Kuo Network Analysis Synthesis Text

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
FRANKLIN
F.
KUO
SECOND EDITION
1.50
i-
->
PETER CLARKE SECOND HAND BOOKS

Tl.
Rochdale 50514
Network
Anal/sis and
Synthesis
Second Edition
Wiley International Edition
Network
Analysis and Synthesis
Second Edition
by Franklin
Bell
F.
Kuo
Inc.
Telephone Laboratories,
John Wiley
&
Sons,
Inc.,
New York
London
Sydney
Toppan Company. Ltd.
Tokyo, Japan
1962, 1966 by John Wiley Copyright All Rights Reserved
& Sons, Inc.
This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher
Wiley International Edition

This book
to
is
which
it
not to be sold outside the country is consigned by the publisher.
Libray of Congress Catalog Card
Number
66-16127
Printed in Singapore by Toppan Printing Co. (S) Pte. Ltd.
To My
Father and Mother
Preface
on computer computers have brought about many significant changes in the content of engineering subject matter concerned with both analysis and design. In analysis, computation has become an important adjunct to theory. Theory estate lishes the foundation of the subject matter; computation provides clarity, depth, and insight. In design, the computer has not only contributed precision and speed to existing procedures but has made practicable design methods that employ iteration and simulation. The importance of computer-aided design cannot be overemphasized. In Chapter 15 I have attempted to survey some digital computer applications in the areas of network analysis and design. I strongly encourage all students
applications (Chapter 15).
In the second edition, I have tried to keep the organization of the first Most of the new material are additions aimed at strengthening the weaknesses of the original edition. Some specific changes deserve mention. The most important of these is a new chapter
edition.
In the past
five years, digital
to read
this chapter for cultural interest, if
not for survival.
It
Another new section contains a rigorous treatment of the unit impulse. was difficult to decide whether to incorporate this material in Chapter 2
in the discussion of signals or in a separate appendix.

ized functions in
By putting
general-
an appendix, I have left the decision of whether to teach the rigorous treatment up to the individual instructor. Other changes worth mentioning are: (1) two new sections on the Fourier integral in Chapter 3 (2) a section on initial and final conditions in Chapter 5; (3) a section on Bode plots in Chapter 8; (4) revised material on two-port parameters in Chapter 9; and (5) new sections on frequency and transient responses of filters in Chapter 13. Major or minor changes may be found in every chapter, with the exception of Chapters 11 and 12. In addition, many new problems are included at the end of each chapter.
;
vii
viii
Preface
Chapters 1 and 2 brief description of the subject matter follows. certain general characteristics of deal with signal representation and and includes the linear systems. Chapter 3 deals with Fourier analysis,
and 5 impulse method for evaluating Fourier coefficients. Chapters 4 differential equations in the time domain. discuss solutions of network two preceding In Chapters 6 and 7, the goals are the same as those of the viewpoint here is that of the frequency domain. chapters, except that the
system function. Chapter 8 deals with the amplitude, phase, and delay of a chapters are concerned with network synthesis. Chapter The final seven realizability theory 9 deals with two-ports. In Chapter 10, the elements of drivingpresented. Chapters 11 and 12 are concerned with elementary are and transfer function synthesis procedures. In Chapter 13, some point Chapter 14 fundamental concepts in modern filter design are introduced. analysis and design. deals with the use of scattering matrices in network digital And, as mentioned earlier, Chapter 15 contains a brief survey of addition, there are five computer techniques in system analysis. In
appendices covering the rudiments of matrix algebra, generalized complex variables, proofs of Brune's theorems, and a visual aid to
functions,
filter
approximation.
intended for a two-semester course in network theory. or Chapters 1 through 8 may be used in a one-semester undergraduate transient analysis or linear system analysis. beginning graduate course in
The book
is
network Chapters 9 and 15 are to be used in a subsequent course on

synthesis.
The second edition is largely a result of the feedback from the professors who have used this book and from their students, Who have discovered express my sincere errors and weaknesses in the original edition. I wish to
appreciation to those
who provided this feedback. thanks are due to the following people: Robert Barnard of Special Wayne State, Charles Belove and Peter Dorato of the Polytechnic Sherman of the Bell Institute of Brooklyn, James Kaiser and Philip Telephone Laboratories, Evan Moustakas of San Jose State College, Welch of the University of Texas, and David Landgrebe of Purdue.
A.
I
J.
and Robert Tracey of Illinois for editorial advice and to Donald Ford of Wiley for help and encouragement. Zicchino, and addition, I wish to thank Elizabeth Jenkins, Lynn
In
am particularly indebted to Mac Van Valkenburg of Princeton University
Joanne Mangione of the Bell Telephone Laboratories for their and careful typing of the manuscript. F. F. tj u. Berkeley Heights,
i
efficient
Kuo
New Jersey,
December, 1965
Preface to the First Edition
This book is an introduction to the study of electric networks based upon a system theoretic approach. In contrast to many present textbooks, the emphasis is not on the form and structure of a network but rather on
excitation-response properties. In other words, the major theme is concerned with how a linear network behaves as a signal processor. Special emphasis is given to the descriptions of a linear network by its system function in the frequency domain and its impulse response in the time domain. With the use of the system function as a unifying link, the
its
transition
from network
analysis to synthesis can
be accomplished with
relative ease.
The book was
originally conceived as a set of notes for a second course
in network analysis at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. It assumes
had a course in steady-state circuit analysis. should be familiar with Kirchhoff's laws, mesh and node equations, standard network theorems, and, preferably, he should have an elementary
that the student has already
He
understanding of network topology.
brief description of the subject matter follows.
Chapters
and 2
deal with signal representation and certain characteristics of linear net3, 4, 5, and 6 discuss transient analysis from both a time domain viewpoint, i.e., in terms of differential equations and the impulse response, and a frequency domain viewpoint using Fourier and Laplace transforms. Chapter 7 is concerned with the use of poles and zeros in both transient and steady-state analysis. Chapter 8 contains a classical
works. Chapters
treatment of network functions. The final five chapters deal with network synthesis. In Chapter 9, the elements of realizability theory are presented. Chapters 10 and 1 1 are concerned with elementary driving-point and transfer function synthesis procedures. In Chapter 12, some fundamental concepts in modern filter
design are introduced. Chapter 13 deals with the use of scattering matrices
ix
in network analysis
and
synthesis.
In addition, there are three appendices
and proofs covering the rudiments of matrix algebra, complex variables, of Brune's realizability theorems. The book is intended for a two-semester course in network theory. or Chapters 1 through 7 can be used in a one-semester undergraduate system analysis. beginning graduate course in transient analysis or linear
Chapters 8 through 13 are to be used in a subsequent course on network
synthesis.
was my very good fortune to have studied under Professor M. E. Van Valkenburg at the University of Illinois. I have been profoundly influenced emphasis by his philosophy of teaching and writing, which places strong
It
of exposition. In keeping with this philosophy, I have tried viewpoint, and I have to present complicated material from a simple illustrative examples and exercises. In addition, included a large number of mathematical rigor and I have tried to take a middle ground between
upon
clarity
intuitive understanding.
Unless a proof contributes materially to the of a theorem, it is omitted in favor of an intuitive argument. understanding For example, in the treatment of unit impulses, a development in terms
unit of a generalized function is first introduced. It is stressed that the functions whose is not really a function but actually a sequence of impulse notion of an limit point is undefined. Then, the less rigorous, intuitive the impulse "function" is presented. The treatment then proceeds along
nonrigorous path.
There are a number of topics which have been omitted. One of these at present. I have puris network topology, which seems to be in vogue that posely omitted topology because it seems out of place in a book network analysis. de-emphasizes the form and structure approach to In an expository book of this nature, it is almost impossible to reference field of adequately all the original contributors in the vast and fertile
network theory. I apologize to those whose names were omitted either through oversight or ignorance. At the end of the book, some supplementary textbooks are listed for the student who either wishes to fill in some gaps in his training or wants to obtain a different point of view. given to me by my I acknowledge with gratitude the help and advice Bell Telephone Laboratories and by my former colleagues colleagues at the my sincere at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. I wish to express were appreciation to the many reviewers whose advice and criticism
invaluable in revising preliminary drafts of the manuscript. Professors Stanford R. D. Barnard of Wayne State University and R. W. Newcomb of of the entire University deserve specific thanks for their critical reading
manuscript and numerous helpful suggestions and comments. Miss Elizabeth In addition, I wish to thank Mrs. Elizabeth Jenkins and
xi
La
Jeunesse of the Bell Telephone Laboratories for their efficient and
careful typing of the manuscript.

Finally, to my wife Dora, I owe a special debt of gratitude. Her encouragement and cooperation made the writing of this book an
enjoyable undertaking.
Murray
Hill,
New Jersey,
F. F.
KUO
January, 1962
Contents
Chapter
I:
Signals and Systems

Signal Analysis
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Complex Frequency Network Analysis Network Synthesis
4
7
14
Chapter 2:
Signals
and Waveforms
20
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
General Characteristics of Signals General Descriptions of Signals The Step Function and Associated Waveforms The Unit Impulse
20 24 28 33
Chapter 3:
The Frequency Domain: Fourier Analysis

Introduction
46
3.1
3.2
3.3
Orthogonal Functions Approximation Using Orthogonal Functions

Fourier Series Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients Using Unit Impulses
3.4
3.5
46 47 48 50 52
58 63 67
3.6
3.7
3.8
The Fourier
Integral
Properties of Fourier Transforms

xiii
xiv
Contents
Chapter 4:
4.1
Differential Equations
75 75
Introduction
4.2
4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6
Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations Nonhomogeneous Equations

Step and Impulse Response
Integrodifferential Equations
76
82 85
91
Simultaneous Differential Equations
93
Chapter 5:
5.1
Network
Analysis:
100
Introduction
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
Network Elements Initial and Final Conditions Step and Impulse Response Solution of Network Equations
Analysis of Transformers
100 103 106
HI
114 122
5.6
Chapter 6:
6.1
The Laplace Transform

The Philosophy of Transform Methods The Laplace Transform
Properties of Laplace Transforms
134
6.2
6.3
134 135 137
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
Uses of Laplace Transforms Partial-Fraction Expansions Poles and Zeros Evaluation of Residues The Initial and Final Value Theorems
144 148 155
162 165
Chapter
7:
Transform Methods
in
Network Analysis
175
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
The Transformed Circuit Thevenin's and Norton's Theorems The System Function The Step and Impulse Responses The Convolution Integral The Duhamel Superposition Integral
175 180
187 194 197 201
Contents
xv
Chapter 8:
Amplitude, Phase, and Delay
212
8.1
Amplitude and Phase Response
212
221
8.2
8.3
Bode
Plots
Single-Tuned Circuits
8.4
8.5
Double-Tuned Circuits On Poles and Zeros and Time Delay
229 238 245
Chapter 9:
Network
Analysis:
II
253
9.1
Network Functions
Relationships Between Two-Port Parameters Transfer Functions Using Two-Port Parameters
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
Interconnection of Two-Ports
Incidental Dissipation
9.6
Analysis of Ladder Networks
253 264 266 271 276 279
Chapter
10:
Elements of Readability Theory

Causality and Stability
290
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
Hurwitz Polynomials Positive Real Functions Elementary Synthesis Procedures
290 294 299 308
Chapter
11:
Synthesis of One-Port Networks with Two Kinds of Elements
315
11.1
11.2
11.3
Properties of L-C Immittance Functions Synthesis of L-C Driving-Point Immittances Properties of R-C Driving-Point Impedances Synthesis of R-C Impedances or R-L. Admittances Properties of R-L Impedances and R-C Admittances
11.4
11.5
11.6
Synthesis of Certain
R-L-C Functions
315 319 325 329 331 333
xvi
Contents
Chapter
12:
Elements of Transfer Function Synthesis

Properties of Transfer Functions
341
12.1
341
12.2
12.3 12.4
Zeros of Transmission Synthesis of Yn and ZS1 with a 1-Q Termination Synthesis of Constant-Resistance Networks
345 347 352
Chapter
13:
Topics in Filter Design
365
13.1
13.2
13.3
The Filter Design Problem The Approximation Problem in Network Theory The Maximally Flat Low-Pass Filter Approximation
Other Low-Pass Filter Approximations
Transient Response of Low-Pass Filters
13.4
13.5 13.6 13.7
A Method to Reduce Overshoot in Filters A Maximally Flat Delay and Controllable Magnitude
365 365 368 373 388 392

395 397
Approximation Synthesis of Low-Pass Filters 13.9 Magnitude and Frequency Normalization 13.10 Frequency Transformations
13.8
402 404
Chapter
14:
The Scattering Matrix

Incident and Reflected
413
14.1
Power Flow
14.2
14.3
The The
Scattering Parameters for a One-Port Scattering Matrix for
Network a Two-Port Network
14.4
14.5
Properties of the Scattering Matrix

Insertion Loss
413 415 419 426 429

431
14.6
Darlington's Insertion Loss Filter Synthesis
Chapter
15:
Computer Techniques
in Circuit Analysis
438
15.1
The Uses of Digital Computers
in Circuit Analysis
15.2
15.3
15.4
Amplitude and Phase Subroutine A Fortran Program for the Analysis of Ladder Networks Programs that Aid in Darlington Filter Synthesis
438 450 453 457
Contents
xvii
Appendix A:
A.1
Introduction to Matrix Algebra
461
A.2 A.3 A.4

A. 5
Fundamental Operations Elementary Concepts Operations on Matrices Solutions of Linear Equations

References
461
on Matrix Algebra
462 464 468 469
Appendix B:
B.l
Generalized Functions and the Unit Impulse

Generalized Functions
Properties of the Unit Impulse
470
B.2
470 476
Appendix C:
C.l
Elements of Complex Variables

Elementary Definitions and Operations
Analysis
Singularities and Residues Contour Integration
481
C.2 C.3 C.4
481 483 486 487
Appendix D:
Proofs of Functions
Some Theorems on
Positive
Real 490
Appendix E:
An Aid
mation
to the Improvement of Filter Approxi493
E.l
Introduction
E.2 E.3 E.4

E.5 E.6 E.7
Constant Logarithmic Gain Contours Constant Phase Contours
Contour Drawings
Correction Procedure Correction Network Design
Conclusion
493 494 495 496 498 502 504 05 $09

si I
Bibliography
Name Index
Subject Index
chapter
Signals and systems
This book is an introduction to electric network theory. The first half of the book is devoted to network analysis and the remainder to network synthesis and design. What are network analysis and synthesis? In a
generally accepted definition of network analysis
and
synthesis, there are
three key words: the excitation, the network, and the response as depicted in Fig. 1.1. Network analysis is concerned with determining the response, given the excitation and the network. In network synthesis, the problem
is
to design the network given the excitation and the desired response. In this chapter we will outline some of the problems to be encountered in this book without going into the actual details of the problems.
We
will also discuss
some
basic definitions.
I.I
SIGNAL ANALYSIS
electric
voltages
networks, the excitation and response are given in terms of and currents which are functions of time, t. In general, these functions of time are called signals. In describing signals, we use the two universal languages of electrical engineering time and frequency. Strictly speaking, a signal is a function of time. However, the signal can be
For
described equally well in terms of spectral or frequency information. As between any two languages, such as French and German, translation is needed to render information given in one language comprehensible in the
Excitation
>-
Response
Network
>
FIG.
I.I.
The
objects of our concern.
Network
analysis and synthesis
m
Ao-
FIG.
1.2.
Sinusoidal signal.
is effected by the and the Laplace transform. We shall have ample opportunity to define and study these terms later in the book. At the moment, let us examine how a signal can be described in terms of both frequency and time. Consider the sinusoidal signal
other.
Between time and frequency, the translation
Fourier series, the Fourier integral,
s(t)
=A
O is
sin (a>
O)
0.1)
where
is
the amplitude,
the phase
shift,
and
<w
is
the angular
frequency as given by the equation

coo
<
L2>
where
in Fig. 1.2.
T is the period of the sinusoid. The signal is plotted aguinst time An equally complete description of the signal is obtained if we
D a Ao i o. E
b>0
W
A
versus angular frequency
<o.
Angular frequency
FIG.
1.3a. Plot
of amplitude
o>o
to
Angular frequency
FIG. 1.3b. Plot of phase 6 versus angular frequency
<o.
Signals and systems
6>4 6)3
a>2 6>i
&>0
">1
"3
ft>4
+<<>
FIG.
1.4a. Discrete
amplitude spectrum.
ft)
fc>4 W3 ft)2
ft>i
b)i
0)2
0>3
ft>4
+0)
FIG.
1.4b. Discrete
phase spectrum.
let
the angular frequency

is
co
be the independent variable. In

>
this case, the
signal
described in terms of ^4
is
w o>
anl
^0.
as
shown in
amplitude
is
plotted against frequency,
and in
Fig. 1.36,
where where phase shift

Fig. 1.3a,
plotted.
Now suppose that the signal is made up of 2n +

s(t)
sinusoidal components
=%A <
sin
(<v
fy)
(1.3)
The spectral description of the signal would then contain 2n + l lines at ( as given in Figs. 1.4a and b. These discrete spectra <*>i, >2 of amplitude A versus co and phase shift 6 versus co are sometimes called line spectra. Consider the case when the number of these spectral lines become infinite and the intervals oo i+1 w f between the lines approach zero. Then there is no longer any discrimination between one frequency and another, so that the discrete line spectra fuse into a continuous spectra, as shown by the example in Figs. 1.5a and b. In the continuous case, the sum in Eq. 1.3 becomes an integral
xo
where A{m)
spectrum.
is
A(o>) sin [mt
0(to)]
dm
and
0(co)
(1.4)
known
as the amplitude spectrum
as the phase
As we
shall see later, periodic signals
such as the sine wave in Fig. 1.2
can be described in terms of discrete spectra through the use of Fourier series. On the other hand, a nonperiodic signal such as the triangular
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
Mo>)
a
FIG.
1.5a.
<a
Continuous amplitude spectrum.
FIG.
1.5b.
Continuous phase spectrum.
pulse in Fig. 1.6 can only be described in terms of continuous spectra
through the Fourier integral transform.
1.2
COMPLEX FREQUENCY
we
will consider the concept of
In this section,
complex frequency. As
we
shall see, the
complex frequency variable

s
= a + ja>
(1.5)
a generalized frequency variable whose real part a describes growth and decay of the amplitudes of signals, and whose imaginary part/cu is angular frequency in the usual sense. The idea of complex frequency is developed by examining the cisoidal signal
is
S(f)
aJ* Ae
(1.6)
FIG.
1.6.
Triangular signal.
Signals and systems
ReS
FIG.
1.7.
Rotating phasor.
when S(0 is represented as a rotating phasor, 1 as shown in Fig. 1.7. The angular frequency m of the phasor can then be thought of as a velocity
end of the phasor. In particular the velocity to is always at right shown in Fig. 1.7. However, consider the general case when the velocity is inclined at any arbitrary angle y> as given in Figs. 1.8a and 1.86. In this case, if the velocity is given by the symbol s, we see that s is composed of a component m at right angle to the phasor S as well as a component a, which is parallel to S. In Fig. 1.8a, s has a component a toward the origin. As the phasor S spins in a counterclockwise fashion, the phasor decreases in amplitude. The resulting wave for the real and imaginary parts of S(r) are damped sinusoids as given by
at the
angles to the phasor, as
ReS(f)
ImS(0
= Ae~" cos cot = X<r*'sina>f
(1.7)
M
1
]<b)
(b)
FIG. 1.8. (a) Rotating phasor with exponentially decreasing amplitude, phasor with exponentially increasing amplitude.
Rotating
A phasor S is a complex number characterized by a magnitude and a phase angle

Appendix C).
(see
Network
analysis
and synthesis
/Envelope = Ae~
FIG.
1.9.
Damped
sinusoids.
/ ^~ Envelope = Ae**
FIG.
1. 10.
Exponentially increasing sinusoid.
Signals and systems
FIG.
I.I I.
Exponential signals.
which are shown in a positive

real
Fig. 1.9.
exponential envelope decay, Ae~" %
Note that the damped sinusoid has an In Fig. 1 .84, the phasor is shown with
.
component of velocity +o. Therefore, as the phasor spins, the amplitudes of the real and imaginary parts increase exponentially with an envelope Ae+at as shown by Im S(f) in Fig. 1.10.
,
From
this discussion, it is
apparent that the generalized cisoidal signal
S(0
describes the growth
= Ae" = Ae {a+Mt
(1.8)
frequency in the usual sense.

wheny'a>
0,
and decay of the amplitudes in addition to angular When a = 0, the sinusoid is undamped, and the signal is an exponential signal
as
shown in Fig.
1.11.
= Ae*' (1.9) Finally, if a = ja> = 0, then the signal is a constant

S(0
complex frequency
description.
A. Thus
we
see the versatility of a
1.3
NETWORK ANALYSIS
As mentioned before, the characterization of the excitation and response and frequency makes up only part of the analysis problem. The other part consists of characterizing the network itself in terms of
signals in time
time and frequency, and determining how the network behaves as a signal processer. Let us turn our attention now to a brief study of the properties of linear networks and the general characteristics of signal processing by
a linear system.
Network
analysis
and synthesis
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Linear
A
By
e[t)
(b) the principle
system (network) is linear if (a) the principle of superposition and of proportionality hold.
the superposition principle, the response
if,
for a given network, [ex (t), r^t)]

r(t)
and
the
[eg(0, r 2(f)l
are excitation-response pairs, then if the excitation were
= ex(t) + e2(t),
Cx
is
would be
= r,(f) + ri).
By
proportionality principle, if the excitation were Cît), where x is a constant, then the response would be C^r^t), i.e., the constant of proportionality
linearity are
preserved by the linear network. The two conditions of summarized in Fig. 1.12. Another definition of a linear network is that the excitation and response of the network are related by a linear differential equation. We shall discuss this definition in Chapter 4 on differential equations.
Passive
A linear network is passive* if (a) the energy delivered to the network is

nonnegative for any arbitrary excitation, and (b) if no voltages or currents appear between any two terminals before an excitation is applied.
Reciprocal
A network is said to be reciprocal if when the points of excitation and

measurement of response are interchanged, the relationship between
Cieift)
..
System
CuiM
C2 e2(t)
System
C2 r^t)
Ci*t(0+Ck*gt)
System
Cm(t) *
CW<)
FIG.
1.12.
linear system.
1 G. Raisbeck, "A Definition of Passive Linear Networks in Terms of Time and Energy," /. Appl. Phys., 25 (Dec. 1954), 1510-1514.
Signals and systems

tit)
r(t)
A
System
>t
.M.
3<
-Ti)
Ht-Tit
A
System
B
Tl
(
7\
TihTi
FIG.
1.13.
Time-invariant system.
excitation
and response remains the same, Thus must be true
for any
choice of points of excitation and response.
Causal
We say a system is causal if its response is nonanticipatory, i.e., if

(0
then
= KO =
if
<T
(1.10)
'
<r
is
In other words, a system is causal oo / T, the response is zero for
before an excitation
t
applied at
< <
T.
Time
invariant
T)-*-r(t T), where the symbol - means "gives rise to." To understand the concept of time invariance in a linear system, let us suppose that initially the excitation is introduced at f = 0, which gives rise to a response r(t). If the excitation were introduced at / = T, and if the shape of the response waveform were the same as in the first case, but delayed by a time T (Fig. 1.13), then we could say the system is time invariant. Another way of looking at this concept is through the fact that time-invariant systems contain only elements that do not vary with time. It should be mentioned here that linear systems need not be time invariant.
Derivative property
A system is time invariant ife(t) -* rtf) implies that e(t
From the time-invariant property we can show that,
if e{f)
at the input
e'(f),
gives rise to r(i) at the output (Fig. 1.14), then, if the input were
10
Network
analysis
and synthesis
System
de(t)
System
it
> *
dr(t)
dt
d*e(t)
System
,
'
d*Ht)
dt'
dt*
e(T)dr
System
k >
C'.{,\ l'(T) J
1
FIG.
i.e.,
1.14.
Some
implications of linear time-invariant systems.
r'(t). The proof is quite where e is a real quantity. By the time-invariant property, the response would be r(t + e). Now suppose the
the derivative of e(t), the response would be
simple. Consider an excitation e(*

excitation were
e)
e1 (r)--W*
)-)]
(1-11)
then according to the linearity and time-invariant properties, the response would be
ri (0
= - [r(I + e) we
see that
K0]
(112)
Taking the limit as
e ->- 0,
limc1(0
e-0
= 7-c(0
at
(1.13)
lim rx(0
-o
= ^ K0
at
We
e(t)
can extend this idea to higher derivatives as well as for the integrals of
and
r(f),
as
shown
in Fig. 1.14.
Ideal
models
Let us now examine some idealized models of linear systems. The systems given in the following all have properties which make them very
useful in signal processing.
Signals and systems
e(t)
Amplifier
Km.
FIG.
1.15. Amplifier.
fit)
d K dt
Kdfltt
dt
FIG.
.16. Differentiator.
m
FIG.
1.17. Integ[rat or.
>K i
ff VaT
m
FIG.
1.18.
uyif
/Tt-JX
Time-delay network.
FIG.
1.
1.19.
Excitation function.
Amplifier:
An
amplifier scales
up
the magnitude of the input,

1.15).
i.e.,
lit)
= Ke(t), where Kis a constant (Fig.

The input
(Fig. 1.16).
2. Differentiator:
signal is differentiated
and possibly scaled
up or down
Fig. 1.17.
3. Integrator:
The output
is
the integral of the input, as

T,
shown
in
4. Time delayer: The output is delayed by an amount same wave shape as the input (Fig. 1.18).
but retains the
Fig. 1.19 as the input signal. the outputs for each of the four systems just described are shown in Figs. 1.200-1 .20(2.
Suppose we take the triangular pulse in
Then
12
Network analysis and
synthesis
m
1
-1
<b)
tit)
_L
Ti
(c)
Ti
(d)
Ti
FIG. I JO. la) Amplifier output,
(ft)
Differentiator output, (c) Integrator output,
(rf)
Delayed output.
Ideal elements
In the analysis of electric networks, we use idealized linear mathematical models of physical circuit elements. The elements most often encountered are the resistor R, given in ohms, the capacitor C, given in farads, and the inductor L, expressed in henrys. The endpoints of the elements are port is defined as any pair of two terminals into which called terminals. energy is supplied or withdrawn or where network variables may be measured or observed. In Fig. 1.21 we have an example of a two-port
network. The energy sources that

current or voltage sources,
make up the excitation functions as shown in Figs. 1.22a and b. The
are ideal
polarities
Two-port network
'/ measurement
*a Response
FIG.
1.21.
Two-port network.
Signals and systems
13
p
FIG. 1.22a. Voltage source.
w Q)
FIG. 1.22b. Current source.
and the direction of flow for the current source are arbitrarily assumed for reference purposes only. An ideal voltage source is an energy source that provides, at a given port, a voltage
signal that
is
indicated for the voltage source
independent of the current at that port. If we interchange the

last definition,
words "current" and "voltage" in the

ideal current source.
we then
define
an
In network analysis, the principal problem is to find the relationships that exist between the currents and voltages at the ports of the network. Certain simple voltage-current relationships for the network elements also
serve as defining equations for the elements themselves. For example, when the currents and voltages are expressed as functions of time, then the
R, L, and
C elements,
shown
in Fig. 1.23, are defined
by the equations
or
i(t)
= -v(t) =i
L *o
J
t>(0
= L -J9
at
or
iQ)
v(x)
dx
j(0)
(1.14)
(0
=7
I' CJo
(*)
dx
+ v(0)
or
i(t)
=C
^
dt
where the constants of integration discussed in detail later.
i'(0)
and
(0) are initial conditions to
be
Expressed as a function of the complex frequency variable s, the equations
m *v(t) v(t)
m
v(t)
Ut) *
^=C
M
FIG.
(b)
(e)
1.23. (a) Resistor,
(b) Inductor,
(c) Capacitor.
14
Network

1(3)
>
Ks)
V(s)
V(s)
]sL
V(s)
sC
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIG.
1.24. (a) Resistor,
(b) Inductor,
(c)
Capacitor.
defining the R, L,
initial
and
elements,
shown
in Fig. 1.24, are (ignoring
conditions for the
moment)
RI(s)
V(s)
or
I(s)
= ^V(s)
R
V(s)
= sLI(s)
= -^/(s)
sC
or
I(s)
=
=
sL
V(s)
(1.15)
7(s)
or
/(s)
sCV(s)
We see that in the time domain, i.e., where the independent variable is
relationships for the
t,
the voltage-current relationships are given in terms of differential equations. On the other hand, in the complex-frequency domain, the voltage-current
elements are expressed in algebraic equations. Algebraic equations are, in most cases, more easily solved than differential
equations. Herein lies the ration d'itre for describing signals in the frequency domain as well as in the time domain.
and networks
a network is made up of an interconnection of linear circuit elements, the network is described by its system or transfer function H(s). The response R(s) and the excitation E(s) are related by the equation
R(s)
When
= H(s) E(s).
(1.16)
In network analysis, we are given E(s), and we can obtain H(s) directly from the network. Our task is to determine R(s).
1.4
NETWORK SYNTHESIS
In network synthesis,
We will now briefly introduce some of the problems germane to network

synthesis.
we
are given the response R(s)

synthesize the network
excitation E(s),
and we are required to
and the from the
Signals and systems
15
m <b
FIG.
Z{s)
VM
1.25. Driving-point
impedance
FIG. I.M. Black box.
R.
system function
aw-
(s)
(1.17)
Since R(s) and (5) are voltages or currents, then H(s) is denoted generally as an immittance if R(s) is a voltage and E(s) is a current, or vice versa. 9 driving-point immittance is defined to be a function for which the
variables are measured at the
same
port.
Thus a
driving-point impedance
Z(s) at a given port
is
the function
TO-
I(s)
(1.18)
where the excitation
is
a current
I(s)
shown
in Fig. 1.25.
When we
and the response is a voltage V(s), as interchange the words "current" and
"voltage" in the last definition, we then have a driving-point admittance. An example of a driving-point impedance is the network in Fig. 1.25,
where
Z(s)
= î = R
I(s)
(1.19)
Now suppose the resistor in Fig. 1.25 were enclosed in a "black box." We have no access to this black box, except at the terminals 1-1' in Fig.
1.26. Our task is to determine the network in the black box. Suppose we are given the information that, for a given excitation /(*), the voltage response V(s) is proportional to I(s) by the equation
V(s)
= KI(s)
is is
(1.20)
An obvious solution, though not unique,

resistor
that the network consists of a
KCl. Suppose next that the excitation of value R V(s), the response is a current I(s), and that
a voltage
ns)
IRE
_M.
+ 4j
(1.21)
Standards on Circuits "Linear Passive Networks," Proe. IRE, 48, No. 9
(Sept. 1960), 1608-1610.
16
Network
lo-
analysis
1
and synthesis
'
I
hM
+
Vi(s)
Us)
Two-port network
=r 4
l'o
FIG.
1.27.
>i
realiza-
V&)
Network
FIG.
1.28.
Two-port network.
tion for Y(s).
a network equivalent to the network in the black box. From a close scrutiny of the driving-point admittance Y(s), we see that a possible solution might consist of a resistor of J O in parallel with a capacitor of 4 farads, as seen in Fig. 1.27. The problem of driving-point synthesis, as shown from the examples just given, consists of decomposing a given immittance function into
Our task is to
synthesize
basic recognizable parts (such as 3
+ 4s).
Before
we proceed with
the
mechanics of decomposition, we must first determine whether the function is realizable, i.e., can it be synthesized in terms of positive resistances, inductances, and capacitances? It will be shown that realizable drivingpoint immittances belong to a class of functions known as positive real or, simply, p.r. functions. From the properties of p.r. functions, we can test a given driving-point function for realizability. (The Appendices present a short introduction to complex variables as well as the proofs of some theorems on positive real functions.) With a knowledge of p.r. functions, we then go on to examine special driving-point functions. These include functions which can be realized with two kinds of elements only the L-C,
R-C, and R-L immittances. Next we proceed to the synthesis of transfer functions. According to 4 the IRE Standards on passive linear networks, a transfer function or transmittance is a system function for which the variables are measured at different ports. There are many different forms which a transfer function might take. For example, consider the two-port network in Fig. 1.28. If the excitation is I^s) and the response Vjs), the transfer function is a
transfer impedance
Ztt(s)
we would
(1.22)
On the other hand, if Vl(s) were the excitation and

have a voltage-ratio transfer function
tf(S
V^s) the response, then
)=
Fi()
(1.23)
Loe.
eit.
Signals and systems

\H(ju)\
17
FIG.
1.2?. Ideal
amplitude spectrum for low-pass
filter.
As
for driving-point functions, there are certain properties which a
transfer function
must
satisfy in
order to be realizable.
We
shall study
these realizability conditions
and then proceed to the synthesis of some

synthesis
is filter
simple transfer functions.
The most important aspect of transfer function
design.
A filter is defined as a network which passes
a certain portion of a frequency spectrum and blocks the remainder of the spectrum. By the term "blocking," we imply that the magnitude response \H(ja>)\ of the filter is approximately zero for that frequency range. Thus, an ideal low-pass
filter is
a network which passes all frequencies up to a cutoff frequency and blocks all frequencies above w c as shown in Fig. 1.29. One aspect of filter design is to synthesize the network from the transfer function H(s). The other aspect deals with the problem of obtaining a
mc
realizable transmittance H(s) given the specification of, for example, the
magnitude characteristic in Fig.
1.29.
This part of the synthesis is generally
referred to as the approximation problem.
Why
the
mation?" Because frequency response
characteristics of the R, L,
word "approxiand C
elements are continuous (with the exception of isolated points called

resonance points), a network containing these elements cannot be
cut off abruptly at
<o c
in Fig. 1.29. Instead,

characteristics
made to we can realize low-pass filters

1.30.
which have the magnitude

\H(J<*)\
of Fig.
In connection with
FIG.
1.30. Realizable
low-pass filter characteristics.
18
Network
filter
analysis
and synthesis
problems in magnitude a filter, we deal with element values such as R 0.5 ohm and C = 2 farads instead of "practical" element values of, for example, R 500,000 ohms and C = 2 picofarads (pico = 10-12). Also we will study a method whereby low-pass filter designs might be transformed into high-pass, band-pass, and bandelimination filters. The mathematical basis of this method is called
the
design problems,
we
will discuss certain
and frequency normalization so
that, in designing
frequency transformation. We next discuss some aspects of analysis and synthesis in which the excitation and response functions are given in terms of power rather than
of voltage and current.
We will examine the power-transfer properties of
which describe the incident power of the network at its ports. Finally, in Chapter 15, we will examine some of the many uses of highspeed digital computers in circuit analysis and design. In addition to a general survey of the field, we will also study some specific computer programs in circuit analysis.
linear networks, using scattering parameters,
and
reflected
Problems
1.1
Draw the line

s(t)
spectra for the signal
3 sin (t
+ ^1 + 4sin
(it
- 1| +
6 sin it
1.2
JtTir/4
Find the response to the excitation sin / into a sampler that closes every = 0, 1, 2, seconds where Draw the response for ^ / ^ 2*.
13 Find the response to the excitation shown in the figure when the network
is (a)
an
ideal differentiator;
(ft)
an ideal integrator.
Mt)
_L
1 1.5
1.3
PROS.
1.4
If the system function of
a network
is
1
given as
H{s)~
(s
+ 2X* +
3)
Signals and systems

find the response R(s) if the excitation
is
19
s
1.5 ations.
()
Given the driving-point functions find
their simplest
network
realiz-
Z(s) 3*
(*)
Y(s)
= 2s
+
*
Z(s)
-3 i+
1
s*+2
2,
id)
r(s)
_
3s
s*
+4
1.6 For the network shown, write the mesh equation in terms of (a) differential equations and (b) the complex-frequency variable s.
R l wvnpfir*
-0
PROB.
1.7
1.6
For the network shown, write the node equation in terms of (a) differential
equations and (6) complex-frequency form.
PROB.
1.8
r(t)
1.7
Suppose the response of a linear system to an excitation
= 3e-*'. What would the response be to an excitation of t(t 2)1
(/)
were
chapter
Signals and
waveforms
Our main concern
in this chapter
is
the characterization of signals as
signals functions of time. In previous studies we have dealt with d-c with time, or a-c signals which were sinusoids of that were constant A sin (cot 0). In engineering practice, constant amplitude, such as s(t) than signals encountered is substantially broader in scope the class of
of simple a-c or d-c signals. To attempt to characterize each member variety of signals is foolhardy in view of the almost infinite the class be encountered. Instead, we will deal only with those signals that can
building characterized in simple mathematical terms and which serve as will concentrate on formublocks for a large number of other signals. than deal with lating analytical tools to aid us in describing signals, rather
We
limitathe representation of specific signals. Because of time and space exhibit random behavior, tions, we will cover only signals which do not characterized as functions of time. i.e., signals which can be explicitly
These signals are often referred to as deterministic
signals.
Let us
first
discuss certain qualitative aspects of signals in general.
2.1
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SIGNALS
In this section we will examine certain behavior patterns of signals. Once these patterns are established, signals can be classified accordingly, and some simplifications result. The adjectives which give a general continuous. qualitative description of a signal axe periodic, symmetrical, and Let us discuss these terms in the given order. signal First, signals are either periodic or aperiodic. If a
it is
is
periodic, then
described by the equation

s(t)
= s(tkT)
20
0,1,2,...
(2.1)
Signals
and waveforms
21
-2T -r
T 2T 3T AT 5T
-l
FIG.
2.1.
Square wave.
where
given
period
T is the period of the signal. The sine wave, sin is periodic with T = lit. Another example of a periodic signal is the square wane in Fig. 2.1. On the other hand, the signals given in Fig. 2.2 are
/,
aperiodic, because the pulse patterns

interval T. Alternatively, these signals
do not repeat
after
a certain
finite
may be considered "periodic" with
an
infinite period.
Next, consider the symmetry properties of a signal. The key adjectives signal function can be even or odd or neither. here aie even and odd.
An even function obeys the relation

j(0-*(-0
For an odd function
For example, the function
pulse in Fig. 2.2a
is
(2.2)
s(i)
-s{-t)
t is
(2.3)
sin
t is
odd, whereas cos
even.
is
The square
(Fig. 2.26).
even, whereas the triangular pulse
odd
Observe that a signal need not be even or odd. Two examples of signals of this type are shown in Figs. 2.3a and 2.4a. It is significant to note, however, that any signal s(t) can be resolved into an even component 5,(0 and an odd component s9(t) such that
*(0
= *.(0 + *o(0
(2.4)
For example, the signals in Figs. 2.3a and 2.4a can be decomposed into odd and even components, as indicated in Figs. 2.3b, 2.3c, 2.4b, and 2.4c.
m
o
t
2
(b)
M
FIG. 12.
(a)
Even
function, (b)
Odd function.
22
Network
analysis
and synthesis
s(t)
1 i
-1
-t
(a)
(a)
sjt)
sM
-1
o
(b)
i 1
(b)
oW
soft)
-1
-i
(0
FIG. 2.4. Decomposition into even and odd components, (a) Unit step function. (6) Even part of unit step, (c) Odd part of unit step.
(O
FIG.
(a)
2.3.
Decomposition into
function,
(6)
odd and even components,

Original
part,
(c)
Even
Odd part.
that
From
Eq. 2.4
we observe
s(-t)
= st(-t) + * (-0 - sXO - *o(0
(2.5)
Consequently, the odd and even parts of the signal can be expressed as
J#)- MK0 + *(-')] *(o = two - K-m
(2 .6;
Consider the signal s(t), shown in Fig. 2.5a. The function s(-t) is equal axis and is given in Fig. 2.5ft. We then to s(t) reflected about the t
obtain st(t) and j(0 as
shown
in Figs. 2.5c
and
d, respectively.
Signals
and waveforms
13
rf-tf
-1l
(a)
m
lift)
*Jt)
-]I
1
L I
-i
(e)
(d)
s(t)
FIG. US. Decomposition into odd and even components from
and s(t).
Now let us turn our attention to the continuity property of signals. Consider the signal shown in Fig. 2.6. At t T, the signal is discontinuous.
The
height of the discontinuity
is
)
f(T+) -f(Twhere
=A
(2.7)
/(T+)
f(T-)
= lim/(T+c)
-0
- lim/(T- )
(2.8)
and
is
discontinuities in the
a real positive quantity. In particular, we are concerned with neighborhood of f = 0. From Eq. 2.8, the points
{
T
FIG. 24. Signal with discontinuity.
t
24
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Tl
FIG.
2.7. Signal
with two discontinuities.
/(0+) and/(0-)
are
/(0+)
/(0-)
- lim/(e)
-0
= lim/(-e)
(2.9)
For example, the square pulse in Fig. 2.7 has two discontinuities, at Tt The height of the discontinuity at Tx is
.
Tx and
(2.10)
s(Tx +)
- s(T -) = K
x
Similarly, the height of the discontinuity at
Ta is K.
2.1
GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS OF SIGNALS
we consider various time domain descriptions of signals. In particular, we examine the meanings of the following terms: time constant, rms value, d-c value, duty cycle, and crest factor. The term, time
In this section
constant, refers only to exponential waveforms;
the remaining four
terms describe only periodic waveforms.
Time constant
important to know how quickly a of the decay of an exponential is the useful measure waveform decays. time constant T. Consider the exponential waveform described by
In
many
physical problems,
it is
r(t)
= Ke~*IT u(t)
we
see that
(2.11)
From a plot
of r(t) in Fig.
2.8,
when
T, (2.12)
r(T)
= 0.37KO)
Also
r(4T)
= 0.02r(0)
(2.13)
Signals and
1.00
waveforms
25
075
r(t)
0.50
037 025
O02
5
FIG.
2.8.
Normalized curve for time constant
1.
Observe that the larger the time constant, the longer it requires for the waveform to reach 37% of its peak value. In circuit analysis, common time constants are the factors RC and RjL.
RMS Value The rms or root mean square value of a periodic waveform e(t) is defined
as
Crms
i?f>*r
(2.14)
where T is the period. If the waveform is not periodic, the term rms does not apply. As an example, let us calculate the rms voltage for the periodic
waveform in
Fig. 2.9.
Inns
4^r(T-)M>]r
(2.15)
-fair
= J2J3Av
D-C Value
The
d-c value of a
periodic. It is the average value of the
1 =-
waveform has meaning only when the waveform waveform over one period
fT
e{t)dt
p
is
oc
(2.16)
TJ
26
Network
analysis
and synthesis
-A
2T
FIG.
2.9. Periodic
waveform.
The square wave
in Fig. 2.1 has zero d-c value, whereas the
waveform in
Fig. 2.9 has a d-c value of

1
[AT
ATI
(2.17)
Duty cycle The term duty cycle, D, is defined as the ratio of the time duration of the positive cycle t9 of a periodic waveform to the period, T, that is,
(2.18)
T
becomes important in dealing with waveforms of the type shown in Fig. 2.10, where most of the energy is conThe rms voltage of the waveform centrated in a narrow pulse of width f
The duty
cycle of a pulse train
in Fig. 2.10
is
,h
*--(iM'
= AJ7JT
(2.19)
An
(o
FIG. 2.10. Periodic waveform with small duty
cycle.
Signals and
waveforms
27
TT
FIG.
2.1 1. Periodic
waveform with zero d-c and small duty
cycle.
Wc see that the smaller the duty cycle, the smaller the rms voltage. The square wave in Fig. 2.1 has a 50% duty cycle.
Crest factor
is defined as the ratio of the peak voltage of a periodic waveform to the rms value (with the d-c component removed). Explicitly, for any waveform with zero d-c such as the one shown in Fig. 2.1 1 crest factor, CF, is denned as
Crest factor1
CF = -^rms
or
-^rms
(2.20)
whichever
voltage
is
is greater.
For the waveform

e, p
in Fig. 2.11, the peak-to-peak
defined as
<?
(2.21)
Since the waveform has zero d-c value
eJ*
Also,
= et(T-t )
(2.22) (2.23)
eb ea
= eD = ePP(l is
and
D)
(2.24)
The rms value of the waveform

emg
= ( e( l ~ D? +
f
enWr-
t )\
*
(2.25)
eppy/D(l
D)
No. 5
G.
Justice,
'The
Significance of Crest Factor," Hewlett-Packard Journal, 15,
(Jan., 1964), 4-5.
28
Network
Since crest factor
CF =
ejerm*,
we have
e(\
CF =
D)
D)
(2.26)
ep jD(l -
-Vi/J>-i
For example,
if
D=
CF
(2.27)
= ^100 -
10
UD =
10,000'
CF=VlO,000- 1~100
signals
(2.28)
A voltmeter with high crest factor is able to read accurately rms values of
whose waveforms differ from sinusoids, in particular, signals with low duty factor. Note that the smallest value of crest factor occurs for the maximum value of D, that is, X>mx = 0.5,
CFnto
= Vl/iW =1
(2.29)
Z3
THE STEP FUNCTION AND ASSOCIATED WAVEFORMS

unit step function w(f)
The
shown
in Fig. 2.12
t
is
defined as
(/)
= =
< f0
(2.30)
The
which closes at
physical analogy of a unit step excitation corresponds to a switch S, and connects a d-c battery of 1 volt to a given circuit, t the as shown in Fig. 2.13. Note that the unit step is zero whenever
u(t)
ô
Switch
lv
Network
T.
FIG. 2.12. Unit step function.
FIG. 2.13. Network analog of unit
step.
Signals
and waveforms
29
m
l
*<t-a)
a
FIG. 2.14. Shifted step function.
FIG. 2.15. Square pulse.
argument argument
(/)
within the parentheses

greater than zero.
vit
is
negative,
(t) is
Thus
and is unity when the the function u(t a), where
> 0, is defined by
- a) = =
/
1
<a
tâ
{Zil)
and
is
occurs
shown in Fig. 2.14. Note that the jump discontinuity of the step when the argument within the parentheses is zero. This forms the
basis of the shifting property of the step function. Also, the height of the
jump discontinuity of the step can be scaled up or down by the multiplication of a constant K.
With the use of the change of amplitude and the shifting properties of the step function, we can proceed to construct a family of pulse waveforms.
For example, the square pulse in Fig. 2.15 can be constructed by the sum of two step functions
sif)
= 4u(t -
1)
(-4)
u(t
- 2)
shown
(2.32)
as given in Fig. 2.16.

characterized
The "staircase" by the equation

<
function,
in Fig. 2.17,
is
s(t)
=>J,u(t
- kT)
(2.33)
*t)
-4
FIG.
2.16. Construction
of square pulse by step function.
30
Network
analysis
and synthesis
3
2
1
1
T
FIG.
ZT
2.17. Staircase function.
Finally, let us construct the square
property,
s(t)
we
see
wave in Fig. 2.1. Using the that the square wave is given by (for t ^ 0)
shifting
m(0
2u(t
T)
2u(t
2T)
2k(*
is
- 3D +
'
(2.34)
simpler
way
to represent the square

is
wave
by using the property
zero whenever its argument is negative. Restricting ourselves to the interval f ;> 0, the function
that the step function
s(0
zero whenever sin (irtIT)
-(*?)
(2.35)
is
2.18.
by the waveform in Fig. wave in Fig. 2. 1 can be represented It is now apparent that the square
is
negative, as seen
S (0
= (sin^)-u(-sin^)
(2.36)
Another method of describing the square wave is to consider a generalization of the step function known as the sgn function (pronounced signum).
The sgn function
is
defined as
sgn [/(f)]
=1 =
fit)
>o fit) < o

fit)
(2.37)
s(t)
T
FIG.
2. IS.
2T
The
3T
AT
signal u(sin7rr/r).
Signals
and waveforms
31
ft)
ZT
3T
FIG. 2.19. Sine pulse.
Thus the square wave in
Fig. 2.1
is
simply expressed as
s(0
sgn
sin
(2.38)
single sine pulse in Fig. 2.19
Returning to the shifting property of the step function, can be represented as
we
see that the
s(r)
- sin ^ [u(t - IT) - u(t -
3T)]
(2.39)
The
step function is also extremely useful in representing the shifted or delayed version of any given signal. For example, consider the unit ramp
p(t)
tu(t)
(2.40)
shown in Fig. 2.20. Suppose the ramp is delayed by an amount t = a, as shown in Fig. 2.21. How do we represent the delayed version of ramp?
FIG.2JM.
Ramp function with zero time shift.
32
Network
analysis
s(t)
and synthesis
FIG. 2.21.
Ramp function with

t
time
shift
= a.
t'
First, let
us replace the variable

p(r')
by a new variable
a.
Then
(2.41)
f u(t')
When
we
p(t') is plotted against

t
t',
of 5(0 versus then have
in Fig. 2.20.
If,
the resulting curve is identical to the plot t ' in p(t'), however, we substitute t a
p(f)
(t
- a) u(t -
a)
(2.42)
When we plot p(t') against

Fig. 2.21.
t,
we have the delayed version of pit) shown in

is
From the preceding discussion, it is clear that if any signal /(/) u(t) delayed by a time T, the delayed or shifted signal is given by
f{t')=f{t-T)u{t-T)
For example,
let
(2.43)
us delay the function (sin irtfT) u(i) by a period T. Then

s(t'),
the delayed function
shown
[sin
in Fig. 2.22,
is
s(t')
- (t -
T)] u(t
T)
(2.44)
FIG. 2.22. Shifted sine wave.
Signals
and waveforms
33
m 2-
FIG. 2.23. Triangular pulse.
As a final example, consider the waveform in Fig. 2.23, whose component parts are given in Fig. 2.24. For increasing t, the first nonzero
component is
line
the function 2{t

/
1) u(t
1),
which represents the
straight
At ? = 2, the rise of the straight line is to be arrested, so we add to the first component a term equal to 2(t 2)u(t 2) with a slope of 2. The sum is then a constant equal to 2. We then add a
of slope 2 at
1.
term
2u(t
s(t)
2) to bring the level

1) u(t
down
2(t
to zero. Thus,
2) u(t
= 2{t -
1)
2)
2u(t
2)
(2.45)
1A THE UNIT IMPULSE

The unit impulse, or deltafunction, is a mathematical anomaly. P. A. M. first used it in his writings on quantum mechanics. 2 He defined the
Dirac
2(t-\)u(t-\)
FIG. 2.24. Decomposition of the triangular pulse in Fig. 2.23.
P.
A. M. Dirac, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics Oxford University
Press, 1930.
34
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
delta function d\t)
by the equations
6\t) dt
f:
Its
= <J(0 =
(2.46)
for
(2.47)
most important property
is
the sifting properly, expressed by
f J
i
f(t)d(t)dt=f(0)
(2.48)
we will examine the unit impulse from a nonrigorous Those who prefer a rigorous treatment should refer to Appendix B for development of this discussion. The material in that appendix is based on the theory of generalized functions originated by G. Temple. 8 In Appendix B it is shown that the unit impulse is the
In this section
approach.
derivative of the unit step r
o(0
is
..
if
,.
(0
all,
/0 ao>l (2.49)
At
first
glance this statement

is
doubtful. After
the derivative of the
unit step
it does not even exist at that point! However, consider the function g t (i) in Fig. 2.25. It is clear that as e goes to zero, g ( (t) approaches a unit step, that is,
zero everywhere except at the jump discontinuity, and
lim ge(t)
-o
(0
is
(2.50)
Taking the derivative of g t(t), we obtain ',(0. which

equations
g'(0
defined by the
as
shown in
>
e 4+1 .
such that ( Consider the sequence of functions {g' c< (0} for decreasing
Fig. 2.26.
t<0, t> Now let take on a sequence of values e
-e = 0;
(2.51)
et (t)
*V0
FIG.
US.
Unit step when
0.
FIG.
1M.
Derivative of
g((t)
in
Fig. 2.25.
G. Temple, "The Theory of Generalized Functions," Proe. Royal Society, A, 228,
1955, 175-190.
Signals and
waveforms
35
h-\W>
8it
s s
FIG. 127. The sequence {gfi (t)}.
values of c { , as
shown
in Fig. 2.27.
The sequence has the following
property:
J't>0g' (t)dt (i *1<0
(2.52)
where
g't t(t).
tx
and
f
/,
are arbitrary real numbers.
there corresponds a well-behaved function
For every nonzero value of e, (i.e., it does not "blow up")
As
approaches zero,
g'(o+),-0
00
(2.53)
so that the limit of the sequence is not defined in the classical sense. Another sequence of functions which obeys the property given in Eq.
2.52
is
6{t) as the class
the sequence {///)} Fig- 2.28. now define the unit impulse of all sequences of functions which obey Eq. 2.52. In
We
particular,
we
define
r*t>o
J*i>o
i<0
t)A-lim
e<-0/i<0
g' t((t)dt
r* >o
(2.54)
a 4hm
UQdt
36
Network
analysis
and synthesis
FIG. 2.28. The sequence {/ ,(0>
It
should be stressed that this

is
is
not a rigorous definition (which, as

heuristic one.
stated previously,
found in Appendix B) but merely a
From
the previous definition
we can
think of the delta "function" as
having the additional properties,

<5(0)
<5(f)
= =
oo
(2.55)
for
tÔ
Signals and
waveforms
37
Continuing with
the impulse
is
this heuristic treatment,
we
say that the area "under"

t
unity, and, since the impulse is zero for
# 0,
we have
(2.56)
d(t)dt
<x>
Jo
is
6{i) dt 6
Thus
the entire area of the impulse
"concentrated" at
t
=
is
0.
Con-
sequently, any integral that does not integrate through

/*o-
zero,
as seen by
J-oo
S(t) dt
r+oo
(5(f)
dt
=
(2.57)
s(t)
J0+
s(t)
= Au(t- a)
The change of scale and time shift properties

discussed earlier also apply for the impulse
function.
A,
The
s(t)
derivative of a step function
= Au(t a) = A6(t- a)
(2.58)
yields
an impulse function
B'(t)
s\t)
(2.59)
which is shown in Fig. 2.29. Graphically, we represent an impulse function by an arrowhead pointing upward, with the constant
multiplier
A written Note that A is the A d(t - a).

we
s'(t)
= Ad(t-a)
next to the arrowhead.

area under the impulse
FIG. 2.29
Consider the implications of Eqs. 2.58 and 2.59. From these equations see that the derivative of the step at the jump discontinuity of height A
yields
an impulse of area A at that same point t = T. Generalizing on this argument, consider any function /(0 with a jump discontinuity at / = T. Then the derivative, /'(0 must have an impulse at t = T. As an example,
consider /(0 in Fig. 2.30.
At
T,f(t) has a discontinuity of height A,
T
FIG. 2.30. Function with discontinuity at
T.
38
Network
is
analysis
and synthesis
which
given as
A =/(r+) -f(T-)
Let us define
(2.60)
t
fx(t)
as being equal to f(t) for
<
t
T,
and having the

T, that
is,
same shape
as/(/), but without the discontinuity for
>
Ut)=f(t)-Au{t-T)
The
derivative
(2.61)
A0
is
then
A0 -AC) + ^
The following example
the function /(f)
is
<K*
T)
clearly.
(2.62)
illustrates this
point
more
In Fig. 2.31a,
fit)
Its derivative is
= Au(t-a)-A u(t - b) = Ad(t - a) - Ad(t - b)
(2.63)
fit)
(2.64)
and is shown in Fig.

t
t
2.316. Since/(/) has
b, its derivative must have impulses at those points. the impulse at = b is negative because
f(b+) -fQ>-)
two discontinuities, at t = a and The coefficient of
- -A
(2.65)
m
A
8(0 4
a
(a)
r<*>
/
1
(a)
A'
g'(t)
2
6 2
t
~0]
'-A
(b)
(b) Derivative
FIG. 2.31. (a) Square pulse, of squairepulse.
FIG .2.32.
(a) Signal,
(*)] derivative.
Signals and
waveforms
39
consider the function g(i) shown in Fig. 2.32a. obtain #'(0 by inspection, and note that the discontinuity at / 1 produces the impulse in #'(0 of area
As a second example,
We
0+)-(l-) =
as given in Fig. 2.32*.
integral
2,
(2.66)
Another interesting property of the impulse function is expressed by the

+ f
This integral
1
7(0 S(t-T)dt= f(T)

we
consider that d(t
(2.67)
is easily
evaluated if
T)
for all
5* T.
Therefore, the product
f{t)d(t-T)
If/(r)
is
aXLtitT
(2.68)
single-valued at
=
|
T,f(T) can be factored from the

d(t
integral so
that
we
obtain
/(T)
J O0
-T)dt= f(T)
is
(2.69)
Figure 2.33 shows /(r) and d(t - T), where /(/) If/(0 has a discontinuity at / = T, the integral
+00
continuous at i
T.
J
is
Jf(t)Ht-T)dt
o
not denned because the value of f(T) the following examples.
is
not uniquely given. Consider
Example
2.1
/(0
+0O
- 1** - e* r
(2.70)
Example
Z2
e ~&*Hf -00
T)dt
/(/)
= sin t
(2.71)
>''('- 5)*-^
40
Network
analysis
f(t)
and synthesis
FIG. 2.34. Impulse scanning.
Consider next the case where/ (0 is continuous for us direct our attention to the integral
oo
< <
t
oo.
Let
f
a thin
f(t)d(t-T)dt=f(T)
(2.72)
-oo to +oo, which holds for all / in this case. If T were varied from reproduced in its entirety. An operation of this sort then/(0 would be paper with corresponds to scanning the function/(f) by moving a sheet of
across a plot of the function, as shown in Fig. 2.34. higher order derivatives of the unit step function. Let us we represent the unit impulse by the function ft(i) in Fig. 2.28,
slit
now examine
e
Here
which, as
-* 0, becomes the unit impulse. The derivative of/ (0 is given derivative of the in Fig. 2.35. As e approaches zero,/' (0 approaches the seen in Fig. 2.36. unit impulse d'(t), which consists of a pair of impulses as The area under d'(t), which is sometimes called a doublet, is equal to zero.
Thus,
r
The
6'(t)
dt
=
is
(2.73)
other significant property of the doublet
I
1
f2
/() d'(t
-T)dt= -f\T)
(2.74)
rt (t)
(2
FIG. 2.35. Unit doubles as
<=
-* 0.
FIG. 2.36. The doublet

d'(t).
Signals and
waveforms
41
where f'(T) is the derivative of/(0 evaluated at t = T where, again, we assume that/(/) is continuous. Equation 2.74 can be proved by integration by parts. Thus,
*/
f(t)d'(t-T)dt=f(t)d(t-T)\
(
(t)d(t-T)dt
-00
/ oo
(2.75)
=
It
-f'(T).
can be shown in general that
f r oo
/(O
<B,
<5
(<
-T)dt = (-l)y '(r)

(
(2.76)
d(t)
where (5< n and/ <"> denote nth derivatives. The higher order derivatives of can be evaluated in similar fashion.
>
Problems
2.1
Resolve the waveforms in the figure into odd and even components.
s(t)
s(t)
M
(a)
1
-v
a>)
+1
s(t)
m
1
\
1
PRO B. 2.1
42
Network
analysis
and synthesis
waveforms
in the figure using shifted step
2.2 Write the equation for the functions.
fit)
2
1
A
2
t
(b)
fit)
f(t)
2
1.5
2
1
2
(c)
(d)
PROB.
2.2
in Prob. 2.2 and write the equations using shifted step and/or impulse functions. for the derivatives, 2.4 For the waveform /(r) given in the figure, plot carefully
23
Find the derivative of the waveforms
for a value of
>
i
T.
f(r)dr
f(t)
f(t)
2*Wl EMt)
>*
-E6(t-T)
PROB. 2.4
PROB. 2.5
Signals and
waveforms
what value
43
the waveform /(r), must be so that

()
2^ For
shown
in the figure, determine
P/(0<//-0
J 00
j"7<f)<fr-o
J0+
<*)
2.6
For the waveforms shown

is,
in the figure, express in terms of elementary

*
time functions, that

CU.1.1. *u_ Sketch
/",(/
- Q, d(t -
/,),
r * j * x .. the .. waveforms for rL\ and (c) neatly. (6)
()/(/) (*)/'(/) (c) f /(T) Af J 00
JW
m
20
"*
N
(0
At
PROS.
2.4
<*'(*)
*
1
;!
(ii)
J" 5
2.7
(a) (6)
Prove that
--<}'(--X)
-<(a;)
/oo
= x d'(x)
;*)
(c)
&
-o
J 00
2.8
The waveform /(0
in the figure is defined as
/W-^(/-e)*,
= 0,
Show that
as e
o<;/
elsewhere
0,/(/) becomes a unit impulse.
44
2.9
(a)
(ft)
Network
Plot
analysis
and synthesis
%s
t
sgn (cos 0;
'
t 2n
2.10
Evaluate the following integrals
(fl )
r
J CO
OO
<*t
- TO u(t - T2) dt;

/go
I
Ti <T^
a,)
<5(a>
a> )
cos
o>f rfo>
J 00
(c)
[<5(0-/4<5(r-7'1 )+2/l<5(f-7 2)]e-^"A

00
J
2.11
Evaluate the following integral
f " sin
tU
(t
- l\ +
S'
('
"
f)
is
*'<'
>]
2.12
The response from an impulse sampler

r(t)
given by the equation
sin
n s(t
-Kj\dt;
K = 0,
1, 2, 3,
Plot
KO for
<, t <.
IT.
If the step response of a linear, time-invariant determine the impulse response h(f), and plot.
2.13
system is r s (0
2e
'
u(t),
2.14 For the system in Prob. 2.13 determine the response excitation
due to a
staircase
j(0-i(/-*r)
*=o
Plot both excitation
and response
functions.
is
impulse response of a time-invariant system determine the response due to an excitation

2.15
If the
e(t)
W) = ~* "(')
2S(t
1)
2d(t
2)
Plot
e(t).
PROB. 2.16
Signals and
waveforms
45
2.16
The
unit step response of a linear system

<x(r)
is
(2e-
2t
1) (/)
(a) (b)
Find the response
r(f) to the input /(f). a reasonably accurate sketch of the response. dimensions.
Make
Show
all
pertinent
chapter
The frequency domain:

Fourier analysis
3.1
INTRODUCTION
One of
the most
common
classes of signals encountered are periodic
signals.
If
T is the period of the signal, then

s(t)
= s(tnT)
7i
= 0,l,2,...
finite
(3.1)
In addition to being periodic, if s(t) has only a tinuities in any finite period and if the integral
number of discon-
"T I
is finite
\s(t)\
dt
(where a
is
an arbitrary
real number), then s(t)
can be expanded
into the infinite trigonometric series
s(t)
=^+ +
a x cos
+ a t cos 2<ot + b x sin cot + b t sin "hot +

tot
2\
where
2w/r. This trigonometric series is generally referred to as the Fourier series. In compact form, the Fourier series is
s(t)
m=
= ?* + 2 ( cos not +
2
i
b n sin
ntot)
(3.3)
It is
apparent from Eqs. 3.2 and 3.3 that, when s(t) is expanded in a Fourier series, we can describe s(t) completely in terms of the coefficients
46
The frequency domain: Fourier

of
its
. .
analysis
47
harmonic terms, a* alt a . , bx, b These coefficients cona frequency domain description of the signal. Our task now is to derive the equations for the coefficients a( , b t in terms of the given signal function s(t). Let us first discuss the mathematical basis of Fourier series, the theory of orthogonal sets.
stitute
3.2
ORTHOGONAL FUNCTIONS
x (f)
Consider any two functions
and/(/) that are not identically zero.
Then
if
r,
f JTx
/i(0/*(0dt
=O
(3.4)
we
say that/i(r) and/^/) are orthogonal over the interval [Tlt TJ. For example, the functions sin t and cos t are orthogonal over the interval
nlit
r <;
(
<j>
l)2n.
Consider next a set of real functions {&(*),
<f>&)
H(t)}.
If the functions obey the condition
(*.
4>i)
s
I
V<(0
4>M dt =
0,
i*j
(3.5)
then the set {<f>t } forms an orthogonal set over the interval [7\, TJ. In Eq. 3.5 the integral is denoted by the inner product (^ 4 , <f> ). For convent ience here, we use the inner product notation in our discussions. The set {^J is orihonormal over [Tu 7",] if
=
The norm of an element
<f>
(3.6)
1
t-.j
k in
the set
{^J
is
defined as
l&l
- (4, &)* - (%\0 *)*

set
{<f>x, <f>t,
. . ,
(3-7)
We can normalize any orthogonal term <f>k by its norm ||^J|.

3.1. The Laguerre time domain approximation,
'
fa} by dividing each
set,1
is
which has been shown to be very useful in orthogonal over [0, <]. The first four terms
W. H.
Theory, CT-1,
Kautz, "Transient Synthesis in the Time Domain," Trans. No. 3 (Sept. 1954), 29-39.
IRE on
Circuit
48
Network
analysis
and synthesis
of the Laguerre set are

*i(0
- e~**
e-*[l
Ut) *,(/)
4>t(t)
- 2(fl01
(3.8)
= e-o'H - MfO) + Hatf\ = e-'[l far
+ 6(flf)* - Ka/)8
To show
that the set is orthogonal, let us consider the integral
f"
Ut) hiO * = f V*"[l - MpQ +
2(0*] dt
(3.9)
Letting t
= at, we have
i,-;;J'V a-4T+2,*>rfr
,,
(3.10)
-ill-"]The norms of &(/) and &(/) are
,_(J[-^.*)
11*1
-^
a ') ]
(3,.,
Uo
"^[l ~ 4(0 + 4<a

V2a
*}
J
(3.12)
It is
not
difficult
to verify that the
norms of all the elements

set
in the set are also
equal to l/V2aT Therefore, to render the Laguerre
orthonormal,
we
divide
each element fa by
1/ V2a.
3.3
APPROXIMATION USING ORTHOGONAL FUNCTIONS

we
explore
In this section
the linear approximation of functions.
some of the uses of orthogonal functions in The principal problem is that of
approximating a function/(0 by a sequence of functions/B(f) such that the
mean squared error

e
= lim
n-oo
f JTi
*W) - /(0]
dt
(3.13)
analysis
49
When
fit).
Eq. 3.13
is satisfied,
we
say that {/(f)} converges in the mean to
To examine
the concept of convergence in the
mean more
closely,
we
must first consider the following definitions: Definition 3.1 Given a function/(f) and constant/;
T,
>
for which
(
JTi
\f(t)\*dt<ao,
we
[T
say that /(f)
is
integrable
L*
in [7\,
TJ, and
we
Tt
write /(/)
e L
in
].
Definition
12
If/(f)
eL'in [Tlt Tt], and {/(f)> is a sequence of functhat if
tions integrable
L* in [Tlt TJ, we say
Bm.P|/(0-/^)r*-0
then
{/.(*)}
converges in the
2 we say that
{/(f)} converges in the
mean of order/? to /(f). Specifically, when mean to /(f).
The
principle of least squares
Now let us consider the case when/(f) consists of a linear combination

of orthonormal functions
4>i,<l>
<f>
n-
/(0
= I *<&(<)
<-i
(3.14)
Our problem
squared error
is
to determine the constants at such that the integral
11/
- All* - f *W) - M9f dt

JTx
(3.15)
is
m inimum squared error, the constants a

Ci
a minimu m. The principle of least squares states that in order to attain ( must have the values
= ]Kt)Mt)dt
\\f
1, 2,
. . , .
(3.16)
Proof.
We shall show that in order for

a{
must
set
ct for every
/|| s to be minimum
we
n.
H/-/.II*
= </,/) - 2{f,fJ + (/,/) =

11/11*
-22a,(/,&)+2a,W
(3.17)
50
Network
analysis
is
and synthesis
Since the set
{&}
orthonormal, |\| a
1,
and by
definition, ct
(/,&).
We thus have
I/-/-I'
l/l'
- 22A + i
'*
(318)
Adding and subtracting
2 c* gives
8
i/-/.!"
ii/n
- 2iA + i^ + i*' - i*" _1 <-l <-l <_1
(3.19)
We see that in order to

set
attain
minimum
integral squared error,
we must
at
= c<.
The
coefficients c t ,
defined in Eq. 3.16, are called the Fourier

set
coefficients
of/(*) with respect to the orthonormal
{+&)}.
Parseval's equality Consider f (t) given in Eq. 3.14. n

ft
We see that

& are orthonormal functions.

and
is
equality,
This result is known as Parseval's important in determining the energy of a periodic signal.
3.4
FOURIER SERIES
Let us return to the Fourier series as denned earlier in this chapter,
aft)
_ s + V (a , cos nmt +
2
Ti
b n sin nmt)
(3.21)
From our discussion of approximation by orthonormal functions, we can

by a see that the periodic function s(t) with period T can be approximated in the mean to s(t), that is, Fourier series sn(t) such that s n(t) converges
lim im
-oo
r^MO-s-O)]*^
Ja
322>
the
where a
is
any
real
number.
||j(0
We know, moreover, that if n
is finite,
mean squared error
- *(0II* is minimized when

sin k<ot \
the constants a{ , b t
are the Fourier coefficients of s(t) with respect to the orthonormal set
/cos koat
.__,
analysis
51
-3x
fYVtW\
-2x
-x
2x
3x
FIG.
3.1. Rectified sine
wave.
earlier, are
in explicit form the Fourier coefficients, according to the definition given obtained from the equations
fl0=s
rJ
2 r
*)A
s(t)
(323)
cos kmt dt
(3.24)
-If
We should note that because the
s(t) in the
s(0 sin tor
/f
(3.2S)
mean, when
s(t)
contains a
Fourier series sn(t) only converges to jump discontinuity, for example,
S .0,)
= ÎJ(o=)
( 3. 26)
At any point
*(*i)
tt that s(t) is differentiable (thus naturally continuous) converges to a(/J.* As an example, let us determine the Fourier coefficients of the fully rectified sine wave in Fig. 3.1. As we observe, the period is n so that the fundamental frequency is m 2. The signal is given as
T=
s{t)
= A |sin
t\
(3.27)
ir.
Let us take a
derived,
and evaluate between

.
and
Using the formula just

(3.28)
we have
TT
K = ~ Jo (0 sin 2nt dt =
|
2A &A = C*sin tdt =

\
IT
Jo
(3.29)
2[>
IT
s(0 cos 2nt dt
Jo
1
AA
(3.30)
-An*
For a proof see H. F. Davis Fourier Series and Orthogonal Functions, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1963, pp. 92-95.
52
Network
analysis
series
and synthesis
Thus the Fourier
of the
rectified sine
wave
is
5(/)
- i(l + f
cos 2nt)
(3.31)
3.5
EVALUATION OF FOURIER COEFFICIENTS
In this section we will consider two other useful forms of Fourier series. In addition, we will discuss a number of methods to simplify the evaluation of Fourier coefficients. First, let us examine how the evaluation of
coefficients is simplified by
symmetry considerations. From Eqs. 3.23-3.25 which give the general formulas for the Fourier coefficients, let us take a = T/2 and represent the integrals as the sum of two separate parts,
that
is,
rr/t
ro
-i
T
ss
s(0 cos nmt dt

JO
T,t
s(t) sin
+
J-T/S T/a
s(t)
cos mot dt
J "
s(f) sin
(3.32)
2 r f
I
TUo
nmt dt
f
I
nmt dt
i J
J-T/i
Since the variable (0 in the above integrals is a dummy variable, let us t in the substitute x t in the integrals with limits (0 ; r/2), and let x
integrals with limits
(T/2;
C
I
0).
Then we have
an
2 =
T/ *
[s(x)
TJ
*
+ s(x)] cos nmx dx

(3.33)
bn
T/ 2 C
T Jo
[s(a:)
s( *)] sin nmx dx

s(x)
Suppose now the function is odd, that is,

a =
for all n,
s(x), then we
see that
and
-if*
tJo
This implies that,
sine terms.
s(x)
if a
T/2
s{x) sin
nmx dx
(3.34)
function is odd,
its
Fourier series will contain only

is
On
the other hand, suppose the function
even, that
is,
= s(x), then b n =
an
and
s(x) cos
TJo
nmx dx
(3.35)
Consequently, the Fourier series of an even function will contain only

cosine terms.
anal/sis
53
FIG. 3.2
Suppose next, the function
s(t)
obeys the condition
,(,
as given
l)--<0
Then we can show
neven
(3.36)
by the example in Fig. 3.2. only odd harmonic terms, that is,
that s(t) contains
= bn = 0;
s(t)
and
-if TJo
T Jo
cos nmt dt
(3.37)
5(0 sin nmt
dt,
n odd
With this knowledge of symmetry conditions, let us examine how we can approximate an arbitrary time function s(t) by a Fourier series within an interval [0, 71. Outside this interval, the Fourier series sn(t) is not required to fit s(t). Consider the signal s(t) in Fig. 3.3. We can approximate s(t) by any of the periodic functions shown in Fig. 3.4. Observe that each periodic waveform exhibits some sort of symmetry. Now let us consider two other useful forms of Fourier series. The first is the Fourier cosine series, which is based upon the trigonometric identity,
C cos (na>i + 8J
C cos mot cos 0
C sin nmt sin 0
(3.38)
^|
FIG. 3J. Signal, to be approximated.
54
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
m
^"'
-T--
Â ^
(a)
^*^T
m
A
"*-..
-r'- "~^
f~"-~.
-A
(6)
m
A
**-
-T)
I**"
t
*
-A
(e)
FIG. 3.4. (a) Even function cosine terms only, (ft) Odd function Odd harmonics only with both sine and cosine terms.
sine terms only,
(c)
We can derive the form of the Fourier cosine series by setting

and
= C cos 0 bn = C sin 0
a
(3.39)
(3.40)
We then obtain Cn and 0 in terms

a
of an and bn, as
c,-(fl.'
M
(3.41)
Ca =
0,
(-!:)
C, cos (2o>f

If we
series,
combine the cosine and sine terms of each harmonic in the original we readily obtain from Eqs. 3.38-3.41 the Fourier cosine series
f(t)
= C + Ct cos (mi + 00 + + C.cos (3fl>f + 0,) +
0.)

+ Cn cos(nmt + J +
(3.42)

It
anal/sis
55
should be noted that the coefficients C are usually taken to be positive. a term such as 3 cos 2cot carries a negative sign, then we can use the equivalent form
If however,
3cos2a>f =
For example, the Fourier was shown to be
s(0
series
3 cos (2<u/
+ tt)
wave in
(3.43)
of the fully
rectified sine
Fig. 3.1
= ^(l + f
2ir\
n=i
-^ cos 2nt) An
,
(3.44)
Expressed as a Fourier cosine

s(0
series, s(t) is
= ^[l + 1 cos (2nt + *)] 2wL n-i4n 1
(3.45)
Next we consider the complex form of a Fourier series. If we express cos ncot and sin mot in terms of complex exponentials, then the Fourier
series
can be written as
(3.46)
= + 2 ( "* ~ J&" **"* +

2
n-l n-l\
fl
" + ^* *-'"')
If we define
=
2
'
"~ n
2
is
'
then the complex form of the Fourier series

5(0
= A + i(/ffe*"" + /*--'"")
"^
34)
- 2 n
Pn
/?
PSoo
We can readily express the coefficient fi as a function of s(t), since

a
~ Jb
C
I
T
T
l =
T Jo
f T Jo
s(0(cos nott
j sin na0 dt
(3.49)
=i
Equation 3.49
is
s(t)e-
i'
mt dt
sometimes called the discrete Fourier transform of
(/)
and Eq. 3.48
is
the inverse transform of P(na))
/?.
56
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Cb
Ci
Ci
C2
Ci\
Ch
<h
c*.
,C*
4a>
-Au -3 -2w -w
2(i>
3d)
FIG.
3.5.
Amplitude spectrum.
-2T
HF -T 4
-A
2T
FIG.
3.6.
Square wave.

