receives RF signals
from the air and makes them available to the
receiver
• Frequency – Antennas should be tuned to
either 2.4 GHz (802.11 b/g) or 5 GHz (802.11a)
• Power - Antennas can handle specific amounts
of power put out by the transmitter. Antennas
are generally rated >1W
• Radiation pattern – Defines the radio wave
propagation of the antenna. An isotropic
pattern means the AP transmits radio waves in
all directions equally (beach ball pattern)
 Antenna Basics
• Gain – Represents how well the antenna
increases effective signal power, with decibels
as unit of measure. For instance, AP
transmitting at 100mw with 3 dB gain produces
200mw effective output. dBi is the gain
relative to an isotropic source.
• SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio) – Ratio of amplitude
of radio signal to amplitude of noise in a
transmission channel. The greater the ratio,
the better the transmission.
• Receiver sensitivity – A measurement of the
weakest signal a receiver can receive and still
correctly translate it into data.
 Antenna Basics
• Omni-directional antennas – Propagate RF
signals in all directions(360-degree) equally in
the horizontal plane, but limit range on the
vertical plane. Radiation pattern resembles a
doughnut with the antenna at the center of
the hole.
• Directional antenna - Transmits and receives
RF energy more in one direction than others.
Radiation pattern is similar to a flashlight or
spotlight. The higher gain antennas have a
narrower beam width, which limits coverage
on the sides of the antennas.
 Connecting to a Hotspot
 Access the software for the 802.11
card -- normally there is an icon for
the card down in the system tray at
the bottom right of the screen.
 Click the "Search button" in the
software. The card will search for all
of the available hotspots in the area
and show you a list.
 Double-click on one of the hotspots
to connect to it.
 Connecting to a Hotspot
(Cont’d)
 On most notebook models, you will see
some sort of signal icon on the bottom
right hand corner of your screen or a lit
indicator on the notebook itself, which will
give you feedback for "On" and signal
strength (a red screen means your radio is
Off; a green screen indicates it is On).

OFF ON
 Connecting to a Hotspot
(Cont’d)
 You can also see the quality of the signal
by clicking on the radio icon (may vary by
system):
 Connecting to a Hotspot
(Cont’d)
 Simply follow the instructions to sign up for
the service, or enter your user name and
password if you are already a customer.

 Once you successfully log on, you should

see the following icon in your tool bar,
indicating the connection has been made:
 Setting up a Hotspot at Home
 If you already have several computers
hooked together on an Ethernet network
and want to add a wireless hotspot to the
mix, you can purchase a Wireless Access
Point and plug it into the Ethernet
network.

Wireless Access Point

Setup #1
 Alternate Setup using a Wireless Router
 If you are setting up a network in your
home for the first time, or if you are
upgrading, you can buy a Wireless Access
Point Router.
 This is a single box that contains:
 1) a port to connect to your cable
modem or DSL modem,
 2) a router,
 3) an Ethernet hub,
 4) a firewall and
 5) a wireless access point.
 You can connect the computers in your
home to this box either with traditional
Ethernet cables or with wireless cards.
Alternate Setup (Cont’d)
Typical Wi-Fi Setup
 WiFi Range
 Regardless of which setup you use, once
you turn your Wireless Access Point on,
you will have a WiFi hotspot in your house.

 In a typical home, this hotspot will provide

coverage for about 100 feet (30.5 meters)
in all directions, although walls and floors
do cut down on the range.

 Even so, you should get good coverage

throughout a typical home. For a large
home, you can buy inexpensive signal
boosters to increase the range of the
Hotspot.
 Way to Amplify WiFi Signals

A WiFi repeater
is installed to
Wireless
extend
Access Point
coverage.
 Things to Configure in a Hotspot
 The SSID -- Service Set IDentifier is a
sequence of characters that uniquely
names a WLAN.
 It will normally default to the
manufacturer's name (e.g. “Nomadix").
 You can set it to any word or phrase you
like.
 The channel – the radio link used by
access point/router to communicate to
wireless devices.
 Normally it will default to channel 6.