Observe that /?
is
anal/sis
57
usually complex
/*n
and can be represented as
Re/8B
+yIm,
(3.50)
The
real part
of fi
Re /?,
is
obtained from Eq. 3.49 as

CT
Re Pn
1 --
T Jo
(0 cos tuot dt
(3.51)
and the imaginary part of /?
is
JImfl,-^f
It is clear that
T Jo
s(0sinn>r<fc
(3.52)
function in n.
Re /? is an even function in r, whereas Im /S is an odd The amplitude spectrum of the Fourier series is defined as
|/JJ-(Re"fc.+
ImPM
(3.53)
and the />/uue spectrum
is
denned as
6,
= arctan^
(3.54)
It is easily seen that the amplitude spectrum is an even function and the phase spectrum is an odd function in n. The amplitude spectrum provides us with valuable insight as to where to truncate the infinite series and still maintain a good approximation to the original waveform. From a plot of the amplitude spectrum, we can almost pick out by inspection the nontrivial terms in the series. For the amplitude spectrum in Fig. 3.5, we see that a good approximation can be obtained if we disregard any harmonic above the third. As an example, let us obtain the complex Fourier coefficients for the square wave in Fig. 3.6. Let us also find the amplitude and phase spectra of the square wave. From Fig. 3.6, we note that s(t) is an odd function. Moreover, since s(t T/2) = s(t), the series has only odd harmonics. From Eq. 3.49 we obtain the coefficients of the complex Fourier series as
--
Ae-'Mi
TJo
(I
dt--\
TJt/
-)-
Ae' ,nat dt
(3.55)
,tuaT
)
2e~ linmT/i)
jnmT
Since ncoT
e~
= nlir, /? can be simplified to

/.
- rr- a - 2*"*" +
"*"*)
( 3 - 56 >
58
Network analysis and
synthesis
Amplitude
-5
-3
<a)
Phase
-5
-3
-1
2
(b)
FIG.
3.7. Discrete spectra
of square wave, (a) Amplitude. (*) Phase.
Simplifying
/5
one step
further,
we
obtain
n odd
jnir
(3.57)
=
The amplitude and phase
n even
spectra of the square
wave are given in
Fig. 3.7.
34 EVALUATION
OF FOURIER COEFFICIENTS USING UNIT IMPULSES

we make use of a basic property of impulse functions to
In this section
is simplify the calculation of complex Fourier coefficients. This method restricted to functions which are made up of straight-line components only. Thus the method applies for the square wave in Fig. 3.6. The method is
based on the relation
J 00
f" /(*)(-
TO* -/(TO
(3.58)
Let us use this equation to evaluate the complex Fourier coefficients for ,fmt e~ , we have the impulse train in Fig. 3.8. Using Eq. 3.58 with/(f)
'
e d% T fH' - 2 V'"" '~T
~ *~ 2V,,
<
(359>
analysis
59
A..
Al
A,i
A
_L
_L
1
2
3r T
2T
sr
FIG.
3.8.
Impulse
train.
We
see that the complex Fourier coefficients for impulse functions are obtained by simply substituting the time at which the impulses occur into the expression, e~,m" t . In the evaluation of Fourier coefficients, we must remember that the
P integral are taken over one period only, i.e., we consider only a single period of the signal in the analysis. Consider, as an example, the square wave in Fig. 3.6. To evaluate /?, we consider only a single period of the square wave, say, from t to
limits for the
T, as
is
wave
shown in Fig. 3.9a. Since the square not made up of impulses, let us
of the square
s'(t),
>(t)
differentiate the single period
wave to
can
give
as
shown
in Fig. 3.96.
We
f
now evaluate
the complex Fourier coeffi-
cients for the derivative s(t),
which clearly
is
made up of impulses
s(t) is
alone. Analytically, if
-A
(<)
given as
s(0
- 1
Pe
00
inert
(3.60)
then the derivative of 5(0
W
is
A
(3.61)
A|
Here,
we
define a
new complex
coefficient
(3.62)
or
jnm
If the. derivative s'(i)
is
(3.63)
-2A
a function which consists of impulse components alone, then
(6)
we
/?
simply evaluate y n first and then obtain 3.63. For example, the derivative of the square wave yields the impulse train
from Eq.
FIG. 3.9. (a) Square wave over period [0, 71. (b) Derivative of square wave over
period
[0, T\.
60
Network
analysis
and synthesis
[0,
in Fig. 3.96. In the interval
T], the signal s'(f ) is given as
s'(t)
A6(t)-
2^4
d(t
- |) + A d(t -
T)
(3.64)
Then the complex
coefficients are
Tvo
(3.65)
= (\ 2e- linmT/* +
}
e~
inmT
)
The Fourier
coefficients
of the square wave are
y
jnco
(3.66)
^
jnmT
(i
2e~
linaTI * )
e~
inmT
)
which checks with the solution obtained in the standard way in Eq. 3.55. If the first derivative, /(f), does not contain impulses, then we must
differentiate again to yield
s (f)
= f n
Xne
oo
1
inmt
(3.67)
where
K =jno>Yn = (P )* P
[0,
(3 - 68)
For the
period
triangular pulse in Fig. 3.10, the second derivative over the
T]
is
s(0
= Ûf) - 2d(f - |) +
now
obtained as
**
- d]
( 3 - 69 >
The
coefficients
A n are
Xn
=-
T
( s"(i)einat
dt
(3.70)
TJo
2A
which
simplifies to give
,j
_ 2e-OfK27*>
&A T*
-fnmT\
X =s
"
n odd
(3.71)
.,
n even
analysis
61
A&1
2
(a)
3T T
24 Y0
r
2"
2A
T
2A
[>"<'>
(b)
2A
(C)
FIG. 3.10. The triangular wave and
its
derivatives.
From
A_
we
obtain
P-r.
(Jmnf
= = A
terms
2A
nV
nodd
neven
(3.72)
slight difficulty arises if the expression for s'(t) contains an impulse in addition to other straight-line terms. Because of these straight-line
we must
differentiate
once more.
However, from
this additional
obtain the derivative of the impulse as well. presents no difficulty, however, because we know that
%(r) d'(t
differentiation,
we
This
T)
J GO
I
-s\T)
'
(3.73)
so that
f " d'(t J 00
T)e- im"dt
= jna>e-"u T
(3.74)

62
Network
analysis
and synthesis
We can therefore tolerate doublets or even higher derivatives of impulses

la. Its derivative in the analysis. Consider the signal s(f) given in Fig. 3.1 be expressed as *'(<), shown in Fig. 3.116, can
S '(0
|[
M (0
u(t
f )]
+ 0 - 2(l - f)
0.75)
The second
derivative s"(t) consists of
a pair of impulses and a pair of
doublets as given by
mas
|[aco
*(t
f )]
+ *W -
2d'(t
1)
(3.76)
shown
in Fig. 3.11c.
We therefore evaluate A as
,-inmt
s"(t)e
dt
(3.77)
tJo
2. (i _ e-(*~r/) + 1 (i _ 2e- UnaTin )

s'(t)
'
.,
r
t
(o)
(W
t-M(l-f)
-*'('-!) "W
pit)
?(*-i)
to FIG. 3.11
analysis
63
The complex
coefficients /S are
now
obtained as
Qtonf
=
Simplifying,
(jconT)*
(i _ e-oZ7) + _!_ n _ 2e-(^r/a))

janT
'
(3-78)
we have
Pn=- + mr
t
j2irn
(3.79)
"odd
n even
=
In conclusion,
it
j2irn
must be pointed out that the method of using impulses

/3
.
to evaluate Fourier coefficients does not give the d-c coefficient, a /2 or
We obtain this coefficient through standard methods as given by Eq. 3.23.

3.7
THE FOURIER INTEGRAL

we
extend our analysis of signals to the aperiodic case.
In this section
We show through a plausibility argument that generally, aperiodic signals

have continuous amplitude and phase spectra. In our discussion of Fourier series, the complex coefficient (i n for periodic signals was also called the
discrete Fourier transform
1
CT
s(i)e-
M"'*dt
M
TJ-i -T/2
and the inverse
(discrete)
(3.80)
transform was
*(0
= 2 n=
Knfo)e
oo
ln,'
(3.81)
From
the discrete Fourier transform
spectra which consist of discrete lines.

in the spectrum
is
we obtain amplitude and phase The spacing between adjacent lines
A/ -
(n
l)/
=i
(3.82)
As the period T becomes larger, the spacing between the harmonic lines in the spectrum becomes smaller. For aperiodic signals, we let T approach infinity so that, in the limit, the discrete spectrum becomes continuous.
64
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
We now define the Fourier integral or transform as

s(/)
=
is
lim Tx>
A/-0
W = r
Jo
s(()c
-"
it
(3.83)
J oo
The
inverse transform
<0-f" J
S(J)e
iU,t
df
(3.84)
00
Equations 3.83 and 3.84 are sometimes called the Fourier transform pair. 5~x denote denote the operation of Fourier transformation and If we let inverse transformation, then
*</>-*-<0 s(t) = ?-i-S(f)

In general, the Fourier transform S(f)
is
(3 . 85)
complex and can be denoted as

(3.86)
S(f)
= ReS(f)+ j Im S(f)
The
real part of
S(f)
is
obtained through the formula
ReS(/)
= =
J[S(/)
S(-/)]
(3.87)
|"
J CO
s(t)
cos 2-nft dt
and
the imaginary part through
Im S(f)
= [SCO 2/
S(-/)]
(3.88)
=_ =
J CO
s (0 sin 2tt/(
dt
The amplitude spectrum of S(f)

A(f)
is
defined as
[Re SC/) 2
+ Im (/)*]*
(3.89)
and the phase spectrum
is
"-" Sin
s(t)
**
Using the amplitude and phase definition of the Fourier transform, the inverse transform can be expressed as
A(f) cos
[lirft
<Kf)] df
(3.91)
J 00
Let us examine some examples.

MS)
<Kf)
anal/sis
65
-f
+/
(a)
((,)
FIG. 3.12. Amplitude and phase spectrum of A d(t
/,).
Example
3.2.*
sit)
= A6\t-td
S(f)~ ("
J 00
amplitude spectrum
its
A^t- t9)er^t* dt
(3.92)
- Ae-i**">
Its
is
A(f)=A
while
(3.93)
phase spectrum
is
<Kf) as shown in Fig. 3.12.
-2^//o
(3.94)
Example 33.
Formally,
Next consider the rectangular function plotted in Fig.

the rect function.
3.13.
we define the function as
W HSy
\x\
recta;/
>
W t
(3.95)
The
inverse transform of rect/is defined as sine
(pronounced
sink),
3r
-1
[rect/]
sine t
W/2
-Jf/2 -I
e>*"*df
(3.96)
sinirWr
Vt
* It should be noted here that the Fourier transform of a generalized function is also a generalized function. In other words, if e C, (^ <f>) C. For example, J" <5(f ) = 1, where 1 is described by a generalized function 1(/). We will not go into the formal details of Fourier transforms of generalized functions here. For an excellent treatment of the subject see M. J. Lighthill, Fourier Analysis and Generalized Functions, England, Cambridge University Press, 19SS.

<f>
66
Network

recti
1.0
-*
"
w
2
FIG. 3.13. Plot of rect function.

1.0
0.8 0.6
sine
t
0.4
0.2
0.0
\ \
\
.
-0.2
-0.3
~w
~w
3.
1. ~w
~w
/
-L
i.
2.
3.
4.
5.
FIG. 3.14. The sine

e(t)
Excitation
curve.
r(t)
System
Narrow pulse
Wide band
Narrow pulse
*(0
Excitation
r(t)
System
Response
10 Ti
10 Tx Wide pulse
Narrower band
Wide pulse
FIG. 3.15. Illustration of the reciprocity relationships between time duration and bandwidth.
anal/sis
67
From the plot of sine t in Fig. 3.14 we see that sine t falls as does |r| _1 , with zeros at t n\W, n We also note that most of the 1, 2, 3, . energy of the signal is concentrated between the points \\W t \\W.
< <
Let us define the time duration of a signal as that point, t , beyond which the amplitude is never greater than a specified value, for example, e We can effectively regard the time duration of the sine function as t 1/ W. The value W, as we see from Fig. 3.13, is the spectral bandwidth of the
.
rect function.
We
see that if
W increases,
It illustrates
decreases.
The preceding
example illustrates the reciprocal relationship between the time duration of a signal and the spectral bandwidth of its Fourier transform. This
concept
is
quite fundamental.
i.e.,
why
in pulse transmission,
narrow
pulses,
those with small time durations, can only be trans-
mitted through filters with large bandwidths; whereas pulses with longer time durations do not require such wide bandwidths, as illustrated in
Fig. 3.15.
3.8
PROPERTIES OF FOURIER TRANSFORMS

we
consider
In this section
transforms.
some important
properties of Fourier
Linearity
The
linearity property
transform of a
sum of two
is,
of Fourier transforms states that the Fourier signals is the sum of their individual Fourier
transforms, that
Hcx *i(0 + c
t sjflj]
= Cl S (/) + c
x
St(f)
(3.97)
Differentiation This property states that the Fourier transform of the derivative of a signal isjlnf times the Fourier transform of the signal itself:
J-s\i)=j2-nfS{f)
or more generally,
(3.98)
?- s (t) = (j2*frS(f)
The proof is obtained by taking the
transform definition,
00
(3.99)
derivative of both sides of the inverse
s'(0
= 7;f
S(J)e*<*df
(3.100)
at J -oo
-f J
j2nfS(f)e*"df
CO
68
Network
it is
analysis
and synthesis
that the transform of the integral of s(t)
is
Similarly,
easily
shown
f
'
5(t)
dr\
J
= ^j2nf
S(J)
(3.101)
LJ-oo
Consider the following example
j(0
Its
= -'(0
( 3 - 102>
Fourier transform
is
s(/)
f" J CO
r^vHtyr^dt
(3.103)
+ j2irf
(3.104)
The
derivative of s(t)
is
s '(t)
Its
3(0
- aer** (0
j2nf
Fourier transform
is
?['')]
-1-
a+j2wf
a+j2irf
(3.105)
= j2nfS(f)
Symmetry
The symmetry property of Fourier transforms
states that if
then
= X(f) ^ X(t) = *(-/)

3"
x(t)
(3.106)
(3.107)
This property follows directly from the symmetrical nature of the Fourier transform pair in Eqs. 3.83 and 3.84.
Example
3.4.
From the preceding
section,
we know
that
(3.108)
^
It is
sine /
= rect/
then simple to show that
&
rect
= sine ( -/) = sine/
(3.109)
which conforms to the statement of the symmetry property.

the Fourier transform of the unit impulse,
Consider next
the symmetry
(3.110)
&
8(t)
1.
From
property
we can show that
?
as
8(f)
shown in Fig. 3.16. The foregoing example is also an extreme illustration of the time-duration and bandwidth reciprocity relationship. It says that zero time duration, 8(t), gives rise to infinite bandwidth in the frequency domain; while zero bandwidth, 8(f) corresponds to infinite time duration.
analysis
69
m
-t
HD
-/
FIG. 3.1*. Fourier transform of /(f)
1.0.
Scale change
The
scale-change property describes the time-duration

It states that
and bandwidth
reciprocity relationship.
[.(*)]
Proof.
-M*0
(3.111)
We prove
this
property most easily through the inverse trans-
form
J-\\a\ S{af)]
Let/'
\a\
f" S(af)e* df
J oo
(3.112)
= af;
then
*^ll
S(f')]
\a\
f " S(/V*"' J co
( '/o,
a
(3.113)
As an example,
consider
T[e* "(01
then
(3.114)
J2vf+a
\a\
Sy
ifo>0.
Folding
(01
j2iraf
1
a
(3.115)
j2nf+\
The
folding property states that
J-W-01
= s(-f)
(3.116)
70
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
The proof follows
directly
from the
definition of the Fourier transform.
An
example
is
3=V u(-t)]
Delay
If a signal
^
l-j2vf
(3.117)
is delayed by an amount t in the time domain, the corresponding effect in the frequency domain is to multiply the transform of the undelayed signal by er iz"ft that is,
<>,
(3.118)
For example,
&[e- aU
-' )
u(t-t
)]
=
a
-}2rftt>
+ j2nf
(3.119)
shift property of Fourier transforms a Fourier transform is shifted in frequency by an amount f the corresponding effect in time is described by multiplying the original
Modulation The modulation or frequency
states that if
signal
by e iufot that
,
is,
3^[S(f - /<,)]
Example
mM
s(t)
(3.120)
3.5. Given S(f) in Fig. 3.17a, let us find the inverse transform of 5"" 1 Si(f) in Fig. 3.176 in terms of s(t) = S(f). We know that
Sxif)
S(f -f )
+ 5(/ + /)
(3.121)
-/
+/
-/
(b)
*f
FIG.' 3.17.
Demonstration of amplitude modulation.

Then
analysis
71
(3.122)
3^ 5,(/) - *>*". s{t) + er'*'U* g(t) = 2s(t) cos 2nfy

.
Thus we see that multiplying a signal by a cosine or sine wave in the time domain corresponds to shifting its spectrum by an amount f In transmission terminology / is the carrier frequency, and the process of multiplying s(t) by cos
is
2itfy
called amplitude modulation.
Parseval's
theorem
important theorem which relates energy in the time and frequency domains is Parseval's theorem, which states that
An
" i(0 St(0 dt I J 00
= f"
J no
Sx(/) S,(-/) df
(3.123)
The proof is obtained very simply
as follows:
f"
si(0 i(0 dt
f " s(t) dt f "
SiC/V""* d/
-f" *
Si(/)4rf"
Jao
s&Vu"dt
(3.124)
oo
-f" sMSA-fldf J
00
when ^(r) = *j(f), we have a corollary of Parseval's theorem known as PlancheraVs theorem.
In particular,
f " aty) J 00
* = J" f
ISC/)!
4T
(3.125)
00
If j(/) is equal to the current through, or the voltage across a

resistor, the total
1-ohm
energy
is
2
I
the curve of \S(f)\*. or energy spectrum.
(0 dt
We see from Eq. 3.125 that the total energy is also equal to the area under
Thus
\S(f)\* is
sometimes called an energy density
Problems
3.1 Show that the set {1, sin nnt/T, cos nnt/T}, n = 1,2, 3, , forms an orthogonal set over an interval [a, a + 2T], where a is any real number. Find the norms for the members of the set and normalize the set.
. . .
72
3.2
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Fourier Given the functions/^) and/i(0 expressed in terms of complex
senes
/l(/)=2^ n oo
B,,
"
/K0-2A.'*-'
where both/i(0 and/j(0 have the same period T, and
= Kl e**\
A.
lftl
e*
show
that
Note that
oA>
+ 22 lgl cos(flB \0,
4>J
m * -n
33
For the periodic
signals in the figure, determine the Fourier coefficients
f(f>
--T
(h)
fit)
+T
T
5
(e)
A
T
PROB.3.3
analysis
73
3.4 For the waveforms in Prob. 3.3, find the discrete amplitude spectra and plot.
and phase
3.5 For the waveforms in Prob. 3.3 determine the complex Fourier coefficients using the impulse function method. 3.6
figure.
Find the complex Fourier
coefficients for the function
shown
in the
ST,
A AA
r
3T.
~r
-t
Tj
T,
3T,
~T
~i
L,
51
PROB.
3.7
3.6
Find the Fourier transform for the functions shown in the
figure.
f(t)
m
1
/
/ -T
\
f(t)
.1
^C*
t t
*T
(>
(b)
f<t)
y
3.8
(a)
3V
(c)
Id)
PROB.
Find the Fourier transform for
3.7
/ - A <3(0
/(f)
(*)
A sin atf
74
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
3.9 Prove that (a) if /(f) is even, its Fourier transform F(ja>) is also an even function; (6) if /(/) is odd, its Fourier transform is odd and pure imaginary.
F(ju)
(i)
+0
PROS.
3.10
3.10
Find the inverse transform of

F(jm)
= P 6(fo -
Wo)
+ P 8{(o +
eo )
as
shown domain?
in the figure.
What can you
say about line spectra in the frequency
chapter
Differential equations
4.1
INTRODUCTION
is
This chapter
equations.
We will concentrate on the mathematical aspects of differential

5.
devoted to a brief study of ordinary linear differential
tial
equations and leave the physical applications for Chapter equations considered herein have the general form
The differen-
/MO, *'('),
where
t.
*(0,
t]
(4.1)
t is
The
the independent variable and x(t) is a function dependent upon superscripted terms >(/) indicate the rth derivative of x(t) with
t,
respect to
namely,
>/a x(t)
d(i)
x(t)
~df~
(42)
explicit function
F in Eq. 4.1 is x(t) and must be obtained as an of /. When we substitute the explicit solution x(t) into F, the equation must equal zero. If fin Eq. 4.1 is an ordinary linear differThe
solution of
it is
ential equation,
given by the general equation
+ , x\t) + oo x(t) =f(t) (4.3) The order of the equation is n, the order of the highest derivative term. The term/(0 on the right-hand side of the equation is Xht forcing function or driver, and is independent of x(i). When /(f) is identically zero, the
equation is said to be homogeneous; otherwise, the equation is nonhomogeneous. In this chapter we will restrict our study to ordinary, linear differential equations with constant coefficients. Let us now examine the meanings of
these terms.
75
(B> * (0
+ a^x^Xt) +
76
Network
Ordinary.
anal/sis
and synthesis
An ordinary differential equation is one in which there is only

(in
one independent variable

partial derivatives.
our case,
t).
As a result there is no need
for
conConstant coefficients. The coefficients a n , o^, ...,a alt a are stant, independent of the variable t. the differential equation is linear if it contains only terms of Linear. derivatives, as given by Eq. 4.3. For first degree in x(t) and all its higher
example, the equation

3x'(t)
+ 2z(0 = sin
(4.4)
is
a linear
differential equation.
On the other hand,

5t
(4.5)
3[*
is
+ 2*(f) x\t) + 4x(0 =

and
nonlinear, because the terms [x'(t)]*
x(t) x'(t) are nonlinear
by the
definition just given.
important implication of the linearity property is the superposition and x^t) are x property. According to the superposition property, if x (0 equation for forcing functions/^) and/,(0, solutions of a given differential of then, if the forcing function were any linear combination
An
respectively,
Ut) and/,(0 such as J

the solution would be
AO-afM + btff)
x(r)-ai(0
(4-6)
+ &*40
(4 - 7 )
that the where a and b are arbitrary constants. It should be emphasized kept in is extremely important and should be superposition property
mind
4.2
in
any discussion of linear
differential equations.
HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
homogeneous, This section deals with some methods for the solution of First, let us find linear differential equations with constant coefficients.
the solution to the equation
x'(t)
- 2*(<) =
=
Ce"
(4.8)
Now, with a little prestidigitation, we assume the solution to be of the form

*(0
where
is
(4.9)
C is any arbitrary constant.

2Ce* f
Let us check to see whether x(t)
Ce2 *
4.8,
truly a solution of Eq. 4.8.
Substituting the assumed solution in Eq.
we
obtain
- 2Ce* =
(4.10)
tA
tn
It
77
differential
can be shown, in general, that the solutions of homogeneous, linear equations consist of exponential terms of the form C<e p <*. To
vt obtain the solution of any differential equation, we substitute Ce for x(t) for which the equation is in the equation and determine those values ofp
zero. In other words, given the general equation
an *<">(*)
+ +
4.11
1
! x'(t)
+ a, x(f) =
(4.1 1)
we
let x(t)
Ce", so that Eq.
becomes
(4.12) + a# + a,) = + a^tf*- + pt Since e cannot be zero except at/? = oo, the only nontrivial solutions
Ce'Kanp"
for Eq. 4.12 occur
when the polynomial
H(p)
- <W" + a-tf"-1 +
'
W+
(4.13)
Equation 4.13 is often referred to as the characteristic equation, and is denoted symbolically in this discussion as H(p). The characteristic equation is zero only at its roots. Therefore, let us factor H(j>) to give
H(j>)
= an(p- PMp- Pi)---(p- p^
(4.14)
solutions t .... Cw_ 1c*-' are all of Eq. 4.11. By the superposition principle, the total solution is a linear combination of all the individual solutions. Therefore, the total solution of the differential equation is
From Eq. 4.14, we note that Cê"**, Cxe***
x(t)
= CV' +
Q**'
<:_!-
(4.15)
, C , x, B_i are generally complex. The solution x(t) in Eq. , Cn_x are uniquely not unique unless the constants C, Cls specified. In order to determine the constants Cit we need n additional pieces of information about the equation. These pieces of information are usually specified in terms of values of x(t) and its derivatives at t 0+,
where
C C
4. IS is
and are therefore referred to as initial conditions. To obtain ft coefficients, "-1 , a; >(0+). In a number we must be given the values <r(0+), x'(0+),
(
. .
of special cases, the values at

/
t = 0
are not equal to the values at
= 0+.
.
x'(0 ),
to solve
*(0 ), we must determine the values at f = 0+ In order ^"-^(O ), for the constants C{ This problem arises when the forcing
If the initial specifications are given in terms of
,
. .
an impulse function or any of its derivatives. We will discuss this problem in detail in Section 4.4. For example, in Eq. 4.9 if we are given that *(0+) = 4, then we obtain the constant from the equation
function /(f)
is
x(0+)
= Ce*=C
(4.16)
78
Network
is
analysis
and synthesis
so that x(t)
uniquely determined to be
x(t)
= 4e*
+ 4a</) =
x'(0+)
(4.17)
Example
4.1
Find the solution for

*'(/)
5x\t)
given the
initial
conditions
a<0+)-2
Solution.
= -1 =
From the given equation, we first obtain the characteristic equation

H(p)
= p* +
5p
+
1)
(4.18) (4.19)
characteristic values)
which factors into
(/>
+ 4X/> +
The roots of the characteristic equation (referred to here as step = -1 p = 4. Then x(t) takes the form
;
x{t)
= Qe-* + =
2,
Cê-**
(4.20)
From
the initial condition
(0+)
we
obtain the equation
x(0+)
=2 =
Q+C
(4.21)
In order to solve for Cx and C, explicitly, we need the additional initial condition x'(0+) = -1. Taking the derivative of x(i) in Eq. 4.20, we have
X '(f)
= -Qe-' - 4Q*-4
(4.22)
Atf =0+,a;'(0is
a:'(0+)
= -1 = =i
-Q -4C
we find
(4.23)
Solving Eqs. 4.21 and 4.23 simultaneously,
that
Ci
Thus the
Next,
root p
final solution is
a*/)
C% = J = %r* - \e~**
(4.24)
we examine
the case
when
the characteristic equation H(p) has
multiple roots.
Specifically, let
us consider the case where H(p) has a
=p
of multiplicity k as given by
H(p)
It will
= an(p -
k )
(p
-pd---(p-pn)
(4-25)
be left to the reader to show that the solution must then contain k terms involving e" * of the form
x(i)
CV"
+ C01 te*>* +
Cnt'e***
+ + C^*** +
+ C^t*-^"* Cje "' + + Cne*'*
(4.26)
where the double-scripted terms in Eq. 4.26 denote the terms in the solution due to the multiple root, (p #,)*
79
Example 4.2
Solve the equation

*(/)
- Sx'(t) +
is
16*(r)
=
"=4
(4.27)
with
Solution.
a<0+)2 and
The characteristic equation
H{p) ~p*
*'(<>+)
ip
16
= (p - 4)
(4.28)
Since H(p) has a double root at/>

x(t)
=4,
the solution must take the form

(4.29)
C^* + Cy*"
x(f)
In order to determine
and C we evaluate
and
'(') at r
= 0+
to give
(0+)
*'(<>+)
= C1 =2
=4Q +C =4
2
(4.30)
Thus the
final solution is
a<r)
= 2c*' - 4te*'
when H(p) has complex conjugate
(4.31)
Another
interesting case arises
roots.
Consider the equation
H{p)
- a (p -pMp-pJ
2 is,
(4.32)
where />! and />, are complex conjugate roots, that

Px,Pi
ojo>
(4.33)
The
solution x(t) then takes the

x(t)
form
Ci<*W">*
<V'>'
x(t)
(4.34)
Expanding the term

x(t)
t
e*"
by Euler's equation,
can be expressed as
cor
= C e*(cos cot +j sin cat) +

x(t)
Cje^cos
y sin cat)
sin cor x(r)
(4.35)
which reduces to
= (Q +
C,y* cos
cor
+j(C1
CJe'*
(4.36)
expressed in the
Let us introduce two new constants, more convenient form

x(t)
and Af so that
may be
(4.37)
= Mje'* cos cor + Aftf"' sin cat

M! =
where 3/x and
are related to the constants
Cx and C2 by the equations

(4.38)
d + C,
manner from
^. =y(C! - C2)
The
constants Afj
conditions.
and
are determined in the usual
initial
80
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Another convenient form for the solution x(t) can be obtained if we and <f>, defined by the equations introduce still another pair of constants,
Ml = MsiD *
M
With the constants
= M cos
(4.39)
<f>
M and
<f>
we
obtain another form of x(i), namely,

<f>)
x{i)
- MC* sin (a>t +

+ 2*'(/) + 5x(t) = =
l
(4.40)
Example 4.3
Solve the equation
x\t) with the

initial
(4.41)
conditions
a<0+)
Solution.
*'(<>+)=
The
characteristic equation
H(p)
1
is
H(p) =/>*
+ 2/7 +
= (p +
+j2Kp +
-j2)
(4.42)
a>
so that, assuming the form of solution in Eq. 4.37,
we have a = -1 and
2.
Then
At
x\t) is
x(t)
t
= 0+
derivative of x(i) is
= M&-* cos 2t + Mtf-* sin It *(0+) - 1 - Mt
(4.43)
(4.44)
The
*'(*)
= Mx( -"' cos 2/ - 2e"' sin 20 + M -e~* sin 2/ + 2c" cos 2t)
+, we obtain the equation
'(<)+)
(4.45)
At
-Afj
+ 2MS
find
(4.46)
Solving Eqs. 4.44 and 4.46 simultaneously, Thus the final solution is
x(t)
we
and
M, =
+$.
<r*(cos 2/
+ sin 2t)
we would have
(4.47)
If
we had used
the form of x(t) given in Eq. 4.40,
obtained the
solution
x(t)
Vfe-* sin
[2t
tan"1 (2)]
(4.48)
Now let us consider a differential equation that have discussed concerning characteristic values.
Example 4.4
illustrates everything
we
The
differential
(4
equation
is
*<(/)
+ 9*
a!
>(f)
+ 32x<(0 + 5Sx'(t) + 56<r'(0 + 24a</) =

5c
(4.49)
The
initial
conditions are
U)(0+)=0
x'(0+)
(S,
(0+)
=
=
= -1
x'(0+)
a<0+)
Solution.
81
The characteristic equation

H(p)
is
= p* + 9/ + 32/> + SSp* + 56p + 24 -
(4.50)
which factors into
H(p)
- (p +
+yi)0
-;1)0>
+ 2)ty +
3)
(4.51)
From H(p) we immediately write x(t)

a<0
as
- Mi*-
cos
+ M^r* sin f + Qc-** +
Qte"**
+ Qe-3
(4.52)
Since there are five coefficients,
we need a corresponding number of equations
to evaluate the unknowns. These are
a<0+)
a;'(0+)
x'(0+)
a;)(0+)
*<((> +)
- Mx + C + C8 = 1 - -Mx + Mt - 2C - 3Ct + Q - -2M, + 4C - 4Q + 9Ct = -1 = 2Mj, + 2Mt - 8C + 12Q - 27C, = = -4M1 + 16C + 81C, - 32CX =
we obtain
(4.53)
1
Solving these five equations simultaneously,
Mi -
M
is
-1
C =
Q -i
C.
=0
so that the final solution
a</)
- $e~' sin /+-*+ Jte-**

upon
the roots of
(4.54)
We have seen that the solution of a homogeneous, differential equation

may
take different forms depending
its
characteristic
equation. Table 4.1 should be useful in determining the particular form of

solution.
TABLE
Roots of H(p)
1.
4.1
Forms of Solution
e p,t
Single real root, p
=p
2. 3.
Root of multiplicity, k, (p -*)* Complex roots at/>, , = a jm
M C* cos mt + Mge"*
X
Ce*i*
Cje'i*
+ CfcV'-W
sin ait
Me* sin (mt

4.
Complex roots of multiplicity k *tP*.6 = " j<>>
M^* cos mt + Mjte"* cos / +

+ Aft-if*-1**' cos mt + NtfP* sin mt + Nite?* sin mt H + Nk_1tk- sin mt
+ +)
82
Network
4.3
NONHOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS
a nonhomogeneous equation is one in which the forcing function f(t) is not identically zero for all t. In this section, we will discuss methods for obtaining the solution x(t) of an equation with constant coefficients
As we mentioned in the introduction to this chapter,
differential
an *<>(*)
+ a^ x-(0 +
+a
x(t)
=f(t)
(4.55)
Let x p (f) be a particular solution for Eq. 4.55, and let x e (t) be the solution in Eq. 4.55. of the homogeneous equation obtained by letting f(t)
It is readily
seen that
<t)
is
= xjf) + x (0
e
(4-56)
also a solution of Eq. 4.55. According to the uniqueness theorem, the

is
solution x(t) in Eq. 4.56

differential
t
the unique solution for the

satisfies
is
nonhomogeneous
conditions at
is
= 0+. 1
equation if it In Eq. 4.56, x p(t)
the specified
initial
the particular integral; x a(t) the total solution.
the comple-
mentary function; and x(t)
is
Since we already know how to find the complementary function x e (t), we now have to find the particular integral x p(t). In solving for xp(t), a very reliable rule of thumb is that x p(t) usually takes the same form as the forcing function if/(0 can be expressed as a sum of exponential functions.
Specifically,
example,
if/(f)
xp{t) assumes the form of /(/) plus all its = a sin cot, then xjf) takes the form
x P(t)
derivatives.
For
= A sin cot + B cos cot
that must be determined are the coefficients A and B of the terms in xjf). The method for obtaining x p(t) is appropriately called the method of undetermined coefficients or unknown coefficients.
The only unknowns
In illustrating the method of unknown coefficients,
let
us take/(0 to be
(4.57)
/(0=<*e"
where a and
/S
are arbitrary constants.

is,
We
then assume x p (t) to have a

(4.58)
similar form, that
xjf)
= Ae"
To
determine A,
and
is
the
unknown
AefiXaJ"
coefficient.
we simply
substitute
the assumed solution x p(t) into the differential equation. Thus,
a,,.^"-
+ aj +
= oe"
(4.59)
See, for example, C. R. Wylie, Advanced Engineering Mathematics (2nd McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1960, pp. 83-84.
ed.),
83
We sec that the polynomial within the parentheses is the characteristic equation H(p) with / Consequently, the unknown coefficient is /?. obtained as
A = -^provided that H(fi) jt

0.
(4.60)
Example 4.5
Determine the solution of the equation

**(r)
+ 3x'(t) + Ttff) - 4e*

=
1,
(4.61)
with the
initial conditions,
a<0+)
x'(0+)
= 1.
1)
Solution.
The
characteristic equation is
Hip) -/>
+ 3/> + 2 = (p + 2Xp +
is
so that the complementary function

*JLi)
= cie-* + c*-*
a
For the forcing function /(f)
4e, the constants in Eq. 4.60 are

^ = _i_ = ?
H(l)
3
= 4,
=> 1.
Then
Thus we obtain
xp(t)
= |e*
The
total solution is
*(')
- *c(0 + *(0 = Cxe- + Cir" + |e
(4.62)
To
evaluate the constants
Q and C we substitute the given

1
initial conditions,
namely,
40+) =
*'(0+)
Solving Eq. 4.63,
"Q+Cg+f
(4 ' 63)
= -1 - -Ci - 2C, + f
we find
that
a</)
Q=
1,
C,
= $.
Consequently,
(4.64)
. _ e-' +
+ fe*
we solve for the constants x and t from the conditions for the total solution. This is because initial conditions are not given for xe(t) or *(/), but for the total solution.
It
should be pointed out that
initial
Next,
let
We may use Eq.
us consider an example of a constant forcing function/(f) 4.60 if we resort to the artifice

/(r)
= a.
=a=
ae*
(4.65)
84
that
Network
is, j8
analysis
and synthesis
equation in Example 4.5 with/(/)
= 0.
For the
differential
= 4,
we
see that
and
*(0
= Cltr* + C*r + 2
(4.67)
the forcing function is a sine or cosine function, consider the forcing function to be of exponential form and
When
we can still make use of
the
method of undetermined
fit)
coefficients
*
and Eq.
4.60.
Suppose
(4.68)
= oe* = a(cos <ot + j sin oat)

Re
then the particular integral x vlit) can be written as
x Plit)
MO + J Im MO
we can show
then then
that
(4 ' 69)
From the
if
superposition principle,
if
= fit) =
fit)
a.
cos
o>t
a sin tot
= Re MO *,(0 = Im * rt(f)
x(0
mt or a Consequently, whether the excitation is a cosine function a cos iat <xe ; or, we can use an exponential driver fit) sine function a sin the real or imaginary part of the resulting particular integral. then we take
Example 4.6
Find the particular integral for the equation

x'it)
+ 5*'(0 + 4a<<) = 2 sin 3*
(4.70)
Solution.
First, let
us take the excitation to be /i(0
= 2e*
(4.71)
so that the particular integral *.(/) takes the form
rt(0
- Ae*
(4.72)
From the characteristic equation

H(p)
=/>*
+5p +4
we determine
the coefficient
to be
H(j2)
_ -5 +jlS
2
=,
L^tan-Hs)--] 5 VlO
1
1
(4.73)
Then
MO
is
* -'5VI0
1^ o^ ^*-
<
474>
85
and the
particular integral x(t) for the original driver /(f)
= 2 sin 3/ is
*]
(4.75)
xjf)
- Im xpl(t) = -= sin [3f + tan"1 (3) 2
5V10
There are certain limitations to the applicability of the method of undetermined coefficients. If /(f) were, for example, a Bessel function 7 (f)> we could not assume xv(t) to be a Bessel function of the same form (if it is a Bessel function at all). However, we may apply the method to forcing functions of the following types
2. /(f)
= A; constant. = A(t n + Vi' + + V + b ); pt 3. /(f) = e real or complex. p

!
/(0
'
n, integer.
4.
Any function formed by multiplying terms of type

linear
1, 2,
or
3.
For the purposes of

adequate.
network
analysis, the
method
is
more than
Suppose the forcing function were

/(f)
= At*e pt
p = a+jm
The
particular integral
can be written as
xp(t)
where the
= (AJ* +
A& A_lf
4^ +
.
.
...
+ A 1t + A )e*
(4.76)
coefficients
. ,
A A
lt
are to be determined.
4.4
STEP
AND
IMPULSE RESPONSE
we
will discuss solutions of differential equations with
In this section
step or impulse forcing functions. In physical applications these solutions
are called, respectively, step responses and impulse responses.

quantities, the step
significant measures
As
physical
and impulse responses of a
linear system are highly
of system performance. In Chapter 7 it will be shown is given by its impulse response. Moreover, a reliable measure of the transient behavior of the system is given by its step and impulse response. In this section, we will be concerned with the mathematical problem of solving for the impulse and step response, given a linear differential equation with
that a precise mathematical description of a linear system
initial
conditions at
= 0.
of the unit step function was
(f)
From Chapter 2,
recall that the definition
= =
^ f <
f
86
Network
analysts
and synthesis
and the unit impulse was shown to have the properties:

d(t)
=
=
oo
tj*0
<3(0 df
and
in addition,
r
we have
JoJo-
the relationship
d(t)
= i*@
dt
As
the definitions of d(t) and u(t) indicate, both functions have dis-
continuities ait
drivers,
x'(t),
0.
In dealing with initial conditions for step and impulse

solution x{t)
we must then recognize that the x"(f), etc., may not be continuous at t
and
its
derivatives
it
= 0.
In other words,
may be
that
*<>(()-) ji z<>(0+)
x (-i)(0_)
x(0-)
In
^ a;<"-"(0+)
5*
*(0+)
t
many
physical problems, the initial conditions are given at
= 0
However, to evaluate the unknown have the initial conditions at t = 0+. Our
conditions at
t
constants of the total solution,
we must
task, then, is to determine the

t
.
= 0+, given the initial conditions at = 0

is
The method
is
discussed here
borrowed from electromagnetic theory and
often
referred to as "integrating through a Green's function."*
Consider the
differential
equation with an impulse forcing function

(4.77)
a n *<>(t)
+ a*.,. xt-\t) +-- + ax(f) = A d\t)

insure that the right-hand side of Eq. 4.77 will equal the left-hand x0) must contain an impulse. one of the terms z (B, (f), * (n_1) (0> The question is, "Which term contains the impulse ?" A close examination shows that the highest derivative term x ln) (t) must contain the impulse, because if * <n-1) (f) contained the impulse, x (B) (f) would contain a doublet C d'(t). This argument holds, similarly, for all lower derivative terms of *-u (n> (f) contains the impulse, then s x(i). If the term 3 (0 would contain a {n~* We conclude therefore that, for an impulse step and x (0> a ramp. forcing function, the two highest derivative terms are discontinuous at i = 0.
side,
(
,
To
'The Green's function is another name for impulse response; see, for example, Morse and Feshbach, Methods of Theoretical Physics, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York,
1952, Chapter 7.
87
For a step forcing function, only the highest derivative term is discontinuous
at
t
0.
0 , our task is to t determine the values a; (B) (0+) and * <n - 1, (0+) for an impulse forcing function. Referring to Eq. 4.77, let us integrate the equation between
Since initial conditions are usually given at
t
= 0
Jo-
and
==
0+, namely,
an
)xM
.
(t)
dt
+ a^ f ^'-"(O dt + Jowe
obtain
a ]x{t)dt Jo-
= A f %*)<*'
Jo
(4-78)
After integrating,
AP
aB [*(-(0+)
- *<-i>(0-)] + a-i[* (B-
a,
(0+)
- *<-(0-)] +
=A
(4.79)
We know that all derivative terms below (n

Consequently, Eq. 4.79 simplifies to
1)
are continuous at
= 0.
an [x<-1 >(0+)
so that
- ^"(O-)] = A
(
(4.80)
xl
^v(0+) = + * *-"(0-)
At
t
(4.81)
We must next determine * (n> (0+).

in Eq. 4.77
is
= 0+, the differential equation
an *<">(0+)
Since
all
+ a^ *<"-(0+) + + Oo *(0+) = derivative terms below ( 1) are continuous, and - - -- [0^x^X0+) +

<*n
(4.82)
since
we
have already solved for z(B-1) (0+), we find that

*<">(<)+)
ai x'(0+)
flo
*(0+)]
(4.83)
For a step forcing function A u(t), all derivative terms except x<">(f), are (B) continuous at t 0. To determine a; (0+), we derive in a manner similar to Eq. 4.83, the expression
*<>(0+)
= - - -
[a^1 x(B
initial
-1>
(0+)
ao*(0+)]
(4.84)
The process of determining

is
conditions
when the
forcing function
an impulse or one of its higher derivatives can be
simplified
by the visual
88
Network
analysis
and synthesis
process
its
shown in Eqs.
4.85
associated highest-order singularity.
and 4.86. Above each derivative term we draw Note that we need only go as low
as a step in this visual aid.
OnX^Kt)
oB_1a: (B 1 W
+ a^^-'KO + + aoÔ =
<*'(')
(4.85)
ax<\t)
It
OaV- ^) + (WfÔ +
1
+ flo^W = *0
(4.86)
should be noted that
if a derivative
term contains a certain singularity
for example, a
doubletit
also contains all lower derivative terms.
For
example, in the equation
*'(/)
3'(0
2a</)
4<5'(/)
(4.87)
we assume
the following forms for the derivative terms at
= 0:
*"(0
= A S'(t) + B 8{f) + C (0 x'(f) - A 8(t) + B u(t) x(t) = A u(t)

we
obtain
(4.88)
Substituting Eq. 4.88 into Eq. 4.87,
A d'(t) + B (5(0 +
Or
in a
Cu(t)
+ I A 8(t) +
3B (r)
+ 2A u(f) - 4d'(t)
(4.89)
more convenient form, we have
A d'(t) +
Equating
(B
3A)
<J(0
+ (C + 3B + 2A) u(0 - 4d'(0

sides of the Eq. 3.90 gives
(4.90)
like coefficients
on both
A=
4
(4.91)
= C + 3B + 2A =
B+
3A
89
it is
from which we obtain

true that
B = 12
and
C=
28.
Therefore, at
= 0,
**(*)
= M(t) - 12(5(0 + 28(0 x'(0 = 4d(0 - 12(0 *(*) = 4u(t)

.
(4.92)
The w(0 terms

conditions at
t
in Eq. 4.92 gives rise to the discontinuities in the initial
= 0. We are given the initial conditions at t = 0
Once
For
we
evaluate the A, B,
t
C coefficients in Eq. 4.88, we can obtain the initial
conditions at
= 0+ by referring to the coefficients of the step terms.
example,
if
= -2 *'(0-) - -1 *(<)-) = 7
*(<)-)
Then from Eq. 4.92 we obtain

x(0+)
=-2 + 4 = 2
(4.93)
= -1 - 12 ex -13 **(()+) = 7 + 28 = 35
x\0+)
The total solution of Eq. 4.87 is obtained as though it were a homogeneous equation, since d'(t) = for t j*s 0. The only influence the doublet driver
has
is
to produce discontinuities in the initial conditions at i

initial
= 0.
Having
evaluated the
conditions at
= 0+,
we can
obtain the total
solution with ease. Thus,
z(0
= C <r* +
x
C*tr
(4.94)
From
Eq. 4.93
we
readily obtain
*(0
= (-9er* +
ll<r-) u(t)
(4.95)
function
The total solution of a differential equation with a step or impulse forcing For a step is obtained in an equally straightforward manner.
forcing function, only the highest derivative term has a discontinuity at

t = 0. Since we do not need the initial condition of the highest derivative term for our solution, we proceed as if we were solving a standard nonhomogeneous equation with a constant forcing function. For an impulse driver, once we determine the initial conditions at t = 0+, the equation is solved in the same manner as a homogeneous equation.
90
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Example 4.7
Find the step and impulse response for the equation

2x"(f)
+ 4x'(t) +
I0x(0 =/(f)
where /(f)
are
<5(f)
and/(f)
(f), respectively.
The
initial
conditions at
a<0-)
Solution.
=
;
*'(0-)
x"(0-)
= We
note that the x" term
Let us
is
first
find the impulse response.
contains an impulse
and a step
the x' term contains a step ; the

f
x term contains
a ramp, and
therefore continuous at
0.
Thus x(0+)
= x(0 ) = 0. To
(4.96)
obtain a;'(0+),
we use Eq.
*'(0
4.81
+)
- - + *'(0 -) a2
\
2.
=\
2.
Note that we
actually need only x(0
+) and
x'(0
for the second-order differential equation.
Next,
+) to evaluate the constants we proceed to the compleis
mentary function x e(t). The characteristic equation
H(p)
- 2(p* + lp +
5)
- lip +
+jlKp +
-j2)
(4.97)
Since H(p) has a pair of complex conjugate roots,
we use a standard form
for
= Me~* sin (2f + # Substituting the initial conditions at f = 0+, we obtain

x c (i)
(4.98)
a<0+)
x'(0+)
=0 = Afsin^
= J = 2Mcos $ -
(4.99)
sin
<f>
from which we find ^ denote here as xt(t), is
and
M=
\.
Thus the impulse response, which we

(4.100)
let
**) =
1~* sin 2f u{i)
Next we must solve for the step response xu{t). For convenience, complementary function as
us write the
xe(t) The
particular integral
is
= e-KA^ sin 2f + A t cos 2f)
(4.101)
evaluated by considering the forcing function a
constant /(f)
so that
a,
jt) _!_ = J-
(4.102)
The
total solution is then

a<f)
- (A t sin 2f + At cos 20*?-* + ^

a
(4.103)
Since x'(t) and x(t) must be continuous for a step forcing function,
<0+)=a<0-)=
a;'(0+)-a; , (0-)
=0
(4.104)
91
Substituting these initial conditions into x(i) and *'(/), we find that Ax -0.05 A t -0. 1 .
d/dt
*,(')
d/dt
> *(0
C*
C*
> *j(0
Therefore, the step response
is
*(*)=
0.1[1
--*(0.5sin2/+
cos 2,)]*)
(4.105)
L_
*,>
WO
FIG.
4.1.
L>*,(/)
Note
that the impulse response
step response are related
and the by the equation

x,
(0
i. *(<) at
(4.106)
Wecan demonstrate Eq.4.106by thefollowingprocedure.

xu(t)
into the original equation
Let us substitute
.(*)
+ 4 ^ x.(0 +
we have
10*(0
. h(0
(4.107)
Differentiating both sides,
_|
.(*)]
+ 4 1[| *(o] +
io[^ *(*)]
<H0
(4.108)
from which Eq. 4.106

Generalizing,
follows.
we
see that, if we have the step response for a differential
obtain the impulse response by differentiating the step can also obtain the response to a ramp function f(t) A p(t) (where A is the height of the step) by integrating the step response. The relationships discussed here are summarized in Fig. 4.1.
response.
equation,
we can
We
4.5
INTEGRODIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
we
will consider
In this section,
an
integrodifferential equation of the
form
a *"(t)
a,.!
*-\t)
+
,
+
.
.
a
.
x(t)
a_t f x(r) dr
Jo
= /(/)
(4.109)
where the coefficients {a, a1K.1 , a_ t } are constants. In solving an equation of the form of Eq. 4.109 we use two very similar methods. The first method is to differentiate both sides of Eq. 4.109 to give
a n x (n+1 \t)
+ a^ xM (t) +
consists
a x\t)
a_t
x(t)
-/'()
(4.U0)
The second method

a, y(n+1)(t)
of a change of variables.
We let y'(f) = x(t);

y(t)
Eq. 4.109 then becomes
*_! y \t)
(n
y'(t)
a_x
= f(t)
(4.111)
92
Network
Note that from Eq. 4.110 we obtain x(t) directly. From Eq. 4.111, we obtain y(t), which we must then differentiate to obtain x(t). An important point to keep in mind is that we might have to derive some additional the initial conditions in order to have a sufficient number to evaluate
unknown
constants. Solve the integrodifferential equation
Example 4.8
x'(t)
3a<0
+2f
*(t)
dr
5(0
(4.112)
The
Solution.
we
is x(0 ) = 1. Since the characteristic equation of Eq. 4.112 is of second degree, obtain *'(<)+) from the need an additional initial condition x'(0+).
initial
condition
We
given equation at
= +
*'(0+)
a< T) dr
J
+ 3<0+) + 2 Since x(t) is continuous at / = 0,

<H
(4.113)
a<T)</T=0
(4.114)
I
and
Therefore,
(0+)-a<0-)x'(0 +)
1.
(4.115)
(4.1 16)
- 3s(0 +) = 2
we
obtain
-Method
Differentiating both sides of Eq. 4.112,

x"(t)
+ 3*'(0 + 2a<0 =
is
5<K0
(4.117)
The complementary function
then
*.(0
= Car* + - 4e~' the
C*r*>
(4.118)
Using the
initial
conditions for
a<0+) and
*'(<>+),
we
obtain the total solution

(4.119)
x(t)
3e-*
differential
Method
becomes
2.
Letting y'(t)
= x(t), +
original
equation then
y"(0
MO +
2y(t)
5(0
1
(4120)
,,,,
We know that
From Eq.
4.120, at t
y'(P+)
= (0+) -
(4.121;
j,'(0+)= *'(<>+)= 2
= 0+, we obtain
i[5
y(0 +)
- y'(0 +) - 3y'(0 +)] can be determined as
(4.122)
Without going into
details, the total solution
j<0
- -4e- + |e-* + \
(4- 123 >
Differentiating y{t),
93
we
obtain
<i)
= y'(f) = 4e~' - 3<?-*'
(4.124)
4.6
SIMULTANEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

dependent variable
x{t).
Up to this point, we have considered only differential equations with a

single
In this section,
variable.
we
will discuss equations
with
more than one dependent
We shall limit our discussion to

The methods
described here,
first
equations with two unknowns, x(t) and y(t).
however, are applicable to any number of unknowns. Consider system of homogeneous equations
x *'(0
the
+ a, x(0 + & y'(t) + y(t) y'(0 + \ y(t) = o yi *'(0 + Yo *(0 +

fi,
<$!
(4.125)
where a
f} it y it d i are arbitrary constants. The complementary function obtained by assuming that
is
so that the characteristic equation
is
given by the determinant

<fc/>
H(p)
(a^
(ftP
+ + Yo>
oto)
+ A) (<V + to)
(4.126)
The
that
roots of H(j>) are found by setting the determinant equal to zero,

is,
- OV + PoXYiP + Vo) = It is seen that a nontrivial solution of H(p) = exists only if

(tf>
)(V
*)
(4.127)
(*
+ KV +
<>a)
* OV + &XftP + y<0
(4.128)
Assuming that the preceding condition holds, we see that H(p) is a seconddegree polynomial tap and can be expressed in factored form as
H(p) where
= C(p- Po)(p - />0

The complementary
(4.129)
C is a constant multiplier.
x(t)
functions are
= Kê** + K*** y(t) + Kf
(4.130)
94
Network
anal/sis and synthesis
and the constants

tf Po
K K K Kt are determined from initial conditions.

x,
t,
9,
As in the case of a single unknown,
if H(p)
has a pair of dduble roots;
i.e.,
/>i
then
x(t)
= =
(#,
(tf,
Kê***
(4.131)
y(t)
+ Kt t)e*<*
If
H(p) has a pair of conjugate roots,
Pi
Pi*)
then
x(t)
= a jto
sin (cot
= =
Mê"*
+ +
<^)
(4.132)
y(f)
Mte" sin (tor
<f>J
Example 4.9.
Consider the system of equations

2x'(t)
+ 4x(t) + y'(t) -y(f)=0

(4.133)
x\t)
2x(0
+ y'(0 + y(t) =
with the
initial
conditions
*'(0+)2
y '(o+)=-3
i/(0+)
a<0+)=0
Solution.
(4.134)
1
The
+4
p
Evaluating the determinant,
+2
that
(4.135)
1
we find
#0)
so that
=/>*
5/>
+ 6 = (p + 2Xp + 3)
+ A^-8
'
(4.136)
y{t)
Kjfi-"
a</)
- KtfT* + J>-
(4.137)
With the initial conditions, z'(0+) - 2,a<0+) = 0, we obtain K, =2,Kt = -2. From the conditions y'(0+) - -3, y(0+) = 1, we obtain Kt = 0, JCg = 1. Thus the final solutions are
(4.138)
y(.t)
-s
95
us determine the solutions for a set of nonhomogeneous We use the method of undetermined coefficients here. Consider first an exponential forcing function given by the set of equations
let
Next,
+ aye + piy + p = Ne Yi*' + y<P + b y' + d& = We first assume that xp(t) = Ae"
alX '
'
iff
(4.139)
yv(t)
= Be9
(4.140)
*
Then Eq. 4.139 becomes

Qtfl
+ xJA + (^0 + (.YJ + YM + O*i0 +
=N d )B =
o)B
is
(4.141)
The determinant
for the set of equations 4.141
H(8)
= A(0) =
i0
YiO
+ + Y*
<,
PiO
W
=
+ Po +\
0.
(4.142)
where H(6)
.
is
the characteristic equation with p
We now determine
#4he undetermined coefficients A and B from A(0) and its cofactors, namely,
A=
*A
1X (0)
A(0)
JVA ia(e) B=
A(0)
(4.143)
where
A is
the i/th cofactor of A(0).

Solve the set of equations
2x'
Example
4.10.
+ Ax + y' - y = 3e**
(4.144)
x'+2x+y'+y=0
given the conditions x'(0+)
Solution.
teristic
A and B in the equations
= 1, a<0+) = 0, y'(0+) = 0, y(0+) = -l. The complementary functions *c(f) and ye(i), as well as the characequation H(p), were determined in Example 4.9. Now we must find
*,(/)
y,(t)
- Ae** - Be**
(4)-l
(4)
(4.145)
The
characteristic equation withy*
= 4 is
2(4)
H(A)~
(4)
+4 +2
42
(4.146)
96
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Then we obtain from Eq. 4.143 the constants
A The incomplete
solutions are
*(f)
y(t)
B - -t
= KiT* + Ktfr** + &e - K&-* + Kie-* - fe"

f
(4.147)
Substituting for the initial conditions,
we
finally
obtain
s y(0=K-4" '-34') (4.148)
Example 4.11.
Solve the system of equations

lx'
+ 4x + y' + ly = x' +x +y' +3y =
5(/)
(4.149)
56(f)
given the
initial
conditions
a<0-)
Solution.
First
= *'(<>-) = jKO-) = y'(0-) the characteristic equation

2/>
we find
J5T(Cp>
A(/,)
+4 / +
7
(4.150)
/>
+
l
p +
which
simplifies to give
H(p)
=(pt +2p+5)=(p +
functions x c (t)
+j2)(p
-j2)
(4.151)
The complementary
xe(t)
y e (t)
= ê
and -'
j/
(f)
are then
cos It
+ A&-* sin 2/ + B^r* sin 2f

(4.152)
= jBiC
-'
cos 2/
The
particular solutions are obtained for the set of equations with t
>
0,
namely,
2x'
+ 4x + y' + ly = *' + + y' + 3y a:

.
5
(4.153)
coefficients, we assume that x v and y,, are Since the forcing function 5 can be regarded as an exponential term with zero exponent, that is, 5 5e', we can solve for a with the use of the characteristic equation H(p) with p = 0. Thus, x and
Using the method of undetermined

constants:
as,
= Q;
yv
= Ca
#(0)
A(0)
4
1
=
3
(4.154)
97
Dd
n c
5AU(0)
^--5(or
5
= 5(3) 1
3
(4.155)
c,
The
general solution
is
then
x(t) y(t)
- ê-' cos 2r + A^r* sin 2/ + 3 = fl^* cos 2/ + B&-* sin 2r - 1

,
(4.156)
In order to find
y'(0+).
A lt At Blt B* we
The
values for
a<0+) and y(0+) are
need the values a<0+), x'(0+), y(0+), first obtained by integrating the
original differential equations between t

/0+
0 and f
/VH-
0+. Thus,
(2*'
+ 4* + y' + ly)dt Jo-
5(f)<//
Jo/0+
(4.157)
(*'
+ x + y' +
3y*<ft
fH-
5d(t)dt
We know
impulses at
that only the highest derivative terms in both equations contain

f
continuities at t
- 0. Moreover, both x(t) and y(t) 0. Therefore, in the integration
contain, at most, step dis-
r r
After integrating,
(4a;
+ ly) dt =
(4.158)
(x
3y)rff0
we obtain
2a<0+)+y(0+)=0
*(0+)+y(0+)5
Solving,
(4.159)
we find
a<0+)
= -5
Thus,
y(0+)
10
(4.160)
To
find x'(0+)
and y'(0+), we
t
substitute the values for
a<0+) and y(0+) into
the original equations at
= 0+.
2z'(0+)
so that
- 20 + j/'(0+) + 70 = 5 x\0+) - 5 + y'(0+) + 30 = x'(0+) = -20 y'(0+) = -5

14e~* sin It
(4.161)
(4.162)
Substituting these values into Eq. 4.156,

x(t)
y(/)
we eventually obtain the final solutions
- ( -%e~* cos It -
3) u(t)
- (1 \e~* cos 2/ + 3e~* sin It -
(4.163)
1) (f)
98
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Problems
4.1
Show
that
3^(0
= Mxe~* cos It
m,
and
xjj)
M&-* sin It
are solutions for the equation

x'(t)
+ 2x'(t) + 540 =
Show
4.2
(a)
that
x1
xt
is
also a solution.
Determine only the form of the solution for the equation
(6)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(/)
4.3 Given the initial solutions for
(a)
(b)
(c)
+ 4x'(0 + 340 + 8x'(t) + 540 *"(/) - 540 x'(0 + 540 x"(t) + 6x'(0 + 2540 z'(0 + 6x'(.0 + 940 conditions 40+) = 1,
**(0
x"(t) x'(t)
= = = = = =
*'(0+)
1, determine the
+ 2540 = &r'(0 + 16x(t) = x\t) x'(t) + 4.8lx'(t) + 5.7640 = + +

fo'(0
4.4
(a) (b) (c)
Find only the particular

x"(t)
integrals for the equations
(d)
(e)
(/)
+ 7x'(t) + 1240 x'(t) + 3x'(t) + 240 *'(0 + 2x'(t) + 540 x"(t) + 2*'(0 + Sx(t) x'(t) + 5.0x'(0 + 6.25x(t) **(/) + fo'(0 + 540
4.5 Given the initial conditions solutions for

(a)
(.b)
= e-8 = 2 sin 3f = e~* sin It = <r"/2 =6 = 2e-* + 3e~at 40+) = 1, x'(0+) =0,
'
determine the
x"(t) x"{t) *"(/)
(c)
+ 4*'(0 + 340 = 5e~* sin It + 6x'(t) + 254/) - 2 cos / + 8a;'(0 + 1640 = 2 +

3y'(/)
4.6
(a)
A system is described by the differential equation

y'(0
The
initial
conditions are y(0-)

differential
1;
- a(0 y'(0-) = 2. Find

2y(t)
y(0+) and y'(0+).
(b)
Given the
equation
as<*>(0
14*'(0
+ 840 -
6<K0
99
with the intial conditions *(0-) 12, *'(<>-) *<*>)+), *'(0+), *'(0+), and a<0+).
4.7 Given the initial conditions x'(0) for the equations
(a) (*)
= 6,
and x"(0-)
-7, find
= **(0-) = 0,
find the solutions
x'{t)
x"{t)
4.8
Given the
initial
+ 2x'(/) + 2a</) = 3<K0 + 7s'(0 + 12a<r) - 5(0 condition x(0 ) = 2, solve +

5a</)
the integrodifferential
equations
()
x'(t)
+ 4 f a<r) </t =
2 sin
(b)
x'(t)
+ 2tft) + 2 f x{r) dr = | e-
+ &<0 + 9 f *(t) oV = 2u(t)
*V) + *(/) + y{t) =
(c)
*'(')
4.9
Given the
set
of equations
(/)
with s(0-) y'(0+).

4.10
*C)+y'(0 + 2y(0 - *'(0-) = y(o-) = y'(0-) = 0,
<K0
find *(0+), z'(0+), y(0+),
and
Solve the set of equations 2*'(0

6y(t)
+ 3*(0 + y'(t) + *' + *(') + y'W + All initial conditions at f = 0 are zero.
4.11
6y(0
= */) = (')
Solve the set of equations

2s'(0
x'(0
+ 2a<0 + y'(0 - y(i) = + a</) + y'(0 + 2y(r) =

a#)-)
2<5(0
3e~* uSj)
The
initial
conditions are
y(0-)=0
j,'(0-)=0
*'(0-)=-l
chapter
5
I
Network
analysis:
5.1
INTRODUCTION
We
In this chapter we will apply our knowledge of differential equations to will assume the analysis of linear, passive, time-invariant networks. that the reader is already familiar with Kirchhoff's current and voltage
laws,
and with methods for writing mesh and node equations for a-c or d-c 1 We will, therefore, consider only briefly the problem of writing circuits. mesh and node equations when the independent variable is time t. The problems in this chapter have the following format: Given an excitation signal from an energy source and the network, a specified response that is a current or voltage in the network is to be determined. When relating
these problems to the mathematics in Chapter 4, we shall see that, physically, the forcing function corresponds to the excitation ; the network
is
described by the differential equation; and the

the response.
unknown
variable x(t)
is
differential
will be twofold. First, we must write the problems of the network using Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws. Next, we must solve these equations for a specified current or voltage in the network. Both problems are equally important. It is useless, for example, to solve a differential equation which is set up in-
The problems encountered
correctly, or
conditions are incorrectly specified. The usual type of problem presented in this chapter might generally be 0, which connects an energy switch is closed at t described as follows.
whose
initial
(voltage or current) source to a network (Fig. 5.1).
The analog of a switch

is e{t) u(t).
closing at
is
the energy source whose output
Before the
1 For a comprehensive treatment, see H. H. Skilling, Electrical Engineering Circuits (2nd Edition), John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.
100
Network
analysis:
101
*0
Energy source'
/\
Network
FIG.
5.1.
Switching action.
and voltages in the network have known are the initial conditions. We must then determine the values of the currents and voltages just after the switch closes (at / = 0+) to solve the network equations. If the excitation is not an impulse function or any of its derivatives, the current and voltage variables are continuous at t = 0. For an impulse driver the values at / = 0+ can be determined from methods given in Chapter 4. Having obtained the initial conditions, we then go on to solve the network
is
switch
closed, the currents

t
values. These values at
= 0-
Unless otherwise stated,
all
the solutions are valid
only for
Since
in
^ 0+.
it is essential that we bear the all-important principle of superposition. According to the superposition principle, the current through any element in a linear circuit
we are dealing only with linear circuits,
mind
with n voltage and current sources is equal to the algebraic sum of currents through the same element resulting from the sources taken one at a time, the other sources having been suppressed. Consider the linear
network depicted in Fig. 5.2a with n voltage and
current sources.
FIG. 5 Jo
102
Network
FIG. 5.2b
Suppose we are interested in the current iT(f) through a given element Z, as shown. Let us open-circuit all the current sources and short-circuit n 1 voltage sources, leaving only /0 shown in Fig. 5.26. By iVj(t), we denote the current through Z due to the voltage source /f) alone. In similar fashion, by iCk(t) we denote the current through Z due to the
current source ik(t) alone, as depicted in Fig. 5.2c.
By
the superposition
FIG. 5.2c. Superposition in linear
circuits.
Network
principle, the total current
i
analysis:
is
103
T(t) due to
all
of the sources
equal to the
algebraic
sum
h = \ + '.,+
5.2
I.,
,,+
(5.1)
NETWORK ELEMENTS
we
will discuss the voltage-current (v-i) relationships
In this section,
relationships,
it is
that exist for the basic network elements.
Before
we examine
these
important to assign
first
arbitrary reference polarities for
the voltage across an element, and a reference direction of flow for the
current through the element.
For the purposes of our

is
discussion,
we
assume that the
positive polarity for voltage

5.3.
at the tail
of the current
arrow, as shown by the resistor in Fig.
Now, let us review the voltage-
current relationships for the resistor, the inductor, and the capacitor,
which we
first
discussed in Chapter
1.
Resistor
The
resistor
shown
in Fig. 5.3 defines a linear proportionality relationi(t),
ship between v(t) and
namely,
K0 - r
i(0
m
(5.2)
= Gt*0
where
R is given in ohms and G in mhos.

in Fig. 5.4a the v-i relationships are
Capacitor For the capacitor shown
dt
(5.3)
<t)
= -\
i(r)
dr
CJo-
+ o(0-)
-o
'
m
tR
+
Ut)\
ZZC
**>
i(*>\
v(t)
v(t)
={=C
(a)
(b)
(A)
FIG.
5.3. Resistor.
FIG. 5.4. (a) Capacitor. with initial voltage.
Capacitor
104
Network

J(t)_
<
ml\
(a)
v(t)
(J).-)
v(t)
(b) (6)
FIG.
5.5. (a) Inductor.
Inductor with
initial current.
initial value t> c (0 ) is the voltage across switching action. It can be regarded as an the capacitor just before the independent voltage source, as shown in Fig. 5.46. We should point out t> also that i>c(0 ) c(+) for aU excitations except impulses and
where
C is given in farads.
The
derivatives
of impulses.
Inductor
The inductor in Fig. 5.5a describes a dual relationship between voltage and current when compared to a capacitor. The v-i relationships are
-'5
(5.4)
LJo-
f ir)dr+iL(0-)
where L is given in henrys. The initial current iL(0 ) can be regarded as an independent current source, as shown in Fig. 5.56. As is true for the voltage across the capacitor, the current through the inductor is similarly continuous for all t, except in the case of impulse excitations. When the network elements are interconnected, the resulting i-v equations are integrodifferential equations relating the excitation (voltage or current sources) to the response (the voltages and currents of the elements).
There are basically two ways to write these network equations. The first way is to use mesh equations and, the second, node equations. Mesh equations are based upon Kirchhoff's voltage law. On the mesh basis, we establish a fictitious set of loop currents with a given reference direction, and write the equations for the sum of the voltages around the loops. As the reader might recall from his previous studies, if the number of branches in the network is B, and if the number of nodes is N, the + 1.* number of independent loop equations for the network is B
See Stalling, op.
cit.
Network
anal/sis:
105
must, in addition, choose the mesh currents such that at least one mesh current passes through every element in the network.
We
F.mpl 5.1.
In Fig.
5.6,
We therefore need 7 - 5 +
of the mesh currents
ilt
a network is given with seven branches and five nodes. 1 = 3 independent mesh equations. The directions i* / are chosen as indicated. We also note that the
Li
Vi(t)
</WCi"
'1
c,
biwQ
fCi'
R 2
vatQ
0^9-r Qhfi-i
FIG. 5.6
capacitors in the circuit have associated initial voltages. These initial voltages are assigned reference polarities, as shown in the figure. Now we proceed to
write the
mesh equations.
:
Meshix
i(0
*C,(0-)
- *1 h(0 +
l
c
I
dr - J^t) dr
C*
di.
if*
Mesh
it :
vCl(0-)
- vcfii-) = -
^ J^r) dr+Li
Mesh
it :
-vJLO
After
+ vCt(0 -) =
^P
i/r) dr
^r
J\(t) dr+Ki tf
(5.5)
currents
to find following relationships
three unknowns, ilf it , and /, we can determine the branch and the voltages across the elements. For example, if we were required the branch currents i Cl and iCt through the capacitors, we would use the
we find the
*<>*-'*-*
(5.6)
'c,
- '
is
Alternatively, if the voltage vj.t) in Fig. 5.6
our objective, we see that

(5.7)
v*t)
- tff)4
Network equations can also be written in terms of node equations, which are based upon Kirchhoff's current law. If the number of nodes in
106
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
Datum
FIG. 5.7
the network
N, the number of independent node equations required 3 We can therefore for the complete solution of the network is JV l. datum node in the network. All the node voltages will be select one
is
datum node. Consider the network in Fig. 5.7. Let us write a set of node equations for the network with the datum node shown. Since the number of nodes 1 2 independent node equations. in the network is 3, we need JV These are written for nodes vx and vs , as given below.
positive with respect to this
Node
v^.
B (t)
L(0~)
= G1 Vl (t) + j(* Vl (r) dr-jl* v t(r) dr

L JoL Jo-
Node
j
ty.
i(0-)
. --
!
*
L Jo-
v t (r)
dr
+ 7 Jf
L
' V 2(r) dr o-
+C
^& + G
dt
t> 2
()
(5.8)
Further examples are given in the following sections.
5.3
INITIAL
AND
FINAL CONDITIONS
In this section,
integrals for
we consider some methods for obtaining initial conditions
for circuit differential equations.
We also examine ways to obtain particular
networks with constant (d-c) or sinusoidal (a-c) excitations. In the solution of network differential equations, the complementary function is called the transient solution or free response. The particular integral is known as the forced response. In the case of constant or periodic oo is the steady-state or final excitations, the forced response at t
solution.
See Stalling, op.
cit.
Network
analysis:
107
There are two ways to obtain initial conditions at / = 0+ for a network: through the differential equations describing the network, (b) through knowledge of the physical behavior of the R, L, and C elements in the
(a)
network.
Initial
conditions for a capacitor

at
t
For a capacitor, the voltage-current relationship
= 0+
is
c(0+)
If
i(t)
i(r)dr
Jo-
+ vc(0-)
(5.9)
does not contain impulses or derivatives of impulses, c(0+) If? the charge on the capacitor at t 0, the initial voltage is
o(0+)
vc<0-)
(5.10)
When
there
clude that
circuit at t
is no initial charge on the capacitor, o(0+) = 0. We conwhen there is no stored energy on a capacitor, its equivalent
= 0+ is a short circuit.
This analogy is confirmed by examining
As a result of the conservation of charge principle, an instantaneous change in voltage across a capacitor implies instantaneous change in charge, which in turn means infinite
the physical behavior of the capacitor.
current through the capacitor.
instantaneously. Therefore at
Since
we
never encounter infinite current
in physical situations, the voltage across a capacitor cannot change

t
= 0+, we can replace the capacitor by a

exists,
voltage source
initial
if
an
initial
charge
or by a short
circuit if there is
no
charge.
Example 5.2. Consider the R-C network in Fig. 5.8a. The switch is closed at t = 0, and we assume there is no initial charge in the capacitor. Let us find the initial conditions i(0 +) and i'(0 +) for the differential equation of the circuit
Vu(.t)=Ri{t)
e',(t)/t
(5.11)
i(t)
>B
I
T
R-C network
A-
'
>+))
>R
T
Equivalent circuit at <
- 0+
FIG. 5A. (a)
R-C network,
(b)
Equivalent circuit at /
0+.
108
Network
analysis
t
and synthesis
The
equivalent circuit at
- 0+
is
given in Fig. 5.86, from which
we
obtain
>+>-5
To
obtain /'(u+),
(5.12)
we must
refer to the differential equation
V8(t) -Ri'(t)
i(0
(5.13)
At
= 0+ we have
(0+) -Jt/'(0+) +'
(5.14)
We then obtain
The
i'(0+)-
-i(0+) RC
V
(5.15)
Fig. 5.8a is final condition, or steady-state solution, for the current in obtained from our knowledge of d-c circuits. We know that for a d-c excitation, is a capacitor is an open circuit for d-c current. Thus the steady-state current
i(0
Initial
= '() relationship at
t
conditions for an inductor
For an inductor, the voltage-current

1
= 0+
is
iKr)dT+iL(0-)
(5.16)
If v(t) does not contain impulses, then

initial current,
i
If there is no iL(0+) i(0-). which corresponds to an open circuit at _ o+. This analogy can also be obtained from the fact that the current t through an inductor cannot change instantaneously due to the conserva-
L(0+)
= 0,
tion of flux linkages.
S3 In Fig. 5.9a, the switch closes at t = 0. Let us find the conditions i(0+) and i'(0+) for the differential equation
Example
initial
L^+JI*)
L
o.c.
-o
o-
t
FIG.
9
(a)
5.9. (a)
s=:
i(o+)J
W
(*) Equivalent circuit at / *=
R-L network.
0+.
Network
analysis:
109
From
the equivalent circuit at
= 0+, shown in Fig.

i(0+)=0
5.9b,
we
see that
(5.18)
We then refer to the differential equation to obtain <"(0+). V-L i"(0 +) + R i(0 +)
Thus
/'(0
(5.19)
+)
V R - - - - /(0 +)
(5.20)
as
V L
is
The
steady-state solution for the circuit in Fig. 5.9a is obtained through the
knowledge that for a d-c source, an indicator

=/(>)
a short
circuit.
/(')
(5.21)
Example 5.4. In this example we consider the two-loop network of Fig. 5.10. As in Examples 5.2 and 5.3, we use the equivalent circuit models at t + and t = oo to obtain the initial conditions and steady-state solutions. At f = the switch closes. The equivalent circuits at t = 0+ and / = <x> are shown in Fig. 5.1 la and b, respectively. The initial currents are
*i(0+)
ig(0+)
= =
V
^~ *i
(5.22)
The
steady-state solutions are
) - j^r^ = ")
Final conditions for sinusoidal excitations
<5 - 23 >
a pure sinusoid, the steady-state currents and same frequency as the excitation. If the unknown is a voltage, for example, 1^(0. the steady-state
the excitation
is
When
voltages in the circuit are also sinusoids of the solution
would take the form

i,(0
KOo)l
sin
K< - <K<*J\
(5.24)
where
represent the magnitude
and \V(jcoJ\ and ^(<u ) and phase of vl9(t). A similar expression would hold if the unknown were a current. To obtain the magnitude and phase, we follow standard procedures in a-c circuit analysis. For example, consider the R-C circuit in Fig. 5.12. The current generator is ( 5 -25) W) - (Jo sJ n *) "(0
is
the frequency of the excitation,
10
Network
analysis
and synthesis
*2
VWV
h(0
)
-VW\r
^=:C
3
kM
)
FIG. 5.10
JVW\r
ww*
V!=
i(0+)J
2(0+)
O.C.
Equivalent circuit at
= 0+
-WWo
o.c.
WWg
Equivalent circuit at t
>
FIG.
5.1
1,
(a) Equivalent circuit at t
= 0+.
(6)
Equivalent circuit at
oo.
itfO
Y
FIG. 5.12
'
Network
If the steady-state voltage takes the
analysis:
III
form shown
in Eq. 5.24,
IHM>)I |rOo)l
h
(G a
and
so that
vjLO
(5.26)
2/~*\W
+
1
co
*C*j
#o>
tan"
^
G
(5.27)
1
(G>+
^w
sin (>o<
"
tan"
^)
(5.28)
We
5.4
refer to this
problem in Section
5.5.
STEP
AND IMPULSE RESPONSE
As an
introduction to the topic of solution of network differential
equations, let us consider the important problem of obtaining the step and
impulse responses for any voltage or

current in the network.
As we shall see in
Chapter
7,
the step and impulse responses
are precise time-domain characterizations
of the network. The problem of obtaining

the step and impulse response
follows
energy,
:
is
stated as
initial
Given a network with zero
we
are required to solve for a
specified response (current or voltage)
due
F,e * 5 * 3
to a given excitation function u(t) or <3(0, which either can be a current or a voltage source.
If the excitation
is
a step of voltage, the physical analogy is that of a switch closing at time t which connects a 1-v battery to a circuit. The physical analogy of an impulse excitation is that of a very short (compared to the time constants of the circuit) pulse with large amplitude. The problems involved can best be illustrated by means of examples. Consider the series R-C circuit in Fig. 5.13. The differential equation of
the circuit
is
KO =
We assume Vq(0) =
x'(t) for j'(0 in 0.
*)
= R 1(0 + l(r) dr 7 J~ CJi>C

I
ii
(5.29)
Since Eq. 5.29 contains an integral,
we substitute
the equation, giving us

d(t)
= Rx'(t) + z(t)
(5.30)
12
Network
Integrating both sides between
and
0+
gives
*>+>-The
(5.31)
H(p)
- Rp +
(5.32)
and with
little
effort
we have
_ *(0- L ,-t/RC n(0

so that
(5.33)
mis
R^'RC
We
6"'*
"]
(5 ' 34)
response
thus arrive at the current impulse in Fig. 5.14a. as the result of an impulse voltage excitation. In the process we have also obtained the step response x(i) in Fig. 5. 146 since, by definition, the derivative of the step response is the impulse response. The reader
which
shown
i(t)
should check this result using a step excitation of voltage. In the second example consider the parallel R-C circuit in Fig. 5.12 7 (/), where / is a constant. driven by a step current source i(f )
m
'
aro
R*C
(*)
FIG. 5.14. (a) Impulse response of
R-C circuit.
(A)
Step response of R-C circuit.
Network
analysis:
113
FIG. 5.15. (a) Step response of parallel

Jt-C circuit.
R-C circuit.
(A)
Impulse response of parallel
Assuming zero
initial
conditions, the differential equation
is
Jo (0
Gt<0
C^p
(5.35)
from which we obtain the
H(p)
Cp
+G
(5.36)
The
steady-state value
of KO
is
(5.37)
H(0)
m
/o
FIG. 5.1*. Pulse excitation.
14
Network
analysis
and synthesis
FIG.
5.17.
to pulse excitation.
Thus the complete solution

r(0
for the voltage step response
is
= (Ke-i/BC + 7oR) u(t)

I^R
(5.38)
From the
initial
condition (0+)
= 0, we obtain K = IRC u(t) t>(0 = JoR(l - e-* )
so that
(5.39)
Differentiating Eq. 5.39 gives us the voltage impulse response
f(0
= l* e -tlRC (0
are plotted
(5.40)
The step and impulse responses
on
Figs. 5.15a
and
b.
Suppose
the excitation in Fig. 5.12 were a pulse
KQ = IMt) shown
in Fig. 5.16.
u(t
T)]
(5.41)
Then, according to the superposition and time-
invariance postulates of linear systems, the response
would be
K0 =
which
is
V*[(l
e-" BO) u(t)
- (1 -
e-
(i
- T)IBC )u(t
T)]
(5.42)
shown
in Fig. 5.17.
5.5
SOLUTION OF NETWORK EQUATIONS

this section
to the analysis of linear networks.
our knowledge of differential equations There are two important points in network analysis: the writing of network equations and the solution of these same equations. Network equations can be written on a mesh, node, or mixed basis. The choice between mesh and node equations depends largely upon the unknown quantities for which we must solve. For
In
will apply
we
Network
instance, if the
analysis:
115
unknown
quantity
is
a branch
if
current,
it is
preferable to
write
mesh
equations.
On
the other hand,

for example,
we wish
to find a voltage
across a certain element, then
node equations are
better.
the choice
is
quite arbitrary.
If,
we wish
In many cases to find the voltage v
across a resistor R, we can either find v directly by node equations or find the branch current through the resistor and then multiply by R.
Example network
source
5.5.
Find the current /(f) for the

5.18,
in Fig.
when
the voltage
is e(t)
= 2e-- ufjt) and c(0-) = 0.

The
differential
Solution.
equation
is
*(/)
= Rl(t) + ^ j
i(r)dr
+ vÔ-)
(5.43)
=fcC-if
Or, in terms of the numerical values,
we
have
2~" u{t)
= i(0 + 2
(t)
dr
(5.44)
FIG. 5.18
Differentiating both sides of Eq. 5.44,
we
obtain
2(5(0
dm + 2i(t) - e- u u(t) = dt
we must
to give (0+)
(5.45)
To
obtain the
/
initial
condition i(0+),
t
integrate Eq. 5.45 between
the limits
= 0
and
= 0+
= 2. From
the characteristic
equation
H(p)=p+2*0
we obtain
the complementary function as
(5.46)
/<#)
If
= JCr = Ae~
2
3
bt
,
(5.47)
we assume the
particular integral to be iv(t)
then
we
obtain
A = The incomplete
solution
is
_1
(5.48)
//(-0.5)
= Ke~* - <r " From the initial condition i(0+) = 2, we obtain the final solution, Kt) = (f-* - f*--") (0
(0
(5.49)
(5.50)
As we already noted in Section 5.3, in the solution of network differential

is called the free response, whereas a particular integral, and in the case of constant or oo is the steady-state periodic excitation, the forced response at / solution. Note that the free response is a function of the network elements
equations, the complementary function

is
the forced response
16
Network
is
analysis
and synthesis
alone and
independent of excitation.
On
the other hand, the forced
response depends on both the network and the excitation. positive elements, It is significant that, for networks which have only
the free response
is
made up of only damped exponential and/or
sinusoids
characwith constant peak amplitudes. In other words, the roots of the all have negative or zero real parts. For example, teristic equation H(p) 0. a a j(o, then Re (pj is a root of H(p) written as x if
/!
= ^
This a response that

network. If a
fact is intuitively reasonable because, if a

is
bounded excitation produces
exponentially increasing, then conservation of energy is passive not preserved. This is one of the most important properties of a whose real parts characteristic equation contains only roots
network are zero or negative, and if theyo> axis roots are simple, then the the network is unstable* which it describes is said to be stable; otherwise, will be discussed Stability is an important property of passive networks and
in greater detail later.
Example
5.6,
For the R-C network

v(t)
in Fig. 5.19 with the excitation given

it is
by
Eq. 5.25, find the voltage
across the capacitor;
given that v(0-)
pÔ-) -
0.
Solution.
Now
node
let
have already obtained the particular integral in Eq. 5.28. on a us find the complementary function. The differential equation
We
basis is
C -r + Gv = I
at
sin mtiKt)
(5.51)
from which we obtain the characteristic equation as

H(p)
so that
-Cp+G
(5.52)
(5-53)
vJfl-KT* *
solution
is
and the incomplete

*/)
- to-*) + . o)>c w sin {<* - tan"* J (/) (G + -g ^ condition t<0 ) 0, we obtain From the initial
r
(5.54)
.(o^-KO^-Jf-^r^fe^^l^'V)From the argand diagram in

Fig. 5.20
a>C\
(555)
we see that,
Consequently,
This is not a formal definition of stability,
but
it
suffices for the
moment.
Network
analysis:
117
lm
A
Ao
MG.SM
From the complementary function the circuit is T - C\G - RC.
in Eq. 5.53,
C
1
Be
we see that the time constant of
kinds of free responses Next, let us examine an example of the different equation that depend on relative values of the of a second-order network 5.21 ; let us network elements. Suppose we are given the network in Fig. v^t) for the differential equation find the free response
(5.58)
'
dt
LJ*S.S8,
Differentiating
both sides of Eq.

VJf)
we have
(5.59)
- C p"(t) + G '(0 + <0.

c(j>
The
characteristic equation is then
H(p)
- Cp + Gp + 1 =
is
+ 1 P + j^)
(5.60)
In factored form, H(p)
#(p)
= G(p-J>i)0>-/>i)
(5.61)
-)
nasai
118
Network
analysis
v(t)
and synthesis
+ K2
FIG. 5.22. Overdamped response.
where
Pi P*
2C
2l\c)
LCI
AB
(5.62)
There are three different kinds of responses depending upon whether

real, zero,
B is
or imaginary.
case
1.
Bis
real, that is,
(1
then the free response
is
a,> lc
%
vdt)
= Kie- U-B)t + K e- u+BU
(5.63)
which is a sum of damped exponentials. In this case, the response is said to be overdamped. An example of an overdamped response is shown in
Fig. 5.22.
case
2.
5=
0, that is,
(-T-\Cl LC
then
so that
= p = A At vc(t) = (^ + K t)ep1
g
(5.64)
5.23.
When B
0,
the response
v(t)
is critically
damped, as shown in Fig.
o
FIG. 5.23. Critically damped response.
Network
analysis:
119
FIG. 5.24. Underdamped response.
case
3.
B is imaginary,
that
is,
Letting
B = jfl, we have
c(0
=
is
LC
(*i sin
fit
+ Kt cos
fit)
(5.65)
is
In
this case, the
response
said to
be underdamped, and
shown by the
damped
Example
oscillatory curve in Fig. 5.24.
5.7. In this example we discuss the solution of a set of simultaneous network equations. As in the previous examples, we rely upon physical reasoning rather than formal mathematical operations to obtain the initial currents and voltages as well as the steady-state solutions. In the network of Fig. S.25, the switch S is thrown from position 1 to position 2 at t = 0. It is known that prior to t = 0, the circuit had been in steady state. We make the idealized assumption that the switch closes instantaneously at / = 0. Our task is to
find i(0
and
/,(/)
after the switch position changes.
Vl and V% are Vx = 2 v, Vt =
3 v;
The values of the batteries and the element values are given as
L= C=
The mesh equations
for
ix{t)
lh,
if,
it(i)
jig
Rt = 0.5 n = 2.o n
t
and
after
are
(5.66)
Vt =Li\{t)+Rl i1{i)-R1 i)
-vc(0-)= -/Mito +
cL ^T)dr+{R
k
+Rî^t)
(5.67)
120
Network
analysis
and synthesis
t.oônnnr^
?2
v2 ^:
hit))
FIG. 5.25
Since Eq. 5.67 contains an integral,
we differentiate it to
give
= -Rt i\(0 + ^ i#) + (*i + **) i'#)
(5.68)
Using Eqs. 5.66 and 5.68 as our system of equations, we obtain the characteristic
equation
Lp +'*!
-Ri
H(p)-RiP
-+(R1+ RJp
<569>
- URx + *lp* + (| + *i*l)p +

Substituting the
dement values
into H(p),
1.5
we have
(5.70)
H(p)
- 2.5p* + 4p +
- 2.5(p + lXp+ 0.6)
The
free responses are then
(5.71)
The
steady-state solutions for the
mesh
currents are obtained at

is
oo
by
considering the circuit from a d-c viewpoint. The inductor circuit and the capacitor is an open circuit; thus we have
then a short
(5.72)
Now let us determine the initial currents and voltages, which, incidentally, have sources are not the same values at / - 0- and t - 0+ because the voltage
Network
impulses. Before the switch is thrown at
f
analysis:
121
= 0, the circuit with Kx as the voltage
source was at steady state. Consequently,
ro
(0-)-K1 2v
(5.73)
0-)-^-4amp
0-)-0
We next find i\(0+) from Eq. 5.66 at / - 0+. Vt ~Li\{0+) + 4*i<P+) - RiW+)
Substituting numerical values into Eq. 5.74,
'
(5.74)
we find
1(0+)
amp/sec
From Eq.
5.68 at / <-
0+, we obtain similarly
*'>+)
*!+*. /'i(0+)
it(t)
- 0.2 amp/sec
(5.75)
With these
solutions
initial
values of
and
i/t),
we can
quickly arrive at the final
/i(r)
i/f)
- (0.5*-* - 2.5e- + 6) i<0 - ( -0.5tf- + 0.5*-) n(f)
which are plotted in Fig.
5.26.
6.0
5.5
h(t)
5j0
45 4.0,
o.io'
0.08
0.06 0.04
\w
r
(>
i i
O02
1
1 1
0.5
1.0
IS
2.0
2.5
3.0
33
40 43
FIG. 5.26
122
Network
analysis
and synthesis
5.6
ANALYSIS OF TRANSFORMERS
may
According to Faraday's law of induction, a current ix flowing in a coil L x induce a current it in a closed loop containing a second coil Lt The
.
sufficient
conditions
for
inducing the
current
it
are: (a) part of the flux
Ox
in
the coil
to the
Lx must be coupled magnetically coil L a (b) the flux O x must be

;
changing with time.
In
this section
we
will analyze circuits
containing a device
magnetically coupled coils

FIG. 5.27. Transformer.
made up of two known as a
transformer. In Fig. 5.27, the schematic
of a transformer is given. The Lt side of the transformer is usually referred to as the primary coil and the L t side as the secondary coil. The only distinction between primary and secondary is that the energy source is generally at the primary side. The transformer in Fig. 5.27 is described mathematically by the
equations
VO-L^ + M^
at
at
(5.77)
, x ,
du
at
di t
at
flux linking
is the mutual inductance associated with the where and is related to Lx and L2 by the relationship
Lt to Lt
M = k4IT
x z
(5.78)
It is
The constant bounded by the

coil
K in
limits
Eq. 5.78
is
<, \K\ <,

.
called the coefficient of coupling. 1. If \K\ 1, then all of the flux
Ox in
Lj is linked magnetically to L % In this case, the transformer is a unitycoupled transformer. If 0, the coils L x and L s may be regarded as two separate coils having no effect upon one another.
K=
For
circuits
with transformers,
we must
establish reference polarities
for the mutually induced voltages
dijdt.
Usually, the references are
given by small dots painted

as
on the input and output leads of a transformer, shown by the dots on the schematic in Fig. 5.28. The reference dots are
placed at the time of manufacture according to the procedure outlined here. voltage source v is connected to the primary Lx side of the voltmeter is attached on the secondtransformer, as shown in Fig. 5.28. side, the terminal is assigned the dot reference to ary. At the primary
Network
analysis:
123
Voltmeter
ttransformeri
FIG. 5.28.
An experiment
to determine dot references.
which we connect the positive lead of the voltage source. The dot reference is placed on the secondary terminal at which the voltmeter indicates a positive voltage. In terms of the primary current i the positive voltage at lt the secondary dot is due to the current i flowing into the dot on the t primary side. Since the positive voltage at the secondary dot corresponds
we can think of the dot references both currents are flowing into the dots or away from the dots, then the sign of the mutual voltage term Mdijdt is positive. When one current flows into a dot and the other away from the second dot, the sign of Mdijdt is negative.
/,
to the current
flowing into that dot,

If
in the following way.
If
N
it
and
are the
linkages of Ly
and L, are given by
and
flow into the
number of turns of coils L^ and L% then the flux and iV.O,, respectively. If both ix dots, the sum of flux linkages of the transformer is
N&
2 $ linkages = N&i + N^
however, one of the currents, for example, other ig flows out of the other dot, then
If,
ilt
(5.79)
flows into a dot, and the
2 $ linkages = N& - N Q
t
(5.8O)
An
important rule governing the behavior of a transformer is that the sum of flux linkages is continuous with time. The differential equations for the transformer in Fig. 5.29 are
V u(t) = Lt i\(t) + Rt i&) +

Q
i'tf)
i\(t)
R* i8(0
+ L, I'M
(581)
FIG. 5.29
124
Network
analysis
and synthesis
/
Integrating this set of equations between
= 0
and
= 0+
results in
the determinant
Za&(0+)
- /i(o-)] MM>+) - o-)] _ "Q M\ii(f>+) - ix(0-)] LJMP+) - '.(0-)]

we
obtain
(5.82)
By
evaluating this determinant,
(I^L,
If
t
M)[i1(0+)
is,
*1 (0-)][i,(0+)
/,(0-)]
(5.83)
L^Lx
then the currents must be continuous at equal to zero. Thus in order for the determinant in Eq. 5.82 to be
>
M*, that
K<
1,
fl
(0+)
- /,((>-), ig(0-),
and
irph
5.8.
*(0+)
K<\ *<1
Lt 6ii(0-
(5.84)
(5.85)
1A,
For the transformer circuit in Fig. 5.29, Rt -= 3Q, R, 80, and Jlf - 1A. The excitation is V - //0-) - 0. f (/) and i#), assuming that /x(0-)
2h,
Let us find
Solution.
The
differential
equations for the circuit are
6(0
- i'i(0 + 3i\(0 + /',(<) - iVO + 2i'&) + 8i,(0

by the determinant
(5.86)
The
characteristic equation is given
Wj
(/>
ile{t)
+8 = 0> + 3)(2p + 8)-/> = (^+14/ + 24)

2^
+ 2)(p +
12)
(5.87)
Thus the complementary functions are
= Kx<r + Aê-"' = K*r + JV"m Ie (0

we
rely
(5.88)
To
obtain the particular integral, or steady-state solution, physical reasoning to arrive at
upon
hJt
V_
amp
(5.89)
Oamp
Network
Af1
analysis:
125
Since the excitation does not contain an impulse (and since I^L, jt 0, as we shall see later), we can assume that d(0+) and ^(0+) are
also zero.
Then using Eq.
5.86
we can find i\(0+) and i'J0+).

(5.90) '
Solving,
ditions,
we find i' With we obtain the final solutions of ix(t) and %(/)
+ f,(0+) o -r<p+) + 2i',(o+) 1(0+) - 12 and i'0+) - 6.

6'"i(0+)
these initial con-
0 - (-Ir* + *e-0 (0 Suppose, now, I^L, - M, that K - then i,(0 and (/) need not be continuous at 0. In fact, we will* show that the currents are discontinuous at > for a unity-coupled transformer. Assuming that K = 1,
is,
(5 ' 91)
1,
consider the
mesh equation
*t 'i(0+)
for the secondary at i
= 0+
= -M i'Ô-H) - L, .',(0+)
(5.92)
--?[!* i'!(0+) + M i',(0+)]

The mesh equation of the primary
side then
(5.93)
becomes
V - Rt
it
(0+)
[L,.
i\(0+)
+ M iV0+)) = Rr h(Q+) -^R, iJ0+)
(5.94)
need an additional equation to solve for ^(0+) and /g(0+). This provided by the equation
We
is
iPi(0+)
it
(0-)}
which we obtained from Eq.
+ MM>+) - iÔ-)] = 5.82. Since x (0-) = i^0~) = 0,

i
(5.95)
we
solve
Eqs. 5.94 and 5.95 directly to give
1^(0+)
^3
R\JL%
+ R^Li
(5.96)
wo+)
=RL
1 t
+ R^
Consider the following example. the element values are
For the transformer
in Fig. 5.29
i=4h,
At-8 0, M = 2h,
L,= lh R9 =*3Q
K=10v
126
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
at steady state before the switch
is
Assuming that the circuit is

t
closed at
= 0, let us find h(t) and
/2 (0-
The
differential equations written
on mesh
basis are
10-4^ + 8^ + 2^ dt dt
(5.97)
dt
dt
The
is
4(p
2)
2p
(p
H{p)
2p-
=
3)
(5.98)
which yields
H(p)
- 20p +
24
= 20(p + |)
(5.99)
so that the complementary functions are
(5.100)
The
particular integrals that
we
(r)
obtain by inspection are

5
(5.101)
= 1 = 12 =
8
hit)
The
initial
conditions are
*i(0+)
=
RtLi
VL,
+ R^
-!2-a5
20
(5.102)
i*(0+)
-VM
t
-1.0
We then find Kx =
-0.75 and
ijff)
K = - 1.0 so that
*
= (-O.lSe-11 + W) = -erû{t)
We
see that as
t
1.25) u(t)
(5.103)
approaches
infinity
it(t)
- 0, while
it (t)
goes
its
steady-
state value
of
1.25.
Network
analysis:
127
Problems
5.1
Write the mesh equations for the network shown.
nnnp
Cl <0->
*^\{=
Ci
'l(0-)
nnnp
Pi
i
2<0-)
*~-,
*1
QWb(
te1
(0-)=J;C2
J8 2
PROB.
5.2
figure.
5.1
Write a
set
of node equations to solve for the voltage vjt) shown in the
W
ii
Ci
wm{(T)
SJlo
= = G>
c <0-)
*2>
2(0
PROB.
5.2
53 The network shown has reached steady state before the switch S is opened at t = 0. Determine the initial conditions for the currents 1-fy) and 4(0 and their derivatives.
R
o^f o
vW-
^WV
2WJ
1
PROB. 5.3
5.4
The network shown has reached steady

b.
state before the switch
moves
first
from a to
derivatives.
Determine the initial conditions for iL(t) and vdt) and their Determine also the final values for iL(t) and vc(t).
128
Network
1
10 v
lh_
vc (t)
5v-
*t
^
PROB.
5.4
If
==
:io
T
5.5 The network shown has reached steady state before the switch moves from a to b. Determine the initial conditions for the voltages vx(,t) and vt(t) and their first derivatives. Determine also the final values for v^t) and vjj).
t0
a
*i
vi(t)
J:-
s
=C
R2 *
v 2 (t)
i
PROB.
5.5
5.6
(a)
(A)
(c)
Find
For the network shown ii{0 ) 0- < / < . (/);
= 0.
G
- 0.
Show
that v(t) approaches an impulse as Find the strength (area) of the impulse.
ItfOQ)
PROB. 5.6
5.7 For the network shown, and sketch Jbto; 0- < r < .
(r)
d(t)
- tr*u(t)
and t<0-)
= 4.
Find

Network
10
I
analysis:
129
v/W-
m o
\k*t)
W(J)
1Q
PROB.
5.7
5.8
state conditions prevailed.
For the network shown, before the switch moves from a to Find the current /(f).
b, steady-
6<?
PROB.
5.8
5.9
For the
circuit
been in steady
state.
shown, switch S is opened Find /(f); 0 <f < .
at
after the circuit
had
>Tnnp
/^
PROB.
5.9
U\
5.10 Find the current /(f) in the network shown when the voltage source is a unit impulse. Discuss the three different kinds of impulse response waveforms possible depending upon the relative values of R, L, and C. All initial conditions are zero at/ 0.
130
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
nnRp
Qm
*>J
PROB.
5.10
5.11 An R-C differentiator circuit is shown in the figure. Find the requirements for the R-C time constant, such that the output voltage v^t) is approxi-
mately the derivative of the input voltage.
uoW
PROB. 5.
5.12 An R-C integrator circuit is shown in the figure. Find the requirements for the time constant such that the output t> (f) is approximately the integral of the input voltage.
S A/V
O"
")
PROB.
ci
vo(t)
5.12
5.13 Find the free response for source; (b) a voltage source.
i(f)
in the figure
shown
for (a)
a current
Network
analysis:
131
Source
PROB. 5.13
At t = 0, the switch goes from position 1 to 2. Find /(/), given = e~* sin It. Assume the circuit had been in steady state for t < 0.
5.14
e(t)
that
PROB.
5.14
5.15
initial
For the circuit shown, switch S closes at t = 0. Solve for l(t) when the conditions arc zero and the voltage source is e(t) = sin (cat + 0). What
should be in terms of R, C, and term is zero?
so that the coefficient of the free response
-VNAr
I"
^)
PROB.
5.15
5.16 For the circuit shown, the switch S moves from a to b and sketch v^t) for - < / < . The circuit is in a steady
at
= 0.
f
Find
state at
= 0.
132
Network
analysis
and synthesis
MA
->
1
PROB.
Xs
5.16
5.17
For the
circuit
shown,
i(r)
- 4r (0g
Find
i<f);
- </<
JQ^
lf=t=
ih
PROB.
5.17
in Prob. 5.4. 5.18 Find the complete solution for i L(t) and vdO Find t - 0. 5.19 For the circuit shown, the switch is closed at - < t < oo. Assume zero initial energy. ijj) for
irff)
ana
10Q
lh
10Q
PROB. 5.19
5.20
ijft)
For the transformer circuit shown, the switch and i2(f). Assume zero initial energy. S
closes at
t = 0.
Find
5i>.
Af=lh PROB. 5.20
Network
analysis:
133
Q>
30
lh<3 1hg>lh
60^02(0
PROB.
5.21
switch S opens at 5.21 For the transformer circuit shown, the . Assume zero initial energy. / the voltage far) for
= 0.
Find
- < <
chapter
The
Laplace transform
6.1
THE PHILOSOPHY OF TRANSFORM METHODS

5,
In Chapters 4 and
ential equations.
since, in the process
The
discussed classical methods for solving differsolutions were obtained directly in the time domain
we
of solving the differential equation, we deal with time at every step. In this chapter, we will use Laplace functions of transforms to transform the differential equation to the frequency domain, where the independent variable is complex frequency s. It will be shown that differentiation and integration in the time domain are transformed into algebraic operations. Thus, the solution is obtained by simple
algebraic operations in the frequency domain.
a striking analogy between the use of transform methods to solve differential equations and the use of logarithms for arithmetic operations. Suppose we are given two real numbers a and b. Let us find
There
is
the product
c=axb
we have
log
(6.1)
by means of logarithms. Since the logarithm of a product is the sum of the

logarithms of the individual terms,
so that
If a
C = log a X b = log a + log b C = logr1 (log a + log b)
(6.2)
(6.3)
and b were two
six-digit
numbers, the use of logarithms would probably
facilitate the calculations, because logarithms transform multiplication
into addition.
An analogous process
is the use of transform methods to solve integroConsider the linear differential equation
yW))
-/()
(6.4)
134
The Laplace transform

Differential
135
Algebraic
equation^
equation
X(s)
^ Solve
Invert
x(t)
Transform
FIG.
6.1.
Philosophy of transform methods.
where /(0
the forcing function, x(t) is the unknown, and y(a<0) is the differential equation. Let us denote the transformation process by 7X-),
is
and
Eq.
let s
6.4,
be the frequency variable. we have
When we
transform both sides of

(6.5)
7W*(0)1
= W)]
= F(s)
and
Y(X(s), s)
is
Since frequency
domain functions are given by

Y(X(s),s)
capital letters, let us write

(6.6)
Eq-6.5as
where X(s)
TftOL
*W -
T[f(t)\,
an algebraic
equation in s. The essence of the transformation process is that differential equations in time are changed into algebraic equations in frequency.
We
can then solve Eq. 6.6 algebraically to obtain X(s). As a final step, we perform an inverse transformation to obtain
m
EM
Differential
equation
m
RM
*(0
r-
[*(*)]
(6.7)
System
function
In effecting the transition between the FIG. 6.2. Linear system. time and frequency domains, a table of very transform pairs MO, X(s)} can be diagram outlining the use of transform methods is given helpful. in Fig. 6.1. Figure 6.2 shows the relationship between excitation and response in both the time and frequency domains.
6.2
THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

is
The Laplace transform of a function of time/(/)

CLf (01
defined as
= Hs) =
s
{"/(&-" dt
no-
(6.8)
where s
is
the complex frequency variable
a +ja>
(6.9)
This definition of the Laplace transform is different from the definition given in most standard texts, 1 in that the lower limit of integration is
1
M.
E.
Van Valkenburg, Network Analysis, 2nd Ed. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New
Jersey, 1964.
136
/
Network
analysis
t
and synthesis
thus take into account the possibility
It is clear that
*
= 0 =
instead of
for the
= 0+. We
that/(t)
may be an impulse or one of its higher derivatives.
C[d(0]
0+ definition, whereas for the 0- definition, C[($(0] =
In the case when no impulses or higher derivatives of impulses are involved, Therefore, all of the it was shown in Chapter 4 that/(0-) =/(0+). treatment of Laplace trans"strong results" resulting from a rigorous 0+ as a lower limit also apply for the 0 forms* obtained by using t
definition.
In order for a function to possess a Laplace transform,

condition
it
must obey the
f
Jofor a real, positive a.
\f{t)\e-"dt<
oo
(6.10)
form,
it
Note that, for a function to have a Fourier must obey the condition
f
/
i
trans-
|/(0I
dt<
oo
(6.11)
As a result, a ramp function or a step function will not possess a Fourier transform, 3 but will have a Laplace transform because of the added t% convergence factor er a *. However, the function e will not even have a
Laplace transform. In transient problems, the Laplace transform is preferred to the Fourier transform, not only because a larger class of
waveforms have Laplace transforms but also because the Laplace transform takes directly into account initial conditions at t = 0 because of
the lower limit of integration in the Laplace transform. In contrast, the Fourier transform has limits of integration ( oo, oo), and, in order to take
into account initial conditions
due to a switch closing
at
= 0, the forcing
function must take a form

sents the initial condition.
as/(0 u(t)
is
+ /(0-)
(3(0,
where /(0-) repre-
The
inverse transform C-lrjFT(.0]
/(0
where at
is
= -M
FWds
(6.12)
Alt} Jniaa
a real positive quantity that is greater than the a convergence factor in Eq. 6.10. Note that the inverse transform, as defined, involves a
D. V. Widder, The Laplace Transform, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1941. These functions do not possess Fourier transforms in the strict sense, but many possess a generalized Fourier transform containing impulses in frequency; see M. J. Lighthill, Fourier Analysis and Generalized Functions, Cambridge University Press, New
* *
York, 1959.
137
complex integration known as a contour integration.1 Since it is beyond the intended scope of this book to cover contour integration, we will use a
partial fraction expansion procedure to obtain the inverse transform.
To
find inverse transforms
by
recognition,
we must remember
certain basic
transform pairs and also use a table of Laplace transforms. Two of the most basic transform pairs are discussed here. Consider first the transform
of a unit step function
u(t).
Example 6.1. /(/)-(/).

(6,13)
Next,
let
us find the transform of an exponential function of time.
Example 6.2. /(/)
~ e<(01
F(j)-J
With
these
e#e-dt=s
(6.14)
transforms, which
two transform pairs, and with the use of the properties of Laplace we discuss in Section 6.3, we can build up an extensive table
of transform
pairs.
6.3
PROPERTIES OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
In this section we will discuss a number of important properties of Laplace transforms. Using these properties we will build up a table of transforms. To facilitate this task, each property is illustrated by considering the transforms of important signal waveforms. First let us
discuss the linearity property.
Linearity
finite sum of time functions forms of the individual functions, that is
The transform of a
is
the
sum of the trans-
t[| /,]=
2 OK')]
sin cat
(615)
This property follows readily from the definition of the Laplace transform.
Example 63. /(/)
= sin <ot.
Expanding
by Euler's
identity,
we have
(6.16)
fit)
= ^.(e** - r+*)
For a
lucid treatment, see S.
Transients, Prentice-Hall,
Goldman, Transformation Calculus and Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1949, Chapter 7.
Electrical
38
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
is
The Laplace transform of /(f) cisoidal e iat terms. Thus

C[sin cat]
the
sum of
1
the transforms of the individual
=-
1/1
yto
:
2/\*
+.//
=
**
>*
(6.17)
Real differentiation Given that [/(f)] = *(*), then
Eflwhere /(0-)
Proof.
is
sF(s)-/(0-)
f
(6.18)
the value of/(f) at
= 0-.
(6.19)
By
definition,
[A0]=J*V'7'(0<*f
Integrating Eq. 6.19
by
parts,
we have
[/'(')]
= -7(0
/(Oe-'df
Jo-
(6.20)
Since e~" -
[/"(')]
as
-*
oo,
and because the
integral
on the right-hand
side
is
= ^) we have
t[f'(t)]
= sF(s)-f(0-)
(6.21)
Similarly,
we can show
for the nth derivative

-i
s
|"7(0"l
=
is
n
s
f(s)
_
f
/(0 _)
_ S "-V(0-)
of /(f) at
is
f
- u (0-)
(6.22)
where f
"-"
the (
l)st derivative
= 0-. We
thus see
that differentiating
by
in the time
domain
equivalent to multiplying
by
complex frequency domain. In addition, the initial conditions by the terms / (i) (0 ). It is this property that transforms differential equations in the time domain to algebraic equations in the frequency domain.
s in the
are taken into account
Example
6.4a.
/(f)
= sin cot.
Let us find
C[cos
cot]
j sin
cot)
(6.23)
By
the real differentiation property,
we have
(6.24)
cgsin<of]=,(^)
The
sothat
c[cosa,,]=
Laplace transform
139
i(_^ = _I 5
=
0.
is
(6.25)
In this example, note that sin <o(0)
Example
6.4b.
unit impulse.
/(/) = (/). Let We know that
us find [/'(')], which
the transform of the
Ct(0]
=s
1
(6.26)
Then
since
C[*0]
= *(j) =
(6.27)
(0 )
= 0.
is
If [/(*)]
flfa)
Real integration = F(s)> then the Laplace transform of the integral of /(f)
divided by
s,
that
is,
c[/(r)dr]=^
Proof.
(6.28)
By
definition,
c
Integrating
LX
rfrl
/(t) dr]
e_rt
-.C
[-
/(T) dT ]
d'
(6,29)
by
parts,
we
obtain
c|"
/(t)
=oo,
LJoSince e~" -*
J
as
f
f
f
/(t) dr
"
o-
+-
e-'/(f) dt
(6.30)
s Jo-
s Jo-
and
since
/(t)<*V
It-o-
=0
(6.31)
Jo-
we then have
c[/(r)dr]=^
Example 6.5.
Let us find the transform of the unit ramp function, p(t)
(6.32)
" t u(t).
(6.33)
We know that
Since
h(t)
dr
p(f)
C[(0]
=s
1
(6.34)
then
C[p</)]
-^ . _
[(')]
(6.35)
140
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Differentiation by
Differentiation
by
t
s in the
complex frequency domain corresponds to

is,
multiplication
by
in the
domain, that
W)] =
Proof.
-^
as
(6-36)
From the
Jo-
definition
of the Laplace transform, we see that
1 = f7(0 e-* dt - - f " tf(t)e-* dt ds
-Z[t f(t)]
(6.37)
ds
Jo-
Example 6.6.
Given /(O
= g-*\ whose transform is
mrrz
let
638>
us find
C[te~"']-
By
the preceding theorem,
we find that
"-i--s(rh)-<rb
Similarly,
we can show
that
"a-^-crrb* 5
where n
is
(640)
a positive
integer.
Complex
By
translation
if
the complex translation property,

/=X5
F(s) <= [/(/)], then

< 6 - 41 )
- a) = C[e7(0]
where a
Proof.
is
a complex number.
By
definition,
1*7(0]
Example 6.7.
-J"
^/(Oe"" dt
J"
e"
(M)
7(0 dt
= F(s -
a)
(6.42)
Given /(t)
= sin </, find

.
[-' sin </].
Since
qsinorfl-^^
<
643>
by the preceding theorem, we find that
Similarly,
we can show that
c^coso,.]-
^;^;^
(-45)
141
Real translation (shifting theorem) Here we consider the very important concept of the transform of a P(s), then the transform shifted or delayed function of time. If C[/(/)] of the function delayed by time a is
[/('
- a) u(t -
a)]
= e-** F(s)
(6.46)
Proof.
By
definition,
C[/(r
- a) u{t -
a)]
= f V*7(r - a) dt = a, we have
t
(6.47)
Introducing a
new dummy
f Jo
variable t
C[/(t) m(t)]
e-lT^f(r) dr
= g ['f(r)eJo-
dr
= <f~ F(s)
(6.48)
in Eq. 6.48/(t)u(t) is the shifted or delayed time function; therefore the theorem is proved. It is important to recognize that the term e~"' is a time-delay operator.
If
we
are given the function
e~"
G(s),
and are required to

ft (0,
find
C-i[r~G(,)]-
we can
discard er*' for the
moment,
find the inverse transform
E-HG(*)]-('X
and then take
into account the time delay
by
setting
g(t-a)u(t-a)=g1(t)
(6.49)
Example 6.8a. Given the square pulse /(f) in Fig. 6.3, let us first find its transform F(s). Then let us determine the inverse transform of the square of F(s),
i.e., let
us find
Mt) =
Solution.
C-i[F(5)]
(6.50)
The square pulse
is
given in terms of step functions as
/(/)
Its
- (/) -uit-a)
fit)
(6.51)
Laplace transform
is
then
(6.52)
F(s)=\(l-e~)
Squaring F(s),
we
obtain
(6.53)
F\s)
- -5 (1 - 2e- + e"*")
To find the inverse transform of F\s), we need only to determine the inverse transform
FIG.
4.3.
Square pulse.
142
Network
analysis
and synthesis
is
of the term with zero delay, which
C-4-J -fN(<)
Then
C-[F*(*)]
&]-
(6.54)
/(/)-
2(*
a)u(t
- a) +(t - 2a) (/ - 2a)
(6.55)
so that the resulting waveform is shown in Fig. 6.4. From this example, we see that the square of a transformed function does not correspond to the square of its inverse transform.
AW
f(t)
K2
Ki
Kq,,
it
K6
Xb
I
a
FIG.
6.4.
1
7Ti
train.
is
2a
Ti
2T!
3Ti 4Ti 5Ti 6Ti Impulse
Triangular pulse.
FIG.
6.5.
Example
6.8b. In Fig. of a train of impulses
6.5, the
output of an ideal sampler
shown.
It
consists
fit)
= *o <K0 + *i <K' ~ Tt) +

"
+ * *' - ri) + *e-* r

e ,r
is
i
656>
The Laplace transform of this impulse

C[/(/)l
train is
- *o + *!*-* + ^-2,Tl +
(6.57)
we can
In dealing with sampled signals, the substitution z = represent the transform of the impulse train as
often used.
Then
W)]-*. + T
The transform
Ai 1
+^ +
A.
A +?
(6.58)
in Eq. 6.58 is called the z-transform of /(/). This transform widely used in connection with sampled-data control systems.
is
PERIODIC
WAVEFORMS
The Laplace transform of a periodic waveform can be obtained in two ways (a) through summation of an infinite series as illustrated in Example 6.8d, and (*) through the formula derived below.
:
[/(*)]
-}
f(tyr"dt
+Jt
f{t)e-'*dt
+
flufUT
f(t)e-*dt
(6.59)
InT

Since /(0
is
143
periodic, Eq. 6.59 reduces to
[/]
T
dt \ f{i)e-'*dt Jo-
e+ e-' T [
\
f(t)e-*dt
Jo o-
e-nT f*f(t)e-* dt
Jo-
= (1 +
e-T
+ e-aT +
\
T
\ f{t)e-*dt Jo-
(6.60)
l-eExample
6.8c.
its
T ~ J T Jo- f(f)e-'*dt
train in Fig. 6.6 let us use Eq. 6.60 to
Given the periodic pulse
determine
Laplace transform.
1
f
dt
-1
(6.61)
1 1
- ~" - e-' T
m
1
a
FIG.
T+a
2T
2T+a
6.6. Periodic pulse train.
Example
6.8d.
Fig. 6.6 using
In this example we calculate the Laplace transform of /(f) in summation of an infinite series. The periodic pulse train can be
represented as
/(/)
Its
iKt)
- iKt - a) + u(t - T) - u[t - (T + a)] + u(t - IT) - u[t - (2T + a)] +

is
{pM)
Laplace transform
F(s)
(1
- *-" + e~tT - e-<T+) +

- e~" +
e~,T(l
.)
(6.63)
=s
[1
- e-) +
*-2 T(l
- -") +
144
Network
analysis
and synthesis
which
simplifies further to give
F(s)
(1
- -^"Xl + e- T + e~UT +)
(6.64)
We then see that F(s) can be given in the closed form 1 1 - e-

Other periodic pulse trains also can be given in closed form. The reader end of this chapter.
is
referred to the problems at the
At
the end of the chapter
is
a table of Laplace transforms. Most of
the entries are obtained through simple applications of the properties just discussed. It is important to keep those properties in mind, because many
these properties.
transform pairs that are not given in the table can be obtained by using For example, let us find the inverse transform of
F(s)
=,
(s
j_
ay
, car
(6-66)
Since the s in the numerator implies differentiation in the time domain,
we
can write
F(s)-a
(s
"
ay
(6.67)
co'
Using the differentiation property,
we
obtain
y
/
dt
(6.68)
to
Note that e~"

6.4
sin
mt at
= (r sin oat + = 0 is zero.
cos oot)e~*
USES OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

often useful in the evaluation of definite occurs in the evaluation of
Evaluation of definite integrals

integrals.
is
An obvious example
c-**sin5rdr -/:
If we replace tr %%
(6.69)
by er**, the integral /then becomes the Laplace transform
of sin
5/,
which
is
Z[S ux5t]
= -rj-s + 25
(6.70)

Replacing J by
2,
145
we have
I
TTs
is
(6 - 71)
Perhaps a more subtle example

/
First,
the evaluation of
+
J
,W dt
(6.72)
we note
that
eriW
is
an even function; therefore

/
= 2jVC-2'df
we
see that
(6.73)
From
the table of Laplace transforms
and the transform of
/(0
= f tV**Jo-
(6.75)
vm -^tv
Later
(<76)
we
consists
will see that the partial-fraction expansion of Z[f(t)] in Eq. 6.76 of three terms for the multiple root (s + If, as given by
pr//A1 ELKO]
= 0.25 "
0.25
î - j^
0.5
1
.-_
(6.77)
Taking the inverse transform of Eq.

f{t)
6.77,
we
obtain
11(f)
= 0.25(1 - e- = 2/(1) =
2te-**
- 2rtr-)
is
(6.78)
Now
t
observe that the definite integral in Eq. 6.73

that
is,
equal to 2/(f) at
(6.79)
1,
-2.5<r*
+ 0.5 = 0.162
Solution of integrodifferential equations In Section 6.3 we said that the real differentiation and real integration properties of the Laplace transform change differential equations in time to algebraic equations in frequency. Let us consider some examples using Laplace transforms in solving differential equations.
Example
6.9.
Let us solve the

*"(/)
differential
equation
(6.80)
+ 3x'(t) + Irtf) - 4e* given the initial conditions a<0-) = 1, x'(Q) = 1.
146
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Solution.
We first proceed by taking the Laplace transform of the differential

3[s X(s)
equation, which then becomes

[i
X(s)
-sx(0-)- x'(0 -)] +
- x(0 -)] + 2X(s) =

and
simplifying,
(6.81)
Substituting the initial conditions into Eq. 6.81
we have
(6.82)
(** (s*
3s
+ 2) X(s)
:
+5+2
1
We then obtain
X(s) explicitly as
-jr=mrm+%
To
find the inverse transform x(t)
(6 - 83)
= f'^W],
we expand
X(s) into partial
fractions
Solving for X_i,
Aî,
and
Kt algebraically, we obtain K_i = JTi = -1 Kt = |

transform of X(s) or
The
final solution is thf inverse
a<0
fe*
- e-' + fe-
(6.85)
solving differential equations, the reader
In order to compare the Laplace transform method to the classical method of is referred to the example in Chapter 4,
is
Eq. 4.64, where the differential equation in Eq. 6.80
solved classically.
Example
6.10.
Given the
2x'(f)
set of
simultaneous differential equations
4a<r)
+ x(t) with the initial conditions x(0 -) = y(0 -) = 0, let us find x(j) and y(t).
x'(t)
+ y'(t) + 7y(0 = 5u(t) + y'(t) + 3jK0 = 56X0

we
Y(s)
(6.86)
Solution.
Transforming the
2(s
set
of equations,
obtain
+ 2) X(s) + (* + 7) +
1)
-s
(6.87)
(s
X(s)
+ (* +
3) Y(s)
Solving for X(s) and Y(s) simultaneously,
we have
X(s)
(5/*)A u
+ 5^
(6.88)
A
(5/5)Au
+ 5A*
Y(s)

where
zyth
147
is
is
the determinant of the set of equations in Eq. 6.87, and
A tf
the
cofactor of A.
More explicitly,
X(s)
is
-5i
- 30s +
15
~-*FT2r+sr
Expanding X(s)
in partial fractions,
(689)
we have
K-s
^> = 7 + ?T27T5
Multiplying both sides of Eq. 6.90 by s and letting *
Kx
+ Kz
<690)
= 0, we find
K1
=sX(s)\,_ =3.
Kt and Ks are then obtained from the equation
* "-7+5 + 5
of X(s), that
is,
-8s
- 36
(691)
A further simplification occurs by completing the square of the denominator

s*
+ 2s +
(s
1)*
+4
(6.92)
As a
result of
Eq. 6.92, we can rewrite X(s) as
*<'>-"
so that the inverse transform
(/)
is
8(i
fr
+ 1) + 14(2) + iy+gy 14e-' sin It) (/)
(693)
(3
8c-' cos 2/
(6.94)
In similar fashion,
we
obtain Y(s) as
*
Wrt y(s)
_ =
"* + 17 1 + ~s 7T27T5 - -; +
|
llfr
(,
+ l)+3(2) + i)* + (2)*
(6,95)
The
inverse transform is then seen to be
y (j) This example
= ( _ i +1 i e-* cos 2f +
3<r* sin It) u(t)
(6.96)
is also solved by classical methods in Chapter 4, Eq. 4.163. note one sharp point of contrast. While we had to find the initial conditions at t 0+ in order to solve the differential equations directly in the time domain, the Laplace transform method works directly with
We
the
In addition, we obtain both the complementary function and the particular integral in a single operation when we use Laplace transforms. These are the reasons why the Laplace transform method is so effective in the solution of differential equations.
initial
conditions at
= 0
148
Network
analysis
and synthesis
&5
PARTIAL-FRACTION EXPANSIONS
As we have seen, the ease with which we use transform methods depends upon how quickly we are able to obtain the partial-fraction expansion of a given transform function. In this section we will elaborate on some simple and effective methods for partial-fraction expansions, and we discuss
procedures for (a) simple roots, (b) complex conjugate roots, and
multiple roots.
It (c)
should be recalled that if the degree of the numerator is greater or equal to the degree of the denominator, we can divide the numerator by the denominator such that the remainder can be expanded more easily
into partial fractions.
Consider the following example:
=
Since the degree of N(s)
into N(s) to give
is
m=
D(s)
+
s'
3s*
+ 3s + 2
2s
greater than the degree of D(s),
we
divide D(s)
F(s)
= 5 + 1s
'
+2s +
(6.98)
fractions.
Here we see the remainder term can be easily expanded into partial However, there is no real need at this point because the denominator s2 +^2s + 2 can be written as
s*
+ 2s +
= (5 +
1)*
(6.99)
We can then write F(s) as
so that the inverse transform can be obtained directly from the transform
tables,
namely,
C-W)] =
From this
form
example,
<5'(0
3(0
+ er*(sm t - cos i)
(6.101)
we see that intuition and a knowledge of the transConsider some further

role.
table can often save considerable work.
examples in which intuition plays a dominant
Example
6.11.
Find the
partial-fraction expansion of
2*
+3
(JTWTT)
(6102)
The
If we see that F(s)
Laplace transform
149
can also be written as
*Wthen the partial-fraction expansion
(s
fr
+ 1) + (s + 2) + Dfr+g
(6103)
is trivially
Exanpfe
6-12.
Find the
partial-fraction expansion
of
(6-105)
j + 5 s +5 F(s) = , T -,
We see that F(s) can be rewritten as
m = feai = _i_ T _i_^ W + + +

(s
(6 106)
2)
(s
2)
(s
2)
Real roots
Now let us discuss some formal methods for partial-fraction expansions.

First
we examine a method
for simple real roots.
Consider the function
m=
F(s)
(s
- s tt^t: St) )(s s0(s

:
(6-107)
where s< st, and st are distinct, Expanding F{s) we have
real roots,
and the degree of N(a)
< 3.
= -*- + -^- + -^S Si S Si S S
(6.108)
Let us first obtain the constant A,. j ) to give of the equation by (s
We proceed by multiplying both sides

(6.109)
(s
s)F(s) = K
in Eq. 6.109,
H
s
s,
If we let 5
=*
we
we
obtain
Ji-(#-J)J^)|^
Similarly,
(6110)
see that the other constants can
be evaluated through the

(6.111)
general relation
A,
1
= (*-*) ft*) |_.,
6.13.
Let us find the partial-fraction expansion for

J +2j - 2 FV- j(*+2X*-3) .g + J^- + J^_ FW * s+2+3-3
'
Z) (6.112) K
150
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
Usin gEq. 6.111, we find
Ao
= ~
sF(s) |_>
s*
(*
+ 2s -2 + 2X* - 3)
-o
3
1
s*
Kl
~
s2
sis
+2s -2 -3) a
13
(6.113)
*"
Complex
+ 2s - 2
s(s+2)
~15 3
roots Equation 6.111 is also applicable to a function with complex roots in its denominator. Suppose F(s) is given by
F(s)
JVC*)
D&Xs Ki
- JPK' - * + JP) +
JVi(s)
s-x-jfi
where A^/Di
is
s-x+jp
(6.114)
Djis)
the remainder term.
Using Eq. 6.111, we have
K1 =
ypDM+m
(6.115)
-irfD^-m
where we assume that j = a jP are not zeros of Z>i(s). It can be shown that the constants Kx and K% associated with conjugate roots are themselves conjugate. Therefore, if we denote K as
(6.116)
then
If
K2 = A-jB = K *
1
(6.117)
fx(t),
we denote the we see that
inverse transform of the
complex conjugate terms as
A(0 i(o
= = =
_i
+
+
Kft-"*)
e"'(K ie "
2c**(A cos Bt
- B sin pi)
(6.118)
151
A more convenient way to express the inverse transform f^t) is to introduce the variables
M and
<X>
denned by the equations
= 2A McosO = -25
sin
<1>
(6.119)
where
terms of
M and
and
are the real

,
and imaginary parts of

is
Kr in Eq.
6.116.
In
the inverse transform
/i(0
= Me?* sin (0t + O)

we note
that
(6. 120)
To
obtain
M and $ from K
=
lt
Me'*
M cos O + jM sin O =
-2B + ;2,4 = 2;XX

we
see
(6.121)
When
related to the original function F(s),
from Eq. 6.115 that

(6 . 122)
Mf =
Example
6.14.
*<+Jfl
Let us find the inverse transform of
w-vr^rkr+ii
For the simple root s
(6123)
.
2, the constant
K is
i
(6.124)
K = (*+2)F(*)|,__8 =
For the complex conjugate roots
**+2j+5=(* +
We see that
a
+j2Xs
-y'2)
(6.125)
= 1,
Me**
= 2, thus =
is
+3
2(*+2) i1+*2
then
V5
c-i(tan-j+W)
(6.126)
The inverse transform

C-i[F(*)]
- e-**
+ = <r* sin \^
2
-p e~*
~\~ tan-1 2j
(6.127)
= - e~u
5
V5
cos (2/
-1 tan 2)
Multiple roots Next let us consider the case

repeated or multiple roots.
requires differentiation;
which the partial fraction involves examine two methods. The first the second does not.
in
We
will
152
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Method
A
F(S)
Suppose we are given the function
- s )" ^(s) The partial fraction expansion with multiple roots of degree n at s = j
(s
.
W=
(6.128)
of F(s)
is
K
(s-s ) n
Kx
(s-so)""
1
Kt
(s-s )-8
..... *-i
*i(?)
J>i()
s-s
(6.129)
where N^jDjUs) represents the remaining terms of the expansion. The problem is to obtain K^K^..., K^. For the K^ term, we use the method
cited earlier for simple roots, that
is,
Ko
However,
t
= (s-s rF(s)\
same formula
(6.130)
if
we were
to use the
to obtain the factors
Ku
K ,..., #_!, we would invariably

dition.
arrive at the indeterminate 0/0 conn s ) and Instead, let us multiply both sides of Eq. 6.129 by (s
define
F1(s)s(s-s rF(s)
Thus
(6.131)
Fx(s) -
A,
+ Kt(s - s ) +
+ K^s - So)""1 + *(*)(' - s*Y

(6.132)
differentiate
where R(s) indicates the remaining terms. If we

s,
Eq. 6.132 by
we
obtain
4 Fi(s) - *i + 2K^s as
It is evident that
s )
*_!(/!
D(s
- so)""* +
(6.133)
Kx = Ft(s)
ds
(6.134)
On the same basis

and
in general
Kt =
F^s)
(6.135)
2 ds
K = -tWs)! !->
t
.
= 0,1, 2
-1
(6.136)
j\ ds'
The
Example
6.15.
Laplace transform
153
Consider the function
'W-STTlJi
which we represent-in expanded form as
(6 - ,37)
-(7Ti? + (JTI? + 7TT + 7

The constant A
for the simple root at s
<'>
is
A=sF(s)\^=-2
To obtain
the constants for the multiple roots
(6.139)
we first find Ft(s).
Fjis)
= (s +
l)
8 F(s)
-^
s
(6.140)
Using the general formula for the multiple root expansion, we obtain
1
!
fs
\
-2\
s
î=T7T 1 ds
!_!
-3 |__! =2
I
<6142)
,_,.
*-i^)L-(-5)L-;
sothat
IW __2 gl +
^
),
(6.144)
i+
-i
-5
Method B
The second method
multiple roots requires
series expansion.*
for arriving at the partial-fraction expansion for
no differentiation. It involves a modified power Let us consider F(s) and F^s), defined in Eqs. 6.128 s Joand 6.131 in Method A. We define a new variable/; such that/>
Then we can write F^s) as
*(p
Dividing N(p
+ tf-?T^
(6145)
+s)
by
D%(p + s
obtain
1
with both polynomials written in
ascending powers ofp,
we
fiG*
+ s ) = K + K p + Ktpt +-- +
X^j,""1
0l(l>
f"f *o) +
(6.146)
* I
am
indebted to the late Professor Leonard O. Goldstone of the Polytechnic
Institute
of Brooklyn for showing
me this method.
154
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
is
The
original function F(s)
related to
F (p + s ) by the equation
x
F(P
o)-
pn
-,-%-!+
+
Dl(p
+ So)
(6.147)
Substituting 5
= p in Eq. 6.147, we obtain

g
/
F(s)
* +
\ Bl +
-^ + -\
(6.148)
have thus found the partial-fraction expansion for the multiple-root terms. The remaining terms KjlD^s)] still must be expanded into partial fractions. Consider Example 6.16.
Example 6.16
We
*wUsing the method just given, F^s)
fr
ijUa
(6149)
is
F^s)
Setting p
(s
+ If F(s) =
-^
(6.150)
=s+
1,
we
then have
- 1) into a series as given in Eq. 6.146 requires dividing the numerator 2 by the denominator 1 + p, with both numerator and denominator arranged in ascending power of p. The division here is
The expansion of Ft(p
2
- lp + 2/
l+/0"2
2 +2/>
-2^
-2p-2f
Since the multiplicity of the root we have three terms in the quotient.
is
AT = 3, we terminate We then have
the division after
FX{P -l)=2-2p+2p*- jx The original function F(p 1) is

F(P
(6.152)
1)
Fx(d -1) =-J7T- -
? ?
+~ -pTl p
(6153)

Substituting s
155
= />, we have
- (7TT? " (7TI? + (7TT) " JT2
consider the function
m
Example
6.17.
(6154)
F(,)
=^T1?
(at s
(6155)
Since
we have two
sets
of multiple roots here
choice of expanding F^s) about s
expand about *
= 0;
since /j
1) we have a Let us arbitrarily choose to s here, we do not have to make any substitutions.
= 0, and s =
Ooi s = 1. +
2
F&) is then
Expanding
=(7TT? = rT2FT7
Ft(j), we obtain
F^s)
2+s
<6156>
2
2
- 3j +
3
F(s)
is
then
F(s)
-^ 3*
(s
+ 4) ^ + iy 3* + 4 + +^
s\3s
.
(6.157)
(6.158)
We must now repeat this process for the

+ +
term
+4
1)*
Fortunately
we
see that the term can be written as
3s
(s
+4 = 3Qr +
1)
1)
(*
iy
1 3_ + + I (s +
(6159)
1)
The
final
answer
is
then
"W-l-i+TTT + frTi?
6.6
(6160)
POLES
AND ZEROS
we
will discuss the
In this section
many
implications of a pole-zero
description of a given rational function with real coefficients F(s).

define the poles of F(s) to
We
be the roots of the denominator of F(s). The zeros of F(s) are defined as the roots of the numerator. In the complex s plane, a pole is denoted by a small cross, and a zero by a small circle. Thus,
for the function
_ ^-i+;D(s-i-Jl)
+ l)\s+j2)(s-j2) 1 s = (double) s = y*2
(s
the poles are at
+y*2
156
Network
analysis
and synthesis
jo
|
j2 i
Double
.t
i
plane
-<r
-3 -2 -1
i_W_
pole.*.
,1
o
i i I
12
o
->2 x
-J<0
FIG.
6.7. Pole-zero
diagram of F(s).
and the zeros are
at
= = =
-j\
s S
00
The poles and

signals.
zeros of F(s) are shown in Fig. 6.7. Now let us consider some pole-zero diagrams corresponding to standard example, the unit step function is given in the complex
For
frequency domain as
C[u(0]
=s
6162>
and has a pole at the origin, as shown in signal e*, where <x > 0, has a transform
Fig. 6.8a.
The exponential
C[e']
S
Oq
Fig. 6.86.
(6.163)
which has a
function cos
single pole at s
<a
i,
-o-* as indicated in
is
The
cosine
whose transform
C[coso,
t]
= -r-1-~ t =
(6-164)
7<u poles at s has a zero at the origin and a pair of conjugate Figure 6.Sd shows the pole-zero diagram as depicted in Fig. 6.8c. is corresponding to a damped cosine wave, whose transform
Z[e-"* cos
co t ]
= s + g r=-* (s + r+
<r
(6.165)
o>
i
The
a
(a)
Laplace transform
157
(b)
]W
M,
-a
x
m)' ""
+,
*******
-jao
id)
FIG.
6A
Poles and zeros of various functions.
From these four pole-zero diagrams, we note that the poles corresponding to decaying exponential waves are on the a axis and have zero imaginary parts. The poles and zeros corresponding to undamped
sinusoids are
poles
on the/o> axis, and have zero real parts. Consequently, the and zeros for damped sinusoids must have real and imaginary
parts that are both nonzero.
Now let us consider two exponential waves/x(0 = er'i* and/i(f) = er***,

where at
6.9a.
>
<r
> 0, so that/,0) decays faster than/iO), as shown in Fig.

functions are
*i()
The transforms of the two
=
s
s
+
1
ax
a,
(6.166)
F&) =
as depicted
by the pole-zero diagram in Fig. 6.96. Note that the further the pole is from the origin on the a axis, the more rapid the exponential decay. Now consider two sine waves, sin atjt and sin co t t, where <o t > >! > 0. Their corresponding poles are shown in Fig. 6.10. We note here
m
l
JU>
s plane
*2(K
Fi(K
V2
(a)
0"1
(b)
FIG.
*.*. Effect
of pole location upon exponential decay.
158
Network
1
analysis
and synthesis
JU
X./C02
JO)
X
,
>i
X
1
a
X
si*
(
-jwi
-j(i>2
X
2*
<
FIG. 6.10. Pole locations corresponding to sin to,/ and sin mj.
FIG.
6.1
represents frequency of that the distance from the origin on theyco axis frequency. oscUlation; the greater the distance, the higher the responses fx {f) and these rules of thumb, let us compare the time Using shown in Fig. corresponding to the pole pairs {* lf s 1 *} and fo, s a *} a (0 damped sinusoids. see that both pairs of poles corresponds to
6.11.
The damped
fz
than/a(f) sinusoid/i(0 has a smaller frequency of oscillation part of s t Also, because the imaginary part of * x is less than the imaginary The time because Res1 2 x (t) decays more rapidly than f (t)
.
We
>Kcs
responses /x(0
and/a(0
are
shown
in Fig. 6.12.
f2 (t)
- lme*
h
\^" ~~-
h) =
lme'
C-
___ __
-
=*-
S ^-^
(b)
in Fig. 6.11. FIG. 6.12. Time responses for poles

ju
plane
159
m
at
-m
(b)
FIG. 6.13. Effect of right-half plane poles upon time response.
Let us examine more closely the effect of the positions of the poles in upon transient response. We denote a pole pt as a complex number ( at +jco i For a given function F(s) p with only first-order poles, consider the partial-fraction expansion
the complex frequency plane
F(s)
_*!L_
s-
+ _*!_ +
-Pi
is
Po
s-P
(6.167)
The
inverse transform of F(s)

/(*)
= K e + Kie* + = K^"*e im,t + K1e'
+K
lt
ne"*
iait
+ + Kê*""*
is,
(6.168)
In/0), we see that if the real part of a pole is positive, that the corresponding term in the partial-fraction expansion
at
> 0, then
K e"
i
*e
iatt
an exponentially increasing sinusoid, as shown in Fig. 6.13a. thus see that poles in the right half of the s plane (Fig. 6.13*) give rise to exponentially increasing transient responses. system function that has poles in the right-half plane is, therefore, unstable. Another
is
We
unstable
situation arises if there
is
a pair of double poles on theyw
axis,
such as for
the function
F(
"-(7f^'
in Fig. 6.14a.
(6.169)
whose pole-zero diagram

F(s)
is
is
shown
The inverse transform of
/(0
= - sin co
2io
(6.170)
160
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Vjao
*-.7o
f(t)
m ^-
sin (dot
(a)
(b)
FIG. 6.14. Effect of double zeros on
they'd) axis
upon time
response.
which is shown in Fig. 6.146. It is apparent that a stable system function cannot also have multiple poles on theytu axis.
N(s)lD(s). Consider the system function H(s) numerator and denominator polynomials, we obtain
If
we
factor the
H(s)
It is clear that
Hg(s
(S
- Zq)(s - Zi) - P )(S - Pi)
- g) - Pm) (S
(s
(6.171)
we can
H(s) is completely specified in terms of its poles and zeros and an additional constant multiplier #. From the pole-zero plot of H(s), obtain a substantial amount of information concerning the
whether the behavior of the system. As we have seen, we can determine by checking the right-half plane for poles and the jm axis system is stable its transient for multiple poles. We obtain information concerning discuss behavior from the positions of its poles and zeros; and, as we will
diagram also gives us significant.information We thus concerning its steady-state (Jm) amplitude and phase response. see the importance of a pole-zero description. Suppose we are given the poles and zeros of an excitation E(s) and the response system function H(s). It is clear that the pole-zero diagram of the of the pole-zero diagrams of H(s) and R(s) is the superposition
in Section 8.1, the pole-zero
function
(j).
Consider the system function
W"
and the
excitation
(6.172)
(i
- ftK " A)
s
(6.173)
pt
161
Then
the response function
is
H(s)
It is clear that
=
(s
gpEofr
- Zq)(s - i) - p )(s - pj(s - p)
(6.174)
R(s) contains the poles and zeros of both H(s) and (*), except in the case where a pole-zero cancellation occurs. As an example, let us take the system function
H(s)
=
(s
2(5
1)
2+j4)(s
+ 2-j4)
(6.175)
whose pole-zero diagram is shown in Fig. 6.15c. It is readily seen from the pole-zero diagrams of the excitation signals in Fig. 6.18a that the step response of the system has the pole-zero diagram indicated in Fig. 6.156.
The response to an
tion of Fig.
6. 1 5c.
excitation signal 3 cos It has the pole-zero representa-
To specify completely the given function F(s) on a polenumerator on the
zero plot,
plot
itself.
we
indicate the constant multiplier of the
Let us examine the significance of a pole or zero at the origin. We that dividing a given function H(s) by s corresponds to integrating the inverse transform h(t) C- l [//(*)]. Since the division by s corresponds
know
to a pole at the origin,
we
see that a pole at the origin implies
an
inte-
Because the inverse transform of H(s) in Fig. 6.15a is the impulse response, placing a pole at the origin must correspond to the step response of the system. In similar manner, we deduce that a zero at the origin corresponds to a differentiation in the time domain. Suppose we consider the pole-zero diagram in Fig. 6.15c with the zero at the origin removed; then the resulting pole-zero plot is the response of the system to an excitation E sin It. Placing the zero at
the origin must then give the response to an excitation
J(0
gration in the time domain.
Et cos It, which, of

ju
ju
X
J*
K-2
JT-2
j2::
JT-6
^r
-;4(a)
-2 -1
-2 -1
-j2x
-74
(b)
-74(0
excitation,
(c)
FIG. 6.15. (a) System function,

excitation e(j)
(jb)
Response to unit step
Response to
= 3 cos 2i.
162
course,
Network
is
analysis
and synthesis
true.
We
therefore conclude that the system function of a

at the origin; that of
differentiator
must have a zero

origin.
an integrator must
have a pole at the
6.7
EVALUATION OF RESIDUES
Poles and zeros give a powerful graphical description of the behavior of a system. We have seen that the poles are the complex frequencies of
the associated time responses.
What
role
do the zeros play? To answer

expansion
this question, consider the partial fraction
Si
where we
s
shall
assume that F(s) has only simple poles and no poles

is
at
oo.
The
inverse transform
/(0
It is clear that the
fV
i
(6-177)
frequencies s( but also
time response /(r) not only depends on the complex on the constant multipliers t These constants t are called residues when they are associated with first-order poles. We will show that the zeros as well as the poles play an important part in the
determination of the residues

Earlier
we
discussed a
number of
different
methods for obtaining
the residues by partial-fraction expansion. Now we consider a graphical method whereby the residues are obtained directly from a pole-zero
diagram. Suppose
we
are given
f(s)
= 4>(8 ~ goX5 ~ ^ (s - p )(s - Pi)
(s
(s
~ 2 ) - pj
F(s)
as
( 6 .i78)
where
m>
n and
all
the poles are simple. Let us expand
F(s)
= -&- + S Po *
A
-^ +
Pi
(Pi
+ -=* Pm
(6-179)
Our
task
is
to determine the residues A,.
We know that
'
^ = (s-ft)^(s)
Zq)(p< - zi) (Pi - z) (Pi - Pm) (Pi ~ Po)-" (Pi - Pi-îPi - ft+l)
' * *
(6.180)
163
When we interpret the Eq. 6.180 from a complex-plane viewpoint, we see that each one z f) represents a vector drawn of the terms (p (
JU
ozo
Pix
from a zero
z t to the pole in question,
Similarly, the terms (p f
/>),
where
^ k,
t.
from the other poles to the pole p^ In other words, the residue t of any
represent vectors
P0
pole
is
equal to the ratio of the product of
the vectors from the zeros to
t,
to the prod-
A*
o
*1
uct of the vectors from the other poles to
{.
To
illustrate this idea, let
us consider the pole-
FIG. 6.16. Poles and zeros of F(s).
zero plot of
F(s)
=
(S
Ms - zp)(s - Zl) - p )(s - p )(s - ft*)

x
(6.181)
given in Fig. 6.16.
The
F(s)
partial-fraction expansion of F(s)
is
- K s
Kl
Pt,
^1
(6.182)
pt
-Pi-
where the asterisk denotes complex conjugate. Let us find the residues A" and Kx by means of the graphical method described. First we evaluate x by drawing vectors from the poles and zeros to/^, as shown in Fig. 6.17a.
The
residue
x is
then
K1 _
XqAB
CD
(6.183)
where symbols in boldface represent vectors. We know that the residue of the conjugate pole^* is simply the conjugate of x in Eq. 6.183. Next,
FIG. 6.17. Determining residues by vector method.
164
Network
analysis
and synthesis
to evaluate
6.176.
ju
K& we draw vectors from

/>
,
the
C-3
poles and zeros to
as indicated in Fig.
We see that
K - A RL
MN
(6.184)
-,
-1
we
-jl
With the use of a ruler and a protractor, determine the lengths and the angles of
the vectors so that the residues can be determined quickly and easily. Consider the fol-
lowing example. The pole-zero plot of

F(s)
FIG. .I8. Pole-zero diagram
F(s).
of-
55
(
_
(6.185)
2)(s
+ 1 - jl)( + 1 + jl)
is
is
shown
in Fig. 6.18.
The
partial-fraction expansion of F(s)
F(s)
=
s
Kt*
+ - jl
1
"*"
(6.186)
s
+ jl
+2
the pole
First let us evaluate
x.
The phasors from the poles and zeros to

in Fig. 6.19a.
at
1 +jl
are
shown
We see that Kt is
^2/135
2/90
Kx =
X -p
_3
2
J2 1*5_ X
JU
C-3
-2/\&
-<r
AIVr
nJ
'
180*
V90* r
(a)
-a
(b)
FIG. 6.19. Evaluation of residues of F(s).
The
Laplace transform
165
From
Fig. 6.19*
we find the value of the

3
residue
Kt to be
= _3
is
^ K,=! _
x 2_
V2 /-13S x 72 7+135
Therefore, the partial-fraction expansion of F(s)
F(s)
=
s
+ l-jl
+
s
1
s
+ l+jl
+2
(6.187)
6.8
THE
INITIAL
AND
the
FINAL VALUE THEOREMS

two very
useful theorems of Laplace
It relates the initial
In
this section
we
will discuss
transforms.
that
The
t
is,
first is
initial
value theorem.
value of /(/) at
infinity,
= 0+
to the limiting value of sF(s) as s approaches
lim f(t)
= lim s F(s) =
(6.188)
The only
restriction is that /(f)
must be continuous or contain,
at most,
step discontinuity at / == 0.
In terms of the transform, P(s) t[f(t)]; this restriction implies that F(s) must be a. proper fraction, i.e., the degree of the denominator polynomial of F(s) must be greater than the degree of the numerator ofF(s). Now consider the proof of the initial value theorem,
which we give in two

(a)
parts.
is
The
From
function /(f) the relationship
continuous at
= 0,
that is,/(0 )
=/(0+).
Cf/'(0I
=/ V(0r" dt = s F(s) - /(0-)

lim s F(s)
-
(6.189)
we
obtain
hm C[/'(01 -oo
- /(0-) =
(6.190)
Therefore
Um s F(s) = /(0-) = /(0+)

-oo
(6.191)
(b)
The function/(0 has a step discontinuity
at
= 0.
Let us represent
f{t) in terms of a continuous part/ (0 and a step discontinuity x as shown in Fig. 6.20. can then write /(/) as
D (/),
(6^2)
We
/(0-/i(0
where
+ J>W
is
D =/(0+) /(0-).
The
derivative of/(f)
f'{t)=f$f)
Do{t)
(6.193)
66
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
Du(t)
fi(t)
fit)
FIG. 6.20. Decomposition of a discontinuous function into a continuous function

plus a step function.
Since fx (t)
is
continuous at
0,
we know from
part (a) that

(6.194)
lim s F^s)
= A(0-) = /(0-)
sides
Taking the Laplace transform of both

s F(s)
of Eq. 6.193,
we have
(6.195) (6.196)
which
simplifies to
- /(0-) = s F^s) - M0-) + D s F(s) <= s F (s) + D

t
Now, if we take the limit ofEq. 6.196 as s-+ oo and let/(0+) -/(0-) = D we have (6.197) lim s F(s) = lim s F x (s) + /(0+) - /(0-)
By Eq.
6.194,
we then
obtain
limsF(s)=/(0+)
Example
6.18.
(6.198)
Given the function
m=
let
2(s
s*
1)
+2s +
(6.199)
us find/(0 -f ). Since the degree of the denominator is greater than the degree of the numerator of F(s), the initial value theorem applies. Thus
lim s F(s)
Since
2(s
$s
lim
=2
(6.200)
(6.201)
C-H^Cj)]
=2c-*cos2r
we see that /(0+) =2.

Example
6.19.
Now let us consider a case where the initial value

f(t)
theorem does
not apply. Given the function
(5(0
+ 3r*
is
(6.202)
we see that/(0+)
3.
The transform of/(f)

F(s)
+
s
(6.203)
1

so that lim sF(s)
*-*,
167
= lim si 1 +
.-co
\
oo
(6.204)
/ states that
Next we consider the final value theorem, which

lim /(0
= lim s F(s)
(6.205)
provided the poles of the denominator of F(s) have negative or zero real parts, i.e., the poles of F(s) must not be in the right half of the complexfrequency plane. The proof is quite simple. First
f'(t)e-' dt
s F(s)
i:
Taking the
limit as s
- /(0-)
(6.206)
->
in the Eq. 6.206,
we have
/'() dt
lim
-o
s F(s)
j;
Evaluating the integral, /(oo)
- /(0-)
(6.207)
we
obtain
(6 .208)
- /(0-) - hm 5 F(s) - /(0-)

/(oo)
Consequently,
= lim s F(s)
-o
(6.209)
Example
6.20.
Given the function

/(/)
3(/)
+ 2e~* = iii *(s + l)
(6.210)
which has the transform

F(s)
=l +
s
s
(6 . 211)
let
we see
us find the final value/( oo). Since the poles of F(s) are at s the final value theorem applies. We find that
=0 and s = 1
(6.212)
]imsF(s)=3
which
is
the final value of /(/) as seen

6.21.
from Eq.
6.210.
(6.213) (6.214)
Example
Given
f(t)
we see that
But from
lim/(f)
= le* = oo =
s
7s
sF(s) lim * F(s)

-o
;
1
(6.215)
we have
(6.216)
We see that the final value theorem does not apply in this case, because the pole = 1 is in the right half of the complex-frequency plane.
168
Network
TABLE
6.1
Laplace Transforms
fit)
F(s)
1.
fit)
FW-JT/Oy**
+ ./)
CxFxC^+fljF^)
2.
i/i(0
3.
|/W
dn
fW
-/(0-)
4-
^/<
a" Fis)
- J f^'fÔ-)
5.
f/W
rfT
!*w
>(,)
6.
f f fir)drda Jo- Jo-
7.
(-0"/W
fit -a)u(t
8. 9.
- a)
e-F(*)
**/X0
8(t)
F(s
1
- a)
10.
dn
1
12.
(/)
s
1
13.
14.
-r
n\
1
15.
*
1
a
1
16.
/?- (
sin cof
e-
_ e-ft)
a>
17.
169
TABLE
18.
6.1 (cont.)
cos
cor
+ <0
a
19.
sinh at
5
20.
cosh a/
i*-fl
0>
21.
"'sin or
(*
*)
CO
22.
*""' cos
mt
(5
(* + ) + )* +
1
co
e-**t* 23.
(j
+ +
a)**"1
24.
*
.
sin co/
2co
0*
<*)
25.
/(/); n -0,1,2,3,...
(Bessel function of first kind,
(5*
a)W[(i
a)H
- 5]-
nth order)
26.
(t/)-*
r*
J-
T(*
1)
27.
(A:
need not be an integer)
Problems
6.1
(a)
(6) (c)
(</)
Find the Laplace transforms of
/(0-sin(orf+|8)
/(/)
(*)
= *-<*> cos (at + P) f(t) .- (r + 1>-" A" is a real constant /(/) - JT*; / - (** + - 0^**
f)-td'(t)
>1.
(/)
(g)
/W - aW* - 4)]
Find the Laplace transforms of
/(/)
6 J,
(a)
(6)
- cos (t -
*/4) u(f
w/4)
/(0-cos(/-W4)(0
170
6.3
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Find the Laplace transforms for the waveforms shown.

fit)
Kt)
-1
(a)
(b)
6.4
Find the Laplace transforms for the derivatives of the waveforms in Find the inverse transforms for
F(s)
Prob. 6.3.
6.5
(a)
=
(s
2s
+9
+ 4)
3X*
(6)
{S)
"
s*
5s - 12 + 4s + 13 4* + 13
GO
Note that
all the inverse transforms may be obtained without resorting to normal procedures for partial-fraction expansions.
The
6.6
Laplace transform
171
series
Find the Laplace transform of the waveforms shown. Use (a) the infinite (6) the Laplace transform formula for periodic waveforms. Both answers should be in closed form and agree.
method and
fit) fit)
2T
3T
uv\\A
T
2T
lb)
3T
-A
la)
*t)
+1
r/
2
>
/
2T
-1
(e)
PROB. 6.6
Id)
6.7
Evaluate the definite integrals

w
t
()
sin It dt
cos 3f dt
6.8
(a)
Solve the following differential equations using Laplace transforms

x'{t) x'(t) x"{t)
x"{f)
(b) (c)
id)
(e)
It is
+ fceXO + 9x(t) = cos 2t + 3x-(/) + 2a<0 = (5(0 + 2^(0 + 5a<0 = u(t) + Sx'(t) + MO = {e~* + <r**) (0
sj-CO
given that
a<0 )
= as'fl) )
+ 2as'(0 = (0 + *~* (0 = for all the equations.

sets
6.9
()
Using Laplace transforms, solve the following

2*'(0 x'(0
2x'{t)
of simultaneous
equations:
(b)
+ 4a<0 + y'(f) + 2y(t) = <J(0 + 3a</) + y'(f) + 2y(r) = + (/) + y'{t) + 4jK/) = 2e-
*'(0
+ jr*0) + The initial conditions are all zero at t = 0
8y(0
(5(0
172
6.10
()
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
Find the inverse transforms for
H0-
(s*
j
()
+ 9X' + +a
3)
s+P
(*+!)
S*
(c)
s
tf>
*
s*+2s +2
F(s).
to
(/)
(g)
ns)
F(s)
+ 3* + 1 s* +s s + 5 ~(s + W* + 2)
s*
(A)
F(s)~
+ lX*+2)* 3j - J* - 3s + 2
(*
sKs-W
1
6.11
Find the inverse transforms for
+-*'
->*
()
sH.s+2)
F(')
(ft)
= =
se
**
_ r-s + 3s + 2
re-"
s
(c)
*"(*)
+0
write 6.12 Given the pole-zero diagrams shown in (a) and (b) of the figure, What can (s) and Fjs) as quotients of polynomials. the rational functions t you say about the relationship between the poles in the right-half plane and the signs of the coefficients of the denominator polynomials?
FiM
ju
Fzb)
*
A
>ij0.6
-A
1
>>0.6
-1
H-/D.6
1
+1
|->D.6
-A
to
-A
(
PROS. 6.12
173
6.13 For the pole-zero plots in Prob. 6.12, find the residues of the poles by the vector method.
6.14
poles.
For the pole-zero
plots
shown
in the figure, find the residues of the
j2
jl<
<
-2
-1
-jln
-J2
(a)
(b)
ja
f-H n
-<r-3
-2
-1
-x-1
+1
M
PROB. . 14
6.15 Two response transforms, R^s) and R/s), have the pole-zero plots shown in (a) and (b) of the figures, respectively. In addition, it is known that i(0 +) - 4 and /-,(/) - 4 for very large t. Find r^t) and rjf).
Sd)
ja
X
I 1
'
n
i:
-V -2
-l
6 -1?
i
-n
(a)
(b)
PROB. 4.15
174
6.16
Network
It is
analysis
and synthesis
given that _. F(s)
=
s*
as*
+ bs + c
1
+ 2j* +s +
Find
and c such that/(0 +) =/'(0 +) = /'(0 +) = 1 Using the initial and final value theorems where they apply, find/(0 +) and/(oo) for
a, b,
6.17
+ +
3X*
s
+ 4) 1)
(6)
F(*)
(*
j
IX*
2
(c)
s* + 3s + 2 FW - * + 3* + 3j +
5<s
+ 4X* +
8)
<
^-"cr+ixr+Q
chapter
Transform methods
in
network
analysis
7.1
THE TRANSFORMED CIRCUIT
In Chapter 5 we discussed the voltage-current relationships of network elements in the time domain. These basic relationships may also be represented in the complex-frequency domain. Ideal energy sources, for example, which were given in time domain as v(t) and i(f)> may now be
represented by their transforms V(s)
resistor, defined
= [t<01
and
I(s)
= Cfl(f)].
The
by the
v-i relationship
(0
is
= =
*(')
7.1,
71 )
denned in the frequency domain by the transform of Eq.