 However, if a nearby neighbor is also

using an access point and it is set to
 Things to Configure (Cont’d)
 The WEP key -- The default is to disable
WEP.
 If you want to turn it on, you have to
enter a WEP key and turn on 128-bit
encryption.
 WEP can be in text format.

Access points come with simple

instructions for changing these three
values. Normally you do it with a Web
browser. Once it is configured properly,
you can use your new hotspot to access
the Internet from anywhere in your home.
 Infrastructure versus Ad Hoc
 All the connections that we have talked
about today require a connection from a
device equipped with a wireless network
interface card (NIC) to a wireless access
point.

 Generally, all such connections are

operating in what is known as the
infrastructure mode. Here the wireless
network resembles a cellular architecture.

 Wireless devices can also communicate

directly with each other, i.e., it is not
required that they communicate with an
access point first.
 Infrastructure versus Ad Hoc
 When devices with NIC cards communicate
directly with each other, the wireless
network operates in ad hoc mode.
 Ad Hoc Mode
 Ad Hoc connections can be used to share
information directly between devices. This
mode is also useful for establishing a
network where wireless infrastructure
does not exist.

 Some uses,
 Synchronize data between devices.

 Retrieve multimedia files from one

device and “play” them on another
device.
 Print from a computer to a printer
 WiFi Security

 WiFi hotspots can be open or secure.

 If a hotspot is open, then anyone with a

WiFi card can access the hotspot.

 If it is secure, then the user needs to know

a WEP key to connect.

 WEP stands for Wired Equivalent Privacy

 WiFi Security (Cont’d)

 WEP is an encryption system for the data

that 802.11 sends through the air.

 Encryption system prevents any non-

authorized party from reading or changing
data.

 Specifically, it is the process of encoding

bit stream in such a way that only the
person (or computer) with the key (a
digital sequence) can decode it.
 WEP

 WEP has two variations: 64-bit encryption

(really 40-bit) and 128-bit encryption
(really 104-bit).
 40-bit encryption was the original standard
but was found to be easily broken.
 128-bit encryption is more secure and is
what most people use if they enable WEP.
 For a casual user, any hotspot that is using
WEP is inaccessible unless you know this
WEP key.
 WEP (Cont’d)

 If you are setting up a hotspot in your

home, you may want to create and use a
128-bit WEP key to prevent the neighbors
from casually eavesdropping on your
network.

 Whether at home or on the road, you need

to know the WEP key, and then enter it
into the WiFi card's software, to gain
access to the network.
Infrastructure Required for Wi-Fi Security

Client
Access Point Radius
Server

Certificate
Server
Considerations for Enterprise Wi-Fi
 Access Point must support multiple
SSIDs/VLANs
 Must support 802.1x and WPA, WPA-2 to
provide security to internal users and
internal networks
 Must support Rogue Access Point Detection
 QOS support for future applications such as
VOWIFI and Video applications
 Manageability [SNMP]
 Convenient Mechanism to provide Internet
Access to Visitors and Guests
 Plug and play service. The user should not
have the need to change IP address settings
or Proxy settings
Considerations for Public Hot Spots
 Simple and easy to use login mechanism to
the guest, which includes authentication
and billing. This would include Radius based
authentication as well as PMS [Property
Management Systems] integration in the
case of hotels
 Seamless switch over from wired to wi-fi
networks and vice versa. For example a
guest who has purchased a 24 hour account
by connecting to the wired port in the room
should be able to use it from the Wi-Fi
network as well, say in the Coffee Shop or
Lobby or elsewhere, automatically
Considerations for Public Hot Spots
 Complete support for VPN applications
 Provision for Bandwidth on Demand
 Provision for Public IPs for User Laptop
 Support for both Open/Unsecure Connections
and Secure Connections
 Roaming between hotspots and between
different service Providers
 Branding on Portal Pages
Considerations for Public Hot Spots
 Network Management system to provide
Performance and Configuration Management
as well as Fault Monitoring and Notifications
 There should be provision for both historical
reports as well as online live reports, guest
wise, date wise, period wise, Plan wise, fault
wise, usage wise and so on
 Automatic redirection to welcome page when
user tries to access the Internet