V(s)
or
(7.2)
RI(s)
For an inductor, the
defining v-i relationships are
w- !
1
(7.3)
(0
= 7p
we
t<T)dT-M(0-)
obtain
Transforming both equations,

F(s)
= sLI(s) - Li(0-)
=
J-F(S)
sL
175
1
; + ^
i(O-)
s
CM)
/(5)
176
Network
IM
IM
f\HO-)
VM
)i(0-)
FIG.
7.1. Inductor.
The transformed
Fig. 7.1.
circuit representation for an inductor For a capacitor, the defining equations are
is
depicted in
v(t)
=-
'
I
i(r)
C Jo-
dr
+ v(0- )
(7.5)
*>- c
5
are then
The frequency domain counterparts of these equations
F -J; / + *&=>
sC sC
s
(7. 6)
I(s)
V(s)
- C o(0-)
as depicted in Fig. 7.2.
From this
analysis
we
see that in the complex-frequency representation
the network elements can be represented as impedances
and admittances in For example, from Eq. 7.4, we see series or parallel with energy sources. that the complex-frequency impedance representation of an inductor is sL, and its associated admittance is XjsL. Similarly, the impedance of a capacitor is 1/sC and its admittance is sC. This fact is very useful in circuit analysis. Working from a transformed circuit diagram, we can write mesh and node equations on an impedance or admittance basis directly.
-%
IM
c
IM
VM
+
K0-)
=PC (l)
V<
FIG. 7.2. Capacitor.
Transform methods
in
network
analysis
177
vi(t)
vs(t)
FIG. 7.3
The process of solving network differential equations with the use of transform methods has been given in Chapter 6. To analyze the circuit on a transform basis, the only additional step required is to represent all the network elements in terms of complex impedances or admittances with associated initial energy sources. Consider the example of the transformer in Fig. 7.3. If we write the defining equations of the transformer directly in the time domain, we have
(7.7)
Transforming
this set
of equations, we obtain
Ly iÔ-)
V&) = sLy I^s) V&) = sMIM -
+ sM Is) - M ijp-) M ^(0-) + sL, Us) - U i,(0-)
(7.8)
This set of transform equations could also have been obtained by representing the circuit in Fig. 7.3 by its transformed equivalent given in Fig. 7.4. In general, the use of transformed equivalent circuits is considered an
easier
way
to solve the problem.
v2W
FIG. 7.4
178
Network
analysis
and synthesis
2
-nnnp
fi,(0-)
+__
+
BC (0-)
12
FIG. 7.5
Example 7.1. In Fig. 7.5, the switch is thrown from position 1 to 2 at t = 0. Assuming there is no coupling between L^ and Z*, let us write the mesh equations from the transformed equivalent circuit in Fig. 7.6. The mesh equations are
*-> -l + A'i,(0-) = -^/

1
is
-.+.)
1(5)
(7.9)
'm^Qi ^
Li
I2
1
vuo'
L1M0-)
^>
1*1140-)
QviW
FIG. 7.6
Example
f
7.2.
In Fig. 7.7, the switch
is
thrown from position

initial
i(t)
to 2 at time
= 0.
Just before the switch
thrown, the
conditions are /^(O )
=2
amp, o(0 )
= 2 v.
Let us find the current
after the switching action.
lh
Qv(t)
>'
-x
FIG. 7.7
Transform methods
3
in
network
anal/sis
179
ivw
nnnp-
=0
^
Since the switch
is
/i\
FIG. 7.8 closed at

/
= 0, we can regard the S-v battery as an equivacircuit is
lent transformed source 5/s.
The
2
s
now redrawn
in Fig. 7.8 as
is
trans-
formed
circuit.
The mesh equation

5 s
for the circuit in Fig. 7.8
+2
2s
(3
+s+ ?) 70)
C7.10)
Solving for
I(s),
we have
(j
Therefore,
Examine 73.
+3 1 (7.11) + IX* + 2) s + 1 s + 2 i(0 = C-HAO] = e~* + - (7.12) Consider the network in Fig. 7.9. At t = 0, the switch is opened.
vjCf)
Let us find the node voltages
and
v%(t) for the circuit. It
is
given that
Z,=Jh G = 1 mho
C= V=
L
lf
1
i<0-)
+
C=fcoc (0-)
FIG. 7.9
Before
we
substitute element values, let us write the
node equations for the
transformed circuit in Fig. 7.10. These are
NodeV1
Node
_ (l(0-0 + Vt
:
*_
CPc(o-)
/ \ = (sc + -)ki(o
1
-- vM
1
^-4 ()
(7.13)
180
Network
V2
FIG. 7.10
If
state,
we assume that prior to then we have vÔ-)
the switch opening the circuit
values into the set
(t(0 ) = of node equations, we have

1 v,
1
had been in steady amp. Substituting numerical
(*+^K (i)-?K/f)
1
(7.14)
Simplifying these equations,

s
we obtain
1 1
= (s* + 2)Vt(s) - 2V&) . -2Vx{s) + (s + 2)Vs)

we have
(7.15)
Solving these equations simultaneously,
KlW ."
Krf,)
J+l s +1 + 2s + 2 " (s + l)1 + 1 * +2 s +2 "" (s + 1) + 1 s* + 25 + 2

s
/,
(7.16)
so that the inverse transforms are

Vl(t)
= e- cos
*(/)
- <r*(cos t + sin /)
(7.17)
7.2
THEVENIN'S
AND NORTON'S THEOREMS
single
In network analysis, the objective of a problem is often to determine a branch current through a given element or & single voltage across an element. In problems of this kind, it is generally not practicable to write a complete set of mesh or node equations and to solve a system of equations for this one current or voltage. It is then convenient to use two
very important theorems on equivalent circuits,
known
as Thevenin's
and Norton's theorems.
Transform methods
in
network
anal/sis
181
-3X
Networks
n voltage
sources
<S)
Zi(s)
in current sources
FIG.
7.1
Thevenin's theorem From the standpoint of determining the current I(s) through an element can be of impedance Z^s), shown in Fig. 7.1 1, the rest of the network replaced by an equivalent impedance Ze(s) in series with an equivalent voltage source Vs), as depicted in Fig. 7.12. The equivalent impedance Zt(s) is the impedance "looking into" from the terminals of Zt(s) when all voltage sources in JV are short circuited and all current sources are open circuited. The equivalent voltage source V,(s) is the voltage which appears between the terminals 1 and 2 in Fig. 7.1 1, when the element Z^s)
is
removed or open
circuited.
The only requirement
for Thevenin's
theorem is
that the elements in
Zx must not be magnetically coupled to any

in Fig. 7.11 contains n voltage
element in N.
The proof follows. The network

current sources.
is
and
We are to find the current I(s) through an element that
not magnetically coupled to the rest of the circuit, and whose impedance 1 According to the compensation theorem, we can replace Z^s) x (s). by a voltage source V(s), as shown in Fig. 7.13. Then by the superposition principle, we can think of the current /(*) as the sum of two separate parts
is
Let the current It(s) be the current due to the n voltage and
current
<VM
\2M
fl
^
circuit.
Zi(e)
FIG.
1
7. IX
Thevenin's equivalent
Sons, See H. H. Skilling, Electrical Engineering Circuits, 2nd Ed. John Wiley and
1965.
New York,
182
Network
analysis
and synthesis
we short circuit the source V(s), as shown in Fig. 7.14a. equal to the short-circuit current 7gc Let IJs) be the current due to the voltage source V(s) alone, with the rest of the voltage sources short circuited and current sources open circuited (Fig. 7.146). current and n voltage With the
sources alone;
i.e.,
Therefore I^s)
is
sources removed in Fig. 7.146,

Network
we
see
N
it
voltage sources current sources
^
13
that the network

)V(s)
is
passive so that
7aC0
is
related to the source V(s)
by the
relation
FIG.
7.
=-
V(s)
(7.19)
Zm(s)
where Zm(s)
source V(s).
is
the input impedance of the circuit at the terminals of the

7.18 as
We can now write /(*) in Eq.

/(s)
= Ms) -
(7.20)
Zm(s)
consider the particular case
Since Eq. 7.20 must be satisfied in
all cases,
when we open circuit the branch containing Zx(j). Then /($) is the open-circuit voltage Kocfa). From Eq. 7.20 we have
he(s)
and
V(s)
= Foc(s)
Z ln(s)
(7.21)
Transform methods
in
network
analysis
183
FIG. 7.14b
so that
we can
rewrite Eq. 7.20 as
Zla(s)I(s) -
KocCs)
V(s)
(7.22)
In order to obtain the current I(s) through Zx (s), the rest of the network can be replaced by an equivalent source Ve(s) Voc(s) in series, with an equivalent impedance Ze (s) Zm(s), as shown in Fig. 7.12.
Example 7.4.
Let us determine by Thevenin's theorem the current I^s) flowing through the capacitor in the network shown in Fig. 7.1S. First, let us obtain
LH0-)
'c<-)
FIG. 7.15
Z,(s)
by opening all current sources and short circuiting Then, we have in the network in Fig. 7.16, where
Z,(s)
all
voltage sources.
=R+sL
(7.23)
Next we find
Ve(s)
between the terminals
by removing the capacitor so that the open-circuit voltage 1 and 2 is V,(s), as shown in Fig. 7.17. We readily
184
Network
analysis
and synthesis
-rnnp-
>i
o2
FIG. 7.16
determine from Fig. 7.17 that

F,Cs)
-/(*)*+ Z/(0-)-
M0-)
(7.24)
By Thevenin's theorem we then have

/l(j)
VJto ~ Z.{s) + Z(s) =
7(j)Jt
+ Lt(0
-) -Pq(0-)/s
(7.25)
A+sL+ 1/sC
FIG. 7.17
Fvampk
7.5. For the network in Fig. 7.18, let us determine the voltage vjt) 0, and we across the resistor by Thevenin's theorem. The switch closes at t 0. assume that all initial conditions are zero at t
Li
Lj
Qv(t)
=c
itftf
FIG. 7.IS
terms of its transformed representation, can almost determine by inspection that the which is given in Fig. 7.19. We of AT in Fig. 7.19 is Thevenin equivalent voltage source of the network to the left
First let
us redraw the
circuit in
VM
LiS
+ \jsC
(7.26)
Transform methods
Lis La
in
network
analysis
185
* Vo
FIG. 7.19
and the input impedance to the
left
of AT is
slM/sC)
(7.27)
We know that
Therefore
Finally
V&)
"
ZJis)
+R + LJC
(7.28)
V&)
RVisYMsC) (R + sL^sLi + lIsC)

o(0
(7.29)
e-HKtCi)]
(7-30)
Norton's theorem
When
tance
is
required to find the voltage across an element whose admitYifs), the rest of the network can be represented as an equivalent
it is
admittance Ys) in parallel with an equivalent current source I,(s), as shown in Fig. 7.20. The admittance Yt(s) is the reciprocal of the Thevenin impedance. The current I,(s) is that current which flows through a short
circuit across Y^s).
From
Fig. 7.20,
/.(*)
Vx{s) =
The element whose admittance
is
Yt(s) + YM Yt must not be magnetically coupled to
(7.31)
any element in the rest of the network. Consider the network in Fig. 7.21. Let us find the voltage across the capacitor by Norton's theorem. First, the short-circuit current source Ie (s) is found by placing a short circuit across the terminals 1 and 2 of the
91
Vi
()>
Yds)
Yito
FIG. 7.20
186
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
-nppp>
Pi
IM(
<P
FIG. 7.21
.1 c
'
')
FIG. 7.22
capacitor, as
shown
in Fig. 7.22.
From
Fig. 7.22 ls)
is
sL+R
(7.32)
The admittance
Y,(s) is the reciprocal
of the Thevenin impedance, or

(7.33)
'
sL+R
Then
the voltage across the capacitor can be given as
V(s)
Yt(s) + Yds)
(sL
+ R)sC +
(7.34)
1
Example 7.6.
that v(t)
" O.le-6
In the network in Fig. 7.23, the switch closes at / = 0. It is given ' and all initial currents and voltages are zero. Let us find the
current
/g(/) by Norton's theorem. The transformed circuit is given in Fig. 7.24. To find the Norton equivalent current source, we short circuit points 1 and 2 in the network shown. Then
Ie(s)
is
the current flowing in the short circuit, or
Us) =
V(s)
0.1
Rt +
sL
Us + RILXs +
circuit as
5)
(s
S)(s
+
1
(7.35)
10)
The equivalent admittance of the

Y,(s)
viewed from points

1
and 2
10
is
- sC +
J?!
s*LC
+sL
+ sRxC + R +sL
0.5s*
+ 5s + * + 10
(7.36)
o-iTJoTP-wv
c=J=t
FIG. 7.23
Transform methods
in
network
analysis
187
FIG. 7.24
I^s)
is
then
IM
/<(')
BJLYJto
1
+ GJ + 6)
as
(7.37)
(S
sy(s
(7.38)
By inspection, we see that /() can be written

(*
/(*)
+ 6) - (s + 5) (s + 5)V +6)
(s
+ 5)*
(*
+ 6X* +
(7.39) 5)
Repeating this procedure, we then obtain

1
//*)
(*+5)
j+5 + j+6
finally
(7.40)
Taking the inverse transform of IJs), we
obtain
(7.41)
0 = ('"" - "" + e"*')(0

7.3
THE SYSTEM FUNCTION

discussed earlier, a linear system
is
As we
one in which the excitation
e(t) is related to
the response
tit)
by a
linear differential equation.
When
the Laplace transform is used in describing the system, the relation between the excitation E(s) and the response R(s) is an algebraic one. In particular,
when we
related
discuss initially inert systems, the excitation
and response are
by the system function H(s) as given the

R(s)
relation
(7.42)
= E(s)H(s)
a system function is obtained for a given network, can be used in determining the system response. As mentioned in Chapter 1, the system function may assume many forms and may have special names such as driving-point admittance, transfer
will discuss
We
how
and how
this function
188
Network
analysis
and synthesis
'R
'w(D
a?-r
FIG. 7.25
T 1
This is because the impedance, voltage or current-ratio transfer function. voltage form of the system function depends on whether the excitation is a current or specified or current source, and whether the response is a We now discuss some specific forms of system functions.
voltage.
Impedance
a current source and the response is a voltage, excitation and then the system function is an impedance. When both pair of terminals, we have a response are measured between the same impedance. An example of a driving-point impedance is
When
the excitation
is
driving-point
given in Fig. 7.25, where
m = m = R+
HKS)
I,(s)
is
I?22L
sL+l/sC
(7.43)
Admittance
a voltage source and the response is a current, admittance IJV, is H(s) is an admittance. In Fig. 7.26, the transfer obtained from the network as
When
the excitation
H(s)=
m=
*t
1(
l_
fit
(7.44)
Voltage-ratio transfer function When the excitation is a voltage source and the response is also a voltage, the voltagethen H(s) is a voltage-ratio transfer function. In Fig. 7.27,
ratio transfer function
V (s)lVt(s) is obtained as follows. We first find the

sL
innnp
T
wvSi-
J2W
^=r
FIG. 7.26
Transform methods
in
network
anal/sis
189
ZiM
)y t
m
FIG. 7.27
Z*8)
T 1
(7.45)
(7.46)
current
I{s)sa
Va(s)
x
Since
Z {s)+Zt(s) VJs) = Z&)I(s)

ZJs)
then
V (s) Vg(s)
ZM + Z
(7.47)
t(s)
Current-ratio transfer function the excitation is a current source and the response is another current in the network, then H(s) is called a current-ratio transfer function. As an example, let us find the ratio IJIa for the network given in Fig. 7.28. Referring to the depicted network, we know that
When
I(s)
= IM + /(s),
we find
(7.48, 7.49)
sC
Eliminating the variable Ilt
(7.50)
so that the current-ratio transfer function

Jofr)
I(s)
is
1/sC
R + sL+1/sC
(7.51)
h(s)
7'
W Q)
4=ic
FIG. 7.28
190
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
FIG. 7.29
From the preceding examples, we have seen that the system function is a the function of the elements of the network alone, and is obtained from let us network by a straightforward application of Kirchhoff's laws. Now system obtain the response transform R(s), given the excitation and the excitation is the function. Consider the network in Fig. 7.29, where the that current source i(t) and the response is the voltage v(t). We assume 0. Let us find closed at t the network is initially inert when the switch is
the response V(s) for the excitations:

1-
i(t)
= (sin a>ot)u(i).
is
2. 3.
i(0
the square pulse in Fig. 7.30.
i,(0 has the
waveform
in Fig. 7.31.
First,
we
obtain the system function as

1 s
H(S)
(7.52)
sC
1.
it (t)
1/sL
+G
C[s
s(G/C)
is
1/LC]
- (sin ou
f) u(t).
The transform of i(t)
(7.53)
so that
V(s)
= /(s)H(s) =
s*
<Oo
a>
C[s*
s(GIC)
(7.54)
1/LC]
ig(t)
ig(t)
A
a
t
<i
FIG. 7.30
FIG. 7.31
Transform methods
2.
in
network
anal/sis
191
For the square pulse
in Fig. 7.30,
ig {t)
can be written as
(7.55)
i(0
= u(t) - u(t - a)
= i (i _
s
Its
transform
is
j,(s)
e-)
(7.56)
The response
V(s) is therefore given as
V(s)
+
C[s*
p-0* -
s(G/C)
1/LC]
(7 57) l ;
Note that in obtaining the inverse transform C-1 [F(j)], the factor e-* must be regarded as only a delay factor in the time domain. Suppose we
rewrite V(s) in Eq. 7.57 as
K(s)-^(l-0
s
(7.58)
Then
if
we denote
the inverse transform by v^t),
*<0 we
obtain the time response
v(t) <= Vl (t)
= -
r{^]
Vl (t
(7.59)
- a) u{t - a)
(7.60)
Observe that x(0 in Eq. 7.59

excitation.
3.
is
the response of the system to a unit step
The waveform
in Fig. 7.31 can
be represented as
tf
(0
and
its
transform
is
It (s)
V(s)
is
then V(s)
(l
\
^^ = + + 1 _ Cl) +
+
- (0
a
u(t
a)
(7.61)
1 1 s \
(7.62)
/
as
as
as
3 as J C[s
s(GIQ
1/LC]
(7 K
63)
'
If
we denote by
v,(t)
the response of the system to a
ramp
excitation,
we
see that
C-1 [F(s)]
= Vl (t) + - Vi(t) - - v (t a
t
a) u(t
a)
(7.64)
where vt(t)
is
the step response in Eq. 7.59.
192
Network
Let us
R(s):
now
discuss
some
further ramifications of the equation for the
response R(s)
= H(s) E(s).
R(s)
Consider the partial-fraction expansion of
T
i
A<
Si
, ! +vs s
By
(7.65)
t
where s( represent poles of H(s), and s, represent poles of E(s). Taking the inverse transform of R(s), we obtain
rW^ZA^ + ZB^"*
(7.66)
The terms Af?** are associated with the system H(s) and are called free response terms. The terms B^'* are due to the excitation and are known as forced response terms. The frequencies st are the natural frequencies of the system and j, arc the forced frequencies. It is seen from our discussion
of system stability in Chapter 5 that the natural frequencies of a passive network have real parts which are zero or negative. In other words, if we jo> { , then <x< <, 0. <rt denote st as st
initially inert network in Fig. 7.32, the excitation is Let us find the response v (t) and determine the free and i cos t df). forced response parts of y (r). The system function is
Example
va(t) =
7.7.
For the
K (*)
VJis)
1/sC
2
s
R +MsC
2\s*
(7.67)
2
(7.68)
Since V,{s)
is
V,(s)
1/
the response
is
then
W- VM =
(st
+ Ws + 2)
J+2 +
0.4
0.4*
*
+ 0.2 +l
(7.69)
We next obtain the inverse transform vjt) - -0.4* " + 0.4 cos t + 0.2 sin t
(7.70)
JK>
-WW
C-Jf=i= uoW
-2Q
FIG. 7.32
Transform methods
It is
in
network
analysis
193
is
apparent that the free response

r
is
-0.4e~*, and the forced response
0.4 cos
+0.2 sin/.
our discussion,
let
us consider the basis of operation for the R-C differentiator and integrator shown in Figs. 7.33a and 7.336. We use the Fourier transform in our analysis here, so that the system function is given as H(ja>), where o> is the ordinary radian frequency
final topic in
As a
variable.
Consider
first
the system function of the differentiator in Fig.
7.33c.
VJjw)
V,(J(o)
_
R+
R
1/jcoC
_ jaRC jmRC +
(7.71)
1
Let us impose the condition that
coRC
(7.72)
We have, approximately,
*W =! jcoRC
Then
the response
(7.73)
VJjm) can be expressed as

(7.74)
Taking the inverse transform of
Vîjco),
we
obtain
nMsiRC-vJtl)
at
(7.75)
Note that the derivation of Eq. 7.75 depends upon the assumption that the R-C time constant is much less than unity. This is a necessary condition.
Next, for the
function
is
R-C
integrator in Fig. 7.33ft, the voltage-ratio transfer
V/J*)
VJijm)
l/ja)C
1/jfoC
+R
jwCR
(7.76)
1
hgW
VO<t)
(a)
(b)
FIG. 7.33. (a)
R-C differentiator.
(6)
R-C integrator.
94
Network
analysis
and synthesis
1,
If
we assume
that
o>RC )J>
then
(7.77)
VM^T^zVjUa) jcoRC
Under
these conditions, the inverse transform
is
(t)~--r Va(r)dT
RC Jo
is
(7.78)
so that the
R-C circuit in Fig.
7.336
approximately an integrating
circuit.
7.4
THE STEP AND IMPULSE RESPONSES
In this section we will show that the impulse response h(t) and the system
we can obtain step and impulse responses directly from the system function. We know, first of all, that the transform of a unit impulse (5(f) is unity, i.e., C[<5(0] 1. Suppose the system excitation were a unit impulse, then the response R(s) would be
function H(s) constitute a transform pair, so that
R(s)
= E(s) H(s) = H(s)

is,
(7.79)
We
thus see that the impulse response h(t) and the system function H(s)
constitute a transform pair, that
= H(S) Z-^[H(s)] = h(t)

Z[h(t)]
(7.80)
Since the system function is usually easy to obtain, it is apparent that we can find the impulse response of a system by taking the inverse transform of H{s).
Example
7.8.
circuit in Fig. 7.34.
Let us find the impulse response of the current The system function is
/(/) in
the
R-C
~
Simplifying H(s) further,
VM ~ R + 1/*C ~ R(s + 1/RO
(7 ' 81)
we have
^Ô-JTw)
The impulse response
Ht)
is
(7 - 82>
then
C-i[/f(5)]
= i ^r) - -L e-wj
(,)
(7.83)
which
is
shown
in Fig. 7.35.
Transform methods
in
network
analysis
195
i(t)
)9(t)
m
/Z-t/RC
_
1
R*C
FIG. 7.34
response of
Fig. 7.34.
FIG. 7.35. Current impulse R-C network in
Since the step response is the integral of the impulse response, we can use the integral property of Laplace transforms to obtain the step response
as
W-rf?]
where
oc(f)
(7.84)
denotes the step response.
Similarly,
we
obtain the unit
ramp
response from the equation
^-m
obtain
all
(7.85)
where y(t) denotes the ramp response. From this discussion, it is clear that a knowledge of the system function provides sufficient information to
the transient response data that are needed to characterize the system.
Example
7.36.
is
7.9.
Since I(s)
Let us find the current step response of the R-L circuit in Fig. is the response and V (s) is the excitation, the system function g
V{s)
R+sL
(7.86)
Therefore H(s)/s
is
h{s)
s
n_ i \ =i s(R+sL) R\s s + RjLJ

i
(7.87)
The
step response </) is
now
obtained as
1
a(/)=-(l -e-W*X)ii(/)
(7.88)
To
check
this result, let us consider the impulse response of the
R-L
circuit,
196
Network
in
analysis
and synthesis
5.
1
which we found
Chapter
Kt)
(7.89)
The
step response
is
the integral of the impulse response, or
a(0
It is readily
-J>
</t=-(i -*-w*>0(i)
(7.90)
if we know the impulse response of an initially inert can determine the response of the system due to any other linear system, we excitation. In other words, the impulse response alone is sufficient to characterize the system from the standpoint of excitation and response.
seen that
R
-VSMAV,M{
K)
FIG. 7.36
FIG. 7.37
system 7.10. In Fig. 7.37, the only information we possess about the in the black box is: (1) it is an initially inert linear system; (2) when v&) = 6(t),
Example
then
With this information, let us determine what the excitation vjf) must be in order
to produce a response vf) to be
- te~" u(f).
1
First,
we determine the system function

2*4-5
(7.92)
H(s)
V^s) Vjs)
7T2
t j+3
1
(j
+ 2X
+3)
We next find the transform of te~* (*) Vjs) - titer"] <
+2)*
(7.93)
The unknown
excitation is then
found from the equation

(s
VAs)
Simplifying
JW "
H(s)
20 +
+ 2Ks + 3) 2.5X* + 2)
we have
0.5 *
(7.94)
and expanding V&s)
into partial fractions,
K<W =
The system
2(a
1 (s + 3) + 2.5X + 2) " s + 2
+ 2.5
(7.95)
excitation is then
vtf)-{e-*t -0.5e-*
M)u(t)
(7.96)
Transform methods
in
network
analysis
197
7.5
THE CONVOLUTION INTEGRAL
In this section we will explore some further ramifications of the use of the impulse response Mj) to determine the system response r(t). Our discussion is based upon the important convolution theorem of Laplace (or Fourier) transforms. Given two functions /,(*) and//*), which are zero for t 0, the convolution theorem states that if the transform of
x (f) is
< Ft(s),
and
is,
if
the transform of fi)

is
is
Fs), the transform of the
convolution of/i(f)
WTO,
and/t(r)
the product of the individual transforms,
that
t[ j*Mt
- t)/,(t) dr] = F1(s) F&)

I
(7.97)
where the
is
integral
ft(t
t)/,(t) dr
and
is
the convolution integral or folding integral,
denoted operationally
as
fm Proof.
t)/^t) dr
- fflVMt)
(798)
Let us prove that C[/, */J
= F&. We begin by writing

dt
(7.99)
C|/i(0V^0]
= V"[ J/iO ~ r)Mr) dr]

J
From
the definition of the shifted step function

u(t
- t) =
rt r>t " t) (* - t)A(t) dr

(7.100)
=
we have the
identity
f/i(' Jo
- t)/,(t) dr =
f 7i(
Jo
(7.101)
Then Eq.
7.99 can be written as
C[/i(0Vi(0]
If
= f "e- f 7i(* - t) (t - r)Mr) dr dt

Jo Jo
e
-.t
(7.102)
we
let
= r so that
t
'
e-^f,>
(7 103)
198
Network
analysis
and synthesis
then Eq. 7.102 becomes

[/i(0* /*(')]
=
=
i 1 I*" f"'f (x)u(x)f (T)e-'e->*dTdz Jo Jo
f 7i() Jo
1
u(x)e-" dx f 7(r)e- w dr
Jo
(7.104)
= F (s)F2(s)
property. 2
The separation of the double integral in Eq. 7.104 into a product of two integrals is based upon a property of integrals known as the separability
Example 7.11. Let us evaluate the convolution of the functions/i(f) = e ' u(t) and fift) = t u(t), and then compare the result with the inverse transform of F^s) FJs), where
-2
W
The convolution
variable
/
(7.105)
p
obtained by
first
of_/i(f)
/
and/2(f)
fiff
is
substituting the
dummy
(7.106)
t for
in/i(/), so that
T)
c-* (
'-T)
u(t
t)
Then/iWVaOis
f *fi(f
Jo
Integrating
T)/*( T)
rfT
_2 r " _T)
Jo
^T = ~a*
T 2r
|
dr
(7.107)
Jo
by parts, we obtain
fi(0* fiff)
({-\+\ *-*) W
From Eq.
(7-108)
Next
have
let
us evaluate the inverse transform of F^s) Fs).
7.105,
we
so that
C-Vito *a(*)l = (^ - ^ + \ e~*)
"(')
71 10)
An
important property of the convolution integral

.
t
is
expressed by the
equation
flit
- r)/a(r) dr =
Jo
Jo
MMA -
r)
dr
(7.111)
See, for example, P. Franklin,
Treatise
on Advanced Calculus, John Wiley and
Sons,
New
York, 1940.
Transform methods
This
is
in
network
analysis
199
readily seen
from the relationships
and
= *i(') CWOViC)] - Wi()

CC/i(0V*]
- ,
(7-112)
(7113)
To give the convolution integral a more intuitive meaning, let us examine

the convolution or folding process
from a graphical standpoint. Suppose
we
take the functions
A(t) J
m(t)
Mr)
as
= t (t)
(7.114)
shown
in Figs. 7.38a
and
.,
7.39a.
In Fig. 7.38, the various steps for
obtaining the integral
A('-t)/2(t)V
Jo
are depicted. Part (b) of the figure shows /i( t)
ft(t
= ( t).
The
function
(7.115)
t)
- u(t - t)
by a variable amount
t.
in part (c) merely advances
/x (t)
(t)
Next, the
(?
product
A(|
is
t)/
<f
_ t)t u(t)
(</).
n6)
shown in part (d).
We see that the convolution integral is the area under

Since the
the curve, as indicated by the cross-hatched area in part
convolution integral has a variable upper limit, under the curve of/i(f T)ft(r) for all t. With Fig. 7.38a", the area under the curve is
we must
t
obtain the area
considered a variable in
AV.-/(0 =
as plotted in part (e) of the figure.
(7.117)
!J(0
In Fig. 7.39,
we
same
result as in
taking the inverse
by folding g(r) about a point t, we obtain the Fig. 7.38. The result in Eq. 7.117 can be checked by transform of F^s) Fjfa), which is seen to be
see that
c- 1 [F1 (s)fW]
-1
=
l3j
2
m(o
(7118)
analysis.
Let us next examine the role of the convolution integral in system From the familiar equation
R(s)
= E(s) H(s)
(7.119)
we
obtain the time response as

r(t)
"*[() H(s)]
('e(r) h(t
- t) dr
(7.120)
where e(r)
is
the excitation
and
k(r) is the impulse response of the system.
200
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Mr)
1
Mr)
T
(a)
/ /
(a) (b)
M-r)
1
\M-t)
r
Mt-r)
1
1
M-t)
T
(e)
M-r) Mr)
hM M-t}
t
T
id)
ffh
M
FIG. 7.39
FIG. 7.38
Using Eq. 7.120, we obtain the response of a system directly in the time domain. The only information we need about the system is its impulse
response.
EVro-pW. 7.12a.
to the excitation
Let us find the response /(f) of the R-L network in Fig. 7.40 due
c(t)
- 2<r* y(f)
is
(7.121)
The impulse response for the current
.AW-|*-raBW
Therefore, for the
(7.122)
R-L
circuit
under discussion
Kt) *-"(*)
(7-123)
Transform methods
in
network
i(i)
analysis
201
Using the convolution integral, we obtain the response

Kt)
as
V~
t)
Kr) dr
- 2j V"-rtr* </r
(7.124)
- 2-< f V"*</t - 2(-* - *-*)(0
VvWvV-
0*"
PIG. 7.40
FIG. 7.41
The ideal amplifier in Fig. 7.41 has a system function H(s) K, s 7.12b. where Kis a constant. The impulse response of the ideal amplifier is then
Kt)-Kd(t)
Let us show by means of the convolution integral that the response r{t) to the excitation e(t) by the equation
is
(7.125) related
K0-JT4)
Using the convolution
integral,
(7.126)
we have
K0
Since
/ is
r-
(t)*('-t)/t-a:
r)dr-Ke(f)
(7.127)
a variable in the expression for r(t), we see that the ideal amplifier in domain is an impulse-scanning device which scans the input (/) from the time / to f oo. Thus, the response of an ideal amplifier is a replica of the input e(f) multiplied by ibcgain IT of the amplifier.
7.
THE DUHAMEL SUPERPOSITION INTEGRAL
In the Section 7.5, we discussed the role that the impulse response plays
in determining the response of a system to an arbitrary excitation. In this section we will study the Duhamel superposition integral, which also
describes
an input-output
relationship for a system.
The superposition
integral requires the step response a(f) to characterize the system behavior. plan to derive the superposition integral in two different ways.
We
202
Network
simplest
is
analysis
and s/nthesis
first.
The
examined
We
begin with the excitation-response

(7.128)
relationship
R(s)
= E(s) H(s)
Multiplying and dividing by s gives

R(s)
^
5
E(s)
(7.129)
Taking inverse transforms of both sides gives

C- 1 [(5)]
C-1
[^- -s(s)]
(7.130)
= -ip)l* t-i [s(s)]

which then
yields
K0 =
a(0*[e'(0
+ *(0-)d(0]
'
= e(0-) a(f) +
where
e'(t) is
is
e'(r) a(f
- t) dr
/ is
(7.131)
the derivative of
e(t),
e(0 )
is
the value of e(i) at
0,
and
<x.(t)
the step response of the system.
Equation 7.131
usually
referred to as the
Duhamel superposition
integral.
Example
7.13.
Let us find the current

is
i(t) in
the
R-C circuit
in Fig. 7.42
when
the voltage source
(7.132)
as
shown
in Fig. 7.43,
The system function of the R-C circuit

H(s)
is
Us)
V(s)
R(s
+
is
IjRC)
(7.133)
Therefore the transform of the step response
M)
s
R(s
l/RC)
vg (t)
(7.134)
*WI
m
zizc
Slope
a A2
FIG. 7.42
FIG. 7.43
Transform methods
in
network
analysis
203
Taking the inverse transform of H(s)/s, we obtain the step response

1
<t)
~-tlRC
(0
(7.135)
From the excitation in Eq.

The response
is
7.132,
v'î)
we
see that e(0
) =0 and
(7.136)
= A 1 d(f) + A t u{t)
then
i(0
,(r)a(t -r)dr -jTj'V
A x <5(t) o(/ Hr)(t
r)dr t) dr
At <x(f -
r)dr
Jo-
Joe-Ur-r)IRC fc
(7.137)
ic
/{
Jo_
)] u(t)
- [J e-"* + /<* C(l - e-**

As we
see transient problems.
from the Example 7.13, e(0 ) = 0, which is the case in many Another method of deriving the Duhamel integral avoids the problem of discontinuities at the origin by assuming the lower limit of integration to be t = 0+. Consider the excitation e(t) shown by the dotted curve in Fig. 7.44. Let us approximate e(t) by a series of step
functions, as indicated in the figure.
We can write the
staircase approxi-
mation of e(0 as
e(t)
= e(0+) h(0 + &E1 u(t- At) + AE, - 2At) +

i/(f
+ An u(t - /iAt)
(7.138)
W
Signal
'11
}a3
s /
<P+>
-A2
hABi
0h-AT-|
2At
_L 3At
4At
FIG. 7.44. Staircase approximation to a
signal.
204
Network
analysis
and synthesis
t
where AE^ is the height of the step increment at
*At. Since we assume
the system to be linear and time invariant, we know that if the response to a t). Therer) is X< a(f unit step is <x(f), the response to a step K+ u(t fore we can write the response to the step approximation in Fig. 7.44 as
K0 =
If
e(0+) a(0
+ AEX a(/ - At) + Aâ(r 2At) +
+ Aa(f - nAf)
(7.139)
At is
small, r(t)
can be given as
K0 -
e(0+) o(0
AE
At
* oc(*
- At) At
(7.140)

+ *h (, - 2At)At +
At
which, in the limit, becomes
+ âO At
At)At
n
r(t)
(0+) (0
lim 2 + Ar-0<-+
1-CO
tV ~ AT
AT
'
At) At
(7.141)
= e(0+) a(0 + f e'(r) ( - t) dr

Problems
In the circuit shown sketch^;)7.1
v(t)
.- 2(f)
and /(0-)
-2
amps.
Find and
100
r
VWI
fe|
1000
vwQ
5h
PROB.7.1
after having been at 7.2 The switch is thrown from position 1 to 2 at t t 1e~' sin fit. for a long time. The source voltage is vjif)
1
(a) (b)
(c)
Find the transform of the output voltage
vtf).
Find the
initial
and final values of vjt)-
plane Sketch one possible set of locations for the critical frequencies in the * transform.) and write tint form of the response v&). (Do not take the inverse
Transform methods
in
network
anal/sis
205
MtOB. 7.2
13
/(f)
for
In the circuit shown, all initial currents and voltages are zero. using Thevenin's theorem. t >
Find
51(0
PROS. 7.3
7.4 In the circuit shown in (a), the excitation is the voltage source e{t) described in (6). Determine the response i(t) assuming zero initial conditions.
e(t)
10
*t)
'S*
4=i*
-1
1/2
M
PROS. 7.4
13
conditions.
Determine the expression for vji) when /(/) Use transform methods.
Hi), assuming zero initial
206
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
PROB. 7.5
7.6
The Vlt
circuit
shown has zero
initial
opened.
0.5 sin
Find the value of the

n(0.
resistor
X such
energy. At t = the switch S that the response is v(t)

u(t).
is
The excitation
is i(t)
te~ **
i
v(t)
=r*
PROB. 7.6
7.7 Use transform methods to determine the expressions for i^t) and /j(/) -10 '. Assume zero initial lOOe in the circuit shown. The excitation is v(f) energy.
1000
K=\
PROB. 7.7
circuit shown, the switch S is opened at / = 0. Use Thevenin's theorem to determine the output voltage t^f). Assume zero initial or Norton's
7.8
For the
energy.
Transform methods
in
network
analysis
207
PROB. 7.8
For the transformer shown, find i^t) and ,(/). It is given that e(t) = and that prior to the switching action all initial energy was zero; also
7.9
6u(0>
M=1A.
PROB. 7.9
7.10
For the circuit shown, find /,(/), given that the circuit had been in steady
/
state prior to the switch closing at
0.
WWW
I
10Q
Kml
WW
400
2
)
100
vl=
2hojlo8h
j=z=_40v
PROB. 7.10
7.11
Find
u(t).
/,(/)
using Thevenin's theorem.

initial
The
excitation is e(t)
100
cos 20
Assume zero
energy.
208
Network
y/W
10O
TVTP2h
300
7.50
|6h
PROB. 7.11
7.12
(/),
Determine the transfer function H(s)
= VÎV^s). When
v^t)
find v t{i).
Assume zero
10
initial
conditions.
r-nAAA-
Y
7.13
find v(t)
if
=j=
T v
*
G) 5V
=r
3f
fOS v3
PROB. 7.12
Using (a) standard transform methods and
(b) the
convolution integral,
when
/(/)
2e~* u(t). Assume zero initial energy.
m o
m
io:
lf=t
ih<
PROB. 7.13
7.14
The impulse response of a

<*/) * 3e"*'(0,
excitation were
linear system is shown in the figure. If the determine the response values r(l) and HA,)
using graphical convolution.
PROB. 7.14
Transform methods
7.15
in
network
analysts
209
is given as H(s) = l/(s* + 9)*. If the excitation determine the response #(') (Hint: Use the convolution integral to break up the response transform R(s).)
The system function
were
c(/)
= 3S'(t),
7.16
Solve the following integral equations for
x(t).
(a)
(0
+ =
f(f
t)x(t)/t
(*)
sinr
a<T)e-<-f >/T
J
(/)
+j
x(jt
r) e-*
dr
=* t
7.17
Using the convolution
integral find the inverse transform of
K
()
(s
+ aXs + b)
+ 4)
s
m
<<0
2fr+2)
(s*
F(s)
"
(s*
1)
7.18
By
figure with itself
graphical means, determine the convolution of /(/) (i.e., determine/(/)*/(/)).
shown
in the
T
PROB.7.18
7.19
Using
(a) the convolution integral
and
(b) the
Duhamel
superposition
integral, find v(t) for e(t)
= 4e-**u(t). Assume zero initial conditions.
PROB.7.19
210
7.20
Network
Using
analysis
and synthesis
(a) the
integral, find
<0 for
e(t)
convolution integral and (A) the Duhamel superposition = 2e-s * (/). Assume zero initial conditions.
PRO B. 7JO
K(i)//(*) has the 7.21 For the circuit in (a) f the system function H(s) and C. If the excitation '(/) poles shown in (c). Find the element values for has the form shown in (b), use the convolution integral to find v(t).
(b)
C-0.5 ju
-r
-2
-1
to
PROS. 7.21
7.22 The excitation of a linear system is x(r), shown in (a). The system impulse response is Hf), shown in (ft). Sketch the system response to x(t). neat, carefully dimensioned sketch will (No equations need be written.
suffice.)
Transform methods
in
network
anal/sis
21
(a)
h(t)
(b)
PROS.
7.23
is /(/)
7.22
A unit step of voltage is applied to the network and the resulting current
this network.
will yield this
= 0.01*^' + 0.02 amps.

admittance function.
(a) (b)
Determine the admittance Y(s) for
Find a network that
PROS. 7.23
PROB.
7.24
7.24 The current generator delivers a constant current of 4 amps. At the switch 5 is opened and the resulting voltage across the terminals 1, 2 is
c(r)
=6e-'
12v.
(a)
(b)
Find Z(s) looking into terminals 1, 2. Find a network realization for Z(s).
chapter
Amplitude, phase, and delay
8.1
AMPLITUDE AND PHASE RESPONSE
In this section we will study the relationship between the poles and zeros of a system function and its steady-state sinusoidal response. In other words, we will investigate the effect of pole and zero positions upon the behavior of H(s) along the jw axis. The steady-state response of a
system function
is
given by the equation

H(j<o)
=M {my*
(8.1)
is
where
Af(a>) is the amplitude
even function in o>. function of to. The amplitude and phase response of a system provides valuable information in the analysis and design of transmission circuits. Consider the amplitude and phase characteristics of a low-pass filter shown in
Figs. 8.1a
an or magnitude response function, and and is an odd ^(o>) represents the phase response,
and
8.1 A.
The
amplitude response curves as
cutoff frequency of the filter is indicated on the c. It is generally taken to be the "half-
power" frequency at which the system function \H(jta)\

of the
is
equal to 0.707
amplitude \H(j(Omu)\. In terms of decibels, the halfpower point is that frequency at which 20 log \H(j(o c)\ is down 3 db from 20 log |#(/a)max)|. The system described by the amplitude and phase characteristics in Fig. 8.1 shows that the system will not "pass" frequencies
maximum
that are greater than <o a .
Suppose we consider a pulse train whose We know amplitude spectrum contains significant harmonics above co harmonics below m c, but will block all that the system will pass the harmonics above (oc Therefore the output pulse train will be distorted when compared to the original pulse train, because many higher harmonic terms will be missing. It will be shown in Chapter 13 that if the phase
.
.
212
213
0707
Amplitude response
-b
(a)
fc
Phase response
FIG.
8.1.
Amplitude and phase response of low-pass
filter.
response
<f>{w) is linear,
then
minimum pulse distortion will result.

in Fig. 8.1 that the phase
.
We see
from the phase response
<f>(a>)
is
approxi-
mately linear over the range (o c <,w<, +co c If all the significant harmonic terms are less than coc then the system will produce minimum phase distortion. With this example, we see the importance of an
,
amplitude-phase description of a system. In the remaining part of this chapter,
-VWVAr
ViW
we
will
concentrate
on methods to
obtain amplitude and phase response

curves,
ically.
=r
FIG.
V2 (s)
both analytically and graphobtain
To
curves,
amplitude
s
and
phase
84
we
let
=ju>
in the system
function,
and express H(ja>) in polar form. For example, for the amplitude and phase response of the voltage ratio VJVX of the R-C network shown
in Fig. 8.2, the system function
is
H(s)
Letting
F^s)
V^s)
s
ljRC
l/RC
(8.2)
= jot, we see that H(Jco)

H(Jm)
is
l/RC
jm
l/RC
(8.3)
214
Network
analysis
and synthesis
M(w)
FIG.
8.3.
Amplitude and phase response of R-C network.
In polar form HQco) becomes
HO) = (to
l/RC
2
--/tan-i
1/K
C2)*
a>BC_ =
M(ft>)e'*
(0,)
(8.4)
The amplitude and phase curves are plotted in Fig. 8.3. At the point (o = 0, the amplitude is unity and the phase is zero degrees. As a> increases,
the amplitude and phase decrease monotonically.
amplitude
is
0.707 and the phase
is
point of the amplitude response.
When co *= l/RC, the 45. This point is the half-power Finally as <o - oo, Af(o>) approaches
zero and ^(g>) approaches 90. Now let us turn to a method to obtain the amplitude and phase response
from the pole-zero diagram of a system function. Suppose we have the

system function H(s)
H(jco) can be written as
=
(s
Ms - Zq)(s p
)(s
Zi)
Pi)(
- Ps)
(8.5)
HUco)
to a vector Each one of the factors t } from the zero zi or pole/*, directed to any point jco on the imaginary axis.
Zq)0'<>- gp - *,)0 *P - Po)0> - Pi)(J> - P*) 0> jco z or jco p corresponds

ApO'cu
(g6)
Therefore,
if
we
express the factors in polar form,
jco
- z, =
jj(jca)
rV",
jco- p,=
M,e'*'
(8.7)
then H(j(o) can be given as
j4
NNl
i(y><>+v>i-a-i-ti)
(g 8 )
MoMiMj
0! is negative.
as
shown
in Fig. 8.4,
where we note that
215
FIG.
8.4.
Evaluation of amplitude and phase from pole-zero diagram.
In general,
we can express the amplitude response
M(co) in terms of the
following equation.
H M(.) = ^-
vector magnitudes from the zeros to the point
on
thejco axis
XI vector magnitudes from

Similarly, the phase response
is
the poles to the point on the/co axis
given as
^(eu)
=J 2
m
angles of the vectors from the zeros to the/co axis
angles of the vectors from the poles to thejco axis
It is
important to note that these relationships for amplitude and phase
are point-by-point relationships only. In other words, we must draw vectors from the poles and zeros to every point on thejco axis for which we
wish to determine amplitude and phase. Consider the following example.
F(s)
=5*
4s
4s
(s
+ 2s + 2
+ H-jl)(s+l-jl)
(8.9)
Let us find the amplitude and phase for FQ2). From the poles and zeros 2, as shown in Fig. 8.5. From of F(s), we draw vectors to the point to
216
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
m
J2
V5/
/\45*
x
i
/
/
>
Vio7
i
>
a
.
-l
/\71.8*
x
1
-n
FIG.
8.5.
Evaluation of amplitude and phase from pole-zero diagram,
the pole-zero diagram,
it is
clear that
MQ2)
and
<f>(j2)
= 4(
2
,_
,- )
1.78
= 90 - 45 - 71.8 =
<f>Q2)
-26.8
at three or
With the values M(j2) and

four additional points,
and the amplitude and phase
we have enough
information for a rough estimate
JU
X
\M5'
yi
-s.90*
1.0
XX90*
2
x
/S A5 1
'
-yi
Br.
-j
(a)
(6)
FIG.
8.6.
Determining amplitude and phase at zero and very high frequencies.
217
of the amplitude and phase response. At w 0, we see that the vector magnitude from the zero at the origin to to 0, is of course, zero. 0. From Eq. 8.9 for F(s), F(j0) is Consequently, M(j0)
= =
lim F(ja>)
o>>0
4Q0)
(8.10)
(l+Jlxl-Jl)
this equation, we see that the zero at the origin still contributes a 90 phase shift even though the vector magnitude is zero. From Fig. 45 45 90. 90 is #0) 8.6a we see that the net phase at <w
From
Next, at a very high frequency
mh
where
toh
y>
1,
all
the vectors are
approximately equal to
coJfii,0,
as seen in Fig. 8.66.
Then
M(w)
~ 4eoh _
ca k
<
and
Extending
#a>)
~ 90 - 90 - 90 =
-90
Table
8.1,
this analysis for the frequencies listed in
we
obtain
values for amplitude
and phase as given in the table. From this table we sketch the amplitude and phase curves shown in Fig. 8.7. can Next let us examine the effect of poles and zeros on the jto axis upon
frequency response. Consider the function
F(s)
= s* + s* +
1.03 1.23
_ (s + jl.015)(s - jlMS) ~ (s+ ;1.109Xs - jl.109)
(8.11)
^
Amplitude
Z
/
+90
/
10
-90
0123456789
Frequency,
10
FIG. C7. Amplitude and phase response for F(s)
in
Eq.
8.9.
218
Network
TABLE
Frequency,
1.0
1.5
CO
8.1
Amplitude
1.8
Phase, degrees
25.8
2.0
1.3
3.0
5.0
10.0
0.8
0.4
-5.3 -50.0 -66.0 -78.5
whose pole-zero diagram is shown in Fig. 8.8. At co <= 1.015, the vector from zero to that frequency is of zero magnitude. Therefore at a zero on the /o> axis, the amplitude response is zero. At co = 1.109 the vector from the pole to that frequency is of zero magnitude. The amplitude response is therefore infinite at a pole as seen from Eq. 8.11. Next,
consider
the
JU
i
co
< >
1.015,
it is
phase response. When apparent from the poleis
y'1.109
zero plot that the phase

co
zero.
When
is
<J./1.015
1.015
and o><
at
co
1.109, the vector
from the zero
1.015
now
pointing upward, while the vectors from
the other poles and zeros are oriented

O-./1.015
:
in the
same
direction as for co
<
1.015.
-y'1.109
We see that at a zero on the yw
axis, the
phase response has a step discontinuity of +180 for increasing frequency. Similarly, at a pole on the jco axis, the phase response is discontinuous by 180. These observations are illustrated by the amplitude and phase plot for F(s) in Eq. 8.11 for the frequency range 0.9 <; co ^ 1.3, shown in Fig. 8.9. With a simple extension of these ideas, we see that if we have a zero at z a jco t , where a is very small as compared to co t , then we will have a dip in the amplitude characteristic and a rapid change of phase near co = co t as seen in Fig. 8.10. Similarly, if there is a pole atp = a jco t with a very small, then the amplitude will be peaked and the phase will decrease rapidly near co co t as seen in Fig. 8.11. A contrasting situation occurs when we have poles and zeros far away from they'd) axis, i.e., a is large when compared to the frequency range of interest. Then we see that these poles and zeros contribute little to the shaping of the amplitude and phase response curves. Their only effect is to scale up or down the overall amplitude response. From stability considerations we know that there must be no poles in the right half of the s plane. However, transfer functions may have zeros
FIG. 8.8
, ,
219
1.015
1.109
FIG.
8.9.
Amplitude and phase far F(s) in Fig.
8.8.
in the right-half plane.
Consider the pole-zero diagrams in Figs. 8.12a
and
8.126.
Both pole-zero configurations have the same poles; the only
difference is that the zeros in (a) are in the left-half plane at s
=
(a),
]1,
while the zeros in (b) are the mirror images of the zeros in
located at s
and are
= +1 jl. Observe that the amplitude responses of the two configurations are the same because the lengths of the vectors correspond for both situations. We see that the absolute magnitude of the
5.
E <
NX"
FIG. 8.10. Effect of zero very near

the/co axis.
FIG.
8.1 1. Effect
of pole very near
the/o> axis.
220
Network
analysis
and synthesis
JW
J2
>2
fl
o
1
o
l
yi
<r
-2
-l
-2
o-;i X
-y'2
-n
X
-J2
(a)
(b)
(b)
FIG. 8.12.
(a)
Minimum phase function,
Nonminimum phase
function.
phase of (b) is greater than, the phase of (a) for all frequencies. This is because the zeros in the right-half plane contribute more phase shift (on an absolute magnitude basis) than their counterparts in the left-half system plane. From this reasoning, we have the following definitions. function with zeros in the left-half plane, or on the jco axis only, is called a minimum phase function. If the function has one or more zeros in the
a nonminimum phase function. In Fig. 8.13, we see the phase responses of the minimum and nonminimum phase functions
right-half plane,
it is
^
in Figs. 8.12a
and
8.126.
Let us next consider the pole-zero diagram in Fig. 8.14. Observe that the zeros in the right-half plane are mirror images of the poles in the
100
y- Minim urn phase
l-ioo
1
^^/" Nonminimum phase
YY)
-360
10 12
FIG. 8.13. Comparison of minimum and nonminimum phase functions.

left-half plane.
221
Consequently, the vector

co x
JO>
drawn from a pole to any point
on
*
they a> axis is identical in magnitude with the vector drawn from its mirror image
>2
Kml
~
O
1
apparent that the amplitude response must be constant for all frequencies. The phase response, however, is anything but constant, as seen from the amplitude and phase response curves
to
<!.
It is
-2 -i
x-yi
given in Fig. 8. 1 5 for the pole-zero configuration in Fig. 8.14.
FIG. 8.14. All-pass function.
A system function whose poles are only in the left-half plane and whose
zeros are mirror images of the poles about the jm axis
function.
is
called
an
all-pass
The networks which have
all-pass response characteristics are
often used to correct for phase distortion in a transmission system.

8.2
BODE PLOTS
In this section we will turn our attention to semilogarithmic plots of amplitude and phase versus frequency. These plots are commonly known
as
Bode plots. Consider the system function

H(s)
Ms)
D(s)
(8.12)
1.0
u
+ 180
6
*-
10
l -I*
-360
10
12
FIG. 8.15. Amplitude and phase of all-pass function in Fig.
8.14.
222
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Ka
>l
3 S
K2
l*KI
Magnitude
(a)
togu-
K positive
Phase
e-
K negative
IT
logw(b)
FIG.
8. 16.
Magnitude and phase of constant.

is
We know that the
amplitude response
M()
If
|HC/)I
- j^}
\D(J>)\
(8.13)
we
express the amplitude in terms of decibels,
we have
|
20 log M(w)
= 20 log
\N(jco)\
- 20 log
D(jco)\
(8.14)
In factored form both N(s) and D(s) are

(a)
(b)
(c)
made up of four kinds of factors:
a constant,
K
+
a
a root at the origin, s a simple real root, s
(d) a
complex pair of roots, s2
+ 2<w +
a*
/?*
To understand the nature of log-amplitude plots, we need only examine the

amplitude response of the four kinds of factors just cited. If these factors are in the numerator, their magnitudes in decibels carry positive signs. If these factors belong to the denominator, their magnitudes in decibels carry negative signs. Let us begin with case (a).
(a)
The factor K. For the constant K, the db loss (or gain)

20 log
is
K = Kt
(8.15)
223
t is either negative if \K\ < 1, or positive if \K\ > 1. The phase response is either zero or 180 depending on whether is positive or negative. The Bode plots showing the magnitude and phase of a constant
The constant
are given in Fig. 8.16.

(b)
The factor
s.
The
loss (gain) in decibels associated with

to.
a pole
(zero) at the origin is
20 log
Thus the plot of magnitude

is
in decibels
versus frequency in semilog coordinates
a straight line with slope of
20
db/decade or
all co.
6 db/octave. From the

is
Bode
at to
plots in Fig. 8.17,

1,
we
is
see that the- zero loss point (in decibels)
and the phase
constant for
(c) The factor s magnitude is
a.
For convenience,
let
us set a
1.
Then the
(g
lfi)
2Qlog
+^=
is
2Qlog(o)S
, )M
as
shown
in Fig. 8.18a.
The phase
Arg
as
O+
+
1|
l)*1
tan~x
a>
(8.17)
shown
in Fig. 8.186.
A straight-line approximation of the actual magnitude versus frequency

curve can be obtained from examining the asymptotic behavior of the factor y<o 1. For to 1, the low-frequency asymptote is
20 log
\j(o
a<1 s* 20 log
is
db
(8.18)
For
to
1,
the high-frequency asymptote
201og|7o
l|
20 log
m db
(8.19)
0.1
02
FIG.
8. 17.
03
0.5
0.7
1.0
2.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
10.0
Frequency,
Magnitude and phase of pole or zero at s
= 0,
224
Network
12
anal/sis
and synthesis
(+!)->.
2
8"
025
0.5
(ii
1
fc-
(b)
FIG. .!. Magnitude and phase of simple real pole or zero.
225
TABLE
8.2
Straight-Line
Actual Magnitude,
Approximation,
Error,
Frequency
a> =o)
db
0.3
db
db
0.3
=i o) = 1 m =2
o-4
which, as
2 octaves below octave below break frequency octave above 2 octaves above
1 3
7
12.3
6
12
1
0.3
we saw in (b), has a slope of 20 db/decade or 6 db/octave. The 1, which we designate low- and high-frequency asymptotes meet at m frequency. The straight-line approximation as the breakfrequency or cutoff is shown by the dashed lines in Fig. 8. 1 8a. Table 8.2 shows the comparison between the actual magnitude versus the straight-line approximation. We
see that the
maximum
error
is
at the break frequency
co
1,
or in un-
a. normalized form: m For quick estimates of magnitude response, the straight-line approximation is an invaluable visual aid. An important example of the use of these straight-line approximations is in the design of linear control
systems.
roots. For complex conjugate roots, it is conadopt standard symbols so that we can use the universal curves venient to
(d)
Complex conjugate
that result therefrom.
We describe the conjugate pole (zero) pair in terms

measured from the negative
real axis,
Explicitly, the
of a magnitude
as
a>
and an angle
shown
in Fig. 8.19.
parameters that describe the pole
(zero) positions are a>
and
factor.
= cos 0,
If
which we call the undampedfrequency of oscillation, known as the damping

pole (zero) pair
is
the
given in terms of its real and imaginary

parts,
/>i,.
- - P
=
=
(8-20)
juo
Vw*
a and
a
ft
are related to
and co by the
-J"o
following:
g>
cos
sin
to
(8.21)
P = <u
o),
VI
*
and
<ot .
-/woVW 2
FIG. 8.19. Pole location in terms of
damping factor,
Returning to the definition of the cos d, we see that
226
Network
analysis
is
and synthesis
7r/2,
the closer the angle the angle 6

is
to
the smaller
nearly zero degrees, the

the
is the damping factor. When damping factor is nearly unity.
To examine
>
Bode
2
plots for the conjugate pole (zero) pair, let us set
for convenience.
|1
The magnitude
is
then
a> 8) 8
20 log
and the phase
If
a)
+]2t,a>\
= 20 log [(1 =
tan"
+ 4 
<f>(w)
l-a>8
(8.23)
we examine the low- and high-frequency asymptotes of the magnitude, we see that the low-frequency asymptote is decibels; the high-frequency
asymptote (for <o y> 1) is 40 log co, which is a straight line of 40 db/decade or 12 db/octave slope. The damping factor plays a significant part in the closeness of the straight-line approximation, however. In Fig. 8.20 the asymptotic approximation for a pair of conjugate poles (a> = 1) is indicated by the dashed line. Curves showing the magnitude
for
1.0 are given by the solid lines. 0.6, and 0.1, see 0.6 is the straight-line approximation a close one. that only for
We
Universal curves for magnitude and phase are plotted in Figs. 8.21 and 8.22 for the frequency normalized function
G(*)
(sK)8
+ 2(s/a) ) + =
<w is
(8.24)
1
We see that the phase response, as viewed from a semilog scale, is an odd
function about
eo/a>
The phase at co
1
90 or n\2 radians.
1 1
+ 10 +5
^x^^-r-o.6y
-b
-10
-15
0.1
~~
r-io-^N.
Asymptote
^\
^\
vft.
A.
o>
0.2
0.5
1.0
Frequency,
2.0
5.0
10.0
FIG. 8.20. Magnitude versus frequency for second-order pole.
227
qp'IfflOl-
228
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
s
1
8 CM
1
woaiv
229
For a conjugate pair of zeros, we need only reverse the signs on the scales of the magnitude and phase curves. KVraMpig 8.1. Using Bode plot asymptotes, let us construct the magnitude
versus frequency curve for
0.1s
(8.25)
GW
'(Ht
We see
there are
+ 16X10*
10
two first-order break frequencies at o> - and a> 50. In addition, there is a second-order break frequency at m 400. With a quick calculation we find that 0.2 for the second-order factor. The asymptotes are shown in Fig. 8.23. The magnitude and phase plots are given in Fig. 8.24 through a microfilm plot computer program.
-12db/oetave
FIG. 8.23. Asymptotes for G(s) in Eq. 8.25.
8.3
SINGLE-TUNED CIRCUITS
We will now study a class of circuits whose system functions can be described by a pair of conjugate poles. These circuits are called singletuned circuits because they only need two reactive elements an inductor and a capacitor. The undamped frequency of oscillation of the circuit is
then
= {LC)-
l/i
.
An
example of a single-tuned
circuit is the
R-L-C
circuit in Fig. 8.25,
whose
voltage-ratio transfer function is
H(S)
W=
!o(i>
1/sC
1/LC
ljsC
s*
Vs)
R+
sL
+ (K/L)s +
(8.26)
1/LC
230
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
FIG. 8.24a. Magnitude of G(s) in Eq. 8.2S. FIG. 8.246. Phase of G(s) in Eq. 8.2S.
FIG.
8.25. Single-tuned circuit.
231
FIG. 8.26
The poles of H(s)

'
are
(8.27)
2L
2\LC
J} J
where we assume that (R*IL*)

//(5) is
< (4/LC).
'
In terms of a and
/J
in Eq. 8.27,
ff(s)
+^ (s + a+j/f)(s + a-7/8)
We
(8.28)
From the pole-zero diagram of H(s) shown in Fig. 8.26, we will determine
the amplitude response \H(Jm)\. Let us denote the vectors from the poles to they'w axis as |MX and |M,| as seen in Fig. 8.26. can then write
|
|HO)l
where
(8.29)
K = a* +
|MJ
|M,|
j8*
and
iMii
|M,|
- [ + ( + m* - [a + (a, - W\"
eu
(8.30)
In characterizing the amplitude response, the point

\H(jco)\ is
a>msx, at
which
maximum, is highly significant from both the analysis and design

Since \H(ja>)\
is
aspects.
maximum corresponds exactly to the

Since \H(jm)\* can be written as
always positive, the point at which \H(Jco)\* is point at which \H(ja>)\ is maximum.
232
Network
analysis
and synthesis
|H0>)|
+ F? + (a, + /?)*][* +(,-j8)8 (' + 8 4 > + 2tt>\%* - f) + (a +

('
[a*
/?*)'
(8.31)
/?*)
we can find a>max by taking the derivative of H(ja>) setting the result equal to zero. Thus we have
|
*
\
with respect to
a>*
and
dJH(U>)\*
<fo>
__
(a'
+ /8*)W + 2(q' + (* + /W + 2a "
V
* 8
<8*)]
(8.32)
/**)
From the equation

we determine
damping factor
* |H
f dm
)l
(8.33)
eoSuz
jS
(8.34)
Expressed in terms of the natural frequency of oscillation
and the
wj^ is
- (o) Vl
-*)*-
(Cô)
= <(\ ~ 2*)
(8-35)
Since comax must always be real, the condition for a>max to exist, i.e., the condition for \H(jw)\ to possess a maximum, is given by the equation
21* <,
(8.36)
45. cos 0, o)max does not exist for so that t <, 0.707. Since In this When 8 45, we have the limiting case for which max exists. 0.707 and the real and imaginary parts of the poles have the same case,
<
magnitude,
i.e.,
/?,
or
>.
>
Vl
(8-37)
We see from Eq. 8.34 that, when a /J, then o>max frequency at which o)max may be located. For
>,
= 0. This is the lowest > 0.707, or

<8 - 38 >
> <Vl - P
comax
is
imaginary;
it
point in this analysis is or equal to the real part of the pole in order for a>max to exist. Interpreted graphically, if we draw a circle in the s plane with the center at a and the then the circle must intersect theyVo axis in order for comax radius equal to
0,
therefore does not exist To summarize, the key that the imaginary part of the pole must be greater
to
as seen in Fig. 8.27. Moreover, the point at which the circle interfrom the triangle sects the positive jm axis is comax- This is readily seen
exist,

JU
233
max
i
>
<r
H-->
i 1
-70 x
-"max
circle.
FIG. 8.27. Peaking
with sides a,
that
/S,
a>max in Fig. 8.27.
By
the Pythagorean theorem,
we find
(8.39)
(oJLx
- j8* - a*
called the peaking circle.
o>
The circle described in
Fig. 8.27
is
When a
/?,
the peaking circle intersects the jot axis at
= 0,
a,
as seen in Fig. 8.28a.

all (Fig. 8.286);
is
When a
>
/J,
the circle does not intersect the /to axis at
therefore, a>max cannot exist.
When
the imaginary part of the pole
much greater than the real part, i.e., when /J J>

the/a> axis at approximately
a>
=w
then the circle intersects the natural frequency of oscillation
of the
circuit (Fig. 8.28c).
A figure
circuit is the circuit
of merit often used in describing the "peaking" of a tuned Q, which is defined in pole-zero notation as
(8.40)
2 cos
axis ( small) represent
From this definition, we see that poles near the ja>
high-g systems, as given in Fig. 8.28c, and poles far removed from the jo) axis represent low-Q circuits (Fig. 8.28a). Although the Q of the circuit given by the pole-zero plot of Fig. 8.286 is theoretically defined, it has no practical significance because the circuit does not possess a maximum
point in
point,
its
amplitude.
the peaking circle, the frequency
co c
By means of
which
is
we can
also determine the half-power

is
at which the amplitude response
\H(jw c)\
- 0.707 |#(./aw)|.
234
Network
analysis
and synthesis
ju
JP J0
jco
j- *Jmm
Umax
a\
-jftk-
y
max
a
J
fi,
(a)
(6)
circles,
FIG. 8.28. Examples of peaking

undetermined,
(c)
a, eomax ~ p.
(a)
= P, ma
0.
(6)
>
We will now describe a method to obtain co c by geometrical construction. Consider the triangle in Fig. 8.29, whose vertices are the poles {pi,pi*} and a point to, on they'w axis. The area of the triangle is
Area (piPi*aid
In terms of the vectors be expressed as
= fa
co it
(8.41)
|MJ and
|M,| from the poles to
the area can also
Area (&PiPi*<ot) =where

y> is
\MX
|M,| sin y
>
(8.42)
2
the angle at
it
as seen in the figure.
From Eqs.
8.41
and 8.42,
|
we
Ju
to
see that the product |Mi|
|M 2
is
equal
|MX
|M,|
= -^
sin
y>
(8.43)
Since the amplitude response
is
\H(ja>i)\
(8.44)
where
K is a constant, then
.Ksin
FIG. 129
|H(M)I
20*
y>
(8.45)
235
Therefore,
the angle
For a given pole pair {puPi*} the parameters /J, a, and ^Tare prespecified. we have derived \H(Jm)\ in terms of a single variable parameter,
y>.
When the angle y>
= tt\2 rad, then sin =

rp
1, to,
= Wmax, and,
(8.46)
|H(/>max)|
When v
w/4 rad, then sin
y>
= 0.707 and = 0.707 I^C/o^nu)!

now a geometric construction to
circle as
\H(ja>J\
so that a>t o) a Let us

.
= coc
first
Let us consider
obtain
draw the peaking
shown
in Fig. 8.30.
We will
A the point at which the peaking circle intersects the positive Now we draw a second circle with its center at A, and its radius equal to AB, the distance from A to either one of the poles, as seen in Fig. 8.30. The point where this second circle intersects the/a) axis is w c
denote by
real axis.
.
The reason is that,

is
at this point, the inscribed angle is
y>x
= w/4 because it
equal to one-half the intercepted arc, which, by construction, is w/2. o)max 0, the half-power point m c is also called the half-power bandwidth of the tuned circuit. In Fig. 8.31a the half-power point 's given
When
when
(Umax
= 0.
For a high-g
circuit,
highly peaked at
m=
<Umx, as
\HQ0)\
< 0.707 |//(/ft>max)|, there
where comw <*>< the amplitude is shown in Fig. 8.316. In this case, if are two half-power points m Ci and co 0i
Peaking
'circle
FIG.
8.30.
Geometric construction to obtain half-power point.
236
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
0.707
Iff,
(a)
(b)
FIG.
8.31. (a)
Low-G
circuit response,
(b)
High-Q
circuit response.
about the point

just described,
that the point
a>max, as seen in Fig. 8.316. By the construction process we obtain the upper half-power point o> Ci It can be shown1 a>max is the geometric mean of m Ci and a> Ct that is,
.
(8.47)
As a
result, the
lower half-power point
is
>Oi
= a>mx
0>Ct
(8.48)
The bandwidth of the system for a high-g circuit of this type is described by
BW = m Ct
filters.
(o
0i
(8.49)
In design applications these high-g circuits are used as narrow bandpass

Finally, there are certain aspects
of the phase response of high-g circuits
that are readily apparent. In Fig. 8.32
we
see several steps in the process
is 0, as seen of obtaining the phase response. The phase shift at eo it rad, as shown in part (c) oo, the phase shift is from Fig. 8.32a. At <a a> =i >max, the phase of the figure. Finally, in the neighborhood of a in the lower half plane is approximately shift resulting from the pole tt/2 (Fig. 8.32&). The change in phase in this region is controlled 0, in large by the pole px It is readily seen that the phase response in the region of a> has the greatest negative slope, as seen from a typical phase
response of a high-g circuit shown in Fig. 8.33.

1
See for example, F. E. Terman, Electronic and Radio Engineering, McGraw-Hill

1953.
Book Company, New York,
237
J<*
Hi
b)0
k
(*)
(b)
(e)
PIG. S.32. Several steps in obtaining phase response for high-Q

>
circuit,
() o><
a.
Finally, as
circuits, let
an example to illustrate our discussion of single-tuned us find the amplitude response for the system function
#(s)
=
s*
34
+ 6s + 34
half-power points
(8.50)
Now we
determine the
maximum and
|/f(/*comax)|
awx
and
<o c ,
and also the amplitudes
and
\H(jo> c)\. In factored form, H(s) is
+ 3-;5) and the poles of H(s) are shown in Fig. 8.34. We next draw the peaking circle with the center at j = 3 and the radius equal to 5. At the point where the circle intersects thejfa> axis, we see that eomx 4. To check this a* gives result, the equation <*, = cBmx = (5* - 3*)* = 4 (8.52)
(s
H{s)
34
(8.51)
3+;5)(s
/J*
-180*-
FIG. 8.33. Phase response of high-Q
circuit.
238
Network
analysis
and synthesis
The amplitude
6.78
|f(/a>max)| is
then
= <or
|H(/4)|
34
(3+j9)(3-jl)
==
30
1.133
(8.53)
The
at s
point
at
which the peaking circle

at A,
intersects the positive real axis is located
= 2.0.
With the center

of radius
we
draw a
this
circle
AB
(equal to
At the point C where new circle intersects theyeo axis, we have o) c By measurement, we find
5-\/2 in this case).
.
to c
~ 6.78
(8.54)
FIG. 8.34. Peaking tion example.
circle construc-
Let us check this result. Referring to Fig. 8.34, we know_that the line segment
;
is
also 5-v/2 units long.

co c is
_.
Then
given as
co c
AB is of length 5>/2 it follows that AC The line segment AO is of length (8.55) AO = 5 3 = 2 units
sl(AC)1
- (AO)* =
34
V46
6.782
(8.56)
Finally,
we
obtain \H(j<o c)\ as

|H(j'6.782)| n
1
V(34
46)*
(6V46)
. S
0.802
(8.57)
which
8.4
is
precisely 0.707 \H(j(Ow**l)\-
DOUBLE-TUNED CIRCUITS
8.3,
In Section
poles.
we studied the frequency response for a pair of conjugate

attention to the amplitude response of
circuit
Now we turn our
two
pairs
of conjugate poles in a high-g situation. The double-tuned or stagger-tuned circuit given in Fig. 8.35.
we analyze here is the
We will consider
V2 (s)
FIG. 8.35. Double-tuned
circuit.
239
the special case when the R, L, and C elements in the primary circuit are equal in value to their counterparts in the secondary. Since the primary and secondary inductances are equal, the mutual inductance is
M=KL
K
(8.58)
In this analysis we assume the coefficient of coupling to be a variable parameter. Let us determine the amplitude response for the voltage-ratio transfer function V^V^s). From the mesh equations
V^s)
=^R +
L+
/.(s)
J^j
- sM /2(s)
(8.59)
= -sM h(s) +
we readily determine
Vito
{r
sL
+ -M
/,(*)
& + WQs + 1/LC]* set
K*
l
'
Using tuned-circuit notation, we
2<o
=(8.61)
H(s) can then be written as H(s)

(1
-
^RM'L
\
K*)(s*
\
+ -^2_ , + --)( f + -fe_ s + _22jL\ 1 + K l + K/\ l-K 1-KI

(8.62)
If
we
set
A=
write
*M
,
I?(l
^
K*)
= ^2* 1 - K*
s)(s
(8.63) K
'
then
we can
H(s)
=
(s
SiXs
sfXs
Li
(1
(8.64)
s,*)
where
{ Sl , Sl *}
11
^S_ jJL+ K J "ll + K
-_]
K)*J
(8.65)
-k
-x
ci
jc)*J
Let us restrict our analysis to a high- Q circuit so that * 1 . Furthermore, let us assume that the circuit is loosely coupled so that AT 1. Under
240
Network
analysis
and synthesis
the pole locations by discarding Then the poles
these assumptions,
we can approximate
the terms involving * under the radicals in Eq. 8.65. approximately as fai *i*} can be given
(8.66) Similarly, {s *,*}
can be given as
{s s,*}
~ -o> jo) ^l + J
is
(8.67)
The
pole-zero diagram of H(s)
poles
<u
is greatly enlarged in
given in Fig. 8.36. The real part of the comparison to the imaginary parts for
FIG. 8.M. Poles and zeros of a dottble-tuned
circuit.

clarity purposes.
241
Note that we have a triple zero at the of the vectors in Fig. 8.36, the amplitude response is
^4|Mo|'
]H(J(0}1
origin.
In terms
(8.68)
JM.I |M,| |M.| IMtl
Since the circuit
is
high- 2 in the vicinity of
a>
= a>
we have
(8.69)
|M,|-|M4 |=i2|M |-2o,

so that in the neighborhood of
 depends only upon the pair of vectors
IMJ and |M,|. The double-tuned problem has thus been reduced to a singletuned problem in the neighborhood of
results
Consequently, we can use all the on the peaking circle that were derived in Section 8.3. Let us draw a
o)
.
peaking
circle
with the center at
- +/>,
(8.71)
and with a radius equal to tw^T/2, as shown in Fig. 8.37. The inscribed
angle
FIG. 8.37. Peaking circle for doubletuned circuit.
y> then determines the location of the maxima and half-power points of the response. Without going into the derivation, the amplitude response can be expressed as a function of y according to the equation
|HO)l
A<o sin
4a)
y
)
sin
y
K*)
K(ta>
2(1
let
(8.72)
Referring to the peaking circle in Fig. 8.37,

situations:
us consider the following
In this case, the peaking circle never intersects the jot axis; y> is always less than ir/2 (Fig. 8.38a), and the amplitude response never attains the theoretical maximum
1.
a>
> WiKfl:
iW =
circuit is said to
2(1
-K*)
*-=
(8.73)
as seen by the curve labeled (a) in Fig. 8.39. In this case,
K < 2, and the
be undercoupled.
242
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
jo>
8lM
2
i
7
WO
I
-fo
T
2
y A
\
x^^
(a) (b)
ly\ w
(c)
lmax
FIG. 8.38.
(a)
Undercoupling. (6) Critical coupling,
(c)
Overcoupling.
2. o>,
= <
co^Kjl:
Here the peaking

(Fig. 8.38ft).
circle intersects
,
the/eo axis at a
is
equal to #max in Eq. 8.73. In this case Kj2, and we have critical coupling. 3. 
single point
m=
At
a>
the amplitude
o> x
and
to,,
as seen in Fig. 8.38c.
The
intersecting points are given
by the
equation
<*>!,*
max
tt>
>
.[(!H*
(
(8.74)
Consequently, the amplitude response attains the theoretical maximum Hum* at two points, as shown by curve (c) in Fig. 8.39. In this situation, the circuit is said to be overcoupled.
Note that
have their
in Fig. 8.39 the undercoupled
maximum
points at
me
and critically coupled curves The overcoupled curve, however, is
"a mix
FIG. 8.39.
(a)
Undercoupled
case, (A) Critically
coupled case,
(c)
Overcoupled case.
243
uCl
<<
uCt
circuit.
FIG. 8.40. Half-power points of overcoupled
maximum at o>! and u>t

we can determine
struction
In the case of overcoupling and
critical
coupling,
the half-power points by using the geometrical con-
half-power points
Fig. 8.40.
method given in Section 8.3. Observe that there are two co c and co c as shown in the overcoupled curve in The bandwidth of the circuit is then
,
BW =
Example &2.
given as
a>
Ct
m Ci
a double-tuned
(8.75)
circuit is
The
voltage-ratio transfer function of
=
(*
As?
+2
-HylOOX*
+2
-ylOOX*
+2
+yl06X>
+2
-/106)
(8/76)
From H(s), let us determine the following: (a) the maximum points <ot ma and <o t ; (b) the 3 db bandwidth BW; (c) the damping factor ; (d) the coefficient of coupling*; (e) the gain constant A; and (/) the maximum of the amplitude
response //max.
Solution, (a) The natural frequency of oscillation o> is taken to be approximately halfway between the two poles, that is, <o = 103 radians. In the neighborhood of , we draw the poles s 2 +/100 and s = 2 +/106, as shown in Fig. 8.41 . From the peaking circle centered at the point s = 2 + /<.,
shown
in Fig. 8.41,
we
obtain
mt max
so that
 with radius 3V2. Where
this circle intersects theyVu axis,
we have
<o
Ct so that
">c,
V(3^2)
- 4.123 radians
(8.79)
244
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
FIG. 8.41. Peaking
circle for
Example
8.2.
The
db bandwidth
is
then
oj)
BW - 20Ol (c) The damping factor from which we obtain
8.246 radians
a>
(8.80)
{ is obtained
from the real part of the poles
2,
t 4
103
0.0194 u'" 15^
(8.81)
(d)
The
coefficient
is
of coupling
K is obtained from the radius of the peaking

o>oA:
circle,
which
(8.82)
We thus have
(e)
K = = 0.0582
A
1
(8.83)
The gain constant
is
equal to
2(2X0.0582)
1
2{.A:
*
(f) Finally, the
- K*
- (0.0582)*
= ""**
(8.84)
maximum
amplitude
Hmmx
is
flmiz
=
2(1
-**)
-0.5009
(8.85)
245
83
ON
POLES
AND ZEROS AND
TIME DELAY
will
time delay? How do we relate it to frequency response? We attempt to answer these questions in this section. First consider the transfer function of pure delay (8.86) <r tT H(s)
What is
For a system described by Eq.

identical response signal e(t
to the excitation. This Bis)
is
any excitation e(f) produces an which is delayed by time T with respect shown by the Laplace transform relationship,
8.86,
T),
- C[e(/ -T)] = er' T C[e(0]
(8-87)
Let us examine the amplitude and phase response of the pure delay. From the equation *-*** < 8 - 88)
HO) -
we
obtain the amplitude response

\H(Jw)\
(8.89)
and the phase response
<f>(a))
coT
(8.90)
We
see that the delay

is,
T is
equal to minus the derivative of the phase
response, that
T= -
d<f>(w)
(8.91)
dco
The magnitude, phase and delay characteristics of H(ja>) = erlaT are given in Fig. 8.42a, b, and c. If we define delay as in Eq. 8.91, we can readily deduce that for the
response to be nearly identical to the excitation, the system amplitude response should be constant, and its phase response should be linear over the frequency range of interest. If the phase is not linear, we have what is known as delay distortion. To visualize delay distortion more clearly,
M<)
*te) A()
(a)
(h)
\
(a)
(e)
FIG. a.42. Amplitude, phase, and delay of ideal delay function,

(ft)
Amplitude,
Phase, (c) Delay.
246
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
we recall from Fourier analysis that any signal is made up of different frequency components. An ideal transmission system should delay each
frequency component equally. If the frequency components are delayed by different amounts, the reconstruction of the output signal from its Fourier components would produce a signal of different shape as the input.
For pulse
tion.
applications, delay distortion is
an
essential design considera-
Let us next examine how we relate delay, or envelope delay (as it is sometimes called) to the poles and zeros of a transfer function. For any
transfer function
n (-)
H(s)=*tf
(8.92)
IT(-Pi)
with zeros at z
= a
lr
\
jcot and poles

.
at/>,
<r
jco i , the phase for
real frequencies is
<K<)
? = = 2 tan-1 W
*
fflj *
*-i
ot
-J
.IL
tan"
1 to
.
+ x CO,
'
(8.93) a,
J-l
Envelope delay
is
dm
h o' + (c (of + A o* + (
The zeros
However,
linear physical systems
(894)
co,)*
We
see that the shapes of the delay versus frequency characteristic are
all
the same for
poles and zeros.
contribute "negative" delay;
the poles, positive delay.

exception. Its phase
transfer functions with zeros alone.
The inductor H(s)
do not have Ls is the only
Now
let
pole atp
is #a>) ir/2; thus the delay is zero. us consider the delay due to one singularity, for example, a a +jcoQ The delay due to the one pole is
.
The following points are

1.
pertinent:
The maximum delay due
to this pole
is
Am = and occurs at
about
co to
.
(8.96)
co
The delay
versus frequency curve
is
symmetric
<w
247
FIG.
8.43.
Graphic construction to obtain delay bandwidth.
2.
The frequency
at
which the delay

o>x
is
half the
ff
maximum, or
l/2or
is
co
is
(8.97)
eo
3.
The
"effective delay
.
bandwidth"
then
<r
<m<
to
cr
or
simply 2a
graphically
The upper and lower half-bandwidth points can be obtained by drawing a circle with center at a> = co, and radius a
.
The
4.
2.
intersections of the circle with the jco axis are the half-bandwidth
points, as
shown in Fig. 8.43. The product of the maximum delay and delay bandwidth
if
is
always
Thus,
5.
we wish
to obtain large delay
by placing zeros or poles near

is
theyeo axis, the effective delay bandwidth
then very narrow.
The delay of an
all-pass function is twice the delay
due to the poles

in Fig. 8.44.
alone.
The delay versus frequency curve
for the pole
is
shown
We
see that the delay-bandwidth concept is only useful for a
rough
approximation, since the delay versus frequency characteristic only falls as 1/to. To calculate the delay versus frequency characteristic for a
transfer function with
a number of poles and zeros, it is convenient to obtain the delay curves for the individual singularities and then to add the separate delays. It is not as desirable to obtain the total phase response
and then
differentiate numerically.
it
Finally,
should be pointed out that envelope delay only has meaning

is is
when
the phase response goes through the origin. If it does not, there
a frequency-shift component in addition to the delay that account for analytically.
hard to
248
Network
analysis
and synthesis
wo -
4<?o
">o
3o wo - 2<ro wo ô
o +
ffo
o +
2<ro
wo +
3<ro
wo + 4o
<*
FIG.
8.44. Plot
of delay versus frequency.
Problems
8.1
and
plot
Find the poles and zeros of the impedances of the following networks on a scaled s plane.
o
nnnr*
4h
la)
|f-
io
Z(s>-
M/*
20
1(iM
ZM-
m
20
4h
ZW-
PROB. 8.1
&2 The
(a)
circuit
shown
in the figure
is
a shunt peaking
circuit often
used in
video amplifiers,
Show that the admittance
Y(s) is of the
form
K(s
- s^s s>
(s
-*,)
Express slt sa , and ss in terms of R, L, and C.
249
10"* mhos, find -10 -ylO, and Y(jB) -10 +yi0, st (6) When st the values of R, L, and C and determine the numerical value of *,.
Y(,>
=c
:r
PROS.
83
sketch.
Find the amplitude and phase response for the following functions and
() F(s)
+K
s
(*) F(s)
+K
(c) F(s)
id) F(s)
7T v
Note
8.4
that
and o> are positive Given the function
quantities.
<**">
C() +71*.)
determine the amplitude and phase of G(jm) in terms of ^, B, C, D. the amplitude function is even and the phase function is odd.
for
Show that
85 By means of the vector method, sketch the amplitude and phase response
j
(a) F(s)
-
+0.5
s-l
(C) F(*)
sis
10)
s
(b)
F(s)
's*
s
(e)
+2s +2
(/)
F(5)
s*
-2s +
F(s)
'
+1 -1
<*>
F(,)
5*
- 2j + 5
+2s +5
2X*
-(TTW+T)
=
s*
(j
^)F(j) - (,/2xV+ 9)
8.6
W
the
F(5)
1)
Plot
on semilog paper
F(*)
Bode
100(1
s(s
plots of magnitude
and phase for
= =
+ 0.5*)
+2)
F(s)
50(1
(1
+ 0.025jX1 + O-IJ) + 0.05*X1 + 0.01s)
250
8.7
Network
Plot
analysis
and synthesis
the
on semilog paper
Bode
plots of magnitude
and phase for
()
(1
+ O.OOZsXl +
10005 5 10~ 5*
+ 10~V)
W
8.8
F(*)
=
(1
200(1 + 0.05s) + 0.02jX1 + 4 10-** + 10-V)
For the function
*W-3 + 2s + 5
s*
determine o> mu , \F(jco m *x)\, the half-power point amplitude and phase response.
a>
and
\F(ja>
)\.
Sketch the
8.9 For the circuit shown, determine the current ratio IJIg and find: (a) the point <>,, where its amplitude is maximum; (b) the half-power point <oc ; 1. Use geometric construction. (c) the point to where |/i(a) M)//B(<o u)|
2.5 h
PROS.
8.10
8.9
A network function consists of two poles at p

Show
/<*
ltt
r^*^' -9
'
= at
jco t , as given in the figure.
that the square of the amplitude response
Af\to)
is
maximum
at
o>
m* =
|cos 20|.
PROB.
8.10
8.11 In connection with Prob. 8.2 plot the poles and zeros of the impedance Find, approximately, the maximum point of the l/l%s). function Z(s) amplitude response. In addition, find the bandwidth at the half-power points and the circuit Q.
251
8.12 The pole configuration for a system function H(s) is given in the figure. From the plot, calculate:
(a)
(6)
The undamped frequency of oscillation The bandwidth and Q.
a>
yioo
-5
<T
PROB.
8.13
h
8.12
-y'100
In connection with Prob. 8.10 determine the ratio Af\m aM)lM*(0). 8.14 Determine the amplitude and phase response for the admittance Y(s) of the circuit shown. Is the peaking circle applicable here? What can you say about the shape of the amplitude response curve in a high-g situation? Determine the bandwidth of the circuit and the circuit Q.
oWW
YM-
20
lh
^SW"
=rif
PROB.
8.14
8.15 For the overcoupled case of a double-tuned circuit, derive an expression for the peak-to-valley ratio that is, M(o> m x)/M(a> ), where A#(-) denotes amplitude. Use the notation in Section 8.4. {Hint: see Prob. 8.13.) 8.16
For the voltage

fri v\
ratio of a double-tuned circuit
S
(s
+ 4 +y50X* + 4 -y50X* + 4
+j6Q)(.s
+4
-y60)
252
Network
analysis
and synthesis
and circle to determine the maximum and half-power points coupling K. the circuit Q. Find the gain constant A and the coefficient of and halfa x i mu 8.17 For the double-tuned circuit shown, determine the of power points and the circuit Q. Find the gain constant A and the coefficient
Use the peaking
coupling K.
10
"9
M=5xl<r 6 h
PROB.
8.18
8.17
Determine the delay at

F(s)
a =
0, 1,
1
and 2 for
()
(b)
F(s)
s+2 = s-3
s
+3
+
(c)
F(s)
=
(s
3*
IX*
+ 2)
(<*)
F(s)
=
s*
s + 1 + Is + 5
(e)
(s+2Ks*+2s+ 2)
chapter
9
II
Network
analysis
9.1
NETWORK FUNCTIONS
electric
port
network theory, the word port has a special meaning. A regarded as a pair of terminals in which the current into one terminal equals the current out of the other. For the one-port network shown in Fig. 9.1, 1=1'. A one-port network is completely specified when the voltage-current relationship at the terminals of the port is given. For example, if V = 10 v and 1 = 2 amp, then we know that the input or driving-point impedance of the one-port is
In
may be
Zi
= = sa
(9.1)
Whether the one-port is actually a single 5-Q resistor, two 2.5-Q resistors in series, or two 10-Q resistors in parallel, is of little importance because
the primary concern
is
the current-voltage relationship at the port.
Consider the example in which / admittance of the one-port is
2s
3 and
V=
then the input
Yto =
simplest case (Fig. 9.2).
^ = 2s + 3
parallel with
(9.2)
which corresponds to a 2-f capacitor in

its
a $-Q
resistor in
V
I'
One-port network
=!=2f
io
FIG.
9.1
PIG. 9.2
253
254
Network
h
Two-port network
+
Vi
v2
2'
r
FIG. 9.3
Two-port parameters
A general two-port network, shown in Fig. 9.3, has two pairs of voltagecurrent relationships. The variables are Vx , V2 , Ju lz Two of these are dependent variables ; the other two are independent variables. The number of possible combinations generated by four variables taken two at a time describing a two-port is six. Thus there are six possible sets of equations
.
network.
We will discuss the four most useful descriptions here.

a two-port network are the
The z parameters
A particular set of equations that describe

z-parameter equations
Vx = V2 =
z^ + zj
Z
21 l
(9 3)
wJ%
In these equations the variables Vx and Vt are dependent, and Iv I2 are independent. The individual z parameters are denned by
V,
z ll
h
v,
J,=0
h
'M
7,=0
(9.4)
21
7,-0
/!=0
observed that all the z parameters have the dimensions of impedance. Moreover, the individual parameters are specified only when the current in one of the ports is zero. This corresponds to one of ports being open circuited, from which the z parameters also derive the name open-circuit
It is
Vi
zb
Vi
FIG. 9.4
Network
anal/sis
II
255
parameters. Note that z u relates the current and voltage in the 1-1' port only; whereas z M gives the current-voltage relationship for the 2-2' port.
Such parameters are called open-circuit driving-point impedances. On and z2l relate the voltage in one port to the current in the other. These are known as (open-circuit) transfer
the other hand, the parameters z liS
impedances. As an example,
in Fig. 9.4.
let
us find the open-circuit parameters for the
T circuit
We obtain the z parameters by inspection

Zll
=
7,=0
+z
z ti 7,-0
= zb + z =Z
7,-0
h
(9.5)
*1*
_^2
*l
=Z
7=0
Observe that z ia z 21 When the open-circuit transfer impedances of a two-port network are equal, the network is reciprocal. It will be shown later that most passive time-invariant networks are reciprocal. 1 Most two-port networks, whether passive or active, can be characterized by a set of open-circuited parameters. Usually, the network is sufficiently complicated so that we cannot obtain the z parameters by inspection, as
.
we
did for the T circuit in Fig. 9.4. The question is now, "How do we obtain the z parameters for any circuit in general?" The procedure is as
a set of node equations with the voltages at the ports and other node voltages within the two-port Va V4 Vk as the dependent variables. The independent variables are the currents It and I& which we will take to be current sources. We then proceed to write a set of node equations.
follows.
We write
,
Vx
and
Vt
h = nn V + n^Vi H - n.1^1 + +
1
+ n lk V ur* r + nSk Vk + nSk Vt s r

t l
(9.6)
- "*iFi +
1
+ "**n
One important exception
is
the gyrator discussed later in this chapter.
256
Network
analysis
and synthesis
ith
where n it represents the admittance between the
and/th nodes, that
is,
If the circuit is
= Gu +
sCu
(9.7)
sL, il
it is
made up of R-L-C
elements only, then
clear that
n it
=n
ft
As a
result, the ijth
cofactor of the determinant of the node

they'ith cofactor,
equations,
AM
must be equal to
ti ,
that
is,
This result leads directly to the reciprocity condition z21

shall see.
= z^,
A w = AH
as
we
Returning to the and Vt We obtain

.
set
of node equations in Eq.
9.6, let
us solve for
Vx
Vl
~ A 1+ A
(9.8)
In relating this
parameters,
it is
last set
of equations to the defining equations for the z
clear that
u=
ii
^
ztt
An A
(9.9)
= A8a
Since for a passive network
A^ = A w
it
follows that za
= z12
the
network is then reciprocal. As an example, let us find the z parameters of the Pi First, the node equations are
circuit in Fig. 9.5.
h"{TA + Yc)V -Yc V

1
Ia
=-Yc V
Vi
(9.10)
+ (YB + Yc)Vt
v2
CD
YB
d>
FIG.
9S
Network
anal/sis
II
257
The determinant
for this set of equations
is
Ay = YA YB + YA YC + YB YC
In terms of Ay, the open-circuit parameters for the Pi circuit are
(9.11)
+ ^~ YBAy
Yc
Zai
~Ay
(9.12)
*
Now
let
Ay
Zu
Y + YC A
Ay
us perform a delta-wye transformation for the circuits in Figs. 9.4 and 9.5. In other words, let us find relationships between the immittances of the two circuits so that they both have the same z parameters.
We readily obtain
Zl
-z
-s-
- z + z - ^
e
Ay Ay
(9.13)
*11
- za + z r,
.
-T
YB + Yc
We then find
z Zo
Zc
-& Ay
(9.14)
Ay
of mesh equations for the two port in
The y parameters
Suppose we were to write a
Fig. 9.3.
set
Then the voltages
Vx and V2 would become independent sources,

would be just two of the dependent mesh mesh equations
"
and the currents Ix and
currents. Consider the general set of
Vi
- uA + iA + V% mA + "hJ* H = msi/i+
= m uJ +
l
+ i
r-
m^/j
(9.15)
+ W.A
+ m kkTk
where
the
sum of the impedances in the /th mesh and m ti is common impedance between mesh i and meshy. We note here again
it
represents the
258
that for
holds.
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
an R-L-C network,
m mH
it
for all
and / Thus
reciprocity
Solving the set of mesh equations for /x and 7a ,

equations.
we
obtain the following
h~ A
A
The equations of 9.16
A A
(9.16)
define the short-circuit admittance parameters as
h = VuVi + yit v* h = y iî + ynVt

S
(9
17 )
= A/A for all i andy. Let us find the y parameters for the bridged-T circuit given in Fig. 9.6. The mesh equations for the circuit are
where ytj
s
'.
=A+
s
(-
+
s
l)h
+ ~h
s
(9.18)
\s
In straightforward fashion
we
obtain
A= A
A
2(2s
1)
-A
ls%
+ 4s +
S
*
(9.19)
-A - - ls + 2s +
FIG. 9.6
Network
The
short-circuit parameters are then
analysis
II
259
+ 4s + 1 2(2s + 1) 8 2s + 25+1 yi = Vi* 2(2s + 1) When ylx = yn or zu = za2 the network is symmetrical. 2
yu
sfa
2s
(9.20)
Returning to Eq. 9.17, which defines the y parameters, parameters are expressed explicitly as
we
see that the
911
_h
Vy Fi-0
/,
3/m
v* Fi-0
(9.21)
Vn
Vm
The reason
parameters
that the
h K h
Ft-0
v* Fi-0
y parameters are also called short-circuit admittance apparent. In obtaining yu and y a , the 2-2' port must be short circuited, and when we find yn and ylt , the 1-1' port must be short circuited, as shown in Figs. 9.7a and 9.76. As a second example, let us obtain the y parameters of the Pi circuit in
is
now
Fig. 9.5.
To
obtain y a and y M ,
we
short circuit terminals 2-2'.
We then
(9.22)
have
Vu
yi
= -Yc
yn, *2i
,Jz
h>i
m yn Z3.
(b)
(a)
FIG. 9.7
*A
and
symmetrical network
is
easily recognized because
by interchanging the
1-1'
2-2' port designations, the network remains unchanged.
260
Network
analysis
and synthesis
1-1' to obtain
,g
We next short-circuit terminals

^22
= YB + Yc ^12 = -Yc
23)
The h parameters
set
circuits are the
of parameters that are extremely useful in describing transistor h parameters given by the equations
Vi
I
= *uA + hi*V* "tl-M. "22'

"I"
(9.24)
The
individual parameters are defined
by the
relationships
-h
Fj=0
7l-0
(9.25)
h "21
-~ =
1*
F,-0
h "89
-h =
Jl-0
We
see that h lt
and h 91 are
short-circuit type parameters,
are open-circuit type parameters.
and hx% and h^ The parameter hn can be interpreted

It is easily
.
as the input impedance at port
seen that h u
is
1 with port 2 short circuited. merely the reciprocal of ylt
hu
=
yu
is
(9.26)
The parameter h 22
to z M by
is
an open-circuit admittance parameter and

ha
related
(9.27)
circuit current ratio,
Both the remaining h parameters are transfer functions; h 21 is a shortand h 12 is an open-circuit voltage ratio. Their relationships to the z and y parameters is discussed later in this chapter. For the Pi circuit in Fig. 9.5, the h parameters are
fcll
=
Ya
+ YC
(9.28)
h 12
h ai
fc_
Yc YA + YC = Yc YA + YC YA YC v YA +YC
.
Network
analysis
II
261
h
+
NIC
h
1
FIG.
9.8.
Negative impedance converter with load impedance.
hlt . This is the reciprocity Observe that for the Pi circuit, h^ condition for the h parameters and can be derived from their relationships to either the z or y parameters.
Next
let
us consider the h parameters of an ideal device called the
negative impedance converter (NIC), which converts a positive load
impedance into a negative impedance at its input port.* Consider the NIC with a load impedance ZL shown in Fig. 9.8. Its input impedance is
Z.
= -Z,
(9.29)
which can be rewritten as

i
= *
NIC.
(9.30)
The following voltage-current
relationships hold for the
Vx - kVt
A = kh
If
(9.31)
we
interpret Eq. 9.31 using
h parameters, we arrive at the following
conditions.
h vt
=
21
(9.32)
We see that since h u
j&
h tl
the
In matrix notation, the h matrix of the

ii
NIC is nonreciprocal. NIC is

k
(9.33)
.
i
.k
The NIC
is
is
a convenient device in the modeling of active
circuits.
It
not, however, a device that exists only in the imagination.
Practical
For a
lucid discussion of the properties of the
Matrices,
NIC, see L. P. Huelsman, Circuits, and Linear Vector Spaces, McGraw-Hill Company, New York, 1963,
Chapter
4.
262
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
transistors.
realizations of
these are described in
NIC's have been achieved using an article by Larky. 4
Some of
The ABCD parameters

Let us take as the dependent variables the voltage and current at the
port
1,
and define the following equation.
A
LA.
ara
is
(9.34)
This matrix equation defines the A, B, C,
D parameters, whose matrix is

that
known as the transmission matrix because it relates the voltage and current at the input port to their corresponding quantities at the output. The
reason the current It carries a negative sign
most transmission
engineers like to regard their output current as coming out of the output
port instead of going into the port, as per standard usage. In explicit form, the ABCD parameters can be expressed as
A=
C=
From
these relations
*
lt=0
B= - Yi
h
Fa=0
(9.35)
r=o
see that
we
represents
an open-circuit voltage
a short-circuit transfer impedance; C is an opencircuit transfer admittance; and D is a short-circuit current ratio. Note that all four parameters are transfer functions so that the term transmission matrix is a very appropriate one. Let us describe the short-circuit transfer functions B and D in terms of y parameters, and the open-circuit transfer functions A and C in terms of z parameters. Using straightforward algebraic operations, we obtain
transfer function; J?
is
A=^
n
B = _J_
J/21
(9.36)
c=
For the
iz 21
D = _2u
Vtl
is
ABCD
parameters, the reciprocity condition
expressed by the
equation
YA
det
B~]
C D
= AD-BC=l
Trans.
(9.37)
* A. I. Larky, "Negative-Impedance Converters,' CT-4, No. 3 (September 1957), 124-131.
IRE on
Circuit Theory,
Network
analysis
II
263
ABCD
Let us find, as an example, the parameter for the ideal trans9.9,
h
+
Vi
h
+
former in Fig.
equations are
whose denning
Vl - nVt
/1
= i(_ j8)
<*SD
FIG.
9.9. Ideal transformer.
If we express Eq. 9.38 in matrix form,
we have
(9.39)
n
is
so that the transmission matrix of the ideal transformer
B"
^s
~n
C D
L
I
J
(9.40)
Note, incidentally, that the ideal transformer does not possess an impedance or admittance matrix because the self- and mutual inductances
are infinite. 5
For the
ideal transformer terminated in a load
impedance shown in
Fig. 9.10a, the following set of equations apply.
(9.41)
nZ,
Taking the
ratio
of
Vx to I we find the input impedance at port

l3
to be
Zl
== h
n*ZL
(9.42)
Thus we
see that
an
ideal transformer is
the load element were an inductor
L (Fig.
9.106), at port
an impedance transformer. If 1 we would see
an equivalent inductor of value n 2L. Similarly, a capacitor C at the load would appear as a capacitor of value C\n* at port 1 (Fig. 9.10c).
As a second example
*
indicating the use of the transmission matrix in
For a
detailed discussion concerning ideal transformers, see
M.
E.
Van Valkenburg,
York, 1960.
Introduction ta
Modem
Network
Synthesis,
John Wiley and Sons,
New
264
Network
h
m:li
v2
()
c
n?i,
c=
FIG. 9.10. Ideal transformer as an impedance transformer.
network
Fig. 9.5.
analysis, consider the
ABCD
parameters of the Pi circuit in
Ys
1
+Yc
Yc
(9.43)
Yc YA YB + YB YC + YA YC C= Yc Y +YC A
n
If
B=
we check for
reciprocity
from Eq.
9.43,
we
see that
)
AD-BC = (YA +
YC)(YB
+ Yc) - (YA YB + YB YC + YA YC
Ya In
-&*!
9.2
(9.44)
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TWO-PORT PARAMETERS
The relationships between two-port parameters are quite easily obtained because of the simple algebraic nature of the two-port equations. For example, we have seen that /t u = l/y u and h sa = l/z 2 . To derive h lt in terms of open-circuit parameters, consider the z parameter equations
when port
1 is
open
circuited:
/x
= 0. *\ = z V = z22/2
i2-'a
(9.45)
Network
Therefore
analysis
II
265
(9.46)
we have
h lt
is
y = -1
V.
= 2H
Similarly, since h
defined as a short-circuit type parameter,
we can
derive h 21 in terms of y parameters as
h a ==
**
(9.47)
parameters alone.
We can express all the A parameters as functions of the z parameters or y An easy way to accomplish this task is by finding out
relationships are between the z
Certainly,
and y parameters themselves. and y parameters are not simply reciprocals of each other (as the novice might guess), since one set of parameters is defined for open-circuit conditions and the other for shortby
their very nature, the z
circuit.
what the
The
and y
relationships
can be obtained very
easily
by using matrix
notation. If we define the z matrix as
[Z]
=
L*si
(9.48)
and the y matrix as

[11
yu yn\
(9.49)
J/ti
Vt]
In simplified notation
we can write
[V]
the two sets of equations as

[Z][7]
and
Replacing
[7]
= [/] =
=
(9.50) (9.51)
[Y][V]
in Eq. 9.50
by [Y][V], we obtain
[V]
[Z][Y)IV]
(9.52)
so that the product [Z][Y] must yield the unit matrix [U]. The matrices [Y] and [Z] must therefore be inverses of each other, that is,
[ZTr
1
[Y]
and
[IT-ÎZ]
(9.53)
From
z
the relationship,
we can
Zjg
find the relations between the individual
and y parameters.
Zji
A
A.
A*
A.
(9.54)
266
Network
TABLE
9.1
Matrix Conversion Table
[*]
M
s/
3/12
[A]
[71
A12 Agg
1
ft
AT
z 12
a,
3/a
A,
3/u
Am
Agi
C
1
C
>
w.
^
*22
z 22
\
3/n
A,
A*
1
Agg
C
Ay
z ia
A
Au
D
B
1
A,
A,
ii
J/12
Au
/<
M A, A,
Z 22
A,
z 12
*2
1
2/21
3/22
An An An
A*
An
A12
J?
J?
3/12
AT
3/ii
3/u
D
1
[A]
2/21
A,
Ah. Agg Vii
1
*m
ii
Z 22
3/ll
D
^
D C D
B
A.
Z21
3/22
3/21
An
Agi
1
m
where A
21
1
3/21
An
AM
A21
z22
1
\
3/21
;
3/u
3/21
n
g
Agi
= zuz g ZigZax
ii
and
J/22
= T~ =
2/12
=
(9.55)
Zia
Zg!=
?21
where
Av =
^n2/ 22
Vi^/n-
Using these
identities
we can
derive the h
or ABCD parameters in terms of either the z or y parameters. Table 9.1 provides a conversion table to facilitate the process. Note that in the
tMe
9.3
b. T
= AD- BC
(9.56)
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS USING TWO-PORT PARAMETERS

we
will examine how to determine driving-point and of a two-port by use of two-port parameters. These transfer functions functions fall into two broad categories. The first applies to two-ports
In this section
Network
without load and source impedances.
described by
analysis
II
267
These transfer functions can be For example, let us derive the expressions for the open-circuit voltage ratio VJiVx by using paramz eters first and y parameters next. Consider the z parameter equations for the two-port when port 2 is open circuited.
means of z or y parameters
alone.
Vt =
If we take the ratio of V, to
z ai/j
(9.57)
Vx - z^ Vx we obtain
,
Yl
Vt
%L
*ii
(9.58)
By
letting
/2 of the second y parameter equation go to zero,
we
derive
the open-circuit voltage ratio as
(9.59)
V\
Via
In similar manner two-port as
we can
derive the short-circuit current ratio of a
(9.60)
and
Is
_ _M
(9.61)
The open- and short-circuit transfer functions are not those we usually deal with in practice, since there are frequently source and load impedances to account for. The second category of two-port transfer
functions are those including source or load impedances. These transfer functions are functions of the two-port parameters z, h, or y and the source and/or load impedance. For example, let us derive the transfer
IJVX of a two-port network that is terminated in a resistor of/? ohms, as given in Fig. 9.1 1. For this two-port network, the following equate apply.
admittance
h
+
Vi
Two-port network
*?
V2
FIG. 9.11
268
Network
1
analysis
and synthesis
"~l
l-
Zll
^-^
Vi
+1*12*2
1+
s~~-
v2
l'o-
2'
FIG.
9.12.
Two-port equivalent.
By
eliminating the variable
Vt we obtain
,
and ytl are not of the two-port network terminated in a
Note that
rsl
yJR V1 yu + 1/R the same. YS1 is

resistor
(9.63)
the transfer admittance
R, and y n
is
the transfer
make admittance when port 2 is short circuited. similar nature. this distinction in other cases of a In order to solve for transfer functions of two-ports terminated at either port by an impedance ZL , it is convenient to use the equivalent circuit of the two-port network given in terms of its z parameters (Fig. parameters (Fig. 9.13). The equivalent voltage sources z lg/a 9.12) or
careful to
We must be
y and zIx in Fig. 9.12 are called controlled sources because they depend 6 upon a current or voltage somewhere in the network. Similarly, the current sources y lt Vt and y^Yx are controlled sources. For the circuit in Fig. 9.12, let us find the transfer impedance Zm = VJIU with port 2
"1
1
1
a.
y2iVil
yi
'
y22
Y2
v2
1
I
2'
FIG.
9.13.
Two-port equivalent.
For a lucid treatment of controlled 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
sources, see E. J. Angelo, Electronic Circuits,
New York,
1964.
Network
terminated in a load impedance
the /* mesh,
anal/sis
II
269
for
ZL
If
we
write the
mesh equation
we have
-tA-(*ii
Since
+ Zx )li
(9.64)
Vt = ItZL we readily obtain

,
z two-port network
is
r = ^rr
=
"* + zz,
< 9 - 65 >
It also is clear that the current-ratio transfer
function for the terminated
-*
(9.66)
h
In similar fashion,
Z22
we
obtain the voltage-ratio transfer function for the
circuit represented in Fig. 9.13 as
Via.
^8 + yM
Next, suppose
(9.67)
we
are required to find the transfer function
VJV
for
the two-port network terminated at both ends, as
shown
in Fig. 9.14.
We first write the two mesh equations

(9.68)
Next,
we
solve for It to give
/t
From
the equation
+ 2ll)(^2 + m) - *1**21 Vt = RtI%, we may now arrive

(1
(9.69)
at the following
solution.
Y*=_Ml =
V,
?t
{R1
z^)(R t
+ z,,) - znZlt
(9.70)
*u
râro >*
FIG. 9.14
270
Network
-
MAA"
211-Z12
Z12
h WWÔ1-^
Z22-Z12
(Z21-12Ml
Vl
v2
FIG. 9.15. Two-port equivalent
circuit
with one controlled-voltage source.
Note that the equivalent
circuits
of the two-ports in Figs. 9.12 and
9.13 are not unique. Two other examples are given in Figs. 9.15 and 9.16. Observe that the controlled sources are nonzero in these equivalent
circuits
only
if
the circuit
is
nonreciprocal.
Finally, let us consider the hybrid equivalent circuit
shown in
Fig. 9.17.
Observe the voltage-controlled source A gl F2 at port 1 and the currentcontrolled source Ag^ at port 2. Let us find the input impedance Z ln
.
The
pertinent equations are
Vi
h lxh
+ hi*V*
(9.71)
and
Va = -ZLh = ~(h 2lh + h^V^ ZL Vt we find

,
(9.72)
Solving Eq. 9.72 for
V =
1
htiZiJi
(9.73)
h&ZL
we have
\ j
Substituting V, in Eq. 9.73 into Eq. 9.71,
t^
( i.
\ 1
hiah z &
(9.74)
h^LjJ
(9.75)
so that
h
yi2
fc
MZ
-<
o-ii-
-WW.yu + yn
y22
,73
Vi
+ yi2<
Q)
f
I
Vi
FIG. 9.1*. Two-port equivalent
circuit
with one controlled-current source.
Network
anal/sis
II
271
FIG. 9.17. Hybrid equivalent
circuit.
We can easily check to see that Eq. 9.75 is dimensionally correct since Au has the dimensions of impedance, h 22 is an admittance, and h 12 h tl are
,
dimensionless since they represent voltage and current ratios, respectively.
9.4
INTERCONNECTION OF TWO-PORTS
we
will consider various interconnections of two-ports.
In this section
We will see that when a pair of two-ports are cascaded, the overall transmission matrix is equal to the product of the individual transmission matrices of the two-ports. When two two-ports are connected in series, their z matrices add ; when they are connected in parallel, their y matrices
add.
ports
that
First let us consider the case in
which we connect a pair of two-
Na and N
in cascade or in tandem, as
shown
in Fig. 9.18.
We see
(9.76)
The transmission matrix equation
k
12a
+'
ra-ra
for
a is
ara
hb
(9.77)
z
i
+
Vi
\
Vn
*i
tt
Vsa
Nb
v2
-
FIG. 9.18. Cascade connection of two ports.
272
Network
9-*-
h r"
h
Za
h'
<
Vi
DC
L.
Gyrator__
V2
Vi'
*b
V2
'
FIG. 9.19. Gyrator in tandem with
T circuit.
Correspondingly, for N
we have
(9.78)
Substituting the second matrix into the
first,
we
obtain
Ma-eara
We
see that the transmission matrix of the overall two-port
<network
is
simply the product of the transmission matrices of the individual twoports.
As an example,
gyrator
is
let
us calculate the overall transmission matrix of a
gyrator 7 in tandem with a

related to
T network shown in Fig. 9.19. The ideal an impedance inversion device whose input impedance Zta is its load impedance ZL by
Zm =
a*YL
=
The constant a
in Eq. 9.80
is
21
(9.80)
Zi
defined as the gyration resistance.
its
If
we
regard the gyrator as a two-port,
denning equations are
Vx =
a(-/)
(9.81)
h - - vt a
' B. D. H. Tellegen, "The Gyrator, a New Electric Network Element," Phillips Research Repts., 3 (April 1948), 81-101, see also Huelsman, op. eit., pp. 140-148.
Network
so that the transmission matrix of the gyrator
"0
1
is
analysis
II
in
We see that for the gyrator

Therefore the gyrator
is
.a
J
(9.82)
AD-BC<=-1
a nonreciprocal device, although it is passive. 8 The overall transmission matrix of the configuration in Fig. 9.19 is obtained by the product of the individual transmission matrices
B
i
La
za
+z
V* + V. + V.
C D
(9.83)
+ *
az h
V* + Vc + V.
ah
we
see that for
If
we check
the configuration in Fig. 9.19 for reciprocity,
transmission matrix in Eq. 9.83
AD-BC=-\
We
gyrator yields a configuration that
is
(9.84)
thus see that any reciprocal network connected in tandem with a

nonreciprocal.
situation in
Next consider the
which a pair of two-ports
Na
and
are connected in parallel, as
shown
in Fig. 9.20.
Let us find the
FIG. 9.20. Parallel connection of two ports.

*
Most gyrators are microwave
devices that depend
upon the Hall effect in
ferrites.
274
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
lc
FIG. 9.21
y parameters for the overall two-port network. The matrix equations

for the individual two-ports are
L/J
and
V V
J/llo
Vila'
2/*2a-
-Vila
~2/ll6
W
>"
>1"
(9.85)
2/l2&
UJ
Fig. 9.20,
-2/216
2/226-
UJ
must hold.
'26
(9.86)
From
we
see that the following equations
V\
~ V\a = V\h h = Ao + Aft
V*
^2o
A = Ao + I
we must be
is
(9.87)
In connecting two-ports in series or in parallel,

that the individual character of a two-port network
careful
not altered when connected in series or parallel with another two-port. For example, when we connect the two-ports in Fig. 9.21 in parallel, the impedances Z, and Zg will be short circuited. Therefore, to insure that a two-port network
does not interfere with the internal affairs of the other, ideal transformers are used to provide the necessary isolation. In matrix notation, the sum of the individual [/J matrices of the two-ports in parallel must equal the [/] matrix of the overall two-port network. Thus we have
(9.88)
Vila
2/21a
2/ Vtia
J/116
2/126
2/226-
y**
Network
/la
/&,
*
anal/sis
II
275
+
JV
3
C
e>
V2a
Vz
Ideal
Vi
In
lib
+
Vu,
Vu
'-'
Nb
^
FIG. 9.22. Series connection of two ports.
so that the y parameters of the overall two-port network can be expressed

in terms of the y parameters of the individual two-ports as
|yii
y1
yJ
Ly
If
+ lytia +
[vna
as
Vub Vtu
yita
+ y*ta +
Vin
(9.89)
ytu>-
we connect
two-ports in
series,
shown
the z parameters of the overall two-port

eters
in Fig. 9.22, we can express network in terms of the z param-
of the individual two-ports as
pil
LZi
^t]
2tJ
*11& _ pUa + U Z Lzaia + Zflb
Zl*.
21ft
+ 2m Z z Mo + z*i J
"l
(9.90)
222&-1
We may summarize by the following three points.

first,
two-ports are connected in parallel, find the y parameters and, from the y parameters, derive the other two-port parameters. 2. When two-ports are connected in series, it is usually easiest to find the z parameters. 3. When two-ports are connected in tandem, the transmission matrix
1.
When
is
generally easier to obtain.
As a
final
example,
let
us find the y parameters of the bridged-T circuit
in Fig. 9.6.
We see that the bridged-T circuit would be decomposed into
first
a parallel connection of two-ports, as shown in Fig. 9.23. Our task is to The y parameters find the y parameters of the two-ports a and b of b are obtained by inspection and are
= y*u, = i = y*n = s Viiii

ym>
(9.91)
a is
T circuit so
that the z parameters can be obtained
by
inspection.
276
Network
analysis
and synthesis
These are
zllo
2Mo S +
1
(9.92)
ZlSn Z] *12o *Mo
We then find the y parameters from the equations

Az
2s
+
2s
(9.93)
yi2a = yio = t
2 12a
Since both JV and

circuit are
are symmetrical two-ports,
for the overall bridged-T circuit.
we know that ylt yat The y parameters for the bridged-T
now
obtained as
3/ii
+ Viu = s(s + 1) 2s + 1
Vila
2s*
2(2s
+ 4s + 1 + 1)
(9.94)
2s*
tflt
Vl2a
Vltb
sf_
2s
2s
+
l)
2(2s
9.5
INCIDENTAL DISSIPATION
seen, the system function H(s) of an
As we have
R-L-C network consists
of a ratio of polynomials whose coefficients are functions of the resistances, inductances, and capacitances of the network. We have considered, up
to this point, that the inductors
and capacitors are
dissipationless;
i.e.,
Network
there are
analysis
II
277
no parasitic resistances associated with the L and C. Since, at high frequencies, parasitic losses do play an important role in governing system performance, we must account for this incidental dissipation
effective way of accounting for parasitic resistances is to the pure inductances and capacitances with incidental dissipation by associating a resistance r, in series with every inductor L { ,
somehow.
An
"load
down"
and, for every capacitor Ct , we associate a resistor whose admittance is t , g as depicted in Fig. 9.24. Suppose we call the system function of the network without parasitic dissipation (Fig. 9.24a) H(s), and the system
function of the "loaded" network H^s) (Fig. 9.246). Let us consider the the relationship between H(s) and H^s) when the dissipation is uniform,
i.e.,
in a
manner such
that
(9.95)
Lt
Ct
where the constant a is real and positive. When a network has uniform dissipation or is uniformly loaded, the sum of impedances in any mesh of the unloaded network
m
becomes, after loading,
if
<=
R +
4
sL{
(9.96)
m'a
= JR, + sL +
t
r,
+ +
1
(9.97)
= R + L&i +
{
a)
C (s +
4
a)
Si
c,
L-vw-J
HM
Hi(s)
(a)
* H(s + a)
(b)
FIG. 9.24.
(a) Original
network.
(A)
Loaded network.
278
Network
Jf
-It-
2Q
=*=**
<2h
1Q
FIG. 9.25
Similarly,
on node
basis, if the
admittance between any two nodes of the
original (unloaded)
network
n if
is
=G +
t
sCt
(9.98)
then the same node admittance after loading

'
is
=G +
t
sCt
g(
(9.99)
=G +
t
Q(s
+ a) +
L,(s
+ a)
mesh or node equabecomes
is
Since any system function can be obtained through

tions,
it is
readily seen that the original system function H(s)
H(s H(s
+ +
) after the
a).
network has been uniformly loaded, that

first
/^(s)
Consider the following example. Let us

the unloaded network in Fig. 9.25.
1 s
,
find the
y parameters for
By
s
inspection
1
,
we have
7s
12
Vu
= 1 + + - - 1 + 7
2s
(9.100)
4s
Via
= i=-4
Then, for a loading constant a = J, the loaded network is shown in Fig. 9.26. In parallel with the capacitor Cx = J f, we have an admittance
gl
= *C1 = $mho
Ct =
J
f,
(9.101)
is
In parallel with the capacitor

gt
the associated admittance
*Ca = imho
(9.102)
Network
anal/sis
II
279
-vw
L-\H
J
20*
80
if
< 1Q
10
6Q<
=*f
1 2h 1 3
o
FIG. 9.26. Loaded network a
= J.
resistor
In series with the inductor
L=
r,
h,
we have a
olL
=1Q
,
(9.103)
Now we determine the y parameters for the loaded network to be

>
= i + Ks + i) + - 1 + A(* + t)
y'
K*
i)
=i+
+1 4 + D* + 2 =i+ 4(s + |)
2a-
(a
'-- (H~*H)
We
ship
(9.104)
see that the y parameters of the loaded network could have been obtained from the y parameters of the unloaded network by the relation-
t (s)
H(s
a).
We will make use of the uniform loading concept to prove an important

theorem concerning network
9.6
realizability in
Chapter
10.
ANALYSIS OF LADDER NETWORKS
In this section we will consider a simple method of obtaining the network functions of a ladder network in a single operation.* This method depends only upon relationships that exist between the branch
* F. F. Kuo and G. H. Leichner, "An Iterative Method for Determining Ladder Network Functions," Proc. IRE, 47, No. 10 (Oct. 1959), 1782-1783.
280
Network
analysis
and synthesis
z,
>
'i
*2
*
I
^*4
*J*i
FIG. 9.27. Ladder network.
currents
and node voltages of the

all
ladder.
Consider the network shown
in Fig. 9.27, where

all
the series branches are given as impedances and
the parallel branches are given as admittances.
voltages
and
If the v denote node denote branch currents, then the following relationships
apply.
vi+1
il+i
Zi+s +
vi+>
These equations form the basis of the method we discuss here. To illustrate this method, consider the network in Fig. 9.28, for which the following node voltage and branch current relationships apply.
- yJA v^s) VJL) - '*(*) U') + v&) = [1 + Z^*) Yt (s)] v&) h(s) - Y2 (s) VJLs) + Us) = {Y&)[1 + ZJs) Us)] + Y,{s)} VAs) V (s) = I (s)Z (s)+Va(s) = {zjlyai + z,yj + rj + (i+ z,n)} v&)
/(*)
1 1 1
(9.106)
Upon examining the set of equations given in Eq. 9.106, we see that each equation depends upon the two previous equations only. The first equation, Vt V% is, of course, unnecessary. But, as we shall see later, it is helpful as a starting point. In writing these equations, we begin at
+
Vi
Zi
\-^H
Y2
z3
Y*
T
v2
j.
FIG. 9.28
Network
the 2-2' port of the ladder
analysis
II
281
and work towards the 1-1' port. Each succeeding equation takes into account one new immittance. We see, further, that with the exception of the first two equations, each subsequent
is obtained by multiplying the equation just preceding it by the immittance that is next down the line, and then adding, to this product the equation twice preceding it. For example, we see that /,( is obtained by multiplying the preceding equation V&) by the admittance Yt(s). The next immittance is ZJis). We obtain KB(i) by multiplying the previous equation IJs) by ZJs) to obtain /gZjj then we add to this product the equation twice preceding it, V^s), to obtain Va It Z, Vt The process
equation
then easily mechanized according to the following rules (1) alternate writing node voltage and branch current equations; (2) the next equation is obtained by multiplying the present equation by the next immittance
is
:
(as
we work from one port

this set
to the other),
and adding to
this
product the
results of the previous equation.
Using
of equations,
dividing the equation for V^s)

voltage-ratio transfer
obtain the input impedance Z{n(s) by by the equation for I^s). We obtain the function Vs)IVi(s) by dividing the first equation
we
P*C0 by the
last
equation
V-fe).
We obtain other network functions such

ratios in similar
as transfer immittances
tions, the
if
every equation contains
VJs) term is
1.
manner. Note that In taking ratios of these equacanceled. Therefore, our analysis can be simplified
and current
Vt(s) as a factor.
we
let
K2(j) =
first
equation of the set were a current variable fj(s) instead of the voltage Vi(s), the subsequent equations would contain the current variable Is) as a factor, which we could also normalize to 7/s) 1. An example
If the
a current rather than a voltage equation may be seen by determining the y parameters of a two-port network. Before we embark upon some numerical examples, it is important to note that we must represent the series branches as impedances and the shunt branches as admittances. Suppose the series branch consisted of a
first
in which the
equation
is
resistor
R=
1 2 is
in parallel with a capacitor
C=
J f Then the impedance

.
of the branch
z(s) =
and must be considered as a
ladder.
Similarly, if a shunt
-^L = _i+R +
llsC
s
(9 . 107) v '
single entity in writing the equations for the
an inductor L^
h, then the admittance of the
branch consists of a resistor R1 branch is
= 2Q and
y(s)
7T~ 2 + s
( 9 - 108 >
282
Network
The key point
in this discussion is that we must use the total impedance or admittance of a branch in writing the equations for the ladder.
Example 9.1. Let us find the voltage ratio VJVlt the current ratio Ijlu the input impedance Zx = VJIlt and the transfer impedance Zn = VJI-i for the network in Fig. 9.29. First, we must represent the series branches as impedances and the shunt branches as admittances, as shown in Fig. 9.30. The branch current and node voltage equations for the network are
h
-/fflnp-*
3h
f
Vi
h *3s
*h
2f=t=
V2
Vi
2i
FIG. 9.30
V,
FIG. 9.29
V^s)
Us)
= 2s
3s(2s)
Va(s) =
It(s)
+ +
6s*
(9.109)
-(6s* s
1)
+ 2s = +
6s2
14s
+s
VM
{
14g+
\)
+ l=6s* + 57+-l
S*
The various network
functions are then obtained.
(a)
Yi
6^+57^+8 3
14s
+2s
s*
<*)
6s
57s8
8
(9.110)
2s*
(c) li
14s*
+2
14s2
id)
** ~
9.2.
/x
"
Example network
Find the
short-circuit admittance functions
y n and
j/2 i
for the
in Fig. 9.31. To obtain the short-circuit functions, we must short circuit the 2-2' port. Then we represent the series branches as impedances and
the shunt branches as admittances so that the resulting network
is
given as
is
Network
analysis
II
283
h
lh =j=2f
rVW*-i
V.
I.
2a
Vi 2f
FIG. 9.31
illustrated in Fig. 9.32.
/,
The
pertinent equations are
Ja
=1 Va =2 = K2) + 1 = * +
(9.111)
2$*
l/5\
5/2
We now obtain our short-circuit functions as
7J + 5 +
h
+
la
12
-,'
yn
1
h ~^~~5
V
2
's.aa
(9.112)
Vi
2
2
+l
o
A
number of other
in the recent literature.
FIG. 9.32
contributions
Bashkow,10 O'Meara,11
10
on ladder networks have appeared but a few, there are the works of Bubnicki," Walker," and Dutta Roy. 14
To name
T. R. Bashkow, "A Note on Ladder Network Analysis," IRE Trans, on Circuit Theory, CT-8, (June 1961), 168. 11 T. R. O'Meara, "Generating Arrays for Ladder Network Transfer Functions," IEEE Trans, on Circuit Theory, CT-10, (June, 1963), 285. 11 Z. Bubnicki, "Input Impedance and Transfer Function of a Ladder Network,"
IEEE Trans, on Circuit Theory, CT-10, (June, "F. Walker, "The Topological Analysis
Proc. IEEE, 52,
1963), 286.
of Non-Recurrent Ladder Networks,"
No. 7, (July, 1964), 860. 14 S. C. Dutta Roy, "Formulas for the Terminal Impedances and Transfer Functions of General Multimesh Ladder Networks," Proc. IEEE, 52, No. 6, (June, 1964), 738.

284
>
Network
analysis
and synthesis
computer is an
Because of the recursive nature of the equations involved, the digital ideal tool for the analysis of ladder networks. In Chapter 15 a detailed description is given of a digital computer program based upon the algorithm described in this section for evaluating ladder network
functions.
Problems
9.1
Find the
z,
y, h,
and
T parameters of the networks shown in the figures.
Some of the parameters may not be defined for particular
circuit configurations.
-OQ
'
PS Y
o
(a)
(b)
(e)
PROB.
9.2
9.1
Find the
z,
y, h,
and
T parameters for the networks shown in the figures,

1
lo
iA/W
<
i
\AAA/
o2
Network
analysis
II
285
93 Find the z parameters for the lattice and bridge shown. (The results should be identical.)
circuits in the figures
9.4
For the
lattice
and bridge
circuits in Prob. 9.3 find the
terms of the admittances
Ya =
1/Z
and
Yb
MZb
y parameters
in
93 For the circuit shown, find the voltage-ratio transfer function VJVX and the input impedance x = V^lx in terms of the 2 parameters of the two-port network and the load resistor RL .
Z
1
I2
+
Vi
Rl<
1
v2
_
1'
2'
PROB. 9S
286
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
9.6 For the cascade connection of two-ports depicted in the figure, show that the transfer impedance Zj 8 of the overall circuit is given in terms of the a parameters of the individual two-ports by the equation
In addition, show that the short-circuit admittance yri

V-a
is
given by
= -
VnJti
Vu.b
Vita
h
+
Vi
h
+
Na
Nb
v2 PROB.
9.7
PROB.
9.7
figure.
9.6
of
Lx
Find the z and y parameters of the transformer (nonideal) shown in the Determine the T- and w-equivalent circuits for the transformer in terms L2 , and M. {Hint: Use the z parameters for the T-equivalent circuit,
and the y parameters for the w-equivalent circuit.) 9.8 The inverse hybrid parameters of a two-port network are defined by the
equation
eh
*ii
gl*
<f22j
g parameters in terms of either the z or y parameters and give a physical interpretation of the meaning of these parameters; i.e., say whether a parameter is an open- or short-circuit parameter, and whether it is a driving point or transfer function. Finally, derive the conditions of reciprocity for the g parameters.
Express the
9.9
Prove that for a passive reciprocal network
AD - BC =
9.10 Find the z and h parameters of the sented by its T-circuit model.
where A, B, C, Dare the elements of the transmission matrix.
common
emitter transistor repre-
-VA
Vi
Wv-Ô
i
-o
.
mh
J2
V2
PROB. 9.10
Network
9.11
input circuit
anal/sis
II
287
The circuit in part (a) of the figure is to be described by an equivalent shown in part (b). Determine Zeq in (b) as a function of the elements
in (a).
and voltages
R,
9.12
Find the
figure.
T parameters
of the configurations shown in parts (a) and (b)
of the
9.13 Find the y parameters of the twin-T circuit in Prob. 9.2c by considering the circuit to be made up of two T circuits in parallel.
9.14
Find the z parameters of the
circuits
shown.
288
1
Network
o
anal/sis
and synthesis
Y
>
-o
Vi
V2
V
1
Ideal
2*
transformer
(a)
h<
Vi
V2
Ideal
2'
<b)
transformer
PROB.
9.14
Ideal
transformer
PROB.
9.15
PROB. 9.16
Network
9.15 9.16 9.17
analysis
II
289
Find the
parameters of the circuit shown.

circuit
Find the z parameters of the
shown.
For the circuit in Prob. 9.26 determine the y parameters of the uniformly
loaded circuit derived from the original circuit with the dissipation a =0.1. Plot the poles and zeros of both cases.
9.18 Find the transfer impedance VJIX for the circuit in part (a) and the voltage ratio VJV1 for the circuit in part (b). Plot the poles and zeros for the transfer functions obtained.
o>- /Tnnn^-r-^voTP
}h
Vi
+
10
in
:4f
V2
(a)
WWif;*:
(6)
2h
+
lf=:
:ia
Vi
v2
PROB.
network
9.18
9.19
Find the
short-circuit parameters for the ladder
utilizing the
method
in Section 9.6.
HWv
20<
if
10
Hwvi-'Tnnp-^
=t=if
20
_lh
PROB.
30
9.1*
|VvV-|
Yf-rifippJfL-
if
20-
Vi
if==
1Q<
V2
4f=r
PROB. 9.20
9.20 Determine the voltage ratio VJVlt the current ratio IJIlt the transfer impedance VJIlt and the driving point impedance Fi//a for the network shown.
chapter 10
Elements
<|>f
realizability
theory
10.1
CAUSALITY
AND
STABILITY
In the preceding chapters we have beep primarily concerned with the problem of determining the response, giver^ the excitation and the network; this problem lies in the domain of network analysis. In the next five chapters we will be dealing with the problem of synthesizing a network
given the excitation E(s) and the response R(s). any synthesis problem is the system function
The
starting point for
3
Our task is The first
to synthesize a network
(10.1)
from a given system function. procedur^ is to determine whether H(s) step in a synthesis can be realized as a physical passive network. There are two important considerations causality and stability. By causality we mean that a
voltage cannot appear between any pair of terminals in the network before a current is impressed, or vice verâ. In other words, the impulse
response of the network must be zero for

h(t)
<
0, that is,
<0
=
e- (0
(10.2)
As an example,
the impulse response

h(t)
(10.3a) (10.36)
is
causal, whereas
h(t)
= e- "
290
Elements of
realizability
theory
291
W-T)
(a)
(b) (b) Realizable
FIG.
10.1. (a)
Nonrealizable impulse response,
impulse response.
is
not causal.
realizable (causal)
In certain cases, the impulse response could be made by delaying it appropriately. For example, the impulse
is
response in Fig. 10.1a

seconds,
10.16).
not realizable.
If
we
delay the response by
we
find that the delayed response h{t
T)
is
realizable (Fig.
In the frequency domain, causality is implied when the Paley-Wiener criterion 1 is satisfied for the amplitude function \H(jw)\. The Paley-Wiener criterion states that a necessary and sufficient condition for an amplitude
function \H(ja>)\ to be realizable (causal)
|log \H(ja>)\
is
that
+o>a
dco
<
oo
(10.4)
The following conditions must be satisfied before the Paley-Wiener criterion is valid: h(t) must possess a Fourier transform H(ja>); the square magnitude function \H(jw)\* must be integrable, that is,
\H(jco)\ *dco
r.
<
oo
(10.5)
The physical implication of the Paley-Wiener criterion is that the amplitude \H(jco)\ of a realizable network must not be zero over a finite band of frequencies. Another way of looking at the Paley-Wiener criterion is that
the amplitude function cannot
order.
fall off
to zero faster than exponential
For example, the ideal low-pass filter in Fig. 10.2 is not realizable because beyond m c the amplitude is zero. The Gaussian shaped curve
|HO)l
shown
in Fig. 10.3
is
e~
(10.6)
not realizable because

|log|tf0a>)||
o*
(10.7)
Am. Math.
R. E. A. C. Paley and N. Wiener, "Fourier Transforms in the Complex Domain," Soc. Colloq. Pub., 19 (1934), 16-17.
292
Network
analysis
\H(ja>)\
and synthesis
\H(ju)\
FIG.
10.2. Ideal filter char-
FIG.
istic.
10.3.
Gaussian
filter
character-
acteristic
so that the integral
f" J-*
>
dea
(10.8)
eof
is
not
finite.
On the other hand,
the amplitude function

1
\H(jo>)\
(10.9)
vrr
co-
does represent a realizable network. Ih fact, the voltage-ratio transfer function of the R-C network in Fig. 10.4 has an amplitude characteristic
given by \H(Jm)\ in Eq. 10.9. For the ideal filter in Fig. 10.2, the inverse transform A(f) has the form
h{t)
=A
sin <o c t
(10.10)
nt
A is a constant. From the sin xfx curve in Fig. 3J4, we see that nonzero for t less than zero. In fact, in order to make h(t) causal, it must be delayed by an infinite amount. In practice, however, if we delay h(i) by a large but finite amount t d such that for t < the magnitude of h(t t^ is less than a very small quantity e, that is,
where
h(t) is
\Kt
Q\
<
*<0
wwv
1Q
Vi(s)
lr.^z
FIG,. 10.4
Elements of
realizability
theory
293
is
we then can approximate

zero for
t
h(t
t by a causal response h^t) which
< 0.
(For a more
is stable,
detailed discussion of the Paley-Wiener
criterion, the reader is referred to
an
excellent treatment
by Wallman.*)
the response
then for a bounded excitation If a network is also bounded. In other words, if (0
e(t)
KOKCi
then
0^r<oo
0<.t<co
If a linear system
is
KOI
<
C*
where
stable,
Cx and
C, are
real, positive, finite quantities.
then from
the convolution integral
we
obtain
IKOI
<
CiJ"|*(t)I dr
<
C,
(10.11)
Equation 10.1 1 requires that the impulse response be absolutely integrable,

or
""|/i(t)|
dr
<
oo
(10.12)
/;
One important requirement for h(t) to be absolutely integrable

impulse response approach zero as
t
is
that the
approaches
infinity, that is,
lim/i(r)-"0
<-00
can be said that with the exception of isolated impulses, the impulse response must be bounded for all t, that is,
Generally,
it
|A(0I<C
all*
(10.13)
where C is a real, positive, finite number. Observe that our definition of stability precludes such terms as sin ay from the impulse response because sin a> f is not absolutely integrable.
These undamped sinusoidal terms are associated with simple poles on the yw axis. Since pure L-C networks have system functions with simple poles on the jm axis, and since we do not wish to call these networks unstable, we say that a system is marginally stable if its impulse response approach zero as t is bounded according to Eq. 10.13, but does not
approaches infinity. In the frequency domain, the
stability criterion requires that the
system
G. E. Valley Jr. and H. Wallman, Vacuum Tube Amplifiers, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1948, Appendix A, pp. 721-727.
294
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
function possess poles in the left-half piane or on theyw axis only. More-
on theyVo axis must be sini]pie. 3 As a result of the requirement of simple poles on they'w axis, if H{,s) is given as
over, the poles
H(s)
as
bm
m s
+ +
a n_ 1 s
n~ 1
m~ l b m _ lS
+ +! +

fl x s
+a bis + b
(10.14)
then the order of the numerator n cannot exceed the order of the denominator m by more than unity, that is, n m < 1. If n exceeded m by more than unity, this would imply that at s =jo> = oo, and there would be a multiple pole. To summarise, in order for a network to be stable, the following three conditions oii its system function H(s) must be satisfied:
1.
H(s) cannot have poles in the right-fealf plane.
2.
3.
H(s) cannot have multiple poles in
tjhey'w axis.
The degree of
the numerator of H(s) cannot exceed the degree of
the denominator by
Finally,
it
more than
unity.
should be pointed out that a rational function H(s) with poles

is
in the left-half plane only has an inverse transform h(t), which

t
zero for
< 0.*
In
this respect, stability implies causality.
Since system funct'ons
of passive linear networks with lumped elements are rational functions

with poles in the left-half plane or jco axis only, causality ceases to be a problem when we deal with system functions of this type. We are only
concerned with the problem of causality when we have to design a filter for a given amplitude characteristic such as the ideal filter in Fig. 10.2. We know we could never hope to realize exactly a filter of this type because the impulse response would not^ be causal. To this extent the Paley- Wiener criterion is helpful in denning the limits of our capability.
10.2
HURWITZ POLYNOMIALS
we saw
that in order fot a system function to be stable,
In Section 10.1
its
poles must be restricted to the left-half plane or theyeo axis. Moreover,
the poles
on
theyco axis
must be simple. The denominator polynomial of

of]
the system function belongs to a class
polynomials
known
gave
as Hurwitz
*
i tt
In Chapter 6
sin wot.
it
was shown that multiple poles on
they'co axis
rise to
terms as
4 G. Raisbeck, "A Definition of Passive Linear Networks in Terms of Time and Energy," /. Appl. Phys., 25 (Dec., 1954), 15ip-1514. The proof follows straightforwardly from the properties of the Laplace transform.
Elements of
polynomials.
realizability
theory
295
polynomial P(s)
is
said to be Hurwitz if the following
conditions are satisfied:

1.
P(s)
2.
is real when s is real. The roots of P(s) have real
parts which are zero or negative.

if P(s) is
As a
result
of these conditions,
P(s)
a Hurwitz polynomial given by

(10.15)
= ansn + a^s"-1 +-- + a1s + a

must be
real
;
then then
all
ac,
the coefficients a {
if s {
= +
<x
+ j@ is a root of P(s),
-js/2)
(10.16)
must be
negative.
The polynomial
1)(j
P(s)
is
= (s+
all
+js/2)(s
Hurwitz because hand,
of its roots have negative real parts.

G(s)
On the
other
(s
l)(.y
2)(j
3)
(10.17)
is
not Hurwitz because of the root s = 1, which has a positive real part. Hurwitz polynomials have the following properties:
1. All the coefficients a { are nonnegative. This is readily seen by examining the three types of roots that a Hurwitz polynomial might have. These are
= y< s = .jm s cti.jPi

s
t
yt
real
and
positive
(Of real
a-i
real
and
positive
The polynomial P(s) which contains

P(s)
these roots can be written as
= (s +
y< Xji
<*)[(*
oO*
(10.18)
it
Since P(s)
is
the product of terms with only positive coefficients,
follows
must be positive. A corollary is that between the highest order term in s and the lowest order term, none of the coeffithat the coefficients of P(s)
cients
may be

zero unless the polynomial
is
even of odd. In other words,
is neither even nor odd. This is readily seen because the absence of a term a{ implies cancellation brought about by a root s y< with a positive real part. 2. Both the odd and even parts of a Hurwitz polynomial P(s) have roots on the ja> axis only. If we denote the odd part of P(s) as n(s) and the even part as m(s), so that
fln-i. a-2>
fl <*i
must not be zero
if
the polynomial
P(s)
= n(s) + m(j)
(10.19)
296
Network
then m(s) and n(s) both have roots on tne jw axis only. The reader is 8 referred to a proof of this property by Guillemin. 3. As a result of property 2, if P(s) is either even or odd, all its roots are
on
they'co axis.
4.
The continued
fraction expansion of the ratio of the
odd
to even
parts or the even to
odd
parts of a Hurwitz polynomial yields all positive
quotient terms.
y(j)
= m(s)ln(s),
n(s)lm(s) or Suppose we denote the ratios as y>(s) then the continued fraction expansion of y>(s) can be
written as
y(s)
= q xs +
^
+
ss
(10.20)
6 P(s) = (j) + m(s) is Hurwitz.
where the quotients qlt q%,..-,qn must be positive
if
the polynomial
To
obtain the continued fraction expany>(s) is
sion,
we must perform a
series
of long divisions. Suppose

V<s)
= 2
n(s)
if
(10.21)
where m(s)
m(s),
we
is of one higher degree than n(s). Then obtain a single quotient and a remainder
we
divide n(s) into
n(s)
The degree of the term R^s) is one lower than the degree of (*). Therefore if we invert the remainder term and divide, we have
(L
=q . + M2l
(io.23)
Inverting
and dividing again, we obtain
RM^qj + M)
*,(*)
*
(10.24)
*.()
1949.
E. Guillemin, The Mathematics of Circuit Analysis, John Wiley and Sons, New York, An excellent treatment of Hurwitz polynomials is given here. * proof can be undertaken in connection with L-C driving-point functions; see
E. Van Valkenburg, Introduction to Modern Network Synthesis, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1960.
M.
Elements of
realteability
theory
297
We
of
see that the process of obtaining the continued fraction expansion
simply involves division and inversion. At each step we obtain a then invert the quotient term q<s and a remainder term, R {+1 (s)/RJ[s). into RJs) to obtain a new quotient. remainder term and divide There is a theorem in the theory of continued fraotions which states that
ip(s)
We
R^s)
the continued fraction expansion of the even to

7 finite in length.
odd or odd
to even parts
Another theorem states that, if of a polynomial must be fraction expansion of the odd to even or even to odd parts the continued of a polynomial yields positive quotient terms, then the polynomial must be Hurwitz to within a multiplicative factor JV(s).* That is, if we write
fTO-irO^M
(10.25)
let
then F(s) is Hurwitz, if W(s) and F^s) are Hurwitz. For example, test whether the polynomial
F(s)
is
us
- i* + s* +
5s*
3s
+4
(10.26)
Hurwitz. The even and odd parts of F(s) are
n(s)
= s* +
3s
We now
perform a continued fraction expansion of yfa)
dividing n(s)
by
s*
m(s),
= "W/C0 by and then inverting and dividing again, as given by + 5s* + 4(s s* + 3s* 2s* + 4)j + 3j(*/2 j + 2*
s)2s*
2s*
the operation
3s)s*
+ 4(2s
4)j(j/4
so that the continued fraction expansion of y(s)
is
*,)
= 2& - 5 +
()
^
1
(10.28)
s/4
'
See Van Valkenburg, be. eit. W(s) is a common factor in mfc) and
n(*).
298
Since
Network
all
analysis
and synthesis
the quotient terms of the continued fraction expansion are
positive, F(s) is Hurwitz.
Example
10.1.
Let us
test
whether the polynomial
GO)
is
= 5s + 2s9 +
3s
+6
is
(10.29)
Hurwitz. The continued fraction expansion of n(s)lm(s)
obtained from the
division
2s2
6)5*
s*
+ 3* (s/2 + 3s
5s
We see that the division has been terminated abruptly + 3s. The polynomial can then be written as
G(s)
by a
common
factor
(s*
3s)
+ >H)
1
(10.30)
s*
We know + 3s is
that the term
2/s
is
Hurwitz.
Hurwitz.
Since the multiplicative factor
also Hurwitz, then G(s)
is
The term
s*
3s
is
the mul-
tiplicative factor fV(s),
which we referred to
earlier.
Example
10.2.
Next consider a case where W(s)

F(s)
is
non-Hurwitz.
85*
= 57 + 2s* +
2s5
+ s* + 4s3 +
now
1
8*
+4
(10.31)
The continued
fraction expansion of F(s) is
obtained.
(*)
wiO)
'
fr
j^t)
(S4-+-4)
(1 - 32)
We thus see that
fV(s)
s*
+ 4, which can be factored into = (s* + 2s + 2X*8 -2^+2)

(10.33)
W(s)
It is clear
that F(s)
is
not Hurwitz.
Example 103.
Let us consider a
F(s)
more obvious non-Hurwitz polynomial

2t*
= 5* + 5s +
35
+2
(10.34)
Elements of
realizability
theory
299
The continued
fraction expansion is
j 3
3s)S*
s*
+ 2s* + 2 (s + 3s* -j*+2)j +
3*(-,j
5s)-5*+2(-,s/5
-4*
2}5iXfs
We see that F(j) is not Hurwitz because of the negative quotients.

10.4. Consider the case where F(s) is an odd or even function. It is impossible to perform a continued fraction expansion on the function as it stands. However, we can test the ratio of F(s) to its derivative, F'(s)* If the ratio F(s)IF'(s) gives a continued fraction expansion with all positive coefficients,
Example
then F(s)
is
Hurwitz. For example,

F(s)
if
F(s)
is
given as
(10.35)
1
then F'(s)
is
F'(s)
= s7 + 34s + 2s3 + * = 7s* + 15** + 6s +
(10.36)
Without going into the details, it can be shown that the continued fraction expansion of F(s)IF'(s) does not yield all positive quotients. Therefore F(s) is not Hurwitz.
10.3
POSITIVE REAL
this section
FUNCTIONS
of a class of functions These functions are important because
In
we
will study the properties
known
as positive real functions.
they represent physically realizable passive driving-point immittances. function F(s) is positive real (p.r.) if the following conditions are satisfied:
1.
F(s)
is
2.
The
real part
is
part of s
is, F(a) is real. of F(s) is greater than or equal to zero when the real greater than or equal to zero, that is,
real for real s; that
Re
[F(s)]
for
Re s
Let us consider a complex plane interpretation of a p.r. function. Consider the s plane and the F(s) plane in Fig. 10.5. If F(s) is p.r., then a
point
<r
on
the positive real axis of the s plane
would correspond
to,
or
map
onto, a point
F(p^ which must be on the
positive real axis of the
F(s) plane.
*
In addition, a point st in the right half of the s plane would

cit.
See Guillemin, he.
300
Network
analysis
and synthesis
j\mF
JU
plane
F(t) plane
o
i
o F(sO
(TO
F(ao)
Ref
FIG.
10.5.
Mapping of s plane onto F(s) plane.
map onto a point Ffo) in the right half of the F(s) plane.
for a positive real function, the right half of the s plane
In other words, maps onto the right half of the F(s) plane. The real axis of the s plane maps onto the real axis of the F(s) plane. A further restriction we will impose is that F(s) be rational. Consider the following examples of p.r. functions:
1.
a real, positive number) is p.r. by definition. impedance function, then L is an inductance. If F(s) an 2. F(s) = R (where R is real and positive) is p.r. by definition. If F(s) is an impedance function, R is a resistance. 3. F(s) = K/s (K real and positive) is p.r. because, when s is real, F(s) is real. In addition, when the real part of s is greater than zero, Re (s) =
F(s)
is
= Ls (where L is
a>0.
Then
Therefore, F(s)
is p.r. is
Re
Ka
(f)"
o*
>0
a>
(10.37)
If F(s) is
an impedance
function, then the correfunctions.
sponding element
a capacitor of I IK farads. We thus see that the basic passive impedances are Similarly, it is clear that the admittances
Y(s) 7(5)
Y(s)
p.r.
=K
=
Ks
(10.38)
= K
s
are positive real if
is
real
and
positive.
We now show that all drivingp.r.
point immittances of passive networks must be
The proof depends
upon
the following assertion: for a sinusoidal input, the average power dissipated by a passive network is nonnegative. For the passive network
Elements of
in Fig. 10.6, the average
realizability
theory
is
301
power
dissipated
by the network
|/|
Average power
Re
[ZJtjco)]
(10.39)
We then conclude that, for any passive network

Re
[Zjytt))]
(10.40)
We can now prove that for Re s =

point impedance
^ 0, Re Zô- + jm) ;> 0.

/
Consider
the network in Fig. 10.6, whose drivingis ZJ^s). Let us load the network with incidental dissipation
such that if the driving-point impedance of the uniformly loaded network is

ZxCO, then
Passive
ZiW
network
Zfc)
= ZJis +
a)
(10.41)
is
no.
and
positive.
10.6
where a, the dissipation constant, impedance of a passive network,
real
Since Z^s)
is
the
Re Z^jco)
so that
(10.42)
(10.43)
Re ZJa
+ jm) ^
Since a is an arbitrary real positive quantity, it can be taken to be a. Thus the theorem is proved. Next let us consider some useful properties of p.r. functions. The proofs of these properties are given in Appendix D.
1.
If F(s) is p.r., then l/F(s)

is
is
also p.r. This property implies that if a
driving-point impedance
p.r.,
then
its
reciprocal, the driving-point
admittance,
2.
is
also p.r.
we
functions is p.r. From an impedance standpoint, two impedances are connected in series, the sum of the impedances is p.r. An analogous situation holds for two admittances in parallel. Note that the difference of two p.r. functions is not necessarily
The sum of p.r.
see that if
p.r.
for example, F(s)
=s
1/s is
not
p.r.
3.
The poles and
zeros of a p.r. function cannot have positive real
i.e., they cannot be in the right half of the s plane. Only simple poles with real positive residues can exist on the yco axis. 5. The poles and zeros of a p.r. function are real or occur in conjugate pairs. We know that the poles and zeros of a network function are
parts,
4.
functions of the elements in the network. Since the elements themselves are real, there cannot be complex poles or zeros without conjugates
because this would imply imaginary elements.
302
6.
Network
The
highest powers of the numerator
may
7.
differ at
most by
oo.
unity. This condition prohibits multiple poles
and denominator polynomials and
zeros at 5
The lowest powers of the denominator and numerator polynomials may differ by at most unity. This condition prevents the possibility of
multiple poles or zeros at s
8.
0.
The necessary and
sufficient conditions for

p.r.
a rational function with
real coefficients F(s) to

(a) F(s)
(b) F(s)
be
are
right-half plane.
must have no poles in the
may have only simple poles on theyco axis with real and positive
residues.
(c)
Re F(jm)
for
all
a.
definition with the original
Let us compare this

the two conditions.
1.
new
one which requires
F(s)
is
real
2.
Re F(s)
when s is real. 0, when Re s ^
0.
In order to test condition 2 of the original definition, we must test every single point in the right-half plane. In the alternate definition,
condition (c) merely requires that
jm
axis.
It is
we test the behavior of F(s) along the apparent that testing a function for the three conditions
given by the alternate definition represents a considerable saving of effort, except in simple cases as F(s) 1/j.
Let us examine the implications of each criterion of the second definition.
Condition
F(s)
(a) requires that

i.e.,
the right-half plane,
we test the denominator of F(s) for roots in we must determine whether the denominator of
is Hurwitz. This is readily accomplished through a continued fraction expansion of the odd to even or even to odd parts of the denominator. The second requirement condition (b) is tested by making a partial
fraction expansion of F(s)
and checking whether the residues of the poles on theya) axis are positive and real. Thus, if F(s) has a pair of poles at s = ja> lt a partial fraction expansion gives terms of the form shown.
jCOi
+ jco^
The
t
the residues are real
K = Ki* so that
residues of complex conjugate poles are themselves conjugates. If as they must be in order for F(s) to be p.r. then
JO)
+ JCOx
s*
(O*
Elements of
If
reaiizability
theory
303
x is
found to be
positive, then F(s) "satisfies the
second of the three
conditions.
In order to
let
test for the third
condition for positive realness,

original function F(s).
first find the real part of F(ja>)
from the
we must To do this,
us consider a function F(s) given as a quotient of two polynomials
F(s)
^
6(s)
(10.45)
We
can separate the even parts from the odd parts of P(s) and Q(s) so
is
that F(s)
M
Q(s)
8( S )
JV 2(s)
where Mj(s) is an even function and Ns) is an odd function. F(s) is now decomposed into its even and odd parts by multiplying both P(s) and
by A/g
- Ns so that
r(s)
_ M + NiM*- N* Mt + JVa Ma - Nt = M M8t - N * Nt M 8 - Nt

i t t
Nx - Mj Nt M* - Nt
*
(10.47)
We
x
MN
see that the products

t
and
MN
s
MM
x
and
JV,
Nt
are even functions, while

is
are
odd
functions.
Therefore, the even part of F(s)
Ev[F(s) ]
and the odd part of F(s)
is
^-^
any polynomial
is
(10.48)
Odd
If
[F(s)]
^VY'
+ j Im [F(jo>)]
(10.49)
we
let s
= joy, we
see that the even part of
is real,
is
while the
written as
odd part of the polynomial

F(ja>)
imaginary, so that if F(jw)
Re
[F(jo>)]
(10.50) (10.51)
it is
clear that
Re
j Im
[F(ja>)]
[F(ja>)]
and
= Ev [F(s)] \_ja = Odd [F(s)] \^, a
(10.52)
Therefore, to test for the third condition for positive realness,
we
determine the real part of F(ja>) by finding the even part of F(s) and then joy. We then check to see whether Re F{joy) for all <w. letting s
304
Network
A(u)
Single root
FIG. 10.7
FIG. 10.8
is
The denominator of Re F(j(o)
always a positive quantity because
M
That
is,
a(ja>)*
- JVaO)2 =
M^to)*
+ N ((o)* ^
2
(10.53)
an extra j or imaginary term in N^jco), which, when 1, so that the denominator of ReF(ja>) is the sum of two squared numbers and is always positive. Therefore, our task resolves into the problem of determining whether
there
is
squared, gives
A(a>)
4 M O) MJjai) x
Ntito) NJJm)
(10.54)
we see that A(a>) must not have of the type shown in Fig. 10.7; i.e., A(co) must never have single, real roots of to. However, A(a>) may have double roots (Fig. 10.8), because A(t) need not become negative in this case. As an example, consider the requirements for
positive, real roots
If we call the preceding function A{m),
F(s)
s*
+
bs
(10.55)
to be p.r.
First,
we know
that, in
order for the poles and zeros to be in
the left-half plane or
on they'd)
axis, the coefficients a, b, c
must be greater
or equal to zero. Second, if * 0, then F(s) will possess poles on the jco axis. We can then write F(s) as
F(s)
S*
+C
+
'
5*
(10.56)
C
We will show later that the coefficient a must also be zero when b = 0.
Let us proceed with the third requirement, namely, the equation
Re F(ja>)
^ 0. From
(10.57)
Mô)) Mfim)
we have
which
It is
simplifies to
- JVxO) NAjo>) a(-(o* + c) + 1x0*^0 A(co) = (b a)afi + ac ;>

a, that
is,
(10.58a)
(10.586)
evident that in order to prevent A(m) from having positive real roots
of
eu,
b must be greater than or equal to
bâ. As
result,
Elements of readability theory
305
when b
= 0,
c
a.
fulfilled in
1. a, b,
then a 0. To summarize, the conditions that must be order for F(s) to be positive real are
^ 0.
Fx(s) = F<S) =
s
,
2.
We see that
is p.r.,
+
3s
sr
\ +
, 2
(10.59)
while the functions
TT1 +2
s
(ia60)
are not p.r.
let
us determine the conditions for the
biquadratic function
F(s)
s"
TT^TT + b^ + b
<
ia62>
will assume that the coefficients au Aq, b u b are all real, to be p.r. positive constants. Let us test whether F(s) is p.r. by testing each require-
We
ment of the second
definition.
of the denominator * x and b are positive, the denominator must be Hurwitz. Second, if bx is positive, we have no poles on the yeo axis. Therefore we can ignore the second condition. The third condition can be checked by first finding the even part of
First, if the coefficients
F(s),
which
is
(s
bof
ti
_
The
s*
[(a
+ (* +
ft)
fliftjs'
a &.
(10.63)
ft x
V
flA
real part of F(j(o) is then
Re
[F o1
- W< - " t !0) ~ :y 8+ 1 to ( CO + O )" +

ti
dO.64)
We
see that the denominator of
Re
[F(jca)] is truly
always positive
so it remains for us to determine whether the numerator of ever goes negative. Factoring the numerator, we obtain
Re
[F(jco)]
m, t =
(a.
a 1b1
I^
[(flo
feo)
_ aAf _ 4flA
(1Q65)
306
Network
There are two situations in which

root.
1
Re
[F(jco)]
does not have a simple real
When the quantity under the radical sign of Eq.

Ko
10.65
is
zero (double,
real root) or negative
(complex roots). In other words,
or
If
then
+ *o) - AP - 4aA <. + b ) - aAP <, 4a<A> (a + K) - cA ^ (a + b ) - A <, 2y/a^

[(fl
(10.66)
( 10 - 67)
(10.68)
(10.69)
(10.70)
or
If
*A ^ (V^ - yfb
(a,
)*
then
but
so again
2.
+ ^-aA<0 aA - (a + b ) <, 2VaA < aA - (a + fa, + * ) - aA <
(10.71)
(10.72)
(10.73) (10.74)
aA ^ (\Za V*o)
situation in
eo*
g
real root is
The second when
which Re
[F(jco)]
does not have a simple
in Eq. 10.65 is negative so that the roots are imagi-
nary. This situation occurs

[0*o
when
(10.75)
and
+ *o) - aAl 8 - 4aA > (a + b ) - dA <

)
(10.76)
From Eq.
10.75
we have
(10.77) (10.78)
Thus
A - 0*o + *o) > 2VoA > (o + b - aA aA > (V^ - VV)

8
We
thus see that Eq. 10.70
is
a necessary and
sufficient condition for
biquadratic function to be positive real. If we have
aA = (Vô~-V6o>
then
00.79)
we will have double zeros for Consider the following example:
Re
g
[F(jeo)]
F(s) =
s s
We see that
+ T +
2s
5s
+ T +
~
25
16
(10-80)
aA = 2
so that F(s)
is p.r.
(s/a
- V^ )2 = (V25 - Vl6 )*
(10.81)
Elements of
realizability
theory
307
The examples
illustrate the
just given are, of course, special cases. But they do procedure by which functions are tested for the p.r. property.
Let us consider a number of other helpful points by which a function might be tested quickly. First, if F(s) has poles on theyw axis, a partial fraction expansion will show if the residues of these poles are positive
and
real.
For example,
F(S)
s(s*
+5 TTTT, + 1)
3s 8
<
ia82>
has a pair of poles at s
j\. The partial fraction expansion of F(s),
F
not
-2s 5 & = -rr7 + +

s
2
(io.83)
shows that the residue of the poles at s

is
= j is negative.
Therefore F(s)
p.r.
and admittances of passive time-invariant networks use of our knowledge of impedances connected in series or parallel in our testing for the p.r. property. For example, if Z^s) and Z^s) are passive impedances, then z\ connected in parallel with Z, gives an overall impedance
Since impedances
are p.r. functions,
we can make
Z(s)
= Zi(s) +
i77^
Z^s)
that Z(s)
<
1084>
Since the connecting of the the passivity of the network,

that if Fjis)
two impedances in
parallel has not affected
we know
must
also be p.r.
We see
and FJs) are
p.r. functions,
then
m = JMM.
must also be
p.r.
(1085)
Consequently, the functions

F(s)
= -*s + a = s + a
must be
p.r.
(10.86)
and
where a and
F(s)
(10.87)
K are
real
and
positive quantities,
We
then
observe that functions of the type
a
fi
+a
+a
(10.88)
must be
p.r. also.
308
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Finally, let us determine

jr( s)
whether
= _*L_ s + a
F(s) V
o,K0
(10.89)
is p.r.
If we write F(s) as
=
s/K
+ a/Ks
^
Therefore, the
is
(10.90)
we
see that the terms
s/K and
is p.r.
ctfKs are p.r.
sum of
the
two terms must
be p.r. Since the reciprocal of a p.r. function
also p.r.,
we conclude
10.4
that F(s)
ELEMENTARY SYNTHESIS PROCEDURES

basic philosophy behind the synthesis of driving-point functions up a p.r. function Z(j) into a sum of simpler p.r. functions
The
is
to break
Ziis), Z4s), .... ZJs), and then to synthesize these individual Z,(j) as elements of the overall network whose driving-point impedance is Z(j).
Zis)
First, consider the
= Us) + Zs) +
---
+ Zn(s)
(10.91)
"breaking-up" process of the function Z(s) into the One important restriction is that all Zj(s) must be sum p.r. Certainly, if all Z 4(s) were given to us, we could synthesize a network whose driving-point impedance is Z(s) by simply connecting all the ZJs)
of functions Zs).
in series. However, if we were to start with Z(s) alone, how would we decompose Z(s) to give us the individual Z/j)? Suppose Z() is given in
general as
+ ""-i* 1 + + ' + . Jfi> 1 + hs + ba Q(s) ms" + t^s"- + (that b = 0). pole at s = Consider the case where Z(s) has a
7( *
W=
as
fl
-s "
""
(1(>
92)
fe
is,
Let us
divide P(s)
by
Q(s) to give a quotient D/s
and a remainder
R(s),
which
we can denote
Z1(^)
and
Z(s)
Za(s).
= - + R(s)
s
D
(10.93)
=
From
Z^s)
+ Z&)
previous discussions, we know that Z^ Are Z! and Z, p.r. ? p.r. IsZa(5)p.r.? Consider the p.r. criteria given previously. is
1.
D/s
ZgCO must have no poles in the right-half plane. 2. Poles of ZJLs) on the imaginary axis must be simple, and their residues must be real and positive.
3.
Re
[ZJJa>)]
for all m.
Elements of
realizabiiity
theory
309
because
Let us examine these cases one by one. Criterion
1 is satisfied is satisfied
the poles of ZJ&) are also poles of Us). Criterion 2
by
this
simple partial fraction expansion does not affect the residues of the other poles. When s jo>, Re [Z(yw) D/jco] 0. Therefore we have
same argument.
Re ZAjco)
= Re Zjja>) ^
seen that
if
(10.94)
From the
a- partial
foregoing discussion,
it is
Us) has a pole

remain
p.r.
at s
= 0,
is
fraction expansion can be
made such
that one of the terms
of
is,
the form Kfs and the other terms combined
still
A similar argument shows that if Us) has a pole at s = oo (that m = 1), we can divide the numerator by the denominator to give a
Us)
quotient Ls and a remainder term R(s), again denoted as Z^s) and Zt(s).
= Ls + R(s) = Z^s) + Z^s).

ZXjs)
(10.95)
Here ZJs)
is
also p.r. If
the imaginary axis, for example, poles at s
has a pair of conjugate imaginary poles on jto1 , then Z{s) can be
expanded into
partial fractions so that
(10.96)
Here
so that
Re
Zj(.y) is p.r.
(_2*M
=Re (_i^L_\ =0
Re [Z(/<u)] is minimum at some point m^ and if the value of Re ZijcDf) = Kf as shown in Fig. 10.9, we can remove a constant K<, Kt from Re [Z(ya>)] so that the remainder is still p.r. This is because Re [Z(/o>)]
Finally, if
still be greater than or equal to zero for all values of w. Suppose we have a p.r. function Z(s), which is a driving-point impedance function. Let Z(s) be decomposed, as before, so that
will
Z(s)
ReZfjwi
74s)
ZJs)
(10.98)
310
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
Zi(s)
Z(s)
^
ZzM
>
FIG. 10.10
where both 2^ and Zj are p.r. Now let us "remove" ZjCs) from Z(,s) to give us a remainder Z^s). This removal process is illustrated in Fig. 10.10 and shows that removal corresponds to synthesis of ZjO).
Example
10.5.
Consider the following

Z(s)
p.r.
function
= s* +2s +6 s(s + 3)
2 *
(10.99)
We see that Z(s) has a pole at s = 0. A partial fraction expansion of Z(s) yields
*(*)
+3
(10.100)
-2&)+2fr)
If
we remove Zt(s) from Z(s), we obtain Z2(s), which can be shown by a resistor
f
in parallel with an inductor, as illustrated in Fig. 10.11.

*
1(
1Q
Z<s)
i"
Za
FIG.
10.11
Example 10.6
7s
n>- 2j +4
where ]%?) is a p.r. function. Let us synthesize the network by first removing min [Re part of Y(jco) can be easily obtained as
8
Y(jco)].
+2
(10.101)
The
real
14o>*
(10.102)
We
see that the
minimum of Re [Y(ja>)]
occurs at
to
= 0,
from
and
Y{s)
is
equal to
min [Re YQw)] =\. Let us then remove
Yx =\ mho
and denote
Elements of
the remainder as YJs), as
p.r.
is
realizability
theory
shown
in Fig. 10.12.
The remainder function Y^s) is

real part of YJjm).
because
we have removed
only the
minimum
1
Y^s)
obtained as
3s
(10.103)
It is readily
seen that YJp)

final
is
capacitor.
Thus the
network
made up of a J-ii resistor in series with a is that shown in Fig. 10.13.
f-farad
:jo
>20
Y(s)
>"
]
^20
Y*'}
,
"
YM
>
=f
J
FIG. 10.12
FIG. 10.13
Example
10.7.
Consider the
p.r.
impedance
fo8
3**
3s
Z{s)
6s*
+3s
unity.
(10.104)
The real part of the function is a constant, equal to of 1 il, we obtain (Fig. 10.14)
Removing a constant
Z1(s)=Z(s)-l =
The
reciprocal of
3^ +
6s*
+ 3s
(10.105)
Zt(s) is an admittance
no) fit
+3s
3s*
(10.106)
1
which has a pole at s expansion of Yjfs);
<x>.
This pole
is
removed by finding the
partial fraction
r1(i)=25+
5?4n
(10107)
WWW
10
Z(s)
Zi(s)
FIG. 10.14
312
Network
WWW
in
FIG. 10.15
Z(3)
and then by removing the term with the pole

2 farads in parallel with Ys) below (Fig.
at *
oo
to give a capacitor of
10.15).
YJs)
is
now
obtained as
Y&) The
reciprocal of YJs)
is
Tito
25
^--j-j
(10.108)
Zjfc)
3*
(10.109)
final
which is, clearly, an inductor of 3 h in network is shown in Fig. 10.16.

o
series with
a capacitor of
farad.
The
www10
Z\z!=.
3h
ZM
FIG. 10.16
thesis
These examples are, of course, special cases of the driving-point synproblem. However, they do illustrate the basic techniques involved. In the next chapter, we will discuss the problem of synthesizing a network with two kinds of elements, either L-C, R-C, or R-L networks. The synthesis techniques involved, however, will be the same.
Problems
10.1
()
(ft)
Test the following polynomials for the Hurwitz property.

s8
5*
+5* +2s + 2 +5* +5 + 1
to
S1
5
w
to
+ 5s + 5* + 5 + 45* + 55 + 2
5s 5
7
V)
+5 + 25* + 2/ + 5
+25
Elements of readability theory
31
10.2 Determine whether the following functions are p.r. For the functions with the denominator already factored, perform a partial fraction expansion
first.
(a)
F()
** 5
+4*
+2s +4
IX*8
(&)
F(s)
=
=
2s*
(s
+ + +
+
+ 2)
+ 4) + 3)
(s (*
(c)
F(s)
2X 1X5
.*
W
()
F(s)
+4
+
3*
3*
F(s)
5**
**
+s
+
l
103
F(s)
Suppose Fj(5> and Ft(s) are both p.r. = FjKs) - FJ.3) is also p.r.
Discuss the conditions such that
10.4 Show that the product of two p.r. functions need not be p.r. Also show that the ratio of one p.r. function to another may not be p.r. (Give one example
of each.)
10.5
GivenZfr)-
*+
*\
(a)
(A)
(c)
What
are the restrictions
on
X for Z(s) to be a p.r. function?

co
Find A* for
Re [ZQot)]
to have a second-order zero at
= 0.
Choose a numerical value for

Prove that
if
10.6
X and synthesize Z(s). Zt(s) and Zt(s) are both p.r.,

ZUi -
WW
must also be
10.7
positive real.
Z()
-j
is
p.r.
Determine min [Re Z(/o>)] and synthesize
Z(s) by
10.8
first
removing min [ReZ(/co)].
Perform a continued fraction expansion on the ratio
W=
S8
+ 2j* + 3j + 1 + 5s + 2* + 1
What does the continued expansion imply if Y(s) is the driving-point admittance of a passive network ? Draw the network from the continued fraction.
3 4
1
Network
analysis
and synthesis
the 10.9 The following functions are impedance functions. Synthesize impedances by successive removals of/ axis poles or by removing min [Re (/)].
()
+ 4s 7*T2 j + i
s8
s(*
(*)
2)
2?
<c>
+4
1
s*
27+1 + 3s + s + l
chapter
Synthesis of one-port networks
with two kinds of elements
In this chapter we will study methods for synthesizing one-port networks with two kinds of elements. Since we have three elements to choose
from, the networks to be synthesized are either R-C, R-L, or L-C networks. We will proceed according to the following plan. First we will discuss the
properties of a particular type of one-port network, synthesize it. Let us first examine some properties of functions.
and then we
will
L-C
driving-point
I.I
PROPERTIES OF
L-C
IMMITTANCE FUNCTIONS
Let us
Consider the impedance Z(j) of a passive one-port network.

represent Z(s) as
Z(S)
M^s) i^
a (s)
+ JVj(s) î + N&)
dissipated
/J J j-j (U1)
where
N N
x,
M M
lt
are even parts of the numerator

parts.
are
odd
The average power
and denominator, and by the one-port is

(1 \ .2)
Average power
= J Re [Z(jd)] \I\*
where J is the input current. For a pure reactive network, it is known that the power dissipated is zero. We therefore conclude that the real part of
Z(/to)iszero; that
is
Re Z(
where
Ev 2ija>)
(11.3)
Ev Z(s)
= tf'('W)-^')^) Mt\s)-Nt\s)
315
n ,, (1L4)
,
316
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
is,
In order for
Ev Kjio)
= 0, that
MJlJm)
80'o>)
~ W) fUja>) =
(11.5)
either of the following cases

(a)
must hold:
(b)
M M
(a), Z(i) is
= - Nt N t =
t
(11.6)
In case
Z(s)
= -
^ ^
(H.7)
and in case
(A)
Z(s)
(H-8)
We
1.
see
from
this
development the following two properties of L-C
functions:
'" Zjj^s) or YxcC*) is tne ratio of even to odd or odd to even P013 nomials. have only imaginary 2. Since both Mis) and Ns) are Hurwitz, they follows that the poles and zeros of Z^s) or Y^s) are on roots, and it
the imaginary axis.
Consider the example of an
L-C immittance
a,*'
function given by
a*1
a,
(u
9)
know, Let us examine the constraints on the coefficients a { and *,. We to be positive real, the coeffifirst of all, that in order for the impedance impedance cients must be real and positive. We also know that an poles or zeros on theyw axis. Since qo is function cannot have multiple and the defined to be on theyw axis, the highest powers of the numerator polynomials can differ by, at most, unity. For example, if denominator of the highest order of the numerator is 2n, then the highest order
the
denominator can either be 2n - 1 so that there is a simple pole at s = oo, s = oo. or the order can be 2n + 1 so that there is a simple zero at can differ by Similarly, the lowest orders of numerator and denominator or zeros of Z(s) at at most unity, or else there would be multiple poles
s
= 0.
Another property of the numerator and denominator polynomials is for example, the next that if the highest power of the polynomial is In, In - 2, and the succeeding powers must highest order term must be There cannot be any missing differ by two orders all the way through.
317
no two adjacent terms of either polynomial may differ by more than two powers. For example, for Z(s) given in Eq. 11.9, if ft, = 0, then Z(s) will have poles when
terms,
i.e.,
V+
so that the poles will be at *
*i*
at
(11.10)
and
*It is clearly seen that
(^V
"*"
= 0,1,2,3
dm)
none of the poles sk are even on theyto axis, thus one of the basic properties of an L-C immittance function. From the properties given in Eq. 11.11, we can write a general L-C impedance or admittance as
violating
Z(S)
Jft'
+ 'Ofr' + *')(' + **) + coW + <*) .(, + ,,)... tf

we
obtain
< 1112>
Expanding Z(j) into

2(.)
partial fractions,
= S + -2p-j + -*&- +
KkS
(1L13)
where the t are the residues of the poles. Since these poles are all on theyco axis, the residues must be real and positive in order for Z* to be positive real. Letting s =jm, we see that Z(;o>) has zero real part, and can thus be written as a pure reactance jX(o>). Thus we have
ft)
ft),
a>,
1
ft)
= J x(<)
Differentiating X(a>) with respect to
(11.14)
we have
dco
+K +
<o*
<
(,,-cV
it is
(1U5)
Since
all
the residues
are positive,
seen that for an
L-C function,
<
dX(io)
IT*
A
is
1116>
similar development
shows that the derivative of Im [Y{jw)]
= B(m)
also positive, that
is,
318
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
is
Consider the following example. Z(s)
given as
<o a*)
+ _ + co^ + ^'(s'
***
Letting s
(11.18)
to*)
= jco, we obtain
zo)
X{a>) as
= ; x(co) =
+j
^^^ <}
Kco(-coa
cog )
(11.19)
0, Let us draw a curve of X(co) versus o>. Beginning with the zero at co encountered as <o let us examine the sequence of critical frequencies the next increases. Since the slope of the X(io) curve is always positive, X(co) becomes infinitely large or critical frequency we encounter is when As we pass a> 2 , X(co) changes sign and goes from the pole is at a> 2
.
pass through any critical frequency, to -. In general, of sign, as seen from the wayy X(to) is written in there is always a change X(a>) the last equation. After we pass through a> 2 , with the slope of zero positive, it is easy to see that the next critical frequency is the always Thus, if an impedance function is an L-C immittance, the poles
whenever we
at ,.
and zeros of the function must alternate. The particular X(a>) under powers discussion takes the form shown in Fig. 11.1. Since the highest the of the numerator and the denominator always differ by unity, and s = oo, and at lowest powers also differ by one, we observe that at s =
there
frequency, whether a zero or a pole. and a zero at is a zero at s oo are called external and s s frequencies are critical frequencies, whereas the remaining finite critical previous example, cog, a> 3 , and to t referred to as internal. Thus, in the
is
always a
critical
For the example just discussed, there = oo. The critical frequencies at s =
are internal critical frequencies. admittance Finally, let us summarize the properties of L-C impedance or
functions.
1.
ZiC(s)
or
YLC&s)
is
the ratio of
odd
to even or even to
odd poly-
nomials.
IM
FIG.
I.I
X(w)
+1
+2
+3
FIG.
I.Z
2.
3.
4.
The poles and zeros are simple and lie on theyeo axis. The poles and zeros interlace on they'eo axis. The highest powers of numerator and denominator must
by
unity.
differ
by
unity; the lowest powers also differ

5.
There must be either a zero or a pole at the origin and
infinity.
left.
The following functions are not L-C
for the reasons listed at the
2.
1.
+ l)(s + 3) 3 s + 4s + 5s Z(s) = 3s* + 6s 2 K(s + l)(s* + 9) z( = 2 (s + 2)(s + 10)

(s
5 a 2 2
Z(5)
Ks(s
2
4)
(11.20)
On
the other hand, the function Z(j) in Eq. 11.21,

is
whose pole-zero
diagram
shown
in Fig. 11.2,
is
an L-C immittance.
_ 2(s +
11.2
1)(s
9) (11.21)
s(s*
+ 4)
SYNTHESIS OF
L-C
DRIVING-POINT IMMITTANCES
We saw in Section 11.1 that an L-C immittance is a positive real function with poles and zeros on the jco axis only. The partial fraction expansion
of an
L-C function
is
expressed in general terms as
+ Kxs
cog
(11.22)
The synthesis is accomplished directly from the partial fraction expansion by associating the individual terms in the expansion with network elements.
If F(s)
is
an impedance
Z(s), then the

is
l/Ko farads; the term
Kx s
term I^/s represents a capacitor of an inductance of K henrys, and the term
320
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
1 ,
2X,
o^HTHf
'-vOOOv-'
2X1
Z(s).
.
tf.h
Wi
l0Q0>
2! h 7T5" n
'
FIG.
2
11.3
2^5/(5
o) 42) is
a parallel tank circuit that consists of a capacitor of
\f2Kf farads in parallel with an inductance of IKjcof. Thus a partial fraction expansion of a general L-C impedance would yield the network shown in Fig. 11.3. For example, consider the following L-C function.
Z(S)
_,.
2(s
+ l)(s* + *- + 4)
s
9)
(11.23)
A partial fraction expansion of TUjs) gives

Z(s)
2s
+ * + -72-
(11.24)
We then obtain the synthesized network in Fig.

The
partial fraction expansion
11.4.
method is based upon the elementary synthesis procedure of removing poles on the jco axis. The advantage with L-C functions is that all the poles of the function lie on the jco axis so that we can remove all the poles simultaneously. Suppose F(s) in Eq. 11.22 is an admittance Y(s). Then the partial fraction expansion of Y(s) gives us a circuit consisting of parallel branches shown in Fig. 11.5. For example,
s( S (s
+ 2)(s + 4) + l)(s* + 3)
HI
2h
if
Z<8)
FIG. 11.4
321
Klziz
Y(s),
FIG. 11.5
The
partial fraction expansion of Y(s) is
r(s)
=s+
s
is
8
is
3
s*
(11.26)
1
from which we synthesize the network shown in Fig. 11.6. The L-C networks synthesized by partial fraction expansions are sometimes called Foster-type networks. 1 The impedance form is sometimes called a Foster series network and the admittance form is a Foster parallel network. A useful property of L-C immittances is that the numerator and the denominator always differ in degree by unity. Therefore, there is always a zero or a pole at $ = oo. Suppose we consider the case of an L-C impedance Z{s), whose numerator is of degree In and denominator is of degree 2n I, giving Z(j) a pole at s = oo. We can remove this pole by removing an impedance L^ so that the remainder function Z^s) is still L-C:
ZjCO
ZCO
is
LiS
(11.27)
1,
The degree of the denominator of Z 2(j)

degree
invert
2/i
2n
but the numerator
is
of
1.
2,
degree by
because the numerator and denominator must differ in oo. If we Therefore, we see that Z 8 (s) has a zero at s
have a pole at s = oo, which we can again remove to give a capacitor C*s and a remainder Ya(s), which is
Zt(s)
to give
Yt(s) =
l/Z^s),
Ys(s)
will
Y&) = Y2(s) - C2s.
(11.28)
2h<
lf=t
YM.
if:
FIG.
11.6
a. M. Foster,
"A Reactance Theorem," Bell System Tech. J., No. 3 (1924), 259-267.

322
Network
Ll
Cizk
c*3=
FIG.
1.7
FIG. 11.8
We readily see that F3(s) has a zero at s oo, which we can invert and remove. This process continues until the remainder is zero. Each time we remove a pole, we remove an inductor or a capacitor depending upon whether the function is an impedance or an admittance. Note that the
final structure
are inductors and
of the network synthesized is a ladder whose series arms whose shunt arms are capacitors, as shown in Fig. 1 1 .7.
Consider the following example.
We
see that Z(s) has a pole at s
+ 4s1 + 3 = oo, which
we can remove by
first
dividing the denominator into the numerator to give a quotient 2s
and a
remainder
Z,(j), as
shown
in Fig. 11.8.
Then we have
10s
a
Zt(s) -
Z(s)
2s
s = -4s + 4 s
+ 4s +
(11.30)
3
Observe that Z^s) has a zero at s

the pole at infinity.
oo.
Inverting Z^s),
we
again remove
Then we realize a capacitor of J farad and a remainder
y3(s),
as
may
be seen in Fig. 11.9.
Y3(s)=Ys)-s= *f + s 4 4s + 10s
3
(11.31)
Removing of | h and
the pole at s
oo of
Z^j)
llYs(s),
gives a series inductor
Zt(s) - Z3(s) -~s =

3
FTT1 fs + 3
(11.32)
2h
o
r
Ginr*
if-
Y3 (s)
FIG.
1.9
323
/toot^
2h
Remainder
Z4>
FIG. 11.10
in Fig. 11.10. The admittance y4(s) = 1/Z4(j) has a pole at which we remove to give a capacitor of f farad and a remainder y6(j) = 3/2y, which represents an inductor of f h. Removing this inductor gives us zero remainder. Our synthesis is therefore complete and the final network is shown in Fig. 11.11. Since we always remove a pole at s = oo by inverting the remainder and dividing, we conclude that we can synthesize an L-C ladder network by a continued fraction expansion. The quotients represent the poles at s = oo, which we remove, and we invert the remainder successively until the remainder is zero. For the previous example, the continued fraction
as
shown
oo,
expansion
s*
is
+ 4s2 +
3)25
2s
+ +
12s3
+ fo + 4s3 +
3
16s(2s<-->
6s
I0s)s*
s*
+ +
4s 2
5.2
2->
+
+
3(ts <->
Y
I0s(is<->Z
is
3(|$ <->
3.2
2s
is'
3)4s3
4s3
+ +
Y
Z
3)2y(fj*->
2s
We see that the quotients of the continued fraction expansion give the elements of the ladder network. Because the continued fraction expansion
2h
-'innp
fh
f"
**4=
ffi
11.11
FIG.
324
Network
anal/sis an
synthesis
always inverts each remainder and divides, the successive quotients alternate between Z and Y and then Z again, as shown in the preceding
initial function is an impedance, the first quotient must an impedance. When the first function is an admittance, the first quotient is an admittance. Since the lowest degrees of numerator and denominator of an L-C admittance must differ by unity, it follows that there must be a zero or a pole at s = 0. If we follow the same procedure we have just outlined, and remove successively poles at s = 0, we will have an alternate realization in a ladder structure. To do this by continued fractions, we arrange both numerator and denominator in ascending order and divide the lowest power of the denominator into the lowest power of the numerator; then we invert the remainder and divide again. For example, in the case of the impedance we have
expansion. If the
necessarily be
z( S)
(s* i*
+ l)(s* + 3) j z ;r 2) s(s* +
(H.33)
is
The continued
2s
fraction expansion to give the alternate realization
+ 58)3 + As* + s\3I2s <-> Z 3 + fs fs* + s*)2s + ^(4/5$ *-> Y 2s + $s* isP^s* + 5*(25/2s <-> Z
2
|j
i
The final synthesized network is shown in Fig.
realized are called
11.12. The ladder networks Cauer ladder networks because W. Cauer2 discovered the continued fraction method for synthesis of a passive network. Note that for both the Foster and the Cauer-form realizations, the number of o |( 1( L L elements is one greater than the number of ^f f internal critical frequencies, which we defined 5 h oj oj
1
5h
*p
[
*p
[
previously as being
all
the poles
and zeros
FIG.
1.12
of the function, excluding those at s and 00. Without going into the proof of the s
Wilhelm Cauer, "The Realization of Impedances with Prescribed Frequency Dependence," Arch. Electrotech., 15 (1926), 355-388.
325
can be said that both the Foster and the Cauer forms give elements for a specified L-C driving-point function. These realizations are sometimes known as canonical forms.
statement,
it
the
minimum number of
11.3
PROPERTIES OF R-C DRIVING-POINT IMPEDANCES

properties of
properties of
The
known
we
will
R-C driving-point impedances can be derived from L-C functions by a process of mapping the ja> axis
will
onto the
a axis. 8 We
all
not resort to this formalism here. Instead,
assume that
driving-point functions that can be realized with
two kinds of elements can be realized in a Foster form. Based upon this assumption we can derive all the pertinent properties of R-C or R-L
driving-point functions.
Let us consider
first
the properties of
R-C
driving-point impedance functions.
L-C impedance given in obtain a Foster realization of an R-C impedance by simply replacing all the inductances by resistances so that a general R-C impedance could be represented as in Fig. 11.13. The R-C impedance, as seen from Fig. 11.13, is
Referring to the series Foster form for an
Fig. 11.3,
we can
Z(s)
where C l/A^, x X, lf and so on. In order for Eq. 11.34 to represent an R-C driving-point impedance, the constants K\ and at must be positive and real. From this development, two major properties of R-C impedances are obtained, and are listed in the following.
Ci
- ^ + K + -&_ + -&- + s s + a s + g R a = K, C = \\K Rx = Kja

x
cr
(11.34)
IH
Co
Hf-AMr*i
R2
FIG. 11.13
E.
Van Valkenburg,
Introduction to
Modern Network
Synthesis,
John Wiley and
Sons,
New York,
1960, pp. 140-145.
326
1.
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
R-C driving-point impedance are on the negative can be shown from a parallel Foster form that the poles of an R-C admittance function are also on the axis. We can thus conclude that the zeros of an R-C impedance are also on the a axis. 2. The residues of the poles, Kit are real and positive. We shall see later that this property does not apply to R-C admittances.
The
poles of an
It
real (or) axis.
Since the poles and zeros of
us examine the slope of

dZ{a)lda,
Z(<r)
R-C impedances are on the a axis, let along the a axis." To find the slope,
derivative of
we
first let
Z(c) with respect to

Z(<r)
a.
a in Z(s), and then we take the Thus we have

. .
= + K. + -&- + _&_ + a a+ a + a
o-j
(11.35)
and
= da
that
a*
? H *
(a
+
1
atf
(a
o%?
1-
(n ^^
36}
(11-37)
It is clear
^^^0 da
at the behavior of Z(s) at the
two points where the a = <a and at a = (o = oo. This is readily done by examining the general R-C network in Fig. 11.13 at these two frequencies. At a = 0, (d-c), if the capacitor C is in the circuit, it is an open circuit and there is a pole of Z(s) at a = 0.
real axis
Let us
now look
and the imaginary
axis intersect, namely, at
If
is
not in the
circuit,
then Z(0)
is
simply the
sum of all
the resistances
in the circuit.
+ R (11.38) because all of the capacitors are open circuits at a = 0. At a = oo, all the capacitors are short circuits. Thus, if R^ is in the circuit, Z(oo) = R^. If R x is missing, then Z(oo) = 0. To summarize
Z(0)
t
= R + R2 +
these last
two statements, we have

f
oo,
present
Z(0)
=
C missing
o,
Z(oo)
Rn Rm
missing
present
see that
If
we examine
the
two cases for Z(0) and Z(oo), we

Z(0)
Z(oo)
(11.39)
327
Next,
let
function alternate.
nearest the origin
us see whether the poles and zeros of an R-C impedance We have already established that the critical frequency
must be a pole and the

is
critical
frequency nearest a
oo
must be a
zero.
Therefore, if Z(s)
given as
Z( S)
(5!
(s
+ +
ga)(s
ffOO
+ +
g4)
(11.40)
or,)
Then, if Z(y) is R-C, the singularity nearest the origin must be a pole which we will assume to be at s = gx the singularity furthest from the origin must be a zero, which we will take to be s = g Let us plot 4
;
.
z , ff) =
versus
(g (g
+ +
+ aîa +
ga)(ff
g4) a3)
(11.41)
g,
beginning at a
and extending to a
= oo.
At a
= 0,
Z(0)
is
equal to a positive constant Z(0)
= ^*
(11.42)
Since the slope of Z(g) is always positive as a increases, Z(g) must increase until the pole s is reached (Fig. 11.14). At a x
= -a
= au
Z(g) changes sign, and

reached.
*
We
Since Z(g) increases for increasing a, the third critical frequency must be the pole s g8 Because Z(g) changes sign at g the final critical frequency must be the zero, s g4 . Beyond a g4 , the curve becomes asymptotic to Z(oo) 1. From this analysis we see that the poles and zeros of an R-C impedance must alternate so that for
= <V
negative until the next critical frequency is see that this next critical frequency must be the zero,
is
Z()
a*
FIG. 11.14
328
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
the case being considered

oo
>
<r4
>
<r8
>
or
>
Oi
0.
(11.43) (11.44)
In addition,
we see
that
a, ex.
>1
which shows that Z(0) > Z(oo). To summarize, the three properties we need to recognize an impedance are:
1.
R-C
Poles and zeros
lie
on the negative
real axis,
2.
The The
singularity nearest to (or at) the origin
and they alternate. must be a pole whereas
the singularity nearest to (or at) a

3.
= oo must be a zero.
real
residues of the poles
must be
and
positive.
An
example of an
R-C impedance
Z(s)
is:
= (s +
l)(s
s(s
+ 4)(s + + 2)(s + 6)
8)
(11.45)
The following impedances
are not R-C.
= (s + l)(s + 8) (s + 2)(s + 4) (s + 2)(s + 4) Z(s) = (s + D (s + l)(s + 2) Z(s) = s(s + 3)

Z(s)
(11.46)
Let us reexamine the partial fraction expansion of a general impedance.

F(s)
R-C
= ^ + K + -î- + S + Ot s
a
(11.47)
Instead of letting F(s) represent an impedance, consider the case where F(s) is an admittance Y(s). If we associate the individual terms in the
expansion to network elements,
we
then obtain the network shown in
FIG. 11.15

Fig. 11.15.
329
as an
We sec that an R-C impedance, ZBC(s), also can be realized R-L admittance Yîs). All the properties of R-L admittances are
R-C impedances.
is
the same as the properties of

to specify whether a function
It is therefore
important
to be realized as
an R-C impedance or an
R-L
11.4
admittance.
SYNTHESIS OF R-C IMPEDANCES
OR
R-L
ADMITTANCES
for
postulated in Section 11.3 that the Foster form realization exists an R-C impedance or an R-L admittance. Since Foster networks are synthesized by partial fraction expansions, the synthesis is accomplished with ease. An important point to remember is that we must remote the minimum real part of Z(/a>) in the partial fraction expansion. It can be shown* that min [Re Z(/co)] = Z(oo), so that we have to remove Z(oo) as a resistor in the partial fraction expansion. In cases where the numerator is of lower degree than the denominator, Z(oo) = 0. When the numerator and the denominator are of the same degree, then Z(oo) can be obtained by dividing the denominator into the numerator. The quotient is then Z(oo). Consider the following example.
We
F(s)
3(a
+
s(s
2)(s
+ 4)
is
(11.48)
3)
The
partial fraction expansion of the
remainder function
obtained as
+
3
(11.49)
where F(oo) = 3. If F(s) is an impedance Z(s), it must be an R-C impedance and it is realized in the series Foster form in Fig. 11.16. On the other hand, if F(s) represents an admittance, we realize Y(s) as an R-L network in the parallel Foster form (Fig. 11.17).
-\[
f f
AV 30
10
If
Z(s)
FIG. 11.16
4
Van Valkenburg,
loc
cil.
330
Network
analysis
and synthesis
30.
*k:
Jo:
Y(s)
lh.
FIG. 11.17
An alternate method of synthesis is based on the following fact. If we remove min Re [Z(yto)] = Z(oo) from Z(y), we create a zero at s = oo for the remainder ZjO). If we invert Z x (j), we then have a pole at $ = oo, which we can remove to give Za(s). Since min Re [ Y^jco)] = Yt(co), if we remove Y2(co), we would have a zero at s = oo again, which we again invert and remove. The process of extracting Z(oo) or r(oo) and
the removal of a pole of the reciprocal of the remainder involve dividing
the numerator by the denominator. Consequently,
synthesis process can be resolved
we see that the whole by a continued fraction expansion.

11.48
is
The quotients represent the elements of a ladder network. For example, the continued fraction expansion of F(s) in Eq.
j2
3s)3s*
l&y
24(3
35*+
9s
9s
24>*
+ 3s($s s* + f*
is)9s
24(27
9s
24)is(s/72
4*
If F(s) is
11.18. If F(s) is
an impedance Z(j), the resulting network is shown in Fig. an admittance Y(s), we have the R-L network of Fig. 11.19.
30
Z(s)
If:
-Wv
270
o:
Y(s)_
jinpr^-
FIG. 11.18
FIG. 11.19
33
II
J PROPERTIES OF R-L IMPEDANCES AND R-C ADMITTANCES

The immittance
that represents a series Foster
is
R-L impedance or a
parallel Foster
R-C admittance
F(s)
given as
= KK s + K + -&- + s + a
t
(11.50)
The
significant difference
is
between an
pedance
that the partial fraction expansion term for the
R-C impedance and an R-L imR-C "tank"
circuit is Kj(s + at); whereas, for the R-L impedance, the corresponding term must be multiplied by an s in order to give an R-L tank circuit consisting of a resistor in parallel with an inductor. The properties of R-L impedance or R-C admittance functions can be
derived in
functions.
significant
1
much
the same manner as the properties of R-C impedance Without going into the derivation of the properties, the more
ones are given in the following:
R-L impedance or R-C admittance are located and they alternate. 2. The singularity nearest to (or at) the origin is a zero. The singularity nearest to (or at) s = oo must be a pole. 3. The residues of the poles must be real and negative.
on
the negative real axis,
Poles and zeros of an
Because of the third property, a partial fraction expansion of an R-L impedance function would yield terms as
Ki
s
(11.51)
This does not present any trouble, however, because the term above does not represent an R-L impedance at all. To obtain the Foster form of an R-L impedance, we will resort to the following artifice. Let us first expand
into partial fractions. If Z(s) is an R-L impedance, we will state without proof here that the partial fraction expansion of 7^s)js yields positive residues. 6 Thus, we have
2i_s)js
Z>=*2 + K +
a>
^-+-s
(11,52)
a{
see
Actually,
ZBL{s)js has the properties of an R-C impedance;
Van Valkenburg
he.
cit.
332
Network
analysis
and synthesis
-VW
ifi
40.
&={=
to:
Z(s)
FIG. 11.20
FIG.
11.21
where *o,
Z(s) in
Ku
K ^
0.
If
we
2(s
(s
the desired form
for synthesis.
multiply both sides by s, we obtain Consider the following function:

(11.53)
mF(s) represents
satisfies
+ l)(s + 3) + 2)(s + 6)
an R-L impedance or an R-C admittance because it of the first two criteria cited. The partial fraction expansion
F(s)
F{s)
is
14
2
(11.54)
so
we see
that the residues are negative.

is
The
partial fraction expansion of
F(s)js,
on the other hand,

F(s)
s
_ 2(5 + s(s +
- 3) 2)(s + 6)
IX*
s,
t
t
i.
4
s
+
Is
+
2
s
(11.55)
If we multiply both sides
by
we
1
obtain
is
+
s
(11.56)
an impedance Z(s), it is synthesized in series Foster Y(s), form, giving the R-L network in Fig. 11.20. If F(s) is an admittance shown in Fig. 11.21. then the resulting network is the R-C network To synthesize an R-L impedance in ladder form, we make use of the If we remove Z(0) from Z(s), the fact that min Re [Z(Jm)] = Z(0).
If F(s) represents
remainder function
Zx(s) will have
a zero at s
= 0.
After inverting Z^s),
FIG. 11.22
333
YM
FIG. 11.23
we can then remove
the pole at s
0.
Since the value Z(0)
is
obtained
by dividing the lowest power of the denominator
into the lowest
power
term of the numerator, the synthesis could be carried out by a continued fraction expansion by arranging the numerator and denominator polynomials in ascending order and then dividing. For example, the following function is either an R-C impedance or an R-C admittance.
= 2(5 + l)(s + 3) = 6 + 8s + 2s* 12 + 8s + s* (s + 2)(s + 6)

The continued
12
fraction expansion of F(s)
is
8*
+ s*)6 + is + 2s*(l 6 + 4s + js* 4s + fs )12 + Ss + s\3ls 12 + J ls + s*)4s + 4s +

2
f**(f
iV)& +
aS
**(49/5s
S*
OAAA
As*
If F(s) is
shown
Y(s),
an impedance function, the resulting network is the R-L network If, on the other hand, F(s) is an R-C admittance the network is synthesized as in Fig. 11.23.
in Fig. 11.22.
11.6
SYNTHESIS OF CERTAIN
certain conditions,
R-L-C
FUNCTIONS
may be
syn-
Under
R-L-C
driving-point functions
thesized with the use of either partial fractions or continued fractions.
For example, the function
z(')~
VL it + +
S'
s
4- 2s
2
( 1L58)
334
is
Network
analysis
and synthesis
neither L-C, R-C, nor R-L. Nevertheless, the function can be synthesized
fractions as shown.
by continued
s*
+ s+
l>*
s*
+ 2s + 2(l-Z + s+1 s + iy + s + S2 + s
i(s
1>
+ l(s + \*-Z s+l

all
The network derived from
this expansion is given in Fig. 11.24. In another case, the poles and zeros of the following admittance are on the negative real axis, but they do not alternate.
Y(s)
= (s + 2)(s + 3) (s + l)(s + 4)
(11.59)
The
partial fraction expansion for Y(s)
is
FIG. 11.24
Y(s)
=1+
s+1
+4
(11.60)
Since one of the residues

synthesis.
is
negative,
we cannot
method would be to expand multiply the whole expansion by s.

alternate
An
use this expansion for Y(s)ls and then
y(a)
s
I
s
i
6 1
+4
(11.61)
When we
multiply by
s,
we
obtain,
to-* i2 +
V
h
s
+4
(11.62)
Y(s) also has a negative term. If we divide the denominator of this negative term into the numerator, we can rid ourselves of any terms
Note that
with negative signs.
y(j)
3_(l__U + J!
2
\3
s
1/
h
6
s
(11.63)
+4
335
loY(s)
60-
fa:
in
At 4=
FIG. 11.25
The network
11.25.
that
is
realized
from the expanded function
is
given in Fig.
expand Y(s) by continued fractions, we see that negative However, we can expand Us) = l/l%s) by continued fractions, although the expansion is not as simple or straightforward as in the case of an R-C function, because we sometimes have to reverse the
If
we
try to
quotients result.
order of division to
make
is
the quotients
all positive.
The continued
fraction expansion of Z(s)
5s
+ s*)4 + 5s + s%i 4 + * + !** |s + is*)6 + 6 +
5s
+ s%n/5s +
i**
is
Hi
+ Hs
Asy^s
+ **(
s*)&s(6I15s
As we
network
see,
the division process giving the quotient of 1/3 involves a
reversal of the order of the polynomials involved.

is
The
resulting ladder
given in Fig. 11.26.
WV
h
AAAr
-K-
Z(t)
:&
FIG. 11.26
336
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
it
In the beginning of this section,

conditions can an
was
stated that only
under special
R-L-C
driving-point function be synthesized with the
use of a ladder form or the Foster forms. These conditions are not given here because they are rather involved. Instead, when a positive
and it is found that the function is not synthesizable by using two kinds of elements only, it is suggested that a continued fraction expansion or a partial fraction expansion be tried first.
real function is given,
Problems
11.1
(a)
Which of the following functions are L-C driving point impedances?
Why?
+ 4X* + _,, A " jQ + 9X* + 25)

8
16)
'
(**
Z*S)
(j
1X*
8)
*fc+4)
(6) Synthesize the realizable
impedances in a Foster and a Cauer form.
11.2
Indicate the general /orm of the
two Foster and the two Cauer networks
that could be used to synthesize the following
L-C impedance.
7(
w=
.
fr*
1X5*
jCi"
+ 9Xi* + 25) + 4X* + 16)
There
is
no need to
calculate the element values of the four networks.
113
Synthesize the
L-C driving-point impedance
Z(s)
=
i.e.,
6s*
J+
+ 425* + 48 18j + 48s
in the
in henrys
form shown in the figure, and farads.
determine the element values of the network
=FC8
PROB.
II
11.4 There exists an L-C network with the same driving-point impedance as the network shown in the figure. This alternate network should contain only two elements. Find this network.
337
-nnnp
2h
lh
4=if
2W
If:
PROB.
11.4
11.5
The input impedance
for the network

2*
shown
is
Zta=
+2
2
"i+2s*+25 +
If
is an L-C network: (a) Find the expression for Foster series form.
(6) Synthesize
in
2b
PROB.
II
&
L-C
11.6 Indicate which of the following functions are either R-C, R-L, or impedance functions.
s*
+2s
(a)
z(,)
" FT4?~+1
~
(b)
ZW
s*
+ 4* + 3
+ 45 + 3 + 5s + 6
(c)
Z(5)=
,
?T6F+8
5*
W
(e)
Z(4)
=
j
+,
+ Ss* + 6 ** +3
Z(5)
338
11.7
If
Network
analysis
and synthesis
An impedance function has the pole-zero pattern shown in the figure. Z( 2) = 3, synthesize the impedance in a Foster form and a Cauer form.
ju
-5
-3
-1
11.7
PROB.
11.8 From the following functions, pick out the ones which are tances and synthesize in one Foster and one Cauer form.
R-C admit-
+ l)Qr + 3) + 2X* + 4) sjs + 4X* + 8) is + lXs + 6)

2js
(s
Y(s)
= 4js +
sis
l)fr
3)
+2)
Y(s)
= (s +
l)fr
+ 4)
sis
+2)
11.9 Find the networks for the following functions. Both Foster and ladder forms are required.
().
Z(s)
is
+ +
1)(*
4)
s(s
+2)
1)(*
(b)
Z(s)
3is
+ 4)
s 11.10
For the network shown,
find
1
Y when
K9
V
2+Y
=
2s
sjs* +3) +s* +6s +
1
Synthesize
Y as an L-C admittance.
PROB.
11.11
11.10
Synthesize by continued fractions the function
*w- 5
s*
+ 2s + 3j + 1 + s* +2s + 1
339
11.12 Find the networks for the following functions in one Foster and one Cauer form.
(s
2X*
Z(s)
11.13
20 +
0.5)(*
+ 4) + 4)
Synthesize the following functions in Cauer form.
11.14
+s + 1 + J8 +s s* + s*+2s + l Z(s) V+4 + 3*+a + l 4^ + 3^+4^+2 Z(s) 2s +5 (s + 2X* + 4) Synthesize Z(s) = i i\/ v ^ mto tne form (s + IX* + 5)
s*
Z(s)
+2s*
5
r*Tnnp
shown
in the figure. 6
If
Zfr).
PROB.
11.15
sents
11.14
Of the
three pole-zero diagrams shown, pick the diagram that represeries Foster
an R-L impedance function and synthesize in a

JO)
form.
-4
-3 -2
-l
ju
-4
-3
-2
-1
JO)
-4 -3 -2 -1
10
PROB.
11.15
340
Network
analysis
and synthesis
11.16 Synthesize a driving-point impedance with the pole-zero pattern shown in the figure in any form you choose. (Hint: Use uniform loading concepts.)
JU
*i LU
PROB.
11.17 3s
(a)
11.16
Following are four successive approximations of tanh
s.
s*+3
IPs*
s*
(c)
+ 105* + 455* + 105
+ 15s + 15 s s* + 1055 + 945* W) 15** + 4205s + 945

s*
(*)
6s*
Synthesize networks for the functions above whose input impedances approxi-
mate tanh*.
chapter 12
Elements of transfer
function synthesis
12.1
PROPERTIES OF TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
another port. In Chapter ? we at one port to the current or voltage at terms of the opendiscussed various descriptions of two-port networks in parameters y u . Recall that for circuit parameters z and the short-circuit open-circuit transfer imthe two-port network given in Fig. 12.1, the pedances !, and Zu were defined as
A transfer function is a function which relates the current or voltage
h l/i-o
*1 lli-0
(12.1)
voltage-ratio transfer In terms of the open-circuit transfer impedances, the
function
is
given as
T,
Yl

is
(12.2)
ratio In terms of the short-circuit parameters, the voltage
shown
to be
Yl
= _ 2
as
(12.3)
When the network is terminated at port two by a resistor R,

Fig. 12.2, the transfer impedance
shown
in
of the overall
network
is
z"
= _?S*_
h
341
(12.4)
+*
342
Network
+
Vi
analysis
and synthesis
h
Two-port network
V2
FIG. 12.2
is
FIG.
12.1
The
transfer admittance of the overall structure in Fig. 12.2
Y
where
= -' =
Vi
y2
+G
as
(12.5)
G=
l/R.
When both ports are terminated in resistors,
shown in
Fig. 12.3, the voltage-ratio transfer function

*a
V^Vg is
z ai2
(z
V.
RMtn.
*)
- 2gii8
(12.6)
Other transfer functions such as current-ratio transfer functions can and short-circuit parameters. In Chapter 10 we discussed the various properties of driving-point impedances such as z u and z 28 This chapter deals with the properties of the transfer immittances z M and y tl for a
also be described in terms of the open.
passive reciprocal network.
First, let
us
discuss
certain
properties
which
apply to all transfer functions of passive linear networks with lumped elements. We denote a transfer function as T(s).
1.
T(s) is real for real s. This property
FIG. 12.3
is
satisfied
when
T(s)
is
a rational
function with real coefficients.

2. T(s)
has no poles in the right-half plane and no multiple poles on
they'to axis.
If T(s) is given as T(s) P(s)lQ(s), the degree of P(s) cannot exceed the degree of Q(s) by more than unity. In addition, Q(s) must be
a Hurwitz polynomial.
3.
Suppose P(s) and Q(s) are given in terms of even and odd
is,
parts,
that
ns)
where Ms)
is
w,(5) e(S) 8( S ) even and Ns) is odd. Then T(ja>) is
m = MMIM m +
MiC/oO
MJja>)
(12 7)
.
+ +
A^
NMa>)
The amplitude response of

\T(j<o)\
T(ja>) is
=
UfA/co)
+ Nt*(ja>)]
(12.9)
Elements of transfer function synthesis
343
and
is
an even function in m. The phase response
Arg TQm)
If arg T(jO)
= arctan
0, we see that the phase response is an odd function in <o. us discuss some specific properties of the open-circuit and short-circuit parameters.
mm
Z^s)
is
'
Now
let
1. The poles of zgl (,s) are also the poles of z (j) and z {s). However, u it not all the poles of z u (s) and z M (y) are the poles ofzn (s). Recall that in Chapter 9 we defined the z parameters in terms of a set of node equations
as
A
2.o
Zl ^12
A
is no cancellation between each numerator and denominator of z u, and z lg then the poles are the roots of the determinant A, and all three functions have the same poles. Consider the two-port network described by the black box in Fig. 12.4a. Let z' u z' a2 and z' lt be the z parameters of the network. Let us examine the case when we attach the impedances Zx and Zg to ports one and two, as shown in Fig. 12.46. The z parameters
If there
zlt ,
for the two-port network in Fig. 12.46 are
= z ii + Zj Z 22 Z 22 + Zj Z 12 = Z 12
z ii
poles of z u include the poles of Z^ the poles of z M include the poles of Zj. However, the poles of z lt include neither the poles of Zi nor Z,. Consequently, we see that all the poles of z are also
It is clear that the
poles of z u
and z. The
reverse
is
not necessarily
true.
h
+
*\l> 2*22
z'tt
l_
h
+
v2
r
Vi
I,
<*'ll. *'22
3j
-o
'l2
v2
(a)
w
FIG. 12.4
344
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
h
*
Vi
*
h
o
>
3f
/2
r^
Y!
A-i
y'n, y'22
y'12
"
*
V2
Vi
Y2
U
FIG. 12.6
*h
V*
4"
FIG. 1X5
^T
poles of yis(s) are also the poles of y u(s) and y M(s). However, not all of the poles of yu(s) and y M(s) are the poles of yM(s). This property is readily seen when we examine the two-port network in Fig. 12.5.
2.
The
The y parameters are

y**
v
y%
= y'* + yit = v'm
Clearly, the poles of
y12(s) do not include the poles of either Consider the network in Fig. 12.6. The y parameters are
2 ViM = - + s
y(s)
3s
Yt
and
Yt
= - + 3s
s
yis(s)
-3s
and s = 00, whereas at s = Observe that yu(s) has a pole at s = 00. ylt(s) only Let us 3. Suppose yu (s), y M(s), and y 18(s) all have poles at s = st denote by u the residue of the pole at st of the function y u (s). The residue of the pole s = Sj, of y w(s) will be denoted as km , and the residue of the same pole of yia (s) will be denoted as k lt Without going into the proof, 1 a general property of L-C, R-C, or R-L two-port networks is that and yM(s) have poles
.
Jfc
k ak M
This equation
is
- klt ^
*
(12.11)
L-C
s
2x4
as the residue condition. For example, for the network in Fig. 12.6, the residue condition applied to the pole at 3* 0, we have 0; whereas for the pole at s 00 gives 3 x 3 0* 0. Thus we see that the residue condition is fulfilled 8
known
= >
for both poles.

l For a general discussion, see M. E. Van Valkenburg, Introduction Network Synthesis, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1960, pp. 305-313.
to
Modem
345
/2
FIG. 12.7
+
Vi
-T7>
c
FIG. 12.8
h <
+
Vj
111
ZEROS OF TRANSMISSION
zero of transmission
is is a zero of a transfer function. At a zero of zero output for an input of the same frequency.
transmission, there
For the network in Fig. 12.7, the capacitor is an open circuit at s = 0, so there is a zero of transmission at s = 0. For the networks in Figs.
12.8 and 12.9, the zero of transmission occurs at s //VZc. For the network in Fig. 12.10, the zero of transmission occurs at s l/RC. In general, all the transfer functions of a given network have the same
zeros of transmission, except in certain special cases. For example if (*) has a zero of transmission at s su than y(j), V^lV^s), etc.,
h
k
v2
FIG. IX*
FIG. 12.1*
346
Network

*1
Zx
z3
ZB
Vi
y2
Y<1
^6
FIG.
12.11
will also
s^ This fact is clearly seen when we examine have a zero at s the relationships between the transfer functions. For example, we have
Zi
yuVn.
yn
(12.12)
Vi^ti
(12.13)
and
Vn-
In addition, the voltage- and current-ratio transfer functions can be expressed in terms of the z and y parameters as
Yl
5ll
h Usk
(12.14)
In Chapter 8 we saw that transfer functions that have zeros of transmission only on the jco axis or in the left-half plane are called minimum phase functions. If the function has one or more zeros in the right-half plane, then the function is nonmimimum phase. It will be shown now that
any transfer function of a passive reciprocal ladder network must be minimum phase. Consider the ladder network in Fig. 12.11. The zeros of transmission of the ladder occur at the poles of the series branch impedances or at the zeros of the shunt branch impedances. Since these branch impedances are themselves positive real, the poles and zeros of these impedances cannot be in the right-half plane. Consequently, the transfer functions of ladder networks must be minimum phase. For the network in Fig. 12.12, a transfer function would have two zeros of
FIG. 12.12
347
FIG. 12.13
due to the elements Lx and C8 It would also have a = due to Clt a zero at s = l/Ra Ct due to the parallel R-C branch, and a zero of transmission at s = jULtCtf* due to the L-C tank circuit. It is seen that none of the transmission zeros are in the right-half plane. We also see that a transfer function may
transmission at s
oo
.
zero of transmission at s
possess multiple zeros
on
the ja> axis.
In Section 12.4 it may be seen that lattice and bridge circuits can easily be nonminimum phase. It can also be demonstrated that when two ladder networks are connected in parallel, the resulting structure may have
right-half-plane zeros. 2
12.3
SYNTHESIS OF
AND Zn WITH A
I-S2
TERMINATION
In this section we consider the synthesis of an L-C ladder network with a 1-Q resistive termination to meet a specified transfer impedance Zji or transfer admittance Ytl . In terms of the open- and short-circuit
parameters of the
L-C circuit, Z^C?) can be
expressed as
Zm
and
'21
+
Vn
(12.15)
1
Ytl(s) is
and
I"*-'
12.14.
y
as depicted in Figs. 12.13
(12.16)
i
Before
we proceed with the actual details of the synthesis,
it is
necessary
two important points. The first deals with the ratio of the odd to even or even to odd parts of a Hurwitz polynomial Q(s). Suppose
to discuss
FIG. 12.14
Van Valkenburg,
op.
cit.,
Chapter
11.
348
Q(s)
is
Network
given as
Q(s)
M{s)
+ N(s)
is
(12.17)
where M(s)
is
the even part of Q(s),
and N{s)
the
odd
part.
We know
that the continued fraction expansion of M(s)lN(s) or N(s)IM(s) should yield all positive quotients. These quotients can, in turn, be associated with reactances. Therefore it is clear that the ratio of the even to odd or
the
odd
to even parts of a Hurwitz polynomial
is
an L-C driving-point
function.
The second point to be discussed is the fact that the open-circuit transfer
impedance ztl or the short-circuit transfer admittance yn of an L-C circuit that in an L-C is an odd function. To show this, we must remember 90 out of phase with the circuit with steady-state input, the currents are
voltages.
Thus the phase
voltages or input voltages
shifts between the input currents and output and output currents must be 90 out of phase,
or
Arctan^=Jrad
and
(12.18)
Arctan^=?rad
=
(12.19)
Re j/ 21(;a)) for an L-C network. In order for the so that Re z n (jw) of an L-C two-port real parts to be equal to zero, the functions z and y ai
network must be odd. Suppose, now, that the transfer admittance of two polynomials*
Y21 is given as the quotient

(12.20)
Y11 =
where P(s)
circuit
is
^= ^ +
Q(s)
M{s)
N(s)
either
even or odd.
Now, how do we
determine the shortit
parameters y n and y M from the Eq. 12.20 to get
into the
form
Y" =
The answer
ytl
is
ya
i+y
(12.21)
We divide both the numerator P(s) and the or N(s), the even or the odd part of Q{s). denominator Q(s) by M(s) must be odd, if P(s) is even, we divide by N(s) so that Since
quite simple.
P(s)/N(s)
In
1
(12>22)
[M(s)IN(s)]
349
From this we
obtain
yn
(12.23)
_M(s)
y"
JV(s)
On the
other hand,
if P(s) is
odd,
we
divide
by M(s) so that
y
1
Z(!VMW_ + [tf(s)/M(s)]
M(s)
(12 24)
.
(12.25)
yM
M(5)
We assume that P(s), Mis), and N(s) do not possess common roots. For our purposes, we will consider only the synthesis of Yn or Ztl with zeros
transmission at s
oo. In a ladder network, a zero of of transmission either at s = or s = corresponds to a single capacitor in a series branch or a single inductor in a shunt branch. On the other hand, a zero of oo corresponds to an inductor in a series branch or transmission at s a capacitor in a shunt branch. In terms of the transfer impedance
Zn(s)
= fW =
*('"
-i"-
"i
>
(12 26)
.
implies that the coefficients an_ x , ax , a are all zero. The number of zeros of Z,^) at s = oo is given by the difference between the highest powers of the denominator and the numerator, m n. We know that n can exceed m by at most unity, while m can be greater than n by more than one. For example, , a lt a = 0, we know that the if m n = 2, and n = 3 with _i, and two zeros transfer function has three zeros of transmission at s =
the presence of n zeros of Z, x (.y) at s

a_,
oo. of transmission at s We can now proceed with the matter of synthesis. following example.
Consider the
sr
3s
+ 4s + 2 =
oo.
We
see that all three zeros of transmission are at j

is
Since the
numerator P(s)
a constant,
it
must be even, so we divide by the odd
350
Network
analysis
and synthesis
part of the denominator s*
+ 4s. We then obtain + 4s g 3s + 2 s + 4s

s
i
(12.28)
z as
We see that both zsl and z2g have the

.
same poles. Our task is thus simpliwhere we must synthesize z22 so that the resulting network fied to the point has the transmission zeros of z 21 This requires that we first examine the possible structures of the networks which have the required zeros of transmission and see if we can synthesize z 22 in one of those forms. For the example that we are considering, a network which gives us three zeros of transmission at s = oo is shown in Fig. 12.15. We can synthesize z22 to give us this structure by the following continued fraction expansion
of
l/z 22 .
3j
2)i
4s(ls+-Y
|s
s+
^)3j*
3*
2(&s +-Z
2Ys(is^Y
from the l-2 termination toward the input end, the final network takes the form shown in Fig. 12.16. Examining the network more closely, we see that it takes the form of a low-pass filter.
Since z 22
is
synthesized
Thus the specification of all zeros at s

filter.
oo
is
equivalent to the specification
of a low-pass As a second example, consider the transfer impedance
*>Since the numerator of
,+
<12S)
4.
+2
Zgl
(,s)
is
an odd function, we have to divide both

-ffflHT1
-nRPP-
<D T
FIG. 12.15
FIG. 12.16
351
FIG. 12.17
numerator and denominator by the even part of the denominator so that
*n
=
3s*
-*
+2
* ""
s*
3s*
+ 4s T +2
(12.30)
The network that gives three zeros of transmission

structure
which
is realized
at s = is a high-pass by a continued fraction expansion of M .
The
final realization is
shown
in Fig. 12.17.
Finally, consider the transfer admittance
+ 4s + 2 which has two zeros of transmission at s = 0, and one zero Since the numerator is even, we divide by s* + 4s so that 3s' + 2 y = -rrr s + 4s
s*
Yn(s)
(12.31)
3s*
at s
oo.
(12.32)
~x
as to how we synthesize y a to give a zero of transmission at s oo and two zeros at s 0. First, remember that a parallel inductor gives us a zero of transmission at s 0. We can remove this parallel inductor by removing the pole at s of y n to give
The question remains
Vi
i/ Vu
2s
5s/2 = ~ s* + 4
(12.33)
If we invert ylt we see that we have a series L-C combination, which gives us another transmission zero at s 0, as represented by the f-farad capacitor, and we have the zero of transmission at s oo also when we remove the inductor of f h. The final realization is shown in Fig. 12.18.
H()Vt
2h<
FIG. 12.18
352
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Zn
Network
1Q<
\)
I
(a)
An important point to note in this synthesis procedure is that we must place the last element in series with a voltage source or in parallel with a current source in order for the element to have any effect upon the transfer
function. If the last element
is
denoted as
Zn
then the proper connection
of Z n should be as shown in Fig. 12.19.

12.4
SYNTHESIS OF CONSTANT-RESISTANCE NETWORKS
In this section we will consider the synthesis of constant-resistance twoport networks. They derive their name from the fact that the impedance looking in at either port is a constantresistance R when the other port is terminated in the same resistance R, as depicted Two-port
network
in
Fig.
12.20.
Constant-resistance
net-
works
FIG.
12.20. Constant-resistance
are particularly useful in transfer

synthesis,
because when two networks with the network. same R are connected in tandem, as shown neither network loads down the other. As a result, if the in Fig. 12.21, voltage-ratio transfer function of a is V^V-l and that of b is VJVS the voltage-ratio transfer function of the total network is
function
constant-resistance
Y*Y
(12.34)
Equation 12.34 implies that, if a voltage-ratio transfer function is to be ratio could realized in terms of constant-resistance networks, the voltage
353
t.
*.
Na
V2
+
Nb
R<
FIG.
12.21. Constant-resistance
networks in tandem.
could be be decomposed into a product of simpler voltage ratios, which then connected in tandem. realized as constant-resistance networks, and
For example, suppose our
objective is to realize
K_
Va
K(s
(s
- z)(s - zi)(s - z,) - p )(s - Pi)( - P)

We
can
first
(12.35)
in terms of constant-resistance networks. individual voltage ratios

\\
synthesize the
_ K (s - 2 ) s Po V. = K^s
s
v*
-*i)
Pi
(12.36)
Y*
-zj = Xa(s
s
Vt
as constant-resistance networks
p,
in
and then connect the three networks
tandem to
works,
realize
VhjVa
Although there are many

structures as
different types of constant-resistance net-
we will restrict ourselves to networks of the bridge- and lattice-type

shown
in Figs. 12.22o
i.e.,
and 12.226. These networks are
balanced structures;
the input and output ports do not possess comterminals. Upon a close examination, we see that the bridge and mon The bridge circuit is lattice circuits in Figs. 12.22 are identical circuits. merely the unfolded version of the lattice. Consider the open-circuit
parameters of the bridge circuit in Fig. 12.23.
First
we determine
the
impedance
as
ii
(12.37)
Next we determine the
transfer
impedance zn , which can be expressed as
z ai
= V* ~ V h
*'
(12.38)
354
Network
'.
(a)
+"
(b)
FIG.
12.22. (a) Bridge circuit,
(6) Constant-resistance lattice.
and
is
obtained as follows.
We first obtain the current /' as
r_
Next we
find that
Vi
_h
2
tt
Za + Z b
-
(12.39)
Vt - Vt =
(Zb
- Z )I'
(12.40)
= (Z -Za)|
6
FIG.
12.23. Analysis
of bridge
circuit.
355
so that
^ = Z> ~ Z
us consider the
(12.41)
From
the lattice equivalent of the bridge circuit

lattice circuit that is
we
note that z M
= zu
Now
terminated in a resistance R, as shown in Fig. 12.226. What are the conditions on the open-circuit parameters such that the lattice is a constant-resistance network? In other words, what are the conditions upon z u and z n such that the input impedance of the lattice terminated in the resistor R is also equal to R7
let
In Chapter 9
we found
that the input impedance could be expressed as
Zu
Since z u
= *ii - -SjJ-r Zn + R
(12.42)
= zu for a symmetrical network, we have

Z" "
z 11
+*
(1243)
In order for
Zu
= R, the following condition must hold.

*u*
- zia =
(12.44)
For the
lattice
network,
we then have
iKZ,
which
simplifies to give
+ Z,)* - (Za - Z)] = **

Z^Lb
(12.45)
R*
(12.46)
Therefore, in order for a lattice to be a constant-resistance network,
Eq. 12.46 must hold. Next, let us examine the voltage ratio VjVg of a constant-resistance lattice whose source and load impedances are equal to R (Fig. 12.24). From Chapter 9 we can write
V
z^R
(zu
V9
+ K)(zM + R) - ztfr*
(12.47)
FIG. I2J4. Double-terminated
lattice.
356
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
IS-
which
simplifies to
=
(zn
5*&ii
V.
+ Kf - **i
= __Zt__ 2Rz11 + 2R 2
In terms of the element values of the
V,
V
lattice,
(12.48)
we have
(12.49)
- Za)R R(Z b + Za) + 2R*

l(Z b
From
the constant-resistance condition in Eq. 12.46,

V,
we obtain
UZ b - (RVZh)]R
R[Z b
Vt
(R*/Z)]
+
h
2R a
- R*) + R8) + 2RZ a a _ j(Zt - R ) (Z + R?

KZ
(Z 6a
b
* (Z >
R)
(12.50)
Zb + R
If
In Eq. 12.50, the constant multiplier J comes about from the fact that
the source resistance
R acts as a voltage divider.

G(s)
we
let
^
G as
G(s)]
(12.51)
we can
express
Z6 in Eq.
12.50 in terms of
HP +
"
1-G(5)
In terms of Z, the voltage ratio can be given as
V2 Va
Example
12.1.
1R-Z
2R + Za
let
(12.53)
In the following examples, we will usually
be normalized to unity.
The voltage
ratio is given as
2l=lJlI 2s + 1 V
(12.54)

which, as
357
we
recall, is
an
all-pass transfer function.
By
associating Eq. 12.54
with Eq. 12.50,
we have
Z =>s,
(12.55)
Since
Z^Za =
1,
we then
obtain
Za -s
(12.56)
We see that Z is a 1-h inductor and Za is a 1-farad capacitor.

is
The final network
shown
in Fig. 12.25.
If
FIG. 12.25
Example
12.2.
Let us synthesize the all-pass function
V ~2s +
B
'
s*
+ 2s+2
Since the portion
l 1
(12.57)
whose pole-zero diagram
is
shown
in Fig. 12.26.
Yl
V
has already been synthesized,
let
l s
2s
~ +
us concentrate on synthesizing the function

j* s*
V~
a
First,
Vt
-2s +2
+2s+2
into
(12.58)
we
separate the numerator
and denominator function

(f
2
odd and
even parts. Thus
we have
V*
Va
x
(5*
+ 2) - Is + 2) + 2s
(12.59)
jut
yi
-<T
-1
+1
-fl
FIG. 123*
358
If
Network
analysis
and synthesis
we
divide both numerator
and denominator by the odd part

[(* [(5*
2s,
we
obtain
Vt
We then see that
+ 2)/2t] + 2)/2*] + a* + 2
s
1
(12.60)
1
=2 +I
which consists of a $-h inductor in pedance Z is then
series with
(12.61)
1 -farad
capacitor.
The im-
*-JT5
and
is
(1262)
voltage ratio
recognized as a J-farad capacitor in parallel with a 1-h inductor. The VjVa is thus realized as shown in Fig. 12.27. The structure that
FIG. 12.27
realizes the transfer function
VJVg in Eq. 12.S7 is formed by connecting the networks in Figs. 12.25 and 12.27 in tandem, as shown in Fig. 12.28. Finally, it should be pointed out that constant-resistance lattices can be used to realize other than all-pass networks.
FIG. I2JS
Next,
12.29.
let
If the resistances in the
us consider the constant-resistance bridged-T network in Fig. network are all equal to R ohms, the
if
network has constant-resistance
ZA - *
(12.63)
359
ED
-vwR
Vi
AMr R
Zb
Vt
.*.
FIG. VIM. Constant-resistance bridged-T
circuit.
Under
the constant-resistance assumption, the voltage-ratio transfer
function can be given as

V*
* R + Za
z>
Zt + R
Vx
Exanple 123.
V.
(12.64)
Let us synthesize the voltage ratio

s*
j*+25 +
let
(12.65)
l
as a constant-resistance bridged-T network terminated in a 1-G resistor. First
us write
VJV1 as
V1 Vt
so that
1
1
[2*/(*
(12.66)
1)]
Is
and
Zb
recognize
+l ~ s* + l
*
circuit
(12.67)
(12.68)
We
Za
as a parallel
is
L-C tank
2h
and Z as a
series
L-C
tank
circuit.
The final network
shown
in Fig. 12.30.
r-CH
-a/v\
10
i-vwk
10
:2f
10!
FIG. I2J0
360
Network
12.4.
analysis
and synthesis
Example
Let us synthesize the voltage ratio

Vs
(s
(5
Fx "
in terms of
+ 2X* + 4) + 3X3* + 4)
circuits
(12.69)
two constant-resistance bridged-T
connected in tandem.
At
first,
we break up
the voltage ratio in Eq. 12.69 into two separate voltage
ratios
Va
Vi
S+1 5+3
5
~
(12.70)
+4
and
va
ratio
35+4
(12.71)
For the voltage
VJVi, we have
s
5+3
so that
zbl +
1
(12.72)
1
Zn
+ 2 and
ratio
zal ~5+2
(12.73)
For the voltage
vjva we have
5+4
35+4
AnH
jr_.
1
+zot
25
(12.74)
5+4
(12.75)
FIG.
12.31
361
and
Zha
s
'
+4
(12.76)
2*
The final
synthesized network
is
shown
in Fig. 12.31.
Problems
12.1 Give an example of a network where: (a) a transfer function has multiple zeros on they'to axis; (b) the residue of a pole of a transfer function on thsjo> axis is negative.
12.2
figure.
Show
that the residue condition holds for the networks
shown
in the
lh 'TflHP
af
-o2
10
3h
-o2
lo-
lo-^VVW:io
Hfiq:
l'o(a)
=fc*f
-o2'
l'o(b)
-o2'
PROB.
12.2
123 For the network shown, and plot on a complex plane.
find
by inspection the zeros of transmission
nnnp
ff
in.
.20
lf^=
^=2f
S10
f:
lh
PROB.
12.3
12.4
ln
For the networks in the figure are equal to when ZZt R*.
show
that the driving point impedances
362
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
JC
Vi Zfci-*
s
R
(a)
zb
* *
%
Vi
Zta -ii
*^
v2
PROS.
123 For the networks in Prob.
12.4
12.4, find the voltage-ratio transfer functions
yjvv
12.6
For the network shown
in the figure (a)
show
that
Yl. V
(b) Synthesize
1
.
2+Y
+ 2) + 2s + 2
Ywhen
l\
O.S(*
s*
10
<
V2
PROB.
12.7
(a)
12.4
For the constant-resistance bridged-T circuit, show that if Z

Vt
tt
Zh 1,
then
+za
L_

(b) Synthesize
363
Za and Zh if
_~ _ V
l
s* s*
+3s +
+45* +5j
+2
12.8
Synthesize the following voltage ratios in one of the forms of the
networks in Prob. 12.4

V,
<)
s+2
*
Vl
Vt
2(s*+3)
(e)
Vx " 2** + 2* + 6 3(jr + 0.5) Vt Vx " 4j + 1.5

Synthesize iV with termination resistors /tt
12
=4fi,i?1
~into
give
Yl
V,
12j*
"
15i
+ 7* + 2
PROB. IL9
12.10
For the network
in Prob. 12.9, realize network
Na to give
Yl
F
(a) Synthesize AT. as
_L_
+3
(Jt
1
2 2s
(6) Synthesize AT. as

(c) Synthesize A',
lattice. (R =- 1 n.) a constant-resistance ladder as in Prob. 12.4. as a constant-resistance bridged-T circuit. (R -
a constant-resistance
Q.)
Q.)
12.11
Synthesize the following functions into the form
shown
in the figure
()
s*
+3s* +3s
s
+2
+ +
2
(*)
Z- *
'a
s*
+ +
3s*
+
s*
3s
(c)
3s*
+
s*
3s
id)
Ys*
'
+ 3s* + 3s +2
s*
(e)
(*
+ 2)
364
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
PROB.I2.II
12.12
Synthesize as a constant-resistance lattice terminated in a 1-Q resistor.
()
(b)
-s+1 +s + 1 h ~ s* - 3s + 2 vt s* + 3s +2 via s* - 20s* + 5s Vx(s) ^ s* + 20s* + 5s +

V,
s*
s*
Vx
20 20
12.13
circuits.
Synthesize the functions in Prob. 12.8 as constant-resistance bridged-T
chapter 13
Topics
in filter
design
13.1
THE
FILTER DESIGN
PROBLEM
In the preceding chapters we examined different methods for synthesizing a driving point or transfer function H(s). Most problems have as their initial specification an amplitude or phase characteristic, or an impulse response characteristic instead of the system function H(s). Our problem is to obtain a realizable system function from the given amplitude or phase characteristic. For example, a typical design problem might be to synthesize a network to meet a given low-pass filter characteristic. The specifications might consist of the cutoff frequency m c the maximum allowed deviation from a prescribed amplitude within the pass band, and the rate of fall off in the stop band. We must then construct the system function from the amplitude specification. After we obtain H(s), we proceed with the actual synthesis as described in the Chapter 12. Another problem might consist of designing a low-pass filter with a linear phase characteristic within the pass band. Here, both amplitude and phase are specified. We must construct H(s) to meet both specifications. Problems of this nature fall within the domain of approximation theory. In this chapter we will consider selected topics in approximation theory and then present examples of filter design where both the approximation and the synthesis problems must be solved.
,
13.2
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM NETWORK THEORY

essence of the problem
IN
is the approximation of a given funcby another function/^t; !,..., a) in an interval xx ^ x ^ xt The parameters ax in the approximating function are fixed , <x
The
tion/(rr)
365
366
Network
analysis and s/nthesis
by the
/at*;
1.
<*i
particular error criterion chosen.

When we
let
= f{x)
*n) the following error criteria are

. . .
most common:
Least squares. The value of /(alf
aj is minimized where
and w(x)
intervals.
2.
is
a weighting function which stresses the error in certain subfirst
Maximally flat. The
is
derivatives of e are
made
to vanish
at
x
3.
= *o.
Chebyshev. The value of p
/*
minimized in the interval *i<,x <,xt
where
|lnx-
4. Interpolation.
in the interval x^x
The value of <, xt

.
e is
made
to vanish at a set of n points
is chosen, we must determine the particular approximating function. This depends upon whether we form of the choose to approximate in the time or frequency domain. Suppose /(a;) represents a magnitude function in the frequency domain and the approximating function is to be rational in co*; then
After an error criterion
/(*;
!,..,*)=
(13.1)
where * = to*. In addition, the values of xk must be restricted to insure ^ 0. In the time domain, /(&) might represent an that/ (x; alf , of a system to be synthesized. In the case of an R-C impulse response transfer function, we have
. .
.
fa(x; 04,
where x
...
oc)
**'
oe,
e"*
(13.2)
t.
Since an
negative real axis, the values of
R-C transfer function must have its poles on the <x t , k even, are restricted to negative real
lies in
numbers. The keystone of any approximation problem
the choice of a
suitable error criterion subject to realizability restrictions.
The problem
can be simplified
when some of the
oc's
are assigned before applying the
error criteria. All the error criteria cited, except the Chebyshev, can then be reduced to a set of linear algebraic equations for the unknowns
ii
>
Time-domain approximation The principal problem of time-domain approximation
consists of
approximating an impulse response h(0 by an approximating function
Topics
h*(t) such that the squared error
in filter
design
367
e
is
= ["[fc(0-**(')f *
minimum.
A generally effective procedure in time-domain approximation utilizes orthonormal functions ^(r). 1 The approximating function h*{t) takes
the form
**(0-Z.0 k=l
so that the error
(13.3)
Jo
is
*&(<)] dt
*-i
minimized when
h(t)<f>k (t)dt
.=r
as
l,2,...,n
(13.4)
we saw in Chapter 3. If the orthonormal set is made up of a of exponentials e**', then the approximate impulse response
sum
,ri
(13.4)
*=1
has a transform
#*(*)=!
*=1 s
(13.5)
sk
Realizability is insured if in the
orthonormal
set {a te***},
Re ^
^ 0;
1, 2,
n.
Synthesis then proceeds
from the system function H*(s)
obtained in Eq. 13.S.
Frequency-domain approximation
In frequency-domain approximation
the
principal
rational function H(s)
|/f(/Yu)|
problem is to find a whose magnitude

-1
+1
approximates the ideal low-pass
characteristic in Fig. 13.1 according to
a predetermined error criterion. In the next few sections we examine several
FIG . I3X
acteristic.
Ideal
fihcrchar_
W. H. Kautz, "Transient Synthesis in the Theory, CT-1, No. 3, September 1954, 29-39.
1
Time Domain," IRE
Trans, on Circuit
368
Network
analysis
and synthesis
ideal low-pass:
different
ways to approximate the
the maximally flat or
Butterworth approximation, the equal-ripple or Chebyshev approximation, and the optimal or Legendre approximation. Another major problem is
that of obtaining a transfer function H^s),
linear or whose delay
is
whose phase
:
is
approximately
approximately flat over a given range of frequencies. Here again, there are two different methods the maximally flat or the equal-ripple methods. Our discussion will center around the maximally flat method. The joint problem of approximating both magnitude and
phase over a given frequency range

here.
is
possible, but will not be discussed
13.3
THE MAXIMALLY FLAT LOW-PASS APPROXIMATION

we saw
its
FILTER
In Chapter 10
that the ideal low-pass
filter
in Fig. 13.1
is
not
not zero for t < 0. However, if we use a rational function approximation to this low-pass filter characteristic, the Paley- Wiener criterion will be automatically satisfied. We will therefore restrict ourselves to rational function approxirealizable because
associated impulse response
is
mations.
In low-p.ass filter design, if we assume that all the zeros of the system function are at infinity, the magnitude function takes the general form
where
is
the d-c gain constant and/(2n)
is is
< 13 - 8 )
We see that M(0) =

eo.
K,,,
and that M(a>)
monotonically decreasing with

at to
In addition, the 0.707 or 3-decibel point
for
all n,
that
is,
M(l)
= -^
alln
(13.9)
trols the closeness
is thus seen to be <w = 1. The parameter n conof approximation in both the pass band and the stop band. Curves of M(m) for different n are shown in Fig. 13.2. Observe
The
cutoff frequency
Topics
Radian frequency,
0.1
In filter
design
369
a
0.8
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
5^ ,v
-2
-4
-6
n=3 \
n=5
n
-8
-10
-12
\VV
I*
=7
\\\
-14 -16
-18 -20
-22
^ \
\\
A
\\
\
\
\
\
-24 -26
FIG.
13.2.
Amplitude response of Butterworth low-pass
filters.
that the higher n is, the better the approximation. The amplitude approximation of the type in Eq. 13.8 is called a Butterworth or maximally flat response. The reason for the term "maximally fiat" is that when we expand M(to) in a power series about <o = 0, we have
Jlf(eo)
- Ao(l >
l<o
tn
+ |co 1
A<o"
iêo""
(13.10)
We
(0
see that the first 2n
derivatives of M{o>) are equal to zero at
= 0.
For
1,
the amplitude response of a Butterworth function
can be written as (with Kg normalized to be unity)
M(w) =!
to"
<wl
wrn
is
(13.11)
We observe that asymptotically,
Af(to) falls off as
for a Butterworth
response. In terms of decibels, the asymptotic slope
obtained as
(13.12)
20 log M(co)
= 20/i log <w
370
Network
analysis
and synthesis
falls
Consequently, the amplitude response 6m db/octave or 20n db/decade.
asymptotically at a rate of
transfer function H(s)
One
question remains.
How
do we obtain a
from only the amplitude

follows.
characteristics M(co)l
The procedure
is
as
We first note that the amplitude response M{m) and the complex
M\w) =
H(j<o) H(-jco)
(13.13)
system function H(jco) are related by
If
we
define a
new
function A(s 2) such that

A(s 2)
H(s)
H(-s)
(13.14) (13.15)
we
see that
(<o)
^(-ot) 2)
From A( eo 2) all we need do is to substitute s* = to2 Then we factor A(s2) into the product H(s) H(s). Since
to give (s 2).
the poles
and
zeros of H(s) are the mirror images of the poles and zeros of H(s), we simply choose the Hurwitz factors of A(js) as H(s). An example will serve
to clarify this discussion.
Consider the third-order (n
3)
Butterworth
response given by
JW
\OJ)
+ to
1
(13.16)
(13.17)
"We see that AC?2)

Factoring
(**),
is
(s )
=
1
--(s8)8
1
(13.18)
we obtain
1
=
(**)
2s
2s
s'
2s
2s
s*
= H(s)H(-s)
(13.19)
We then have
if(s)
=
s
1
8
+ +
2s
2s
1
1
l)(s
+ i + A/3/2X* + i - A/3/2)
(13-20)
The poles of #(y) and fT(-*) are shown in Fig. 13.3. Observe that the poles of H(s) are mirror images of the poles of H(s), as given by the theorem on Hurwitz polynomials in the Chapter 2.
Topics
in filter
design
371
HM^.-
-^ f->
FIG.
13.3.
Poles of H(s)
H(-s)
for
an n
= 3 Butterworth filter.
For a Butterworth response, the poles of H(s) H(s) are the roots of
(-1)V B = -1
=
The poles
**-"
0, 1,
In
(13.21)
1
s k are then given

sk
by
e*<-u/ft*
e
i(i/n) '
= =
even
(13.22)
n odd
fc
or simply by
sk
<+'-i>/an] I
= o, 1, 2,
n
,2n
(13.23)
Expressing st as s k
ak
+ ja> k
2n
the real and imaginary parts are given
by
ow
n= cos 2fc + n =
2k
sin
1
ir
=
=
/2fc
I
1\tt
sin
\
l
IT
/2
1 1
(13.24)
+ nIn
ct)v
cos
/2fcI
1\tt
12
It is seen from Eqs. 13.22 and 13.23 that all the poles of H(s) H(s) are located on the unit circle in the s plane, and are symmetrical about both the a and the jco axes. To satisfy readability conditions, we associate the poles in the right-half plane with H(s), and the poles in the left-half
plane with H(s). As an example, consider the construction of an H(s) that gives an n 4 Butterworth response. From Eq. 13.23, it is seen that the poles are given by
st
^(fc+*)/8]
e"
(13.25)
372
H(s)
is
Network
then given as
H($)
=
(S
.)(,
*Xa
e ')(s
i{
(,
(13 26)
"
e>
*>*)
If
we
express sk in complex form
and expand, we obtain
H( s\
(s
2
_
+
1
0.76536s
l)(s*
1.84776s
+
is
(12 27)
1)
To
13.1
simplify the use of Butterworth functions, H(s)
given in Tables
13.27, or
and
13.2 for n
to n
8,
in factored
form as in Eq.
multiplied out as
H(s)
=
a ns
-^
n
fln-xs"-
a ts
(13.28)
1
TABLE
n
1
13.1
Butterworth Polynomials (Factored Form)
2
3
5s
4
5
6
7
+1 + V2s + 1 (**+* + 1)(* + 1) (s2 + 0.76536* + IX** + 1.84776* + 1) 8 2 (* + 1)(* + 0.6180* + IX* + 1.6180* + 1) 2 (** + 0.5176* + IX* + ^2* + IX*2 + 1.9318* + 1) 2 2 2 (* + IX* + 0.4450* + IX* + 1.2456* + IX* + 1.8022* + 1) (s2 + 0.3986s + IX*2 + 1.1110* + IX*2 + 1.6630* + IX*2 + 1.9622* +
TABLE
13.2
1)
Butterworth Polynomials *
n
1
i
1
a*
2
3
V2
2
2.613
2
3.414 5.236 7.464
10.103
4
5
2.613
3.236 3.864
5.236
9.141
3.236 7.464
14.606
25.691
6 7
8
3.864
10.103
4.494
5.126
14.606
4.494
13.138
13.138
21.848
21.848
5.126
Topics
in filter
design
373
13.4
OTHER LOW-PASS
filter
FILTER
APPROXIMATIONS
flat
In Section 13.3,
low-pass
we examined
the maximally
approximation to a
characteristic.
this section.
We
will consider other low-pass filter
approximants in
equal-ripple approximation have seen that the maximally flat approximation to the ideal lowpass filter is best at co 0, whereas, as we approach the cutoff frequency We now <w = l, the approximation becomes progressively poorer. consider an approximation which "ripples" about unity in the pass band and falls off rapidly beyond the cutoff co = 1. The approximation is
The Chebyshev or
We
equally
good
at
co
ripple approximation.
and co = 1, and, as a result is called an equalThe equal-ripple property is brought about by the
<, 1
use of Chebyshev cosine polynomials defined as
= cos (n cos-1 co) = cosh (n cosh-1 co) C^co) = 1 For n = we see that and for n = 1, we have Ci(<*>) = <
C(a>)
|co|
|co|
>
(13.29)
(13.30) (13.31)
Higher order Chebyshev polynomials are obtained through the recursive formula _ (B 32) CJfu) =
^ ^^ ^ ^
1
Thus
for n
= 2, we obtain Cg(co) as Cg(co) = 2<o((o) = 2eo 8 - 1

TABLE
n
1
1
(13.33)
In Table
13.3,
Chebyshev polynomials of orders up to n

13.3
10 are given.
Chebyshev polynomials
Cn(m) = cos (n cos-1 <o)
CO
2
3
2co* 4e3
4
5
6 7 8
9
10
-1 3o> 8a>* - 8a>* + 1 16a> 6 - 20a>8 + 5o> 32o>* - 48<o + 18a>* - 1 64o> 7 - 112a> + 56eo8 - lea 128a>8 - 256w + 160w4 - 32o>* + 1 256o> - 576o7 + 432o) - 120a.8 + 9a> 512a 10 - 1280w8 + 1120a>* - 400eo* + 50* -
374
Network
analysis
and synthesis
FIG.
13.4. C,(co)
and
C,(u>)
Chebyshev polynomials.
The
pertinent properties of Chebyshev polynomials used in the low-pass
filter
approximation are:
1.
The
zeros of the polynomials are located in the interval
|eo|
<, 1,
as seen by the plots of

2.
C3(o))
and
CJio)) in Fig. 13.4.
Within the interval

is,
\w\ <, 1,
1
the absolute value of

for
\co\
CB (co)
never
exceeds unity; that

3.
|C(eo)| <,
\a>\
<, 1.
Beyond
\a>\.
the interval
<
1,
|C(w)| increases rapidly for increasing
values of
filter
the Chebyshev polynomials to the low-pass approximation? Consider the function e 2 C%w), where e is real and and e2 small compared to 1. It is clear that e 2 Cn 2 ((o) will vary between
\u>\
Now, how do we apply
in the interval
e2
1.
Now we
|<w|
add
<,
1.
to this function
1
making
e2,
it 1
C 2(g>). This new function

than unity, for
varies between
and
a quantity
slightly greater
Inverting this function,
we obtain
the function which
we
will associate
with \H(jco)\ 2 ; thus
IHO"))!*
=
1
+ *C n\a>)
is 1/(1
(13.34)
about unity such that the Outside this interval, Cn2(w) becomes very large so that, as to increases, a point will be reached 2 approaches zero very rapidly with where e2 CB2(e>) 1 and \H(jcu)\ further increase in <o. Thus, we see that \H(jw)\ 2 in Eq. 13.34 is indeed a
Within the interval
1
|eo|
<
1,
\H(ja>)\ 2 oscillates
maximum value is
and the minimum
e 2).
approximant for the ideal low-pass filter characteristic. Figure 13.5 shows a Chebyshev approximation to the ideal low-pass <u <, 1, \H{jw)\ ripples filter. We see that within the pass band
suitable
between the value
and (1
e 2 )- -*.
The ripple height or distance between
Topics
in filter
design
375
(l
+ e2) *
-^^-
filter.
FIG.
3.5. Chebyshev approximation to low-pass
maximum and minimum
in the pass
band
is
given as
1
Ripple
=1 =
(!+>"
(13.35)
At
<o
1, |H(;>)| is
\H(jl)\
+ â
1,
(13.36)
because
io k ,
Cn\\) =
e*
1.
is,
In the stop band, that
for
\<o\
as a> increases,
we
reach a point
where
Cn*{(o)
so that
]ff(Mlas-
O)
>
eC n(a>)
0) k
(13.37)
The
loss in decibels is given as
Loss
= -20 log10 H(jm ^ 20 log e + 20 log CB(o)

\
)\
(13.38)
But for large

so that
<w,
CB(co)
Loss
can be approximated by
1
its
_1 leading term 2" <w",
= 20 log e + 20 log 2*- g>" 5 6 = 20 log e + 6(n - 1) + 20/t log a>
(13.39)
376
Network
Chebyshev response also falls off at the rate of 20/i initial drop of 20 log e + 6(n 1) decibels. However, in most applications, e is a very small number so that the 20 log e term is
see that the
We
db/decade after an
actually negative. It is necessary, therefore,
to compensate for this decrease in loss in the stop

cosh 0k
band by choosing a
sufficiently
large n.
From
that
the preceding discussion,
we
see
sinh
0*
a Chebyshev approximation depends upon two variables, e and n, which can be determined from the specifications directly. The maximum permissible ripple puts a bound on e. Once e is determined, any
desired value of attenuation in the stop
band fixes n. The derivation of the system function H(s) from a Chebyshev amplitude approximation \H(jco)\ is somewhat involved and
not be given here. 2 Instead, we will simply give the results of such a derivation.
will
First
we
introduce a design parameter.
FIG. 13.6. Locus of poles of Chebshev filter.

fih
- sinh
n
(13.40)
where n
is
the degree of the Chebyshev polynomial
controlling ripple width.
approximant H(s) are
and e is the factor The poles, sk = ak + jcok of the equal-ripple located on an ellipse in the s plane, given by
,
sinh
a
/S fc
cok
=
/?*
(13.41)
cosh*
The major semiaxis of the ellipse is on the jco axis and has a value co = cosh pk The minor semiaxis has a value a = sirih(ik and the foci are at co = 1 (Fig. 13.6). The half-power point of the equal-ripple
. ,
amplitude response occurs at the point where the ellipse intersects theêo cosh fik . Recall that for the Butterworth response, the axis, i.e., at co half-power point occurs at co = 1. Let us normalize the Chebyshev poles 1 instead of at co sk such that the half-power point also falls at co cosh fi k ; i.e., let us choose a normalizing factor, cosh P k , such that the
Interested parties are referred to

Synthesis,
M.
E.
Van Valkenburg,
Introduction to
13.
Modern
Network
John Wiley and Sons,
New
York, 1960, Chapter
Topics
in filter
design
377
normalized pole locations
s' t
are given by
cosh
(th
cosh
/?*
cosh
= <**+./>*
The normalized pole
locations can be derived as
/2fc
<r't
u = tanh & sin
- lW
^j
(13.43)
a>t
= cos ^__j_
/2fc-lW
Comparing the normalized Chebyshev pole locations with the Butterworth
we see that the imaginary parts are the same, while the real part a' k of the Chebyshev pole location is equal to the real part of the Butterworth poles times the factor tanh /3. For example, with 0.444, the Butterworth poles are n 3 and tanh /?,.
pole locations in Eq. 13.24,
*i- -1 +J0
j23
_0.5 /0.866
so that the normalized Chebyshev poles are given by
4 --1(0.444)+ JO
=
szs
-0.444
+;0
=
=
-0.5(0.444) ;0.866
-0.222 y0.866
Chebyshev
poles,
Finally, to obtain the denormalized

s' k
we simply
multiply
by cosh
/3 t that
,
is,
Sk
(a\
+ /',) cosh &
(1 3.44)
There is an easier geometrical method to obtain the Chebyshev poles, given only the semiaxis information and the degree n. First we draw two circles, the smaller of radius sinh /?* and the larger of radius cosh /? as
378
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
Butterworth pole locus
Chebyshev
pole locus
FIG.
13.7.
Chebyshev
filter
poles.
shown in
Fig. 13.7. Next,
we draw
radial lines according to the angles of

Finally,
the Butterworth poles (Eq. 13.22) as shown.
we draw
vertical
dashed lines from the intersections of the smaller circle and the radial lines, and horizontal dashed lines from the intersections of the large circle and the radial lines. The Chebyshev poles are located at the intersection of the vertical and horizontal dashed lines, as shown in Fig. 13.7. Consider the following example. We would like to obtain a system function H(s) that exhibits a Chebyshev characteristic with not more than
1 -decibel
ripple in the pass
band and is down
at least
20 decibels at
to
w=
2.
When we design for

down
1
1-decibel ripple,
we know
that at
1,
\H(j\)\ is
decibel so that
20 log
\H(jl)\
=
1
20 log -t-zu
'(!+)*
0.891
= -1
134 5)
We then obtain
(1
* ) e
1A
(13.46)
and
0.509
(13.47)
specification.
Our next
task
is
to find n
From
Eq. 13.39 the loss
from the 20 decibels at m = 2 can be given as approximately

1)
20
Solving for ,
fied.
^ 20 log 0.509 + 6(n =

2.65. Since
20 log 2
(13.48)
we obtain
With the specification of n and e, Our next task is to determine
n must be an integer, we let n = 3. the pole locations are completely specithese pole locations.
First
we must
Topics
find
in filter
design
379
Pk
From
Eq. 13.40
we have
e
1
(13.49)
= I sinh"
1.965
0.476
In order to find the normalized Chebyshev poles from the Butterworth poles, we must first determine tanh fik Here we have
.
tanh
pk
tanh 0.476
= 0.443
(13.50)
From Table
13.1, the
*!
3 Butterworth poles are

s 23
-1.0,
-0.5 y0.866
(13.51)
Multiplying the real parts of these poles by 0.443, we obtain the normalized
Chebyshev
poles.
s\
-0.443,
s' 2S
-0.222 /0.866
Finally, the denormalized Chebyshev poles are obtained by multiplying the normalized ones by cosh (ik 1.1155 so that the denormalized poles are sx -0.494 and $2S -0.249 /0.972.
H(s)
is
then
H(s)
=
(s
^02
+ 0.494)(s + 0.249 - ;0.972)(s + 0.249 +

0.502
/0.972)
(13.52) v '
=
s*
0.992s*
1.255s
0.502
In Fig. 13.8, the amplitude responses of the Chebyshev and an n Butterworth filter are shown.
cutoff with Chebyshev niters, the following can be said. The Butterworth response is a maximally flat, monotonic response, whereas the Chebyshev response is equal ripple in the pass band. In the stop band, the Chebyshev response falls off more rapidly than the Butterworth (except when e is very, very small). In this respect, the Chebyshev filter is a better filter than the Butterworth. However, as we shall see in Section 13.5, the transient response of the Chebyshev filter is very poor. If we require sharp cutoff characteristics for a given degree n, however, the Butterworth filter is quite unsatisfactory. In 1958, Papoulis 8 proposed
Monotonic
filters
with
optimum
filters
In comparing Butterworth
A. Papoulis, "Optimum
1958, pp. 606-409.
Filters with
Monotonic Response," Proc. IRE, 46, No.
3,
March
380
Network
0.1
analysis
and synthesis
Radian frequency,
o>
02
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
iI
-1
'-;>< \
i
\
4
5 6 =
-\\
\\
Amplitude response of n
\ \
-/
Chebyshev
filter
with
-8 9
-10
1.0-db ripple
in
pass band
Buttterworth respons>e (n
3)
\\
\\
\\
11
\\
12 13
-14
FIG.
13.8.
Amplitude response of n
(n
band and Butterworth response
= 3 Chebyshev filter with 1.0-decibel ripple in pass = 3).

"L"
filters,
a class of filters called Optimum or

properties:
1.
which have the following
2.
The amplitude response is monotonic. The fall-off rate at m cutoff is the greatest possible,
if monotonicity is
assumed.
3.
The
zeros of the system function of the
L filter
are all at infinity.
Recall that the magnitude response of a low-pass infinity can be expressed as
filter
with
all
zeros at
M(o>)
=
[1
(13.53)
+JV)l*
L filter by
(13.54)
L(ft> 8)
Let us denote the polynomial generating the

/(>*)
Topics
in filter
design
381
The polynomial
(a)
Ln(mx) has the following properties:

LJO)
(b)
= L(l) =
(0
^^0
dco
2 >
dL
0
Properties a, b
>
=M
(M maximum)
dco
and c are the same as for the Butterworth generating polynomial/^*) = to2 ". Property c insures that the response M(a>) is monotonic and property d requires that the slope of L n(caP) at tu = 1 be the
steepest to insure sharpest cutoff.
Papoulis originally derived the generating equation for the polynomials
Ln (for n
odd) to be
Ln((ot)=
a<p<(a;)
dx
(13,55)
Llo
where n = 2k 4 first kind
and the PJx) are the Legendre polynomials of the
=1 P^x) = x P2(x) = K3* - 1) P9(x) = i(5x* - 3x)

/>,>(*)
2
(1356)
and the constants

a
a, are given
by
===
3 5
=
2k
= 1=
1
V2(fc
(13.57)
1)
Later Papoulis 6 and, independently, Fukada,' showed that the evenordered L n polynomials can be given by
rim*-!
r
(*
-|
(a>8)
-J
1)[2>
*>(*)]
dx
(13.58)
2k
E. Jahnke and F. Emde, Tables of Functions, Dover Publications, New York, 1945. A. Papoulis, "On Monotonic Response Filters," Proc. IRE, 47, February 1959,
332-333.
M. Fukada, "Optimum
IRE, CT-6, No.
3,
Trans.
Filters of Even Orders with Monotonic Response," September 1959, 277-281.
382
Network
where the constants at are given by: Case 1 (k even)

a
2fc
a*
1
1
V(fc
l)(fc
(13.59)
2)
M=
a*
V(fc
Case 2 (k odd):
3
flo
+l ==.* = = 2
7
2fc
l)(k
+ =
2)
(13.60)
Fukada tabulated the

dLjai^ldco evaluated at
the cutoff. This
is
LB(w 2)
to
polynomials up to n
7 together with
to give an indication of the steepness of
shown
in Table 13.4.
To
obtain the system function H(s) for the
L filter, we must
factor the
equation for his2) and choose the Hurwitz factors as H(s).

(13.61)
For example, for n
3,
the magnitude response squared
is
M\a>)
=
1
+ +
L^co*)
(13.62)
1
a>*
3>
3eo
Substituting
<w = s we obtain 2 = ) = H(s) H(-s)

2 2
,
1
1
fc(s
s*
3s
(13.63)
35*
TABLE
L(a> 2
)
13.4
Polynomials
Ln(a>2)
CO*
dLn(l) dm
4
8 12
18
- 3o>4 + <u2 4 6eo 8 - 6o>* + 3to 10 - 40a>8 20o + 28a>8 - 8a>4 + to2 12 - 120a> 10 + 105e8 - 40w* + 6o>4 50to 10 - 355o>8 + 105a> 175*o M - 525a> + 615>
3o>8
24
-15eo4
a)
32
Topics
Frequency, rad/sec
0.1
in filter
design
383
02
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
-2
-4
Amplitude i esponsecrf OpB mum vers Butbsrworth fit ers
-6 -8
tf-10
Frequency 0.6 0.8
\\
\\
\\
\\
i
|-12
-14 -16
0.4
0.5
1.0
1.2
\ \
y
\
\\
-1.0
\\ \\
\
\ \
-18 -20 -22

Explanded
ft-
\ \
\
-24 -26
FIG.
13.9.
scale
\ A
\\
filters
Amplitude response of Optimum versus Butterworth
After
we
factor A(s*),
we
obtain
0.577
s*
if(s)
1.31s
1.359s
+ 0.577
(13.64)
where the numerator factor, 0.577, is chosen to let the d-c gain be unity. poles of H(s) are sx = -0.62; s2>3 = -0.345 ;0.901. The amplitude response of third-order Optimum (L) and Butterworth niters are compared in Fig. 13.9 Note that the amplitude response of the Optimum filter is not maximally flat, although still monotonic. However, the cutoff characteristic of the Optimum filter is sharper than the cutoff of the
The
Butterworth
filter.
Linear phase filters Suppose a system function
is
given by
H(s)
= Ke~'T
Then
(13.65)
where
K is a positive real constant.

H{jm)
the frequency response of the
system can be expressed as
Ke-"" T
(13.66)
384
Network
so that the amplitude response M(<co) is a constant K,
and the phase
re-
sponse
#w)
is linear
= -mT
to
(13.67)
in
co.
The response of such a system

{e(t),
an excitation denoted by
the transform pair
E(s)} is
R(s)
= K E(s)e-' T
can be written as
(13.68)
so that the inverse transform
r(t)
KO-c-W)]
= Ke(t T)u(t
(1369)
T)
T,
We see that the response r(t) is simply the excitation delayed by a time
and multiplied by a constant. Thus no
signal distortion results
from
transmission through a system described by H(s) in Eq. 13.65. We note further that the delay T can be obtained by differentiating the phase
response
<f>((o),
by
<u;
that
is,
Delay
_ - f^2> - r
dco
(13.70)
Consequently, in a system with linear phase, the delay of the system is obtained by differentiating the phase response #co). system with linear phase and constant amplitude is obviously desirable from a pulse transmission viewpoint. However, the system function H(s)
in Eq. 13.65
is
a delay
line.
only realizable in terms of a lossless transmission line called If we require that the transmission network be made up of
lumped elements, then we must approximate H(s) function in s. The approximation method we
due to Thomson. 7
= Ke~ ,T by
a rational
shall describe here is
We can write H(s) as
(13.71)
o
sinh
sT + cosh sT
Let the delay T be normalized to where K is chosen such that H(0) and denominator of H(s) by sinh s unity and let us divide both numerator
=1.
to obtain
Kjsmhs
coth
'
(13?2)
W.
E.
Thomson, "Network with Maximally
Flat Delay," Wireless Engrg., 29, Oct.
1952, 256-263.
Topics
If sinh s
in filter
design
385
and cosh * are expanded

coshs
in
power
series,
we have
---
s* s* s* = l+- + - + - +
.' 6
s s sinh5- S + - + - + - +
s
,'
(1373)
'--
From these series expansions, we

sion of coth s as
then obtain a continued fraction expan-
coth
=-+
S
3
s
+
5
~*
(13.74)
z+...
5
If the continued fraction is terminated in
n terms, then H(s) can be
written as
where
Bn(s) are f?es.>/ polynomials defined by the formulas

2*0=1
Bt = s+1
2?
(13.76)
- (2/i - 1)3^ + s*Bn_t

obtain
From these
formulas,
we
if,
= s* + 3s + 3 2?, = j + 6s* + 15s +
(13.77)
15
Higher order Bessel polynomials are given in Table 13.5, and the roots of Bessel polynomials are given in Table 13.6. Note that the roots are all in the left-half plane. A more extensive table of roots of Bessel polynomi8 als is given by Orchard. The amplitude and phase response of a system function employing an unnormalized third-order Bessel polynomial
Ms)
W=
s*
6s*
^ +
15s
(13.78)
15
H. J. Orchard, "The Roots of Maximally Flat Delay Polynomials" on Circuit Theory, CT-12 No. 3, September 1965, 452-454.
IEEE Trans,
386
Network
analysis
and synthesis
TABLE
13.5
Coefficients of Bessel Polynomials
bo
h
1 1 1
b*
bt
b7
2
3
15
15
4
5
105
105
945
10,395
945
10,395
6 45 420
4,725
10
105
1,260
15
6 7
210
3,150
21
135,135
135,135
62,370
17,325
378
28
are given by the solid lines in Figs. 13.10 and 13.11. These are compared with the amplitude and phase of an unnormalized third-order Butterworth function given by the dotted lines. Note that the phase response of the constant-delay function is more linear than the phase of the Butterworth function. Also, the amplitude cutoff of the constant-delay curve is more
gradual than that of the Butterworth.
TABLE
13.6
Roots of Bessel Polynomials
Roots of Bessel Polynomials

1
2
3
-1.0 +y0 -1.5 y0.866025 [-2.32219 +y0 1.83891 yl.75438 i / -2.89621 y0.86723 \ -2.10379 y2.65742
-3.64674 +j0 -3.35196 yl.74266 [-2.32467 /3.57102
C
-4.24836 y0.86751 -3.73571 /2.62627 -2.51593 y4.49267
-4.97179 +j0 -4.75829 yl .73929 -4.07014 y3.51717 1-2.68568 y5.42069

r
i
Topics
Frequency, rad/sec 0.6 0.8 1
in filter
design
387
0.1
0.2
0.4
6 7
-2 -4 -6 -8
,-10
\
V
>^
\
\
\
\
-Bessel
B it* srv fO rth
h
!
\ \
-14
\
\
-16 -18
\ \
<
V
\
-20
-22
\
\
\
\
\
-24
-26
FIG. 13.10. Amplitude response of n
\ \
= 3 Bessel and Butterworth filters.
Frequency, rad/sec
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
FIG.
13.1 1.
Phase responses of low-pass
filters.
388
Network
analysis
and synthesis
13.5
TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF LOW-PASS FILTERS

we
will
In this section
compare the
transient response of the filters
discussed in Section 13.4. In particular,
we will compare the step response

defined here as
to
of the niters according to the following figures of merit:

1.
Rise time
The
rise
time of the step response
is
the time required for the step response to rise

final value as depicted in Fig. 13.12.
2. Ringing.
from 10%
90%
of
its
Ringing is an oscillatory transient occurring in the response of a filter as a result of a sudden change in input (such as a step). quantitative measure of the ringing in a step response is given by its
settling time.
3. Settling time.
The
settling
time
is
that time
t,
step response does not differ
from the
final
value by
beyond which the more than 2%,
as depicted in Fig. 13.12.
Delay time is the time which the step response of its final value as shown in Fig. 13.12. 5. Overshoot. The overshoot of the step response is defined as the difference between the peak value and the final value of the step response
4.
Delay time,
requires to reach
50%
(see Fig. 13.12) expressed as
a percentage of the
final value.
10
12
sec
ta
Time
t,
FIC.
tB
13.12. Figures of merit for step response.
= rise
time;
/.
setting time;
delay time.
Topics
in filter
design
389
Most of the foregoing figures of merit are related to frequency response, particularly bandwidth and phase linearity. Some of the quantities, such
related to each other but have Let us examine qualitatively the relationships between the transient response criteria just cited and
as rise time
and delay time are intimately
rather tenuous ties with overshoot.
frequency response. Rise time and bandwidth have an inverse relationship in a filter. The wider the bandwidth, the smaller the rise time; the narrower the bandwidth, the longer the rise time. Physically, the inverse relationship could
frequencies slows
be explained by noting that the limited performance of the filter at high down the abrupt rise in voltage of the step and prolongs the rise time. Thus we have
TB X
BW = Constant
(13.79)
Rise time is a particularly important criterion in pulse transmission. In an article on data transmission,* it was shown that in transmitting a pulse
of width 7\ through a system with adjustable bandwidths, the following results were obtained:
Bandwidth
(/.
Rise Time
(milliseconds)
- UTJ
f.
2/
3/c
0.5
0.25
0.16 0.12 0.10
4/
y.
The
table
shows a
definite inverse relationship
between
rise
time and
or
bandwidth.
definition of time delay
is
given by Elmore as the
first
moment
centroid of the impulse response

Jo -r
t
h{t) dt
(13.80)
provided the step response has little or no overshoot. Elmore's definitio of rise time is given as the second moment
TB
= \2nj\t - TDf h(t) a]
(13.81)
R. T. James, "Data TransmissionThe Art of Moving Information," Spectrum, January 1965, 65-83.
IEEE
390
Network
These definitions are useful because we can obtain rise time and delay time directly
from the coefficients of the system function H(s). Without going into the proof, which is in Elmore and Sands, 10 if H(s) is given as
His)
FIG.
13.13.
=
bl
1 1
R-C network.
+ lS + a *s2 + + b s + 6js +
2 x
'
+ a*s n + b ns m
(13.82)
(13.83)
the time delay
TD i%
is
TD =
{2tt[V
ax
and the
rise
time
TR =
For the R-C network
af
2(a 2
is
- b )]}*
2
(13.84)
in Fig. 13.13, H(s)
H(s)
so that
V(s)
I(s)
1
sRC
(13.85)
TD = RC_ TB = yJlnRC
(13.86)
It
should be emphasized that Elmore's definitions are restricted to step
responses without overshoot because of the moment definition. The more general definition of rise time is the 10-90% one cited earlier, which has
no formal mathematical
Overshoot
excess gain
is
definition.
generally caused
by "excess" gain
at high frequencies.
By
we normally mean a magnitude
characteristic with a
peak
such as the shunt peaked response shown by the dashed curve in Fig. 13.14. A magnitude characteristic with no overshoot is the magnitude
characteristic of
an R-C interstage shown by the
solid curve in Fig. 13.14.
Log frequency
FIG.
10
13.14.
Comparison of shunt-peaked and simple R-C magnitudes.

Series,
V,
1,
W. C. Elmore and M. Sands, Electronics, National Nuclear Energy McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1949, pp. 137-138.
Div.
Topics
1.2 1.1
in filter design
391
1.0
0.9
?0.8
N E
=5 0.7
5 c
0.6
0.5
In
0.3
0.2
0.1
f 6.4
I
J 3 ~A> = 7/il=lo"
10
12
sec
14
16
18
20
Time
t,
FIG.
13.15.
Step response of normalized Butterworth low-pass
filters.
The step responses of the n = 3, n = 7, and n = 10 Butterworth filters are shown in Fig. 13.15. Note that as n increases, the overshoot increases.
This
characteristics
because the higher order Butterworth niters have flatter magnitude (i.e., there is more gain at frequencies just below the cutoff). Ringing is due to sharp cutoff in the filter magnitude response, and is accentuated by a rising gain characteristic preceding the discontinuity.
is
an n = 3 Bessel (linear phase) filter is compared an n = 3 Chebyshev filter with 1-decibel ripple in Fig. 13.16. We cannot compare their rise times since the bandwidths of the two filters have not been adjusted to be equal. However, we can compare their ringing and settling times. The Chebyshev filter has a sharper cutoff, and therefore has more ringing and longer settling time than the Bessel filter. Note also the negligible overshoot of the Bessel
The
step response of
to the response of
filter
that
is characteristic
of the entire class of Bessel

filter is
filters.
The
phase
decision as to which
best depends
upon
the particular
situation.
is
In certain applications, such as for transmission of music, not important. In these cases, the sharpness of cutoff may be the
dominant factor so that the Chebyshev or the Optimum filter is better than the others. Suppose we were dealing with a pulse transmission
system with the requirement that the output sequence have approximately the same shape as the input sequence, except for a time delay of T Tt Tx , as shown in Fig. 13.17a. It is clear that a filter with a long rise
time
is
not suitable, because the pulses would "smear" over each other
392
1.1
Network
analysis
and synthesis
1.0
/
t t
1
1
'
0.9
0.8 0.7
S 0.6
/
!
^ ^ s
0.5 a nr.
3 Bessel fitter -Step response of n -Step response of n 3 Chebyshev filter with 1-db ripple
<0.4
0.3 0.2
0.1
/
1
|
~r
1
ly
10
Time, sec
12
14
16
18
20
FIG. 13.16. Comparison of filter transient responses.
System
with short
rise
and
settling
Ti
Input pulse train
ALA
T2
Output pulse
train
times
(a)
System
with long
rise
and
Output pulse train
settling
Ti
Input pulse train
times
(b)
FIG. 13.17. Smearing of pulses in systems with long
rise
and
setting times.
as seen in Fig. 13.176. The same can be said for long settling times. Since a pulse transmission system must have linear phase to insure undistorted harmonic reconstruction at the receiver, the best filter for the
system
13.6
is
a linear phase
filter
with small
rise
and
settling times.
A METHOD TO REDUCE OVERSHOOT

present here a
IN FILTERS
method to reduce the overshoot and ringing of a filter filter step response. The step response of a tenth-order Butterworth seen that the overshoot is about 18%. We is shown in Fig. 13.18. It is
We
Topics
in filter design
393
\2
1.0
0.8
tep re sponsc
I I
0.6
0.4
/
/
1
02
.'
Second
derivative
\
\
\
r /
10 12 Time t, sec
14
"^ ^>
16
-1.2
18
20
FIG. 13.18
note that after the
first
peak, the ringing of the step response has an
approximate sinusoidal waveshape. Let us now consider the second derivative of the step response shown by the dashed curve in Fig. 13.18. Beyond the first peak of the step response, the second derivative is also
(approximately) sinusoidal, and
greater than unity,
is
negative
when
the step response

is less
is
than unity. If we add the second derivative to the step response, we reduce the overshoot and ringing. 11 Suppose a(0 is the step response and H(s) is the system function of the
and
positive
when
the step response
filter.
The
corrected step response can be written as
a1(0
= (0 +
^
Xs
L>
(13.87)
where K is a real, positive constant. Taking the Laplace transform of Eq. 13.87, we have
tW*)]
L
(13.88)
s
H(s)
11
F. F.
Theory, CI-9,
Kuo, "A Method to Reduce Overshoot No. 4, December 1962, 413-414.
in Filters," Trans.
IRE on
Circuit
394
1.2
Network
1.0
/%
k i.
'
--.
^-.^
0.8
lo.6
E <
0.4
Tenth order Butterworth

Zeros at Zeros at
a)
= i
1.0
1.5
a>= *
7
0.2
y/f
Jl
Jtt
12 10 Time t, sec
14
16
18
20
FIG. 13.19
From
s
Eq. 13.88
we
see that
by adding a pair of zeros on the jm
axis at
//v K, the overshoot and ringing are reduced.

niters, the factor
the bandwidth of the system.
l/\K must in general be greater than For normalized Butterworth filters the bandwidth is co = 1 so that K <, 1. The factor AT also controls the amount of overshoot reduction. If K is too small, adding the zeros on they'co axis
For low-pass
-o -2 -4
-6 -8
-10
.o -o
-12
"
c -14
<3
_i 6
-18
-20
-22
Tenth order Butterworth Zeros at co = t 1.0 Zeros at w = * 1.5 Zeros at co = 1.8: with original bandwidth also equal to 1.8
-24
-26 -28
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8 1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
Radian frequency,
FIG. 13.20
Topics
in filter
design
395
will have negligible effect. Therefore the zeros should be added somewhere near the band edge. Figure 13.19 shows the effects of adding zeros at <w = 1 (i.e., right at the band edge), and at m = 1.5. We see that the further away the zeros are placed from the band edge, the less
they will have. The addition of the zeros will decrease the 3-decibel bandwidth of the filter, however, as seen in Fig. 13.20. Therefore, a
effect
compromise must be reached between reduction

reduction in overshoot.
in
bandwidth and
An effective way to overcome this difficulty is to scale up the bandwidth by a factor of, for example, 1.8. Then the zeros are placed at co = 1.8, which will reduce the 3-decibel bandwidth to approximately its original figure <w = 1.0, as shown in Fig. 13.20. The overshoot, however, will be reduced as though the zeros were at the band edge.
13.7
A MAXIMALLY FLAT DELAY AND CONTROLLABLE MAGNITUDE APPROXIMATION

we
will
examine an interesting result, which is due to phase approximation with controllable magnitude. In Section 13.4 we discussed approximation of a flat delay using Bessel polynomials. The resulting rational approximant was an all-pole function (all transmission zeros at s = oo), whose denominator was a Bessel polynomial. There was no control of the magnitude using the all-pole approximant. In Budak' s method the magnitude is controllable, while the phase is as linear as the standard Bessel approxiIn this section
Budak. 1 * The
result deals with linear
mation.
split e~~* into
Budak's approximation is obtained by introducing the parameter k to two parts such that
*-
= pSr.
<
<. 1
(13.89)
and then approximate independently c-** and e~lk~lU with all-pole Bessel polynomial approximations. Thus the resulting approximation for e~* will have Bessel polynomials for both numerator and denominator. The poles of the e~ * -1) ' approximant will be the zeros in the final approximant,
(
while the poles of the e~** approximant remain as poles in the final
approximant. For realizability, the degree of the c- <t-1) * approximant should be less than the degree of the e ** approximant.
11
A. Budak,
"A Maximally Flat Phase and Controllable Magnitude Approximation,"

Circuit Theory,
Trans,
of IEEE on
CT-12, No.
2,
June 1965, 279.
396
M(o>)
1.0
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
A0
T* -0.6
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.7^
ft
0.6
-1.0
0.6
(Bessel)"^
A=1.0_
0.4 0.4
k-
0,8-
02
0.2
km 0.7-j^ *-0.6tC
3
(b)
3
(a)
FIG.
13.21
As an example,
poles.
consider the approximation with three zeros and four
105
(ks)*
10(fcs)
+ 45(fcs)* +
15
105(jfcs)
(13.90)
105
g-tt-i).^
[(fe
l)sf
6[(fc
l)s]
15[(ik
l)s]
(13.91)
15
We
then perform the operations as indicated by Eq. 13.89 to obtain
-._ 7{[(fc -
1)5]'
6[(k
3
(ks)*
10(fcs)
- l)s] + 15[(fe - l)s] + 15} + 45(fcs) + 105(Jb) + 105
as a parameter.
In Fig. 13.21a the magnitude characteristic of Eq. 13.92 is plotted with The phase characteristic is given in terms of deviation
of phase from linearity A<f> = eo <(co) and is shown in Fig. 13.216. The improvement in phase linearity over the all-pole Bessel approximation k = 1 is shown by these curves. Note as the bandwidth is increased
(A:
decreasing), phase linearity is improved.

A:
Figure 13.22 shows the step

Since the effect of
response of Eq. 13.92 also with

decreasing
as a parameter.
increases bandwidth, the corresponding effect in the time
domain is to decrease rise time. Budak also observes that as k decreases from unity, the poles and zeros migrate to keep the phase linear. The zeros move inward from infinity
along radial
lines,
while the poles
move outward along
radial lines.
Topics
l.l
in filter
design
397
1.0
k> 0.6-
0.9
0.8
*>0.7-
-km
0.7
).8
0.6
_*-1.0
(Bessel)
0.5
%
0.4
0.3
02
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0,2
02
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
t
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
FIG. 13.22
13.8
SYNTHESIS OF LOW-PASS FILTERS
Given the system function of the low-pass filter as derived by the methods described in Section 13.4, we can proceed with the synthesis of the filter network. If we consider the class of filters terminated in a 1-Q load, and if we let the system function be a transfer impedance,
Z(s)
= -â1
(13.93)
or a transfer admittance
Yn(s) =
(13.94)
we can synthesize the low-pass filter according to methods given in Chapter 12. For example, consider the n = 3 Optimum (L) filter function
398
Network
analysis
and synthesis
given as a transfer impedance
Z21W
=
s
0.577
8
+
s3
1.31s
1.359s
(13.95)
0.577
We see that the zeros of transmission are all at infinity.

ator of
Z21
is
even,
we
divide both numerator
Since the numerand denominator by the
odd part of the denominator

Za
+
s
8
1.359*.
Thus we have
0.577
+
s
1.359s
8
Z S2
1.31s
s
0.577
(13.96)
1.359s
The
structure of the low-pass
filter
with three zeros of transmission at
infinity is given in
Chapter
12.
We
must synthesize
to give the
it
reactance structure. This
we
:
accomplish through the following continued
fraction expansion of l/ 22
1.31s 2
+ 0.577 )ss + 1.359s (0.763s s8 + 0.440s

0.919s ) 1.31s8
1.31s
8
+ 0.577 ( 1.415s
0.577) 0.919s ( 1 .593s
0.919s
The optimum filter is shown in Fig.

given by the transfer impedance
13.23.
For the n
= 3 Butterworth filter
Z2l(s)
~ss +
+
2s
2s
+ 2s-rl
-t 7T7s
,.
(13.97)
8
we have
z n (s)
=
s
2s
(13.98)
We
then synthesize M (s) by a continued fraction expansion to give the
filter
shown
in Fig. 13.23.
(a)
Optimum
filter
(b) Butterworth
filter
FIG. 13.23
Topics in
filter
design
399
c7 :i
>ia v2
FIG. 13.24. Canonical form for
niters described in
Tables 13.7, 13.8, and 13.9.
In Tables 13.7, 13.8, 13.9 are listed element values (up to n

single-terminated Butterworth, Chebyshev (1-decibel ripple),
filters,
7) for
and Bessel
respectively. 13
These apply to the canonical realization for a
transfer
desired,
impedance
Z21(s)
shown
all
in Fig. 13.24.
If a
Y21(s)
realization is
we
simply replace
shunt capacitors by
all
series inductors
and
vice versa.
The element values

filters.
carry over.
In Chapter 14,
terminated
voltage-ratio
we will consider some examples of synthesis of double To stimulate the curiosity of the reader, note that the transfer function V2 jV of the network in Fig. 13.25 is
precisely the n
3 Butterworth function.
Recall that in Chapter 12,

dividual system functions
when we cascaded two
constant-resistance
in-
networks, the overall system function
(s)
was the product of the
can apply this property to networks which are not constant-resistance if we place an isolation amplifier between the networks, as shown in Fig. 13.26. Since pentodes provide the necessary isolation, our task is simplified to the design of the individual structures H^s), 2 (s), n (s), which we call interstage networks.
t (s)
2 (s).
We
shown in Fig. 13.27. In Fig. a structure known as the shunt-peaked network is shown. The transfer impedance of the shunt-peaked network is
interstage structures are
1 3.27a
Some common
Za(s)
1 =-
RjL
(13.99)
Cs 2 + sR/L+(llLC)
FIG. 13.25. n
3 double-terminated Butterworth
filter.
u More extensive tables are given in L.

and Synthesis, Chapter
13,
Weinberg's excellent book, Network Analysis
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962.
400
Network
analysis
and synthesis
TABLE
13.7
Normalized Element Values for a Single Terminated Butterworth Filter
n
1
Cx
1.000
Lt
c,
L*
Lt
C7
2
3
0.707
1.414
1.333
0.500
0.383
1.500
1.577
1.531
4
5
1.082
0.309 0.259 0.222
0.894
0.758
1.382
1.202 1.055
1.694
1.553
1.545 1.759
1.553
6
7
0.656
1.397
1.659
1.799
1.558
TABLE
13.8
Normalized Element Values for a Single Terminated Chebyshev Filter with l-db Ripple
Cx
1
L,
C,
L4
Cs
0.509
0.911 1.012
2
3
0.996
1.333
1.413
1.509 1.909 1.994 1.282

1.591 1.651
4
5
1.050
1.067 1.077
1.083
1.444
1.665
6
7
1.460
1.496
2.027
2.049
2.119
1.346
1.649 1.712
2.044
1.674
TABLE
13.9
Normalized Element Values for a Single Terminated

Bessel Filter
n
1
Q
1.000
Lt
c,
Z*
c.
A.
2
3
0.333
0.167
1.000
0.480
0.290
0.195
0.833
0.463
4
5
0.100
0.067
0.048
0.710 0.422
0.301
0.310
0.225
0.623
6 7
0.036
0.140 0.106
0.382
0.283
0.170
0.229
0.560 0.349
0.511
Topics
in filter design
401
Pentode
Interstage Interstage
Interstage
network
network
13.26.
network
FIG.
Pentodes used as isolation amplifiers.
We sec that Ztl(s) has a real zero and a pair of poles which may be complex depending
upon
the values of R, L,
transfer
1
R-C interstage is shown, whose
and C. In Fig. 13.27A, a simple impedance is

(13.100)
Zn(s) Observe that

are
It
all
Cs +
1/RC
the
filter
transfer functions considered
up
to this point
made up of pairs of conjugate poles and simple poles on the a axis. is clear that if we cascade shunt-peaked stages and R-C stages, we can
and C elements to give the desired response characteristic. The only problem is to cancel the finite zero of the shunt-peaked stage. For example, if we wish to design an amplifier with an n = 3 low-pass Butterworth characteristic, we first break up the system function into
adjust the R, L,
complex pole pairs and
real pole terms, as given
by
Z(s)
+ s + l)(s + 1) 1 s+ 1 s* + s+ls + ls +
(s*
(13.101)
l
then associate the individual factors with shunt-peaked or simple stages and solve for the element values. The n *= 3 Butterworth amplifier is given in Fig. 13.28.
We
R-C
ci
.R
(o>
ci ^*
(b)
(f>)
FIG.
13.27. (a)
Shunt-peaked interstage.
R-C interstage.
402
Network
analysis
and synthesis
FIG.
13.28.
Butterworth amplifier.
13.9
MAGNITUDE AND FREQUENCY NORMALIZATION

we
1
In Section 13.8,
cutoff frequency of
discussed the synthesis of low-pass niters with a
1 Q. Filters designed with these restrictions are considered to be normalized in both cutoff frequency and impedance level. We will now discuss methods whereby
rad/sec and a load impedance of
the normalized
which meet arbitrary Let us denote by a subscript n the normalized frequency variable s n and the normalized element values L, jR, and C. The normalized frequency variable s n is related to the actual frequency s by the relation
filters
can be converted into
filters
cutoff frequency
and impedance
level specifications.
(13.102)
where <u the normalizing constant, is dimensionless and is often taken to be the actual cutoff frequency. Since the impedance of an element remains invariant under frequency normalization, we obtain the actual element values from the normalized values by setting the impedances in the two cases equal to each other. For example, for an inductor, we have
,
sL
= sL =
a>o5 n
(13.103)
From
as
this
equation
we then
obtain the denormalized value of inductance
L-^
Similarly,
(13.104)
C,
from the impedance l/sn C of a frequency normalized capacitor we obtain the denormalized value of capacitance through the equation
1 sn
Cn
(13.105)
sC
"
Topics
in filter
design
403
so that the actual value of the capacitance
is
C=
>o
(13.106)
Since resistances, ideally, are independent of frequency, they are unaffected by frequency normalization.
Consider,
next,
impedance denormalization.
Suppose the actual
impedance impedance
level
Z is
should be Rq ohms instead of 1 Q. Then a denormalized related to a normalized impedance Z n by
Z
where R
is
2?oZ
(13.107)
taken to be dimensionless here. Thus, for a normalized resistor

is
Rn
the denormalized (actual) resistance
R=
sL
RoR
relationship
is
(13.108)
For an inductance, the corresponding
= R^sL n)
is
(13.109)
so that the actual inductance value
L = R Ln
Similarly, for a capacitor
(13.110)
we have
_L
= Jk
sC
(13.111)
sC
so that the actual capacitance
is
C=
^
R
(13.112)
For combined frequency and magnitude denormalization, we simply combine the two sets of equations to give
R = RoR n
C=
Rô
L = Ô^n
co a
(13.113)
Let us consider an actual example in design. In Section 13.8, we Zn with an n 3 Butterworth amplitude characteristic with a cutoff frequency of 1 rad/sec and a load impedance of 1 ii. Let us redesign this filter for a cutoff frequency of 10* rad/sec to work
synthesized a transfer impedance
404
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
66.7
mh
=4=0.1 nf
Q>
^=0.3 nf
500 a
V2
FIG. 13.29. Denormalized low-pass
filter.
into a load of 500 Q.
From the
original
network in Fig. 13.23, we take the

<o
element values and denormalize with the normalizing factors,
10*
and Rt
500.
Then
the denormalized element values are
R=
500*
i
- 500
=
0.1 /*f
C,=
500004)
(13.114)
L = 1(500) = 0.0067 h
10,000
C,
I
500(10
ST 4
)
0.3^f
The
final design is
shown
in Fig. 13.29.
13.10
FREQUENCY TRANSFORMATIONS
Up to this point, we have discussed only the design of low-pass filters, while neglecting the equally important designs of high-pass, band-pass,
not by as a introducing new design procedures but through a technique normalized low-pass frequency transformation, whereby, beginning from a Using frequency transfilter, we can generate any other form of filter.
and band-elimination
filters.
We
will
remedy
this situation here,
known
formations, the elements of the normalized low-pass filter are changed into elements of a high-pass, band-pass, or band-elimination filter.
Analytically,
driving-point function into another
a frequency transformation simply changes one L-C I^C driving-point function. Therefore,
the transformation equations

since
must be LrC functions themselves. Also,
low-pass filters, the transformation equations include built-in frequency denormalization factors so that the the resulting networks need only be scaled for impedance level. Consider
we proceed from normalized
Topics
in filter design
405
is
simplest transformation equation, that of low-pass to high-pass, which
= a>
(13.115)
where sn represents the normalized low-pass frequency variable, s is the regular frequency variable, and to is the cutoff frequency of the high-pass filter. In terms of real and imaginary parts, we have
+ jm =
>o
ff +./'>
(13.116)
Since
axis,
we are interested principally we let <r = so that
in
how
co
the j<o n axis
maps
into theycu
(13.117)
a>.
which is the equation that transforms normalized low-pass filters to denormalized high-pass filters. From Eq. 13.117 we see that the point wn = 1 corresponds to the point m = a> It is also clear that the transformation maps the segment \a>\ ^ 1 on to the segments denned by
.
mo ^ ^ > as shown in Fig. 13.30. Now let us see how the frequency transformations change the network
For convenience, let us denote the normalized low-pass network elements with a subscript n, the high-pass elements with a subscript h, the band-pass elements with a subscript b, and the band-elimination elements with a subscript e. For the low-pass to high-pass case, let us first consider the changes for the capacitor C. The transformation is given by the
elements.
JVn
ju
+j
plane
<r*
/<*>
* plane
-J
-Jox>
FIG.
13.30.
Low-pass to high-pass transformation.
406
Network
equation
Cs n
= LhS
fo
(13.118)
C,
For the inductor
L n we
,
have
Chs
(13.119)
We
observe that a capacitor changes into an inductor and an inductor changes into a capacitor in a low-pass to high-pass transformation (Fig.
13.3 1).
The element values of the high-pass filter

filter
are given in terms of the
normalized low-pass
elements as
Lh
and
=
<o
(13.120)
Cn
(13.121)
Ch =
(o
Ln
the normalized third-order us design a corresponding high-
Consider the following example.

Butterworth
pass
level
filter
filter
From
let
cu
given in Fig. 13.23,

cutoff frequency
with
its
of 500 Q.
From
the low-pass
filter,
and the impedance we can draw by inspection the

10 rad/sec
Low-pass
High-pass
Band-elimination
Band-pass
1*1
Cbl
o-^fiflp-o
1{
=
1_ <>
Ca
Cd = LnBW
npnr- -H(BW BW 2L
<">0
r. BW
Lh woC n o-'lHRP-o
-
La o-j^nnp-
Cc2
CnBW
Cb2=
-gyp
FIG.
13.31.
Element changes resulting from frequency transformations.
Topics
in filter
design
407
Ch =
Hf-
1.5
x 10~ 9
FIG.
13.32. Transformation of low-pass filter in Fig. 13.23 into high-pass
filter,
high-pass-filter circuit
shown
in Fig. 13.32.
Its
element values are:
10 (i)
1 .
(13.122)
son
10 (f)
Next, let us examine the low-pass to band-pass transformation (also an L-C function):
S
4
= BW \a> + -) S(- s I
<
13123 >
where,
if
band-pass
m ct and wp, denote the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of the filter, BWis the bandwidth
BW^cocz-cOd
and
<o is
(13.124)
the geometric
mean of <o C2 and
co cl
m =
The low-pass
the segments
Vo)c2>ci
(13.125)
to band-pass transformation
maps
the segment
m^ ^
\a> n \
<,
to
|a|
^ eu^,
**.
shown
in Fig. 13.33.
The normalized
low-pass elements are then modified according to the following equations
bs BW + BWs
^
(13.126)
408
Network

\jo>
+j
Plane
C1
s plane
<Tn
-J
-<oo
FIG.
13.33.
Low-pass to band-pass transformation.
We
note that the inductor L is transformed into a series-tuned tank, shown in Fig. 13.31, whose elements are given as
BW BW CM =
>0
LM
(13.127)
Ln
The capacitor C is transformed whose elements are

LfiS
into a parallel-tuned tank (Fig. 13.31),
BW
(13.128)
C/h9
Let us transform the third-order Butterworth low-pass

into a band-pass
filter
filter
in Fig. 13.23
BW =6x10*
rad/sec.
with a 1-ii impedance level, whose bandwidth is 4 x 10* rad/sec, and its band-pass is "centered" at w
We
draw the band-pass

Li
filter
shown
in Fig. 13.34
by the
rules
nroip
Ct
1(-
(T\ isg
d=c3
"=r-Ci
yCi
Sjij
i*
v2
FIG.
13.34.
Band-pass
filter
transformed from low-pass
filter
in Fig. 13.23.
Topics
given above.
in filter
filter
design
409
The element
values of the band-pass
are given in the
following equations:
10 U 6xio*m) = 0.75 x
*
**
x KT'h
(4
Ci-
X
6
10-*f
10*
12
4
-^ = ^xl(T
6
h
(13.129)
x
6
10*
10*
32
10-*f
(4
X 10At)
=
(4
6X104
X lO^f)
= o.25
x l(T*h
Q = 6x
mation
= 0.25
10*
X KT*f
through the transfor-
Finally, the band-elimination filter is obtained
s.
BW
Is
\O)
eu
(13.130)
S I
where
manner similar to that for the band-pass maps the segment of the _/>,, axis in Fig. 13.35a filter. The transformation onto the segments shown on the ja> axis in Fig. 13.356. For the low-pass
a>
BW and
are defined in a
je>
Jf>n
wo
-J
-o
-Wei
(a)
(b)
FIG. 13.35. Low-pass to band-elimination transformation.
410
Network
analysis
and synthesis
to band-elimination transformation we, therefore, have the following
element changes:
Ls " n
A
(s/L n BW)
1
ML BWs)
n
Ctls +
1
(1/L a s)
(13.131)
Cn s n
C nBW\a>
= Lsis
-\
C<gS
Observe that the normalized low-pass inductor goes into a paralleltuned circuit and the capacitor C goes into a series-tuned circuit, as shown in Fig. 13.31. In Table 13.10, we have a composite summary of the
various transformations.
TABLE
Transformation
13.10
Table of Various Frequency Transformations
Low-Pass to
Equation
High-pass
Band-pass
Band-elimination
sn
BW
fe + ?)
Problems
13.1
figure.
Find the transfer impedance
What should L be
VJIX for the filter shown in the n in order for \Z21 (ja>)\ to be maximally flat?
Z =
PROB.
13.1
Topics
13.2 Find the poles of system functions with n Butterworth characteristics. (Do not use the tables.)
13.3
in filter
design
41
3,
= 4,
and n
Show
is
that the half-power point of a
Chebyshev low-pass amplitude

filter specifications:
response
13.4
(a)
at
m =
cosh
/?*
for e
1.
Determine the system function for the following Ripple of \ db in band |o>| <> 1 (b) at co = 3, amplitude is down 30 db.
13.5
(a)
(6)
(c)
Compare the slopes

/(a>*)
at
to
of the following polynomials (for n
3):
/(a,*)
/(>)
= a>* - iC(2a* = Ln(8).
1)
+J =
Q(.)
13.6
Determine the polynomials
L4(co 2) and
!(>*).
13.7 Expand cosh j and sinh s into power series and find the first four terms of the continued fraction expansion of cosh */sinh s. Truncate the expansion at = 4 and show that H(s) KjB^s). 13.8 Synthesize the n ated in a l-O load. 13.9
will
= = 3 linear phase filter as a transfer impedance terminfilter,
Synthesize the low-pass
which,
when terminated
in
1-il resistor,
have a transfer admittance whose poles are shown in the
figure.
PROB.
13.10
13.9.
Determine the asymptotic rate of falloff in the stop band of: (a) filters; (b) linear phase filters. 13.11 Synthesize the n = 3 and n = 4 Butterworth responses as transfer impedances terminated in a load of 600 SI with a cutoff frequency of 10* rad/sec. 13.12 Synthesize a Chebyshev low-pass filter to meet the following speci-
optimum
fications:
(a)
(b)
load
resistor,
RL =
600
Q
rad/sec
&-db ripple within pass band

frequency
(c) cutoff
x 105
(d) at 1.5
10* rad/sec, the magnitude
must be down 30 db.
412
13.13
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Synthesize n
= 3 Optimum and linear phase filters to meet the following
specifications:
(a) load resistor
(b) cutoff
10*
Q
10* rad/sec.
frequency
13.14
cations:
(a)
(ft)
Design an n
level
=4
Butterworth amplifier with the following
specifi-
impedance
cutoff frequency
= 500 ft = 10* rad/sec.

filter
13.15
Synthesize a high-pass
a>
in a 10*-O load,
whose amplitude
characteristic is
for a given transfer admittance terminated Optimum (L), with a cutoff
frequency of
13.16
10* rad/sec.
Synthesize: (a) a band-pass filter; (b) a band-elimination filter, with 8 x 10* and o>ci maximally flat (n 4) amplitude response with ce
w-
2 x
10*.
chapter 14
The
scattering matrix
14.1
INCIDENT
AND
REFLECTED
POWER FLOW
we will devote our attention to certain power relationand two-port networks. The characterization of a network in terms of power instead of the conventional voltage-current description is a helpful analytical tool used by transmission engineers. It is especially important in microwave transmission problems where circuits can no longer be given in terms of lumped R, L, and C elements. In the powerflow description, we are concerned with the power into the network, which we call the incident power and the power reflected back from the load, which is the reflected power. A convenient description of the network in terms of incident and reflected power is given by the scattering matrix, which is the main topic of discussion in this chapter. It is convenient to think of incident and reflected power when dealing with transmission lines. Therefore, we will briefly review some concepts in transmission line theory. For a more comprehensive treatment of transmission lines, the reader is referred to any standard text on wave propagation. 1 Consider the transmission line shown in Fig. 14.1. The voltage at any point down the line is a function of x, the distance from the source. The parameters which describe the transmission line are given in the
In this chapter,
ships in one-
following:
R= G=
L=
C=
1
resistance per unit length conductance per unit length inductance per unit length capacitance per unit length
See, for example, E. C. Jordan, Electromagnetic
Waves and Radiating Systems,
Prentice-Hall,
EngUwood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1950.
413
414
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
l-
h:
FIG.
14.1.
Transmission
line.
Given these parameters, we can now define the impedance per unit
length as
Z = R+joL
(14.1)
and the admittance per unit length as
Y=G+jcoC
The
characteristic
(14.2)
impedance
of the line
is
given in terms of
Z and
Fas
z = Vz/r
and the propagation constant
is
(14.3)
sfZY
(14.4)
equations for these definitions in mind, let us turn to the general any point x down the line the current and voltage at
With
V{x)
. Vfi->* + Vsyx I(x) = !*" - iy

Z
Z
(14.5)
The terms with the
the / refer to the incident wave at point * and to the reflected wave at x. Solving Eqs. 14.5 terms with subscript r refer and reflected simultaneously, we obtain explicit expressions for the incident
subscript
waves
^*[K(*) + Z,/(*)]
Vre*x = h[V(x)-Z
l(x)]
(146)
Consider the case when a transmission line of length its characteristic impedance, that is,
is
terminated in
V(L)
ZtfQ
(14.7)
The
scattering matrix
415
Then we
see that the reflected
wave
is zero.
f>L
Since e
yL
(14.8)
cannot be zero, we see that the coefficient VT is identically zero As a result, the reflected wave at any point x is zero. Also, the impedance at any point x down the line is equal to Z as seen from Eq. 14.5 with Vr = 0. With these brief thoughts of transmission lines in mind, let us turn our attention to the main topic of this chapter, namely,
for this case.
the scattering parameters.
I4J
THE SCATTERING PARAMETERS FOR A

ONE-PORT NETWORK
definitions.
For the one-port network shown in Fig. 14.2a, consider the following The incident parameter a is defined as
(14.9)
and the
reflected parameter b, is defined as
(14.10)
where R^
is
an
arbitrary, positive,
dimensionless constant called the
reference impedance factor.
For the transmission line described in Section 14.1, if the characteristic impedance Z = /{<,, then we can describe
the incident parameter in terms of the incident voltage as
a
Similarly,
Ve~T" - ^=reflected
(14.11)
b can be expressed in terms of the

b
wave as
(14.12)
= ^=r
VZ
One-port network
a *
,
One-port network
(a)
FIG. 142. Scattering parameters of a one-port network.
416
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Thus we
reflected
see that the parameters
a and b do indeed describe an incidentb,
wave
relationship in a one-port network, as depicted in Fig. 14.26.
To
give further
meaning to a and
consider the power dissipated by the
one-port network
P = iRe
VI*
(14.13)
where /* denotes the complex conjugate of /. From Eqs. 14.9 and 14.10 we solve for V and / in terms of the incident and reflected parameters to
give
K=(a + b)V
a
_
(1414)
Then the power
dissipated
by the one-port network
is
P = Haa* -
bb*)
(14.15)
-KM* -1*1*)
where, again, the asterisk denotes complex conjugate. The term Jaa* can be interpreted as the power incident, while $bb* can be regarded as the
power reflected. The difference yields the power dissipated by the one-port
network.
The incident parameter a and the reflected parameter b are related by the
equation
= Sa
(14.16)
where
S is
called the scattering element or,
coefficient.
From
the definitions of a
more commonly, the reflection and b we can make the following
substitution:
Solving for S,
we obtain
= Z ~ ** Z+R
one-port network
(14.18)
where
Z is the impedance of the
Z=
|
set
(14.19)
A further useful result is that when the impedance R<, is impedance Z, the reflected parameter b 0.
For the one-port network
excited
equal to the
by a voltage source
V9 with a source
The
resistor R,, as depicted in Fig. 14.3,
will
scattering matrix
417
show
reference
we when we choose the impedance Rq to be equal to

that
AAA +
i
One-port network
"VW V
-&
The proof
follows.
!>
(,4 20>
-
By
is
definition, the
FIG. 14.3
incident parameter a
given as
^) -K+^)
From
and
Fig. 14.3,
(14.21)
we have
V,
-IRB
=V
(14.22)
=
Ra
(14.23)
+Z
Substituting these equations for

14.21,
V and / into the expression for a in Eq.
we
obtain
_ _
17.,
VBR,
\
,
RqV,_~\
2V^
2VV
r r,+z
R' + zJ
^+ zJ
(14.24)
in a oneConsider once more the expression for the power dissipated network: port V (14.25) P = l(aa* - bb*)
Factoring the term aa*
\a\*
from within the parentheses,
becomes
2 \
a
|a|V
(14.26)
=
When we
ance,
i.e.,
l^- (i-isi)
resist-
choose the reference impedance to be equal to the source and R, then S = when R*
P eA. ~
n _ nil! ~Z~ ~ on
2
(14.27)
iR
418
Network
**
A ~vV
analysis
and synthesis
where
PA
represents the available gain or
available
Av
^*^
FIG. 14.4
Fig. 14.4, the
power of a voltage source Va with a source resistance R. For the case of a
*"
> ^
one-port network, the available gain is defined as the power dissipated in the oneport network when the impedance of the
network
Z is
equal to the resistance of the
source/?,.
As a result of this definition, we

network shown in
see that for the one-port
power
dissipated in
with
Z = Rt
is
Pa
The
= ^maximum
available
(14.28)
available gain thus represents the terminals of the voltage source.
power
at the
From this discussion, it is apparent that the value of the reference impedance Rq should be chosen equal to the source impedance R. A standard procedure is to assume a 1-Q source impedance and denormalize
when
necessary, that
is, let
- 2^-i z + 1
z
(14.29)
where
Next,
(14.30)
let
us
briefly consider
scattering parameter
1.
S for
some of the important properties of the a one-port network.

axis
is
The magnitude of S along theyco

is,
always
less
or equal to unity
for a passive network, that
|S(/>)| <. 1
(14.31)
This property follows from the fact that the power dissipated in a passive network is always greater or equal to zero. Since the power can be expressed as
P-^fl-ISftÔ
we
see that
\S(ja>)\*
(14.32)
(14.33)
2.
For a
reactive
fact that the
network |S(jo>)| = 1. This property follows from the power dissipated in a purely reactive network is zero.
The
3. For an open circuit 5=1, and for a short shown to be true from the equation
scattering matrix
circuit
419
This
is
S=
1.
S
For an open
therefore
circuit z
= ^| z + 1
5=1.
For a short
(14.34)
oo,
so that
circuit z
5=
= 0;
1.
to the next property, let us consider the following
Before
we proceed
definition.
DEFINITION.
ditions
()
A
for
bounded real function P(s)
is
defined by the con-
|^)|
^ AT
ReaÔ
s is real.
(6) F(s)
is real
when
is
In
(a),
K denotes any positive real constant.

Z/Rq
a positive
real function, then
4. If z
is
a bounded
real
function.
The proof follows from
the equation,
S
From
that
= (z-
l)/(z
1).
the positive real condition (a)
Re z(s)
^ 0, when Re s ^ 0,
we
see
s
so that
Im z(s)-[l- Re z(s)] jlmz(s)+ [I + Rez(s)]

j
(14.35)
|S(s)|
= ( Im'^ + llm , z(s) +

S = (z-
U-Re^ *
[l
Re2(S)]/
'
3 f
when Re j
;> 0. (b)
Where s is real, z(s) is real. Then

l)/(2
1)
must be real. Thus the bounded real function.

14.3
scattering parameter for a passive
network
is
THE SCATTERING MATRIX FOR A TWO-PORT NETWORK
In this section we will extend the concepts developed for one-port networks discussed in Section 14.2 to two-port networks. In the two-port network shown in Fig. 14.5, we are concerned with two sets of incident and reflected parameters {at , *x } at the 1-1' port, and {a,, b } at the 2-2' port. t These parameters are defined in similar manner as for the one-port
420
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
-o
lo>Ol
-*o2
02
o-
*i
-o
l'o-
Vi
Two-port network
v2
62
D2'
o-
FIG.
14.5. Scattering
parameters for a two-port network,
network, that
is,
(14.37)
"
=
l(vfe
+vr "'')
and output
where
R01
and
i?
are the reference impedances at the input
ports respectively.
The
scattering parameters
Stj for
the two-port network are given by the
equations
(14.38)
iSjitfi
bt
= =
Si2a2
In matrix form the set of equations of Eqs. 14.38 becomes
6i
Si1
îm
(14.39)
where the matrix

called the scattering matrix of the two-port network.
(14.40)
is
From
Eqs. 14.38,
we see that the scattering parameters of the two-port network can be expressed in terms of the incident and reflected parameters as
Sn S
= =
Si.
=h
a* 010
(14.41)
SM
=
a* ai0
The
scattering matrix
421
In Eqs. 14.41, the parameter
Su
is
called the input reflection coefficient;
5M
is
the forward transmission coefficient;
Slt
is
the reverse transmission
coefficient;
and SM
is
the output reflection coefficient.
Observe that
all
four scattering parameters are expressed as ratios of reflected to incident

parameters.
Now let us examine the physical meaning of these scattering parameters.

First, consider the implications
of setting the incident parameters at and a t
to zero in the defining relations in Eqs. 14.41. Let us see what the conimplies in the definition for the forward reflection coefficient dition a4
tltÔ
Figure 14.6 shows the terminating section of the two-port network of Fig. 14.5 with the parameters a, and b a of the 2-2' port shown. If we treat
the load resistor
Rt as a one-port network with scattering parameter

S8
=
R
(14.42)
Ro
where Rgx
by*
is
the reference impedance of port 2, then oi
and b% are
related
aa
= SA
is set
(14.43)
then
When the reference impedance R^ St becomes
equal to the load impedance Rt,
S,=
Rot Rat
Ri*8 = + Rto*
(14.44)
under this condition. Similarly, we can show that, when so that at ax 0, the reference impedance of port 1 is equal to the terminating
From
reflected
the viewpoint of the load resistor /? the incident parameter parameter is a x .
is
b, and the
422
Network
(i.e.,
anal/sis
and synthesis
impedance
conditions a x
R01 and /?M

respectively.
as a result of this discussion that the merely imply that the reference impedances are chosen to be equal to the terminating resistors Rt and R t ,
/?i).
R01 =
We see
and aa
Next,
let
us consider the relationship between the driving-point imped1
ances at ports
and 2 and the
reflection coefficients
1
5U and Su
Let us
denote the driving-point impedances at ports
and 2 as
(14.45)
h
From
the equation
h
l lai-0
-M a
2q
x
(14.46)
We can write
which reduces
=
*K W*oi)
(14.47)
Rnli)
(14.48)
easily to
Sn
Similarly,
we have
tell
Rqi Z + Rqx z Rq Z + R oi
t
Rt-Rot
(14.49)
h,_h
These expressions
coefficient
us
if
we choose
the reference impedance at a given
port to equal the driving-point impedance at that port, the reflection
of that port will be zero, provided the other port
is
terminated
in its reference impedance.
Next, let us derive some physically meaningful expressions for the forward and reverse transmission coefficients Sn and Slt Consider the
.
definition for <S81
S As we have just
321
-*l
a
(14.50)
implies that the reference imseen, the condition a, = pedance Roi is set equal to the load impedance Rt , as seen in Fig. 14.7. If we connect a voltage source Vgl with source impedance Rn = Rlt
JtogaJfa
FIG. 14.7
The
then
scattering matrix
423
we can
express
ax as
""vfe
Since a,
< 14- 5I >
= 0, we have the equation
from which we obtain
y ^ =
bt
>/*'
(14.53)
Consequently,
= "(-/= - V*z
(14.54)
v*
Finally,
we can
express the forward transmission coefficient as
vjj**_
(14.55)
Krl^ ^* Ri-fi.i,Ri-Boi
In similar fashion, we find that when port 1 is terminated in Rqi = R t and when a voltage source V,t with source impedance Rt is connected to port 2,
then
"-
?MF
.
(1456)
We see that both Slt and SM have the dimensions of a voltage-ratio transfer
function. Indeed, if
It is
R^ =
R^, then
seen that for a passive reciprocal network,
Slt and Stl are simple voltage ratios. Sn = Slt

ratio
Now let us consider as an example the scattering matrix of the n: 1

ideal transformer in Fig. 14.8a.
Recall that for an ideal transformer
'Vi-jtV*
A---/, n
(14.57)
Assuming first that Jin' Rn 1, let us find 5U by terminating the 2-2' port in a l-Cl resistor, as shown in Fig. 14.86. Then
-^-
(14.58)
424
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
h
1:1|
_Jf_
2 o
+
V2
Ideal transformer
(a)
FIG.
14.8.
Determination of scattering parameters for an ideal transformer,
so that
Z1 =
14.48,
^ = n*
(14.59)
From Eq.
we have
Sn
= n*-l n* + l
a 1-G
resistor (Fi. 14.8c).
(14.60)
Next we terminate the

as
1-1' port in
We obtain,
(14.61)
we
did for
Su
SM
= (1/w*)
(!/*)
-1_1+1 1+
n*
The
scattering matrix
425
We obtain Sn by connecting a voltage source Vgl with a source impedance

jRo!
1
= Q at the 1-1' port and terminating the 2-2' port with a resistance - * the equivalent circuit jRo, = 1 ii, as seen in Fig. 14.8rf. Since V^h
of the ideal transformer as seen from the voltage source as a 1-Ii impedance in series with an *-ohm resistance (Fig. 14.8c). Then Vx can be expressed in terms of Vtl , as
K,=
Since
n8
+ +
(14.62)
l
Va =
Vjn, we have
Kin
n*
l
(14.63)
Since
R^ = R^ =
Q,
SM is
2F,
r i
2it
n*
(14.64)
l
We can show in similar fashion that

2n
n
(14.65)
1
is
Therefore the scattering matrix for the ideal transformer
given as
v-1
n*
In
n*
+
In
l-n
l
fl*
(14.66)
M*
+l = Z* then the reflection

(14.67)
shown in
Fig. 14.9. If we
let
transmission line of length

coefficients are
terminated in
us find the scattering matrix for a lossless its characteristic impedance, as
assume that
R^ =
!*
= ?oZlZo _ Q z, + z
x^-
Zo
1'
FIG,
14.9. Lossless
transmission line.
426
Network
is
not implausible, because a transmission line terminated in impedance has zero reflected energy. To determine Su , we terminate the line in Z at both ends and connect at the 1-1' port a voltage source Vtl , as depicted in Fig. 14.9. Since the transmission line has zero reflected energy, that is,
its
This result
characteristic
Z> x
a2
=
(14.68)
then
v,
= *>- ri
From
the equation
Stl
we obtain
In similar fashion,
~ 2 \*J vgl Sn - 2e-*

Sit
(14.69)
(14.70)
we
find that
2e- rL
is
(14.71)
Therefore the scattering matrix for the lossless transmission line

r
~~
2-" z, i
(14.72)
VW-
14.4
PROPERTIES OF THE SCATTERING MATRIX

scattering
Having defined the

Section 14.3,
matrix.
let
matrix of a two-port network
in
us consider some important properties of the scattering

all
From
the general restriction for a passive network that the net
power delivered to
ports must be positive,
P=
port
is
Hii*
+ -
a*fh*
W
is
we
obtain the condition

(14.73)
W)
Equation 14.73 follows from the fact that the power delivered to the 1-1'
Pi
KW i(^*
bib,*)
(14.74)
and the power delivered to the 2-2' port

P,
W)
is
(14.75)
The
total
power
delivered to the network
then
(14.76)
P = P1 + Pt
which is exactly the expression in Eq. delivered to the network is
14.73. In matrix notation, the
power
P - Hla'fW ~
lb*flb]}
(14.77)
The
where
scattering matrix
427
T denotes the transpose operation,

[a]
and
lb]
Since [b]
[S][a],
then
[b*]
-a -a
=
[a*]
(14.78)
T [S*] T
(14.79)
Equation 14.77 can
now
be rewritten as
{[a*]
IP
= -
T [a]
la*] llu]
- [a*] T [S*] T [S][a]} - [S*] T [Smal >

[[]
(14.80)
This then implies that the determinant of the matrix must be greater or equal to zero, that is,
[5*] T [S]]
Dct
[[]
[S*] [S]]
(14.81)
network. In this case
Consider the special but, nevertheless, important case of a lossless P 0, so that
[S*] T [S]
[u]
(14.82)
A matrix satisfying the condition in Eq. (14.82) is unitary.

two-port network
For a
lossless
From
matrix
this equation,
we have
the following conditions for the scattering
Su*S11
Sj*Su
+ Stl *Stl = + Sn'Su =
(14.84)
(14.85)
Sn *Si,
Su*Su
Note that Eqs.
network
14.85
+ Sn *S =
+
S*S
(14.86)
1
(14.87)
If the
and
then
14.86 are conjugates of each other.
is reciprocal,
Stl = Slt and

|S(/>)|
+ IVHI +
|Sii(/>)|
1
= |5(/))| -
(14.88)
1
428
Network
Two-port network
<*2
FIG. 14.10
from which
\SJ(ja>)\ <. 1
(i.e.,
it
and \Su(ja>)\
follows that for a lossless reciprocal network |Su (ya>)| 1. Also it is clear that when \Sjj<o)\
= =
when
condition states that
there is a zero of transmission), then \Su (ja>)\ all the power that has been delivered to the
is
1.
This
network
from port
back to port 1-1'. At this point, it might be profitable to discuss why we use scattering matrices. What are the advantages of the scattering description over conventional descriptions? Let us discuss three major reasons for the
1-1'
reflected
scattering formalism.
networks do not possess an impedance or admittance matrix. ideal transformer has no Z or Y matrix because its elements are not finite. However, as we have seen, the ideal transformer 8 can be described by a scattering matrix. Carlin states that all passive
1.
Many
For example, an
networks possess scattering matrices. 2. At high frequencies, incident and reflected parameters play dominant roles in problems of transmission, while voltage-current descriptions are relegated to the background. Then the scattering matrix is necessarily the more powerful description of the system. Note that the voltage standingwave ratio (VSWR) is given in terms of a reflection coefficient S as
VSWR =
3.
iM
(14.89)
In networks where power flow is a prime consideration (e.g., filters), the scattering matrix is very useful. For example, in the network given in Fig. 14.10, ifPA represents the available power from the generator and Pt is the power dissipated in the load R t , then we can.show that the magnitude-
squared forward transmission coefficient
is
iso)i*-* pA
< 14 - 90>
We will discuss this point in more detail in
Section 14.5.
* H. J. Carlin, "The Scattering Matrix in Network Theory," Trans. IRE, CT-3, No. 2, June 1956, 88-96; see his extensive bibliography.
The
14.5
scattering matrix
429
INSERTION LOSS
we described the forward and reverse transmission terms of voltage ratios. Perhaps a more appropriate
In Section 14.4,
coefficients in
is in terms of a power ratio rather than a voltage ratio. In this section we will show that |SM(/o)|* and ]SU (J(o)\* can be expressed in terms of power ratios. We will then introduce the very important concept of insertion loss and finally relate |ti(/<)l* to
description of a transmission coefficient
the insertion power ratio.
Consider the equation for

14.5,
Stl
in the two-port
network shown in Fig.
From
we
the equation
l-SÔOl*
= Sn(/w)Sa *(/a>) =
(14.92)
obtain
|M-)|-
l^>
IîO)IV8*x
(14.93)
Pal
where Pt is the power dissipated by the load Rt, and gain of the generator Vgl Similarly, we have
.
PAl is
the available
|Si.O)l*
- power power
(14.94)
We
see that both \Su (j(o)\*
and
ISutyco)!* are
transfer ratios
which
in the
relate the
power dissipated
at a given port to the available
other port.
loss. Consider the network Between the terminals 1-1' and 2-2' we will insert a two-port network, as shown in Fig. 14.116. Let us denote by VM the voltage across the load resistor R, before inserting the two-port network, and by Vt the voltage across Rt after inserting the two-port network. A measure of the effect of inserting the two-port network is given by the insertion voltage ratio IVR, which is denned as
Now
let
us examine the idea of insertion
shown in
Fig. 14.1 la.
IVR
^ V
t
(14.95)
is
to measure the
Another method of gaging the effect of inserting the two-port network power dissipated at the load before and after inserting the
430
Network
analysis
and synthesis
vW^-
-J
r
(a)
Hi
-i_
r
Inserted
+
two-port network
)yi
*2* >V2
r
lb)
?
FIG. 14.11
two-port network. If PM is the power dissipated at the load before the two-port network is inserted, and if Pt is the power dissipated after insertion, then the insertion power ratio of the two-port network is denned as
e
_ Ew
we
obtain
(14.96)
If
we
take the logarithm of both sides,
a
where a
is
=10 log
^
R>
(14.97)
circuit given in Fig. 14.11,
the insertion loss of the two-port network. In terms of the we can calculate Px from the relation
V
Then
V
8
(14.98)
Pm is
|K|
2R t
*. 2(R t
ir.il'
(14.99)
RJ*
network
is
The power
given by
dissipated
by the load
after inserting the two-port
P.= Hi!!
2R t
(14.100)
The
scattering matrix
431
The
insertion
power
ratio
can then be expressed as

_80
2a
_ wr
P.-VXOk +
In the special case
is,
<14101)
when
the source and load impedances are equal, that

(14.102)
Rx = R2 = Rn = R^
the reciprocal of the squared magnitude of the forward transmission coefficient in Eq. 14.93 is equal to the insertion power ratio Pgo
When Rt
j&
Rt
|S*iO)|
,
(14.103)
then
PjQ
4R1 R 2
(*i
1
2 a
(14.104)
R*) |s*iO)l
In any event,
i\Sa (jai)\ t
we
see that the magnitude-squared transmission coefficients
and {S^jai)]* can be regarded physically as equivalent
insertion
power
In Section 14.6, we will use this relationship in the synthesis of double-terminated filter networks.
ratios.
14.6
DARLINGTON'S INSERTION LOSS FILTER SYNTHESIS

we will consider a filter synthesis procedure first proposed
In this section,
classic paper in 1939. 4 We will use scattering matrix notation to describe the essence of Darlington's original work. Our coverage will be restricted to the class of low-pass filters which are termi-
by Darlington in a
Fig. 14.12.
nated in equal source and load impedances, Rn Roi R , as shown in For normalizing purposes we will let /^ be equal to 1 12.
FIG. 14.12
S. Darlington, "Synthesis
/.
Loss Characteristics,"
of Reactance 4-Poles which Produce Prescribed Insertion Math. Phys., 18, 1939, 257-353.
432
Network
Recall that when the source and load impedances are equal, then the insertion power ratio is equal to the reciprocal of
|SM (yG>)| 2 , that
20
is,
P*
|S21 (>>)| a
(14.105)
Expressed as a loss function, the insertion
power
ratio is
A =10 log %*
P
-101og|S 21(| a
db
(14.106)
insertion loss
In circuit design, the specification of an A (Fig. 14.13a) is equivalent

to the specification
of the
amplitude-
squared transmission coefficient shown in Fig.
14.13ft.
One of the most
ingenious techniques given in Darlington's synthesis procedure is the reduction of insertion loss synthesis to an equivalent L-C driving-point
synthesis problem. This technique can be developed in terms of scattering parameters. Our initial specification is in terms of |Su (/<u)|. For an L-C
two-port network
\Sn(jcoW
Next,
=1-
|S*iO)l
(14.107)
Sn(s)
is
obtained from the magnitude-squared function
Su (s)Sii(- s)
Then from
the equation
=1î
\S ia (Jo>)\
2
\
im ^,
(14.108)
Su
=
+
o
(14.109)
we
obtain the driving-point impedance
Z^s)
=R
+ Su(s) - Su (s)
(14.110)
We then synthesize the network from Z^s). our discussion here to low-pass filters given by the We lossless ladder structure terminated at both ports by 1-Q resistors in Butterworth or Fig. 14.14. These low-pass filters can take the form of a
shown
in Fig. 14.12.
will restrict
Chebyshev
specification for |Ssl (/a))|

2
2
,
that
is,
|S21
= 0)f _ 1 +
(14.111)
CO
,2n
433
The
10
Li
/-
scattering matrix
~*np
T-nnnp
C-1-
10.
c2 z
T-
Zi(s)
v2
FIG.
14.14.
Canonical form for double-terminated low-pass
niters.
C B8(<u)
(14.112)
where
Cn(co) represents an nth-order Chebyshev polynomial.

14.1.
Example
Let us synthesize a low-pass
filter
for the specification
._. "*W-TT^
(14.113)
which represents a third-order Butterworth amplitude characteristic. The load and source impedances are R^ = R^ = 1 Q. First we find |5u(y'o>)| s as
IWI* = !--*
1
+0)6
*
1
(14.114)
Lettingy'eo
= s in
|Su
(/a>)| a
we
obtain
<Sii(>S_(-*)
= -
-s*
(14.115)
which factors into
Sn(s) Sil(- S) sothat5u(5)is

Next,
g +2> +
^ + ^ 1^ +2j2 _ ^
a*
A-*8) "
(14.116)
sll(f) =
_______
1
(14 117)
.
Zx(j) is obtained from the equation

Zfy)
+ Su(s) - SuM
+2s* +25
2s?
2s*
+
1
2s
(14.118)
434
Network
FIG. 14.15
We next perform a Cauer ladder expansion for Z^s).

2s*
+ 2* + l)^ + 2s + 2s +
2s*+2s*+s
s
l(s
1)2**
2s*
+2s +
l{2s
Zs
1)5
1(5
The low-pass
filter is
thus synthesized in the structure shown in Fig. 14.15.
An equivalent
we
realization for the double-terminated filter is obtained if
use the equation
Su(5)
Then, assuming
= YM - G
Yt(s) + G
1 1
(14.119)
G = 1 mho
Y1(s) =
+ Sn (s) - Su(s)
shown
in Fig. 14.16.
(14.120)
The canonical
14.2,
realization for Yx(s) is

list
Tables 14.1,
and
14.3
element values (up to n
7) for double-terminated
Butterworth, Chebyshev (1-db ripple) and Bessel filters, respectively. These apply to the canonical realization for Yt(s) given in Fig. 14.16. If a ZjCs) realization in Fig. 14.14 is desired, we simply replace all shunt
capacitors by series inductors
and
vice versa.
FIG. 14.16.
Canonical form for
filters
in Tables 14.1, 14.2,
and
14.3.
The
scattering matrix
435
TABLE
14.1
Normalized Element Values for a Double-Terminated Butterworth Filter (Equal Terminations) n

1
Ci
2.000
1.414
Lf
C3
Lt
Cj
Lg
C?
2
3
1.414
1.000
2.000
1.848 1.618 1.414
1.248
1.000
1.848
4
5
0.765 0.618 0.S18

0.44S
0.765
1.618
2.000
1.932 1.802
0.618
1.414
6
7
1.932
0.518
1.248
2.000
14.2
1.802
0.445
TABLE
I
Normalized Element Values for a Double-Terminated Cheb/shev Filter with -decibel Ripple (Equal Terminations)
71
Cx
1.018
L*
C8
2.024
3.001
L*
c5
J-6
c7
3 5
2.024
2.135 2.167
0.994
1.091
1.091
2.135
1.112
3.094
1.174
3.094
1.112
2.167
TABLE
14.3
Normalized Element Values for a Double-Terminated

Bessel Filter (Equal Terminations)
Cj
1
La
0.423 0.553 0.512 0.458
C3
Lt
C3
Le
Cj
2.000
1.577
1.255
2
3
0.192
0.318
0.331
4
5
1.060
0.110 0.209 0.236

0.238
0.930
0.838
0.768
0.072
0.148 0.178
0.051
6 7
0.412 0.374
0.316 0.294
0.110
0.038
Note that the even orders

are not given. This
is
for the double-terminated
because the even-ordered Chebyshev
Chebyshev niters filters do not
meet realizability conditions for minimum insertion loss at s = 0. 5 We have only given tables for equal source and load terminations. For other
possible realizations, the reader should consult L. Weinberg's excellent
book. 8
L. Weinberg, Network Analysis 1962, p. 589.

13.
and
Synthesis,
McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York,
'Ibid.,
Chapter
436
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
Problems
14.1 Determine the reflection coefficient in the figure.
S for
the one-port networks
shown
-VWrvW
4=tt'
?o
w
For the one-port_network in Fig. 14.3, let iJ, . R If the incident B is a = VJl^R^ find the reflected parameter A. 14.3 For the network in Prob. 14.1, determine \S(jio)\. Show that the scattering elements S for the networks in Prob. 14.1 are bounded real functions. 14.4 For each of the networks shown, find the scattering matrix for ik, =
14.2
.
parameter
-o2
(a)
(b)
+
Vi
X
Gyrator
/2 -*-
^-J-?/i
*!,
A
V
Negative
impedance
converter
^ W*
*1
2
Vi
1. z
w
PROB.
14.4
T
w
v2
The
scattering matrix
437
14J5 Find the insertion voltage ratio and insertion power ratios for each of the networks shown. These networks are to be inserted between a source impedance R = 2 ft and a load impedance RL = 1 ft. From the insertion
power
ratio, find |Si(j>)|*.
2h_
i
2_h
o-'TRRTH-^WnP-02
Jsjf
io
_lh_
.
nptpP 1
=f=if
l'o-
=r=i'
(6)
2h
40
:*f
PROB.
14.6
(a)
14.5
Synthesize low-pass niters for the specifications

|SaQ'>)l*
2
1
=
1
+0)*
1
(
14.7
at
l-W)!
+afl
Synthesize an equal-ripple low-pass filter such that 20 log |5n(/a>)| has most i-db ripple in the pass band and an asymptotic falloff of 12 db/octave in
the stop band.
chapter 15
Computer techniques
in
circuit analysis
15.1
THE USES OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
IN
routine many of the computational aspects of circuit theory. Digital computers have become widely used in circuit analysis, time and frequency-domain analysis, circuit (filter) design, and optimization or
The advent of the high-speed computer has made

difficult
formerly tedious and
iterative design.
We
will discuss these aspects in general in this section.
In succeeding sections,
we
will
discuss
some
specific
circuit-analysis
computer programs.
Circuit analysis The primary objective of a linear circuit-analysis program is to obtain responses to prescribed excitation signals. These programs are based on many different methods: nodal analysis, mesh analysis, topological formulas, and state variables. Most of them can handle active elements such as transistors and diodes by means of equivalent circuit models.
The
state-variable
programs based upon Bashkow's
matrix formulavia numerical
tion 1 perform their calculations directly in the time

integration
domain
and matrix inversion. The outputs of these programs provide impulse and step response in tabular form. If the excitation signal were given in data form, the state-variable programs would calculate the response directly in the time domain.
1
T. R. Bashkow,
"The A MatrixNew Network Description," IRE Trans, on Circuit

September 1957, 117-119.
438
Theory, CT-4, No.
3,
Computer techniques
in circuit anal/sis
439
The majority of
circuit-analysis
programs, however, perform their
calculations in the frequency domain. The program user is only required to specify the topology of the network, the element values, and what
transfer functions he wishes to obtain. The computer does the rest. It calculates the specified transfer functions in polynomial form, calculates
the poles and zeros of these functions, and can also provide transient response and steady-state response, if desired. With versatile inputoutput equipment, the output can also provide a schematic of the original
network, as well as plots of time- and frequency-response characteristics.
Time- and frequency-domain analysis The time- and frequency-domain analysis programs can be used in conjunction with the circuit-analysis programs or independently. The time-domain programs depend upon solving the convolution integral
FIG. 15.1. Frequency response of fifth-order Butterworth filter. FIG. 15.2. Phase response of fifth-order Butterworth filter.
440
Network
analysis
and synthesis
FIG.
15.3.
Impulse response of fifth-order Butterworth
filter
evaluation by Laplace
transform.
This approach obviates the necessity of finding roots of It has the advantage that the excitation signal need not be specified analytically, but merely in numerical form. The frequency-domain programs usually consist of finding transient and steady-state responses, given the transfer function in factored or
numerically.
high-order polynomials.
The program user must specify the numerator and denominator polynomials of the transfer functions, the types of transient response he wishes (i.e., impulse or step response), and the types of steady-state responses he wishes (amplitude, amplitude in decibels, phase, delay, etc.). In addition, he must specify the frequency and time data points at which the calculations are to be performed. This may be done in two ways. If he requires evenly spaced data, he need only specify the minimum point, the increment, and the number of points. If he wishes
unfactored form.
to obtain data at certain points, he
must supply the
list
of data points at
the input.
Examples of outputs of a steady-state and transient analysis computer program are shown in Figs. 15.1, 15.2, and 15.3. In Fig. 15.1, the magnitude of a fifth-order Butterworth filter is plotted via a microfilm plotting subroutine. Figure 15.2 shows the phase of the filter, while Fig. 15.3 shows its impulse response.
Computer techniques
In Section 15.2
analysis program.
in circuit analysis
441
we
will
examine further
details
of a typical steady-state
Circuit
(filter)
design
The
filter
design programs are probably the most convincing argument
for the use of computers in circuit design. Designing insertion loss filters" to meet certain amplitude requirements requires considerable numerical
calculation even in the simplest cases.
insertion loss
filter
The use of
digital
computers in
design
is clearly
logical alternative.
The amount of
programming time for a general filter synthesis program is considerable. However, the ends certainly justify the means when large numbers of filters must be designed to meet different specifications. An outstanding example of a digital computer program for filter design The is the one written by Dr. George Szentirmai and his associates.*
complete in that it handles the approximation as well as the synthesis problem. It is capable of dealing with low-, high-, and band-pass poles filters with prescribed zeros of transmission (also called attenuation for either equal-ripple or maximally or loss peaks). There are provisions flat-type pass-band behavior, for arbitrary ratios of load to source im-
program
is
pedances, and for predistortion and incidental dissipation. In addition, Dr. Szentirmai has a modified program that synthesizes low- and band-pass filters with maximally flat or equal-ripple-type delay in their pass band, and monotonic or equal-ripple-type loss in the stop
bands.
In the specifications, the designer could specify both the zeros of 4 If transmission (loss peaks) and the network configuration desired. his specifications include neither, the computer is free to pick both configuration and zeros of transmission. The computer's choice is one in
which the inductance values are kept at a minimum. The program was written so that the same network could be synthesized from both ends. Finally, the computer prints out the network configuration, its dual, the normalized element values, and the denormalized ones. It also provides information such as amplitude and phase response, as well as plots of these responses obtained from a microfilm printer. Figures 15.4, 15.5, 15.6, 15.7, 15.8, and 15.9 show the results of a
band-pass
filter
synthesis using Dr. Szentirmai's program.
Figure 15.4
R. Saal and E. Ulbrkh,
"On
the Design of Filters
by
Synthesis," Trans.
IRE on
Circuit Theory, CT-5,
December
1958, 287-327.
Filter Synthesis," Proceedings

4
Digital Computer Program Package for of the First Allerton Conference on Circuit and System Theory, November 1963, University of Illinois.
G. Szentirmai, "Theoretical Basis of a
Saal and Ulbrich, op.
cit.
442
Network
analysis
and synthesis
BAND PASS FILTER SYNTHESIS
CASE NUMBER
3.1
13 3 2
1
OEGREE OF FILTER MULTIPLICITY OF PEAK AT ZERO MULTIPLICITY 0F PEAK AT INFINITY NUMBER OF FINITE PEAKS BELBM THE BANO NUMBER #F FINITE PEAKS ABBVE THE BANO
EQUAL RIPPLE PASS BANO REQUESTED PASS BANO RIPPLE MAGNITUDE L0HER PASS BANO E06E FREQUENCY MID-BAND FREQUENCY UPPER PASS BANO EDGE FREQUENCY
0.09000 DB. 1.0000000E+04 CPS. 1.3416408E*04 CPS. i.80oooooe*04 cps.
"ARBITRARY" STOP BANO REQUESTED
NUMBER 0F SPECIAL POLES

TERMINATIONS INPUT TERMINATION OUTPUT TERMINATION
MA
l.OOOOOOOE+00
6.0000000E02 OHMS 0. OHMS

VALUE OF M 0.6229266 VALUE OF H 2.3788111 1.9296560 1.4968796
LOWER FINITE STOP BANO PEAKS FREQUENCY CPS NORMALIZED 6.2000000E+03 4.621 2071E-01 UPPER FINITE STOP BANO PEAKS FREQUENCY CPS NORMALIZED 2.0700000E+O4 1.5428869E+00 2.31000006*04 l.7217723E*00 3.5200000E+04 2.6236531E+00
COMPUTER HILL SPECIFY CONFIGURATION LAST INDUCTOR IS A SERIES BRANCH

FIG. 15.4
gives the specification of the problem.
The pass-band magnitude
is
to be
filter
equal ripple with ripple magnitude of 0.05 db, and the degree of the
is
to be 13.
As we
indicated in Chapter 14, odd-degree, equal-ripple
filters
are nonrealizable. In this example the designer utilized an ingenious
an extra pole to accomplish the synthesis. The program logic then provided two extra zeros: one to cancel the extra pole and the other to provide the odd degree. The extra pole is called a special pole in Fig. 1.0. 15.4, and is located at s Further specifications call for the lower band-edge frequency to be 10*
device
cycles;
the upper, 1.8

10*
10* cycles;
and the midband frequency to be

In the stop band, there are to be
Vl.8 X
1.3416408
10* cycles.
(three),
zeros of transmission
at/=
/=
oo (two),
and four
finite
zeros
of transmission: one below the pass band and three above the pass band. The positions of these finite zeros of transmission are chosen by the
designer as indicated by the notation "arbitrary" stop band requested.
Computer techniques
CASE NUMBER
1.1
in circuit analysis
443
FMUtD
REALIZATION FROM A SDMI CIRCUIT ADMITTANCE

13
1 2
OtMEE OF FILTER
MULTIPLICITY OF PEAK AT MULTIPLICITY OF MAX AT INFINITY -
MM
EQUAL RIPPLE PASS SAND LONER -PASS-OAM EOSE FREQUENCY UPPER PASS-BANO EOCE FREQUENCY MID-BAND FREQUENCY
0.0500
i.aooooooE04
DB
ARBITRARY' STEP
(AND)
- i.oooooooso* cps
cps 1.3416408E*04 CPS

100 300
CONFIGURATION SPECIFIED QV COMPUTER 03 901 *01 100 002 *00 200

NORMAL IZEO
UNNORHALIZEO
6.0000000E*02
6.0706102E-09
L*"e
C ..L.e..:
1.0000000E*00
3.0T04337E-01 T.8921337E-01 1.8499769E-0I 2.9723019E00
1.0083380E00 4.44298O6E00 1.364T491E00
9.3749272E-01 7.S1321S3E-01 7.9423894E-01
L C
C
TERMINATION
803
S.9892B16E-03 3.85TA228E-09
9. 089744 OE-08
PEAK FREQUENCY 3.5200000E+04

901
7.1783955E-03 9.1797212E-08 2.6982703E-08
PEAK FREQUENCY 4.2000000E03

801
3.S2A810TE-03 1.9447656E-0B
1.4931737E-08
PEAK FREQUENCY 2.0700000E04

100
1.44M444E*00
2.T112T46E-01 t.2441S6*E00
2.8S46S14E-08
i""c
802
PEAK FREQUENCY 2. 310000 0E04 400 200
100 300
1.429T93TE-03 2.499S449E-08 2.0022669E-07
1.0127M7E01
9.97702ME-02
l.A3787S9EQ0
4.2943194E-01
SNORT
.0165648E-04
c
L
3.2382 800E-08
4.4B148I6E-03
SHORT
TERMINATION
FIG. 15.5
The terminations
filter
is
are:
input
60 Q, output
= 0Q
which means the

filter
terminates in a short circuit. In this example, the
configuration
chosen by the computer, and is a minimum In Fig. 15.4 there are, in addition, listings of the finite zeros of transmission (loss peaks), which the designer specified. Figure 15.5 is a printout of the configuration of the filter as shown by the dotted lines flanked by the associated element values, both normalized Since there are four (left column) and unnormalized (right column). finite zeros of transmission, there must be associated four L-C tank circuits.
S
inductance configuration. 8
W.
Saraga,
"Minimum
Inductance or Capacitance Filters," Wireless Engineer,
30, July 1953, 163-175.
444
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
FREQUENCY IN CVCt.ES
16000 16250 16300 16730 17000 17250 17500 17750 10000 10250 16500 16750 19000 19250 19500 19750 20000 20250 20500 20750 21000 21250 21500 21750 22000 22250 22500 22750 25000 25250
VOLTAGE RA TIO IN 08
5.716532 5.704379 5.707644 5.729113 5.750516 5.743140 5.708979 5.720983 5.702947 4.131556 -1.119811 -7.753694 -14.148566 -20.210264 -26.118735 -32.100833 -38.473164 -45.657895 -56.325030 -71.701988 -59.444189 -57.483949 -57.567501 -58.703992 -60.546362 -63.101161 -66.602572 -71.867460 -63.403713 -80.597817
PHASE
IN OEGREES
REAL I IN IN 8HNS
134.691 130.664 125.883 119.931 112.687 104.489 95.717
65. 165
NAG
2 IN IN 8HNS
REAL V IN
IN
NILNMS
6.2973 6.2766 6.2814 6.3129 6.3445 6.3337 6.2835 6.3011 6.2748 4.3533 1.2913
-2797 .0641 .0158 .0040 .0010 .0002 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000
INA6 V IN IN NILNHOS
145.549717 128.958686 111.534102 92.934806 72.763652 50.659800 26.219204 356.194819 322.320795 272.913465 225.689589 195.922988 177.085862 163.748654 153.507803 145.227029 138.296917 132.354567 127.166241 302.572268 298.458582 294.740796 291.334706 288.250341 285.388013 282.735723 280.267304 277.961066 275.798866 93.765362
67.626 40.032 16.386 3.462 1.725

.541 .167 .049 .013 .002 .000
.000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
56.981 61.193 64.762 67.928 71.154 74.696 77.919 79.138 78.767 87.140 111.450 139.624 164.004 184.583 202.605 218.952 234.147 248.501 262.211 275.407 286.178 300.592 312.696 324.536 336.138 347.527 358.726 369.753 380.621 391.345
-2.6641 -2.9395 -3.2315 -3.5756 -4.0061 -4.5277 -5.1151 -5.8552 -7.3083 -9.4759 -6.7826 -7.1517 -6.0967 -5.4176 -4.9357 -4.5672 -4.2708 -4.0241 -3.8137 -3.6310 -3.4701 -3.3268 -3.1980 -3.0813 -2.9750 -2.8775 -2.7876 -2.7045 -2.6273 -2.5553
FIG. 15.6
20
(
1
-20
-40
-60
f\
/ /
'
J
1
-80
-100 -120
0.000 0.400 0.800
1.200
1.600
2.000
2.400
2.800
3.200
3.600
4.000
Add 1.00000
03 to abscissa
Frequency, cycles
10*
FIG. 15.7
Computer techniques
in circuit analysis
445
--
J E
; J
-1
0.000 0.400
0.800
1.200
1.600
2.000
Add 1.00000S
03 to abscissa
Fl6queflcy
2.400
2.800
3.200
3.600
4.000
x ,
FIG. 15.8
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
J
(*"
0.000
-0.200
|
i
-0.400
i
/
f
1,
'*
--
-0.600
\
\
-0.800 -1.000
0.000
0.400
u
0.800
1.200 1.600
2.000
Add 1.00000E
+ 03 to abscissa
}nmm
2.400
2.800
3.200
3.600
4.000
10
FIG. 15.9
446
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
The peak
the
left.
frequencies are listed under the

circuits are
and the associated L-C tank

Figure 15.6
column entitled "termination," on the same line two columns to
is a listing of a small portion of the frequency response, which was calculated after the filter had been synthesized. Figure 15.7
Note that 1000 must be added to every frequency value in the abscissa. This merely reflects an idiosyncrasy of the plot routine. Figures 15.8 and 15.9 show the real and imaginary parts of the input admittance of the filter. Note particularly the shapes of these characteristics. If a number of these band-pass filters were connected in parallel and if the pass bands of the filters were adjacent but nonoverlapping, then the input conductance of the filter system would be essentially constant over the entire pass band, while the input susceptance would cancel out, as shown in Figs. 15.10a and b. This then means that the input admittance of the filter system would be real and could then be driven by any arbitrary source impedance without fear of reflections. Filters obtained using computer programs of the type we have just described are rapidly supplanting conventional hand- and handbookdesigned filters. The filter synthesis programs provide filters that are orders of magnitude more sophisticated than niters designed by the
is
a plot of voltage ratio in decibels versus frequency.
cycles
Frequency
(a)
FIG. 15.10. Effects of paralleling several band-pass
filters
with adjacent pass bands.
Computer techniques
conventional manner.
rather than days
in circuit anal/sis
447
Moreover, the designs are completed in minutes a typical cost of twenty dollars rather than two thousand (not including initial programming costs, of course).
and
at
Optimization Network design cannot always be accomplished by way of

means.
analytical
Quite often networks are designed through a trial-and-error process. The network designer begins with a set of specifications. He then selects a network configuration, and makes an initial guess about the element values. Next he calculates or measures the desired responses and compares them with the specifications. If the measured responses differ by a wide margin from the specified responses, the designer changes the values of the elements and compares again. He does this a number of times until (hopefully) the measured responses agree with the specified
responses to within a preset tolerance.
made to converge, sometimes quite one uses a method of steepest descent.* To get a rough idea of the steepest descent method, suppose there are n parameters in the network. Let us regard each parameter x{ as a dimension in an n,xn) dimensional euclidean space. We define a function f(x u xa xs that assigns a functional value to each point of the euclidean space. We then ask, at point p t what direction of motion decreases the value of f(xlt xit *,...,*) most rapidly? The function f(xt) may be defined as a least squared error, or as an absolute error between calculated response and specified response. The direction of steepest descent is the direction denned by the gradient
This process of cut and try can be
rapidly, if
,
,
mdf=T-*i + T-* + OX OXi

2
---
+ ^*n OX
n
is
(15.D
Therefore, incremental value of change for each parameter
6xt
where
=-C
OXi
(15.2)
is
a constant. After
all
incremental value in Eq. 15.2, a

are obtained.
new
parameters have been changed by the gradient and new incremental values
the
An
excellent paper
The process continues until by C. L. Semmelman7
optimum
is
obtained.
describes a steepest descent
* Charles B. Tompkins, "Methods of Steep Descent," in Modern Mathematics for the Engineer (Edwin F. Beckenbach, ed.), Chapter 18, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, 1956. 7 C. L. Semmelman, "Experience with a Steepest Descent Computer Program for Designing Delay Networks," IRE International Convention Hec, Part 2, 1962, 206-210.
448
Network
analysis
and synthesis
are the delay values
Fortran program used for designing delay networks. The specifications Rt given at the frequency data points/,. The program
successively changes the parameters
xi so
that the squared error

a
<*,)=i[K,-n*<,/,)]
i-X
is
(i5.3)
minimized. In Eq. 15.3, T{x it f ) represents the delay, at frequency f t f of the network with parameters xt In order to use the program, the network designer must first select the initial values for the parameters x ( He must also provide the specified delays R, and the frequency data points/^. The program provides for 128 match points and 64 parameter values. It is capable of meeting requirements simultaneously in the time and frequency domains. The designer is not restricted to equal-ripple approximations or infinite Q requirements. He is free to impose requirements such as nonuniform dissipation and range of available element values on the design. For related methods of optimization, the reader should refer to a tutorial paper by M. R. Aaron. 8
,
. .
man and computer holds network design. Multiple-access computing systems, such as the project of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, make cut and try design procedures practicable. The initials could describe either the term multiple-access computer or the term machine-aided cognition. In an article describing the computer system, 9 Professor R. M. Fano states "The notion of machine-aided cognition implies an intimate collaboration between a human user and a computer in a real-time dialogue on the solution of a problem, in which the two parties contribute their best capabilities." A simple multiple-access computer system is shown in Fig. 15.11. There are n data links and n terminals connected to the central processor. Located at each terminal is input-output equipment, such as teletypewriters, teletypes, and oscillographic displays. The sequence in which the central processor accepts programs from the terminals is controlled by a built-in queueing logic. The main reason a multiple-access computer is effective is that the central processor computes thousands of times faster than the user's reaction time. When a user feeds in a program, it seems only a "moment"
interaction between
Machine-aided design The concept of real-time
much promise
in the field of
MAC
MAC
MAC
M. R. Aaron, "The Use of Least Squares in System Design," IRE Trans, on

Utility
Circuit
December 1956, 224-231. R. M. Fano, "The MAC System: The Computer Spectrum, 2, No. 1, January 1965, 56-64.
Theory, CT-3, No. 4,
Approach,"
IEEE
Computer techniques
in circuit analysis
449
Memory
bank
Data
link
.
Remote
terminal
1
Buffer
Data
link
Remote
terminal
memory
Memory
bank
Central
processor
Queueing
logic
Data
link
Remote
terminal
Memory
bank
Memory
bank
Data
link
Remote
terminal
FIG.
15.1 1.
Block diagram showing typical multiple-access computing system.
before he gets the results through the teletypewriter or oscilloscope display. He examines the results, changes some parameters, and feeds the
program into the central processor again. The queueing time and processing time on the multiple-access computer may amount to only a
minute or two, which, for the user, is probably not significantly long. Dr. H. C. So has written a paper on a hybrid description of a linear 10 in which he has shown that the hybrid matrix is ideally ii-port network suited for such problems such as multielement variation studies and iterative design. Suppose there are n variable elements in the network. These can be "extracted" and the rest the bulk of the network can be
described by the n-port hybrid matrix.

10 H. C. So, "On the Hybrid Description of a Linear i-Port Resulting from the Extraction of Arbitrarily Specified Elements," Trans. IRE on Circuit Theory, CT-12, No. 3, September 1965, pp. 381-387.
'
450
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Command
Initialize
i
1
Frequency range
Engineer
,
Control
*j
Computer
Parameter
adjust
'
Display
Output
FIG. 15.12. Iterative design of network using machine-aided cognition.
Dr. So has written a computer program to formulate the hybrid matrix

for the H-port network automatically. 11
(1) the
The inputs to this program are node connections specifying the network topology; (2) the impedance functions of the elements; and (3) the specifications of the special elements to be extracted. This program was written with manmachine interaction in mind. The process is described in Fig. 15.12. First the computer reads in the n-port program with initial specifications. It performs the calculations and feeds information, such as transient or steady-state responses, back to the engineer via a visual display console. The engineer assesses the data and then changes the parameter values of
the extracted elements, and, in
some
instances, the frequency range over

is
which the calculations are made. The process
repeated a
number of
if
times until the engineer has obtained the desired results. Such a program
could also be controlled by a steepest descent steering program

engineer wished to obtain his results with less "eyeballing."
the
Now let us examine some details of specific network analysis programs.

15.2
AMPLITUDE AND PHASE SUBROUTINE

is
Purpose
Our purpose
function
to
compute the amplitude and phase of a
rational
"(s) - ?Hr?
1
(154)
H. C. So, unpublished memorandum.
Computer techniques
in circuit anal/sis
451
over a set of frequencies (o^ In Eq. 15.4, C and C are real constants, d and E(s) and F(s) are polynomials in s = a +ja>. The program described here computes the amplitudes M(co,) and phase #a> ) over a set of t frequencies cok where
,
W =
and
<f>((ok)
JU
\CnE(jlOh)\
(15.5)
\Ca FOcok)\
Fj(ja> k)
= arctan
ft
arctan
(15.6)
where in Eq. 15.6 the

indicate
real
and
subscripts
parts,
15.6,
it
respectively.
<Ko>k)
<f>
and imaginary Note that in Eq.

range
*s
limited to the
<>
<,it radians.
In order to circumvent
this restriction on the phase, we use the following method to compute amplitude
-JW
FIG. 15.13. Calculation of magnitude and phase at a> ( due to zero z.
and phase.
Method used
Let H(s) be factored into poles and zeros such that
H(s)
= C n (s - z )(s - zt) Cd(s ~ Pi)(s - P)

t
(S-PJ
(15.7)
Consider the amplitude and phase due to any pole or zero, for example, * +jP, shown in Fig. 15.13. The magnitude is
M
and the phase
is
{a>,)
= =
(<<
- ft*}*
'~
"
l
(15.8)
ft,
4>.{a>d
arctan
(15.9)
The amplitude and phase of the
overall function
is
M(wJ =
(15.10)
QIT^M)
and
<K>i)
= 2 tJfOi) - j ,,(>,)
(15.11)
452
Network

z indicate the contribution
where the subscripts p and

zero, respectively.
due to a pole and
Input
1. The numerator E(s) and denominator F(s) can be read in either as polynomials (high degree to low) or in terms of their roots. If numerator and/or denominator are read in as polynomials, their roots will be printed.
If they are given in
terms of their roots, the program could generate

if equally
in.
polynomials from these roots.

2.
The data points can be read in if unequally spaced;
spaced,
only the
minimum
point and the spacing need be read
Read Nl, ND,
NN
KK, LI, L2, L3
Read CN,
CD
KK =
Test
KK
KK=1
Read
(I)
Read WMIN,
DW
L1
=
Test LI
Ll
Read A (I), B (I)
Read E(l)
J
L2
=
TestL2
L2=l
Read C (I), D (I)
Read
F(l)
*~r*
To main program
FIG.
15.14.
Flow chart of input
instructions for magnitude
and phase program.
Computer techniques
in circuit analysis
453
A flow chart listing the input instructions is given in

initions
Fig. 15.14.
Def-
of the symbols in the flow chart follow.
Nl
= number of frequency points ND = degree of denominator NN = degree of numerator KK = indicates equally spaced data points. We =
LI
1
then read in only then read in

all
Wjqn, Aa>, and number of points. indicates unequally spaced data points.
to,.
We
=0
= =
1
Read
read
in zeros (if
complex conjugate, both zeros must be
in).
L2
Read Read
read
in numerator polynomial, high degree to low.

in poles (if
complex conjugate, both poles must be
in).
= Read in denominator polynomial, high degree to low. CN = numerator multiplier CD = denominator multiplier
1
Output
the program is the frequency response consisting of the following columns: frequency in radians W(I); amplitude, M(W(I)); magnitude in decibels, 20 log10 Af; and phase in degrees, ^(W(I)). typical printout of an amplitude and phase program is given in Fig. 1S.6, which shows the magnitude and phase of the band-pass filter
The main output of
designed using Szentirmai's program.
15.3
A FORTRAN PROGRAM FOR THE ANALYSIS OF LADDER NETWORKS
In this section we will discuss the methods and organization for a Fortran computer program for the analysis of linear ladder networks. The analysis proceeds by computing the voltage and current at the input of successive
bining R, L,
sections, beginning
with the terminating section.
branch impedances of the ladder by comimpedance arms according to the instructions of the C individual programmer. The poles and zeros and the frequency responses of the input impedance and voltage transfer ratio at the input of each L section are found. In addition, the program provides for the analysis of short- and open-circuited networks as well as for those with normal terminations. Separate problems may be run consecutively if so desired.
The program
calculates the
series

454
Network
vm
Zm
la"
1
1
Zn
v -l
l 1
Vl Zi
Vo
Zn-l
|
|
1 1
Ym
Y
l
r-i
1
Yi
FIG. 15.15
The network
Fig. 15.15.
These
section to
initially decomposed into separate L sections as in L sections are then added successively to the terminating form the complete network. With the addition of an L
is
and current computed by the equations

section, the voltage
at the input of the resulting
network are
^n =
(15.12)
^n^n
+ Vn-1
which were originally discussed in Chapter 9 of this book. Thus the program proceeds toward the front of the ladder requiring only the branch immittances of the present L section and the voltage and current of the
previous
section to
make
its
calculations.
Suitable assumptions for the initial voltage
and current
V and
/ allow
for analysis of short- and open-circuited networks as well as for those with normal terminations. These initial values of voltage and current are determined by control instructions. For the calculation of the voltage and current at an L section, the
branch impedances of the section are required. To simplify the preparation of the input data specifying these impedances, the following procedure is used. Each branch impedance is formed by the addition in series or parallel of basic R, L, C impedance arms. A basic R, L, C impedance arm is a series combination of a resistance, an inductance, and a capacany or all of which may be absent. The impedance arms are speciitor fied by the element values R, L, C and an instruction indicating how the arm is to be combined. The elements of the impedance arms are frequency and impedance normalized to aid computation, and then the arms are combined as specified to form the appropriate branch impedance. The roots of the voltage and .current polynomials for each L section
are
computed by a root-finding
routine.
Computer techniques
in circuit analysis
455
For the normal load and open circuit termination, the frequency responses of the input impedance, and voltage-transfer ratio are computed for short-circuit termination, the input impedance and current gain are computed. Provision is made for either a linear or logarithmic increment
The frequency boundaries and increments are read by the program along with the input data. According to instructions given by the programmer, the various calin frequency.
culations are printed for each
L section or only for the network as a whole.
Program operation
The ladder network-analysis program requires two sets of input data. The first set consists of the control instructions. These tell the computer
which of the various options, such as information concerning polynomial roots or frequency responses, are to be exercised. In addition, the control instructions provide the computer with necessary parameters such as normalizing factors, and the number of L sections in the ladder. The second set of data determines the branch impedances of the network by specifying the R, L, C impedance arms and their combining
instructions.
Impedance data The data specifying

bining instruction.
the branch impedances consist of an ordered series
of instruction cards, each determining
The
first
an impedance arm and/or a comarm of any branch impedance requires no
combining instruction. The branch impedance is set equal to the impedance of this arm. Subsequent impedance arms are added in parallel or series with the existing branch impedance, according to the combining instructions of the arms. A blank card tells the computer that a complete branch impedance has been formed and that the next arm begins a new branch impedance. If blank cards are not properly inserted, the computer
will calculate
The order of
â
1/
a single giant branch impedance. the data determining the branch impedances isZx ljYlt
,
Jg,
The values of R, L, C and the combining instruction XIN are written on one card in the order XIN, R, L, C. The values of XIN and the associated operation are shown in the table at the bottom of page 456.
struction of
Although the instructions XIN = 1.0, 2.0 will suffice for the conmany branch impedances, they are inadequate for other
impedances. For example, suppose the series combination of two tank circuits (Fig. 15.16) is desired as a branch impedance, this impedance may only be
456
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
50m*f
lMf
2mh
Tank
circuit
.05 h
-ÔOOyA
Tank
circuit
XIN
1.0
5.00000
11
2.0 3.0
2.00000E
.05
- 03
.000001
2.0 4.0
Blank
Card
FIG. 15.16. Construction of branch impedances using instructions for XIN.
constructed with use of three
more
instructions
(XIN
3.0, 4.0,
and
5.0)
and an additional
set
Tank
circuit
A is
of computer storage locations. formed in the usual manner, but must then be tem-
porarily stored during the calculation of tank circuit B.

circuits are
The two tank
then added to form the final branch impedance. Examples of impedances that cannot be formed are shown in Fig. 15.17. Observe that
a series branch impedance of zero ohms often simplifies the formation of branch impedances. Two blank cards will indicate a short-circuited impedance.
XIN
Blank card
Operation
A complete
the next
arm
branch impedance has been calculated, and begins a new branch impedance.
1.0
This arm is added in series with the existing branch impedance. This
2.0
3.0
arm is paralleled with the existing branch impedance.
This arm begins a new internal branch impedance. Subsequent XIN = 1.0 and 2.0 refer to this new internal branch.
4.0
Add
the two internal branches in series to form the final
branch impedance.
5.0
Parallel the internal branches.
Computer techniques
in circuit analysis
457
HWV-i
r-VW-i
-Wrr-VArn
L-vs/Sr-l
[-VS/Sr-j
FIG.
15.17.
Branch impedances that cannot be formed by program.
Output
coefficients of the voltage and current polynomials are printed in frequency normalized form. To calculate the denormalized coefficients, divide by the normalizing frequency raised to the power of the corre-
The
sponding exponent.
and zeros of the voltage and current polynomials are in frequency normalized form to facilitate zero-pole plots.
The
poles
Frequency responses appear in denormalized form. The frequency variable is in radians per second. The impedance level is in decibels, the phase in degrees. The gain and phase of the transfer ratios are
expressed similarly.
15.4
PROGRAMS THAT AID IN DARLINGTON

FILTER SYNTHESIS
Two double precision Fortran programs have been written that help in the synthesis of double-terminated filters using the Darlington procedure. The mathematics of the programs is described here.
Given a forward transmission
coefficient
S8i(s)
KN(s)
D(s)
(15.13)
458
Network
analysis
and synthesis
we
generate an input reflection coefficient
Su(s) from
the equation
Su(s) Sn(-s)
S(s) S gl (-5)
D(s)
D(-s)
K* N(s) N(-s)
(15.14)
D(s)
D(-s)
The denominator of Su(j) is D(s) because all the poles of Su(s) must be in the left-half plane. The zeros of Sn(s) are not so restricted. If Sn(s) Su(s) has zeros &tajb and a jb, the zeros of Sn(s) can be chosen as either a jb or a jb. The only difference is that certain choices lead to niters with unity-coupled coils and others without. 12 Once the zeros of Sn(s) are chosen, the input impedance of the filter
is
then
Zi(s)
1 1
~ +
Sii(*)
(15.15)
Su(s)
ReadCN
Numerator
multiplier
I
Read
CD
Denominator
multiplier
Number
of zeros
ReadLN
(complex conjugate zeros count as one zero)
I
Read
Read
real
and imaginary
A (I),
parts of zeros and

multiplicity,
B(I),N(I)
N (I)
Read LD
Number of poles (conjugate poles

count as one pole)
Read
H(I),G(I), M(l)
Read
real
and imaginary
parts of poles and

multiplicity, P(l)
To program
FIG.
15.18. Input to
Sn(5)
5u (j) program.
Low Pass on Circuit Theory, CT-2, December
11
T. Fujisawa, "Realizability
Theorem
for Mid-Series or Mid-Shunt
Ladders without Mutual Induction," Trans.

1955, 320-325.
IRE
Computer techniques
in circuit anal/sis
459
Program descriptions
next proceed with brief descriptions of the two programs. The program finds the roots of Su (s) S^s) given the roots of N(s), N(s), D(s), and D( s). A flow chart for the input of the program is given in Fig. 15.18. Note that we must read in both the zeros of N(s) and N(s), although only half of a complex conjugate pair need be read in. The same applies for the roots of Z>($) and /)($). The constant CN is
first
We
the computations in Eq. 15.15 for combinations of zeros of Sxl(s), given the fact that the zeros of Su(s) need not be in the left-hand plane. The previous program finds all the zeros of Sn (s) Su ( s). We must choose only half the number of zero pairs for 5u(s). Certain combinations of zeros of Sn (s) Su (s) lead to filters with coupled coils; others do not. If one wishes to try a number of combinations of zeros for 5u(f), the program has the facility to enable him to do so. He need only supply those zeros of Sn(s) Su ( s) in the right-hand plane, C(I) +y'B(I), and a list of constants S(I), which
different
K* in Eq. 15.14. The second program performs
are either 1.0 or

S(I)
1.0 so
that the zeros of
Sxl(s) may
be represented as
C(I) +y'B(I)
A(I) +y'B(I).
Su(s)
Su (s)
The
routine forms numerator
and
denominator polynomials of
= E(s)
F(s)
(15.16)
ReadLD
Number
of pole pairs of
Su
(real poles
count as one pair)
Read
H(I).G(I),M(I)
Real and imaginary parts of poles

of
Sn
and
multiplicity,
M (I)
ReadLN
Number
zeros of
of right-hand plane
Sn (a) Sn(-s)
Read
Real and imaginary parts of right-hand
C(l), G(l), N(l)
plane zeros and multiplicity,
N 0)
I
Read SO)
Multiplicative constants
(i 1.0) (each combination of zeros has LN cards)
To program
FIG.
15.19.
Input to
Zta(j) program.
460
Network
analysis
and synthesis
and then computes the numerator and denominator of Z^s) as
ZM= i^ = m^m
The input
instructions are
(15 17)
.
summarized on the flow chart
in Fig. 15.19.
Problems
15.1 Organize a flow-chart for computing magnitude and phase given only the unfactored numerator and denominator polynomials. Do not use a rootfinding subroutine.
15.2
Write a program to calculate the delay of
_,.
3(5
1)
at the points o>
= 0,
1, 2,
10.
Repeat Prob. 15.2 for a general transfer function given in terms of its unfactored numerator and denominator polynomials. The frequency points co t are to be read in by the computer. 15.4 Suppose you have calculated the phase of a transfer function at points m = 0, 1, 2, .... 50. Devise an algorithm to test for phase linearity. The deviation from phase linearity is to be called phase runoff. 15.5 Write a program to analyze a two-mesh network made up of only
15.3
R, L, and
15.6
C elements.
Repeat Prob. 15.5 for nodal analysis.
15.7 Write a program to calculate the step and impulse response of a linear system whose system function contains only simple, real poles and zeros.
Repeat Prob. 15.7 if simple complex poles and zeros are allowed. 15.9 Write a program to calculate the residues of a transfer function with multiple as well as simple poles. The poles and zeros are to be real.
15.8
appendix
Introduction to matrix algebra
A.I
FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS
is
Matrix notation
merely a shorthand method of algebraic symbolism
that enables one to carry out the algebraic operations
more
quickly.
The theory of
matrices originated primarily from the need (1) to solve simultaneous linear equations and (2) to have a compact notation for
linear transformations
from one
set
of variables to another.
As an example of (2),
u*i ^l^X
amiî
consider the set of simultaneous linear equations
+ +
i**a
aM";3 amixa
+ + +
+ +
alnxn " a* *
= yx y* =
**
(A.1)
+ amnxn = ym
.
These may express a general linear transformation from the xt to the yt In general, mj&n. An example where the numbers of variables in the two sets are unequal is that of representing a three-dimensional object in two dimensions (in a perspective drawing). Here, m = 2 and n = 3.
Definition
coefficients
an ordered rectangular array of numbers, generally the The matrix is denned by giving all its elements, and the location of each. The matrix of the equations in Eq. A.1 written as
matrix
is
of a linear transformation.
Oil
fl gl
12
ln
att
is
of order
mx
n.
(The
first
number here
461
is
the
number of rows; the
462
second
Network
is
analysis
and synthesis
the
single capital letter
number of columns.) The matrix may be denoted by a A or by [aw ].

a single complete
entity, like
matrix
is
a position in chess.
Two
and B are equal only if all corresponding elements are the same: atj = btj for all i andy. A matrix may consist of a single row or single column. The complete matrix notation applied to Eq. A.1 is
matrices
<hi
olt on
'mi
Oi
r*r
xa
Xn i
"yr
On.
oin
=
.
Vt
(A.2)
'ml
Vm .
says, if put crudely, that A operates on x t to yield y,. This emphasizes the similarity between a matrix and a transformation. The
which
x-
and y-matrices are column matrices. and column matrices are called vectors (specifically, row vectors and column vectors) and their similarity to the more usual type of vector
Row
is
discussed later.
Here, vectors will be written as small
letters,
such as
or y. Note elements of matrices need two.
that the elements of vectors need only one subscript, while
A.2
ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS
Square matrix
square matrix has the same number of rows as columns (i.e., a matrix of order rat). The Y matrix is an example of a square matrix
(A.3)
Diagonal matrix
diagonal matrix
diagonal.
is
diagonal are zero
(i.e.,
a square matrix whose elements off the main for 1 ?*/) The following one in which <xw =
'1
matrix
is
01
(A.4) 3
for
0-2
_0
Unit matrix
a diagonal matrix for which a u is denoted as U. For example,
is
A unit matrix
=j, and
is
"1
0"
U=
,0
(A.5)
1_
Appendix
Equality
463
Two matrices are equivalent if they

columns and Suppose yx =
if
have the same number of rows and

If we write this set
2"
the elements of corresponding orientation are equal
2,
yt
3, and ya
~Vi
6.
"
of equations
in matrix form,
we have
y*
= -3
(A.6)
-6. .y*. Transpose The transpose of a matrix A denoted as A r is the matrix formed by interchanging the rows and columns of A. Thus, if we have
,
A=
-6
3
(A.7)
then
A*
-CIS
l 4j
(A.8)
is defined only for square matrices and is formed by taking the determinant of the elements of the matrix. For example, we have 1 2
Determinant of a matrix The determinant of a matrix
12
det
L-5
14
(A.9)
4
value, whereas the
matrix
Note that the determinant of a matrix has a particular itself is merely an array of quantities.
Cofactor
The
cofactor
A i}
of a square matrix
is
the determinant formed by

.
deleting the fth
row andy'th column, and multiplying by (l)i+i
For
example, the cofactor
A tl
of the matrix
-n
IS
(A.10)
An =
Adjoint matrix
(-iy*+i
6= -6
(A.11)
The
adjoint matrix of a square matrix
element of
by
its
cofactor
A is formed by replacing each and transposing. For example, for the
464
Network
analysis
and synthesis
matrix in Eq. A.10,
we have
adjA
l:
-l;
h i
A=
0.
(A.12)
Singular and nonsingular matrices A singular matrix is a square matrix A for which det singular matrix is one for which det A ?* 0.
non-
A.3
OPERATIONS
matrices
ON
MATRICES
if
Addition
both matrices are of the same order. added to the element of the second Each element of the first and column orientation is the same. An example of matrix, whose row matrix addition is shown in Eq. A. 13.
Two
may be added
matrix
is
[-in-'-H-<-2
Thus
if
(A.13)
matrices A, B,
K are all
of the same order, then
A+B+
The
associative
+K=
[a u
+b +
it
+k
B)
tj ]
(A.14)
and commutative laws apply.
Associative:
Commutative:
A + (B + C) = (A + A+B=B+A
+C
(A.15)
Multiplication by a scalar
We define multiplication by a scalar as

XA
A[a w ]
[AaJ
each of
its
(A.16)
Thus to multiply a matrix by a

the scalar.
scalar, multiply
elements by
Example
Al
"
0"
1
"
0"
-1
-3
(A.17)
-3 2
-9
Appendix
465
Linear combination of matrices of addition and multiplication by a scalar are combined, for two matrices of the same order we have
If the rules
oA
where and
/9
/SB
[*ait
+ pb
it ]
(A.18)
are scalars.
Multiplication In order for matrix multiplication AB to be possible, the number of columns of the first matrix A must equal the number of rows of the second matrix B. The product C will have the number of rows of the first and A has the number of columns of the second matrix. In other words, if columns, then the product rows and n columns, and B has n rows and/>
m
C
will
have
rows and
columns.
The
individual elements of
are
given by
(A.19)
Example A.2 4
2 [-:-:;]-[-,:;] -3
(A.20)
Example A3.
The system of equations

u/i
ZtJi
+ Ws = Vx + z/s = Vt
(A.21)
can be written in matrix notation as

(A.22)
caca-ra
We
see that systems of equations
can be very conveniently written in

is,
matrix notation.
Matrix multiplication
is
not generally commutative, that
AmnBB * BÂ, Observe that the product BA is not defined unless p =

of square matrices
following example.
is
(A.23)
m. Even a product
generally not commutative, as
may be
seen in the
onr-i
2JL
o
<n
_ r-i
i
oi
(A.24)
L-i
2j~L
f]
466
If
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
we
interchange the order of multiplication,
we
obtain
-1
2
-1
-1
-2
(A.25)
Because of the noncommutative nature of matrix multiplication, we must distinguish between premultiplication and postmultiplication. In BA, A is premultiplied by B; B is postmultiplied by A. For matrix multiplication, the associative and distributive laws apply.
Associative:
Distributive:
A(BC)
A(B
= ABC + C) = AB + AC
(AB)C
(A.26)
Transpose of a product The transpose of a product AB is equal to the product, in reverse of the transpose of the individual matrices A and B, that is,
(AB)
order,
- B rA T
"
(A.27)
and
(ABC)r
= C T(AB) T = C^BÂ 2
(A.28)
The product x Tx, if x is a column vector, is a scalar number equal to the sum of the squares of the elements of x. Thus we have
xT x
=
=
[ Xl
xt
x]
(A.29)
The product xx r
+ x* T is a square matrix C such that C = C

*i
*,*
Common
(a)
expressions in simple notation
The sum of products
aA + ajb +
t
+ anb,
is
typical element of a product matrix,
may be
written as
which are the a^b or b ra where
a and b are column vectors. (b) The sum of squares x^

vector).
(c)
It is also
xx r
is
+ xt* +
x n*
thus
x Tx
(x,
column
column
if
is
a row vector.
The
expression auxf
+ atixta +
a nnxn *
is
x rAx
.
(x,
a diagonal matrix with elements ait Similarly, the T T expression aaxjfx aê^yt H h a nnxyn is x Ay or y Ax. (d) An expression such as
vector),
where
2 Z aux x
i
t>
a,
Appendix
is
467
a quadratic form. This

ii*i*
is
+ + +
1a x%xx xt
*!*

+
2a u xt xa H
2
+ 2a ln x1 x
h 2a, B a;2 x B
(A.30)
<J*
x TAx
is
Inverse
Division
is
not defined in matrix algebra. The analogous operation
that of obtaining the inverse of a square matrix.
The
inverse
A-1
of a
matrix
A is defined by the relation

A-*A
= AA- = U
1
(A.31)
To
obtain
A-1 we first obtain the adjoint

,
the determinant of A.
that
is,
The
inverse
A-1
is
of A, adj A. Then we obtain equal to adj A divided by |A|,
A" 1
Example A.4.
Let
|A|
adj
(A.32)
A be given as
(A.33)
Its
determinant
is
|A|
=3
Au = An =
(A.34)
and the cofactors are
An = 1 Afn = 1
The
adjoint matrix
is
(A.35)
adJA =
[-l
2j
(A.36)
-C
so that
A-1 is
-C 1
(A.37)
-EH
46.8
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
As a check we
see that
p
}
'
-r
i
"
r
i
K
2
-l
(A.38)
V
1
-1
If the determinant
P
*
_i
l
In
of the matrix is zero, then the inverse is not defined. other words, only nonsingular square matrices have inverses.
A.4
SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

set
Consider a
of linear algebraic equations, to be solved simultaneously.

011*1 asiî
H + + a^xt + +
<*iss*
r-
= hx aSnx = hs
alnxn
(A.39)
m*i
+ a n **i +
Ax
+ a nnxn = h n
.
The h t are we have
constants.
It is
desired to solve for the xf
In matrix notation
h
x
(A.40)
(A.41)
Premultiplying by
-1
gives
is
=A
In expanded form, this

x.
^si
J_
|A|
ia
-"m
^32
(A.42)
Thus
|A|
*1
Oia
*is
ht ha
a
a S2
|A|
On a
and
similarly for
xt and *3
This
is
the familiar Cramer's rule for solving
such equations.
Example A.5.
Solve for x, y,
z.
2x
3y
+2 =2 +y =
1
(A.43)
-* +
+ = -1
Appendix
In matrix form, these equations are written as
1
469
Ax = h where
-1
1
~x~
r
,
y
z
(A.44)
-1
Also, |A| = 10. Thus,
-l
we have x =
r
i
*1
y
z
4
2
A_1h -r
2
3
r
i
r
=
X io
-&
x
-2
-4
9
(A.45)
7-2
= 0.7, y =
-0.4, z
-i
Therefore
= 0.9
A.5
REFERENCES
is
ON MATRIX ALGEBRA
list
The following
a short
of books on matrices that the reader might wish to
examine. A. C. Aitken, Determinants and Matrices, 9th Ed., Interscience Publishers,

1956.
New
York,
R. Bellman, Introduction to Matrix Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1960. York, R. L. Eisenman, Matrix Vector Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
D. K. Faddeev and V. N. Faddeeva, Computational Methods of Linear Algebra, W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 1963. Publishers, F. R. Gantmacher, Applications of the Theory of Matrices, Interscience
F. E.
1963.
Hohn, Elementary Matrix Algebra, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1964. McGraw-Hill Book L. P. Huelsman, Circuits, Matrices, and Linear Vector Spaces, Company, New York, 1963. and Sons, New York, P. LeCorbeiller, Matrix Analysis of Electric Networks, John Wiley
1950.
New
York, 1959.
Survey of Matrix Theory and Matrix Inequalities, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1964. Sons, New York, E. D. Nering, Linear Algebra and Matrix Theory, John Wiley and
M. Marcus and H. Mine,
1964.
S. Perlis, Theory
1952. of Matrices, Addison-Westey, Reading, Massachusetts, Englewood Cliffs, NJ., L. A. Pipes, Matrix Methods for Engineering, Prentice-Hall, 1963.
A. M. Trapper, Matrix Theory for

1962.
Electrical Engineering Students, Harrop,

Electrical Engineers,
London,
A. von Weiss, Matrix Analysis for NJ., 1964.
D. Van Nostrand, Princeton,
appendix
Generalized functions and
the unit impulse
B.I
GENERALIZED FUNCTIONS
unit impulse, or delta function,
is
The
a mathematical anomaly. P. A.
M. Dirac, the physicist, first used it in his writings on quantum mechanics. 1
He denned
the delta function d(x)
by the equations
d(x)
Its
d(x)
dx
=
x
(B.I)
for
jt
most important property
is
f
V
f(x)6(z)dx=f(0)
(B.2)
where f(x)
is continuous at x 0. Dirac called the delta function an improper function, because there existed no rigorous mathematical justi-
entitled
it at the time. In 1950 Laurent Schwartz* published a treatise The Theory oj Distributions, which provided, among other things, a fully rigorous and satisfactory basis for the delta function. Distribution theory, however, proved too abstract for applied mathematics and
fication for
P.
A. M. Dirac, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics, Oxford University Press,

I
1930.
1
L. Schwartz, Theorie des Distributions, Vols.

1951.
and
II,
Hermann
et Cie, Paris, 1950
and
470
Appendix B
physicists.
It
471
was not
until 1953,
when George Temple produced a more

theory through the use of generalanalysis received the attention
it
elementary (although no
ized functions,* that this
less rigorous)
new branch of
deserved.
Our treatment of
The treatment of
generalized functions will be limited to the
definition of the generalized step function
and
its
derivative, the unit
work of Temple4 and Lighthill. 8 To get an idea of what a generalized function is, it is convenient to use as an analogy the notion of an irrational number a beng a sequence {oc} of rational numbers <x n such that
impulse.
these functions follows closely the
a
where the
irrational
= lim a
n-ao
<x
limit indicates that the points
on
the real line converge to
on the on the sequence {a} defining a.' We can also think of a generalized function as being a sequence of functions, which when multiplied by a test function and integrated over
All arithmetic operations performed
the point representing a.
number a
are actually performed
(00,
oo) yields
it is
function,
a finite limit. Before we formally define a generalized important to consider the definition of (1) a testing function
B.I
and
(2)
a regular sequence.
DEFINITION
is differentiable
A function #f) of class

t
C[#f) G C]
is
one that
(1)
everywhere, any
number of times and

raised to
that (2)
when
it
or
any of its derivatives are multiplied by

lim
*->oo
[t
any power, the
limit is
m
<f>
M(t)]-*0
for all
m&feÔ
(B.3)
Any
testing function is
a function of class C.
The Gaussian function e-*'ln% is a function of class C. It is obvious that if a function is of class C then all of its derivatives belong to class C.
Example B.l.
*G. Temple, "Theories and Applications of Generalized Functions," J. London Math. Soc., 28, 1953, 134-148. 4 G. Temple, "The Theory of Generalized Functions," Proc. Royal Society, A, 228,
1955, 175-190.
6
M.
Press, 1935.
true,
it
and Generalized Functions, Cambridge University book to "Paul Dirac, who saw it must be Laurent Schwartz, who proved it, and George Temple, who showed how simple
J. Lighthill,
Fourier Analysis
Lighthill dedicated his excellent
number according to the Cantor definition. For a more on real variables such as E. W. Hobson, The Theory of Functions of a Real Variable, Vol. I, third edition, Chapter 1, Cambridge University
detailed account see
could be made." * This defines an irrational
any
text
Press,
Cambridge, England, 1927.
472
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
of functions of class
DEFINITION
B.2
A sequence {/(*)}
<f>(t)
is
said
to be regular if for any function
belonging to C, the limit
lim(/,#=lim
n-*ao n-*oo
J oo
fn(t)<Kt)dt
(B.4)
exists.
Note that it is not necessary that the sequence converge pointwise. For example, the sequence {e~ nt\nlir)^} approaches infinity as n - oo at the point t = 0. However, the limit lim (/", <f>) exists.
n-oo
DEFINITION
alent if for all
B.3
Two
regular sequences {/} and {g} are equiv(B.5)

{<r' ,/aB*(l/V2î)} are
6
The
lim(/B ,#=lim(g B ,#
n-*oo
n-*ao
Example B.2.
equivalent.
regular sequences {e-n**(/f) w }
and
DEFINITION B.4 generalized Junction g is denned as a total, or complete, class of equivalent regular sequences. The term total implies
here that there exists
to this class.
represent
no other equivalent
of the
total class
regular sequence not belonging
Any member both g and the
class, for
example, {g n },
is sufficient
to
of equivalent regular sequences
denning g.
We denote this
[{*-'*/},
symbolically by the form
~ {gn
}.
Example B.3.
All of the equivalent, regular sequences
Or*
1 '"4
},
{e-"'-}
{--/*}]
lnt
}.
represent the
same generalized function g

B.5
<f>(t)
~ {e~**
(g,
DEFINITION
g and a
function
The inner product
<f>)
of a generalized function,
C is defined
n-*oo
as
(g,#=lim f"gn(t)<Kt)dt
J co
(B.6)
The inner product
is
often given the following symbolic representation.
(g,
+)
g(t)<Kt)dt
(B.7)
Note that the
integral here is used symbolically
and does not imply
actual integration.
DEFINITION
defined by the
resented by the sequences
g and h are two g {g n } and h representation g + h {g +

B.6
If
~ {h
A}.
generalized functions repn },
the
sum g
+h
is
Note
and
that the set of sequences {g n
+ h n}
represents a total class of

defining
equivalent regular sequences

h; therefore
made up of the sum of sequences
+ h is a properly defined generalized function.
Appendix B
473
DEFINITION
and a constant a
B.7
is
The product a.g of a
generalized function;
~ {#}
g~
is
defined by the representation ag <~ {gn }.
DEFINITION
{#}
is
B.8 The derivative g' of a generalized function {g' n }. defined by the representation g'
represented
Example B.4. For the generalized function by
gx ~ {*-*
1/b *}
the derivative
and
(g\, *)
= lim
"
(
- ^ e"**'"1
*(/)
//
(B.8)
we have defined the operations of addition, and differentiation. It must be pointed out that the operation of multiplication between two generalized functions is not
In Definitions B.6, B.7, and B.8
multiplication
by a
scalar
defined in general.
We
next consider an important theorem, whose proof
is
given in
Lighthill, 7
which
will enable us to represent
any ordinary function, such

equivalent.
satisfying the condition
as a step function
by a generalized function
Theorem B.l.
Given any ordinary function /(f)
1'
for
1/(01
r
dt
<
co
(B.9)
some
N ^ 0, there exists a generalized function8 / ~ {/,(/)} such that
for all
C.
lent in terms
write
/ =/.
In other words, an ordinary function satisfying Eq. B.9 is equivaof inner products to a generalized function. Symbolically, we If, in addition, / is continuous in an interval, then lim f n
""*"
it
=/
pointwise in that interval.
Furthermore,
multiplication,
results, that is,
and
can be shown that all the operations of addition, scalar differentiation performed on both /and /yield equivalent
(a
m'
= (/i +
6ti'
function.
<M
when
'
differentiation is permitted
on the ordinary
Lighthill, op. cit., Section 2.3.
Note that when we represent an ordinary function by generalized function equivalent,

italic letter
we use a bold face
to denote the generalized function.
474
Network
analysis
and synthesis
generalized step function u
{(*)}
is
DEFINITION
total class
B.9
The
defined as the
of equivalent regular sequences
such that
(,#
= lim
n-*oo
fuJit)4(t)dt J ao
(B.12)
-f"ii(t)#0A
J 00
where
u(i) is the unit step defined in
Chapter
2.
That
{(/)} exists is
guaranteed by the previous theorem allowing representations of ordinary u. functions by generalized functions. Hence, we write u
Example B.5.
The sequence
/>o t0
which
is
(B.13)
plotted in Fig. B.l,
is
one member of the
class
of equivalent regular
sequences which represents the generalized step function.
FIG. B.l. The generalized step sequence,
,(/)
DEFINITION
is
B.I0 The unit impulse, or Dirac delta function <$(r), {'(*)}. denned as the derivative of the generalized step function d(t)
Appendix B
It
475
total class
should be stressed that <J(f) is merely the symbolic representation for a of equivalent regular sequences represented by {u' (t)}. Thus n
write the integral
when we
we
actually
mean
f " <5(0 <Kt) dt
mmdt
= (d,
<j>)
J oo
Example B.6.
= lim
n-oo
J oo
f " u' n(0 #t) dt
(B.14)
The sequence
^-(5-2r)p[-i(J
=
in Fig. B.2
is
+ |.)]
,>o
(B.15)
t
represents the unit impulse.
one member of the class of equivalent regular sequences which Other members of the class are the sequences
{e-*(MK} and {^1*^(1/ VJ^n)}.
1.0
1.2
I
1.4
1.6
_1_
_L_
FIG. B.2. The generalized sequence,
'(/).
476
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
B.2
PROPERTIES OF THE UNIT IMPULSE

unit impulse
Sifting
The most important property of the

represented symbolically by
is
the sifting property
J<o
W(0*-/(0);
(M,lj8|<>)
/J].
(B.16)
where /is any function

Eq. B.16
is
differentiable over [a,
The
left
hand
side of
defined formally by
f> \ \t)f(t)dt Js<0
slim
n-ao is
\"*u'JLt)f{t)dt Ja<0
(B.17)
The proof of
the sifting property
obtained by simply integrating by
parts, as follows.
lim
n<x>
r u'(0/(0 dt = lim u n(t)f(t)\- lim J<0

n-oo
l
>O
f'ii,(0/'(0 dt
J*
n-oo
-/tf)-f'limu.(0/'(OA
_,
= /C8)-[/(/5)-/(0)]=/(0)
Pictorially
we
represent <$(0
t
by a spike as shown in
Fig. B.3.
If the
impulse
as
is
centered at
= a, then the sifting property is given symbolically

fl
d(.t
)/(f) dt
- /(a)
(|a|,
HI
<
ao)
(B.19)
KO
FIG. B.3. The unit impulse.
Appendix B
where/'(0 most exist over
are
infinite, [a,
/?].
477
Note that when the limits of integration
we
actually
mean
(B.20)
(S(t)f(t)dts lira \\t)f{t)dt J oo a-* oo Ja

In the
sifting property, if
both
a,
(I
>
dt
or a,
/?
< 0, then
(B.21)
<K0/(0
/:
The proof of this property is similar to the original proof of property, and will be left as an exercise for the reader.
Integration
the sifting
The
defining equations of the delta function according to Dirac are
f>0
d(x)
/. <o
dx
=
x
(B.22)
i*
d(x) = 0;
These are actually properties of the delta function as viewed from the generalized function standpoint. The proof can be obtained directly from the sifting property. Suppose we have the integral
f>
1
and we
let f{t)
\t)f(t)dt=f(0)
(B.23)
1.
Then we have
d(t)dt=f(p)
I a<0
If both a,
/?
(B.24)
are greater than zero or both are less than zero, then
1
This property
is
d(t) dt
=
d(t)
(B.25)
stated symbolically
by the conditions
for
ft 0.
Differentiation across a discontinuity Consider the function /(0 in Fig. B.4. We see that /(f) has a discontinuity of A at t T. If we let/i(0 =f(f) for t T, and/i(f) =/(*) A for t T, then we have
<
At)=MQ + Au(t-T)
(B.26)
478
Network
analysis
and synthesis
*M
h(t)
FIG. B.4. Function with discontinuity.
Since /(0,/i(0 and u(t) satisfy the condition

lg(OI
&\N I (1 + O dt <
for
co
some N; we can
represent these ordinary functions by generalized
functions
(ft)
=Mt) +
n(0
(B.27)
Taking derivatives on both
sides of Eq. B.27 yields
fV)=f\(.t)
which symbolically can be written as
Au'(.t)
(B.28)
no =A(o + A m
We
thus see that whenever
(B.29)
we
differentiate across
a discontinuity, we
obtain a delta function times the height of the discontinuity.
Example B.7.
The
step response of
an R-C network
is
given as
(B.30)
Hf)
= Ae-" T u(t)
is
shown
in Fig. B.Sa.
The impulse response
h'(t)=Ad(t)-j,e- l T u(t)
l
(B.31)
and
is
shown
in Fig. B.Sb.
Appendix B
479
FIC. B.5. Differentiation across a discontinuity.
Differentiation
The
derivative of
a delta function, which we
symbolically as d\t)
f"(i) exists over [a,
call
a doublet,
is
defined
{u" n(t)}.
It
has the following property, where
fit].
/V>o <J'(0/(0 dt J J<0 '
=
>0
-/'(0);
(||,
\fi\
<
by
oo)
(B.32)
The proof is obtained through
successive integration
parts.
lim T" V(0/(0 dt = n-oo Ja<0 "B(0/(0 dt f Ja<0

fi>0
(B.33)
- Km
We see that since
'.(0/(0
-lim
<0
n-oo
Ct>9 u'n (t)f'(t)dt J<0
lim u'Jfi)
lim
u' n (a)
= 0,
>0
limH' B (0/0)'
n-*oo
=0
(B.34)
0
-lim
u' B
(0/'(0^=-lim n/'| +lim

-/'(/?)+
['u n (t)f\t)dt
(B.35)
u{t)f{t)dt \y
-/'(0)
-fW +fW -/'(0) =

A -(-DT"'()
In general, the derivative-sifting property can be stated symbolically as

* -(*-)/()
(B.36)
J J<0
where/ <B+1) (0 exists over [a, The generalized function
/3].
d'(t)
is
sometimes called a doublet.

is
The
pictorial representation of a doublet
given in Fig. B.6.
unit impulse Dirac and others have obtained a host of identities concerning the unit impulse. We will merely give these here without proof.
Other properties of the
- ,5(0 d'(-t) - -<5'(0 t <3(0 = o td'(t) = -d{t)

<5(-o
diat)
d(t*
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
-a*) = i \a\-1 {d(t f(t)6(t-a)=f(a)d(t-a)

The proofs of
with a testing function
<f>(t)
(5)
a)
d(t
a)}
(6)
(7)
these properties are obtained through the inner product
C.
but not necessary.
The condition on/'" +1
'
is sufficient,
appendix
Elements of complex variables
CI ELEMENTARY DEFINITIONS
AND OPERATIONS
A complex variable z is a pair of real variables (x, y) written as z = x+jy
(CI)
where j can be thought of as v 1. The variable x is called the real part of z, and y is the imaginary part of z. Written in simpler notation, we have
Re(z),
= Im(z)
(C.2)
The
variable z can be plotted
on a pair of rectangular coordinates. The
abscissa represents the x or real axis, and the ordinate represents the y or imaginary axis. The plane upon which x and y are plotted is called the
complex plane. Any point on the complex plane, such as z = 3 +j2, can be represented in terms of its real and imaginary parts, as shown in Fig. C. 1 From the origin of the complex plane, let us draw a vector to any point z. The distance from the origin to z is given by
|x|
(x*
y)*
z.
(C.3)
and
is
known
as the modulus of
is
The
angle which the vector subtends as the argument of z or
known
3 *
arg z
tan
-i *
V x
(C.4)
\z\, we can arg z and r Letting 6 represent z in polar coordinates as
re
(C.5)
481
FIG.
CI
482
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
Expanding
this last
equation by Euler's formula,

z == r cos 6
we
obtain
(C.6)
+jr sin 6,
so that
= r cos 8 y = r sin
x
(C.7)
The
rule for addition for

(a
two complex numbers

(c
is
given as
+jb)
+jd)
(a
c)
+j(b
+ d)
(C.8)
When two complex numbers

(a
are multiplied,
we have
(C.9)
+ jb)(c +jd) = (ac - bd) + j(ad + be)

If
where j* = 1.
obtain
we
express the complex numbers in polar form,
we
(a
and
m (c+jd) = r^ m
+ jb) =
ri e
(CIO)
(C.ll)
When we
multiply the two numbers in polar form, then
r^rtf"*
If
jv^**-
-*'
(C.12)
we
divide these
two numbers
in polar form, then
7^ = 7^'^
a+jb _ (a+ jb)(c - jd) c+jd (c+jd)(c-jd) ac + bd .be ad J c + d* c* + d*
In connection with the modulus of a complex number,
the following rules:
li2l
it is
(C13)
In rectangular coordinates, the operation of division can be expressed as
(C.14)
useful to note
1*1*1*1
z-z*
where z*
is
= Uil = = |z|
|il
tal
l*i*l
2
l*il
(CIS)
the complex conjugate of z and
is
defined as
z*
= x +jy = x jy
(C.16)
Appendix
483
The following rules deal with operations involving the conjugate definition
Zi
+ zt = zx * + z,*
^=
Finally, if z has
*!**.*
(C.17)
a modulus of unity, then

z
-1
z*
(C.18)
The operations of raising a complex number to the nth power, or taking the nth root of a complex number, can be dealt with most readily by using n the polar form of the number. Thus, we have z B (re1")" r eSnB ,
and
C.2
1/n
= jMne sn+tk,)M
k0l
(C
19)
ANALYSIS
If to each z
is
= x +jy, we assign a complex number w = u +jv, then w

w =/(*)
(C.20)
functions,
i.e.,
a function of z or
The following are examples of complex

complex variable:
functions of a
= 2z w = log, z w = 1/z w = za + 4 w=
w
|z|
(C.21)
We
see that
w may
be complex, pure
real,
or pure imaginary, depending
upon the particular relationship with z. In general, the real and imaginary parts of w are both functions of x and y. That is, if we let w = j + jv,
then
u-A*,V)
As an example,
let
and
v=f(x,y)
(C.22)
us find u and v for the function
= z* + 4.
(C.23)
w=
Simplifying,
z*
+4=
(x
+jy)*
+4
we
obtain
= (* - y* +/'2ry) + 4
(C^4)
484
Network
jy
analysis
and synthesis
jy
J&
z
+ Az
Ax
+ A?
Pathl
Path 2
-jy
-jy
FIG. C.2
FIG. C.3
a:*
so that
yl +
and
i>
= 2y
defined as
(C.25)
The
derivative of a
complex function /(z)
is
(C.26)
If
one
restricts the direction

is
or path along which
Az approaches
zero, then
we have what
function
at
is
known
as a directional derivative. However, if a

all,
complex
to possess a derivative at
the derivative must be the
same
any point regardless of the direction in which Az approaches zero. In other words, in order for/(z) to be differentiable at z = z we must have
,
= constant
dz
for all directions of approach of Az.
(C.27)
Consider the two directions and C.3. For path 1, we have

/'(z)
If
in
which Az approaches zero in
Figs.
C.2
=lim
Az
,/(z lim'
+ Az)-/(z)
Az
(C.28)
A*->0 Av->0
we
substitute
= Ax + j Ay
(C.29)
into Eq. C.28,

f'(z)
we
obtain
= lim
Aac-0 Aff-*0
Since
and
+ A* +j(y + Ay)] -f(x+jy) As + j Ay /(z) = u +jv f(z + Az) = u + Aw +j(v + A)

lim
f[x
(C.30)
(C.31) (C.32)
Appendix
485
we
finally arrive at
/'()
= lim
,.
Am +jAi>
lim
a-.o Av->o Aa;
+ j'Ay
(C.33)
.
-* = hm Au + /Ao Ax a*-o
For path
2,
=+
9u
,
dx
dx
we have
/'(z)=lim
a-oas-oAx
Au + Ad Km " T J A
/
+ J Ay
(C.34)
==lim
AiLM
/'Ay
.
a-o
dt>
du
dy
Since
dy
derivatives
we assume that the function /(z) is differentiable, the must be independent of path. Thus, we have
_ =
dy
dy
4-
9x
(C 35)
dx
From this
are
last equation,
we
obtain the Cauchy-Riemann equations, which
dv
du
dy
dx
du__dv
dy
dx
We have just seen that in order for a function to have a derivative, the Cauchy-Riemann equations must hold. A function which is single valued and possesses a unique derivative is called an analytic function. A set of
sufficient conditions for analyticity is that the
are obeyed.
Cauchy-Riemann equations For example, consider the function

/(z)
= z* + 4
dx
(C.37)
/(z)
is
analytic because
^ = 2x = ^
dy 9
(C.38)
= 2
dy
=
dx
486
Network
On the
other hand,/(z)
= z* is not analytic because
x
j.,
and
a and
= y
(C39)
1
= +1
du
ox
C.3
= -1 ay
*>
SINGULARITIES
AND
RESIDUES
at a point z
complex plane except then/(z) has an isolated singularity at z Suppose /(z) has a singularity at z , then we can expand /(z) about z in a Laurent series
, .
If/(z) is analytic within a region or domain in the
(z
- z )B
-z
+
Om(2
- So)"* +
m.
1
* *
(C.40)
In the expansion,
if
m is finite,
then z
is
called a pole of order
The
term a_i
is
called the residue of the singularity.
Example C.l.
the pole at the origin.
Consider the Laurent series for the function /(z) We can expand e* in a power series to give
= e*\z
about
*=
I/i z\
+* +
!
2!
+ -*+
3!
)
/
(C.41)
= l+l + Lz+l.z* + -z
2!
3!
According to the
definition, the residue
of the pole at z
is
equal to
1.
Example C.2. Expand the function /(z) and find the residue of the pole at z = 1
1 1 1
l/z(z
l)2
about the pole at
1,
z(z-l)
- i)M + (z 1
1)
(z
[1
- (z 1
1)
+ (z - (z -
1)
- (z +
(z
I)*
(C.42)
1)
, (z
, 1)*
1)
1)
+
is
for
1
<
Note
is
|z
1|
<
1.
Here, the residue of the pole at z

infinite
equal to 1.
that if
we have an
number of nonzero terms with
negative exponents,
then *o
an
essential singularity.
Appendix
Example C3.
function
s
C
-1
487
of the
Find the residues of the poles at s
and s
+2
partial fraction
1
(C.43)
To find
the residues,
we simply perform a
expansion
(C.44)
Thus the residue of the pole at s = -lis +3.

C.4
s =
is
3, and the residue of the pole at
CONTOUR INTEGRATION
In complex integration the integral is taken over a piecewise smooth path
C and is defined as the limit of an infinite summation
IC
the integral.
f(z) dz
= lim 2 f(z n-oo j 1
i)
A*/
(C.45)
where zt lies on C. Unlike the process of differentiation, the path along which we take the integral makes a difference as to the ultimate value of
Thus the
integral
r f(z)dz
in general, has different values depending
(C.46)
grate along path
or path C8 as a closed path, say from a to b and then to a again, we are integrating along a closed contour. The path shown in Fig. C.5 is an example of a closed contour. The following theorem, known as Couch/ s residue theorem gives
,
upon whether we choose to inteshown in Fig. C.4. If we integrate along
a method for rapid evaluation of integrals on closed paths.
Jy
^
.
jy
Closed
I
X
FIG. C.4
'contour
FIG. C.5
Theorem C.l.
If
C is a simple closed curve in a domain

z^, z,,
analytic except for isolated singularities at
...
z,
D, within which /(z) is then the integral along
488
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
the closed path
C is
I
where
f(z)dz
= 2n/(JKi +K. + ---+KJ
(C.47)
represents the residue of the singularity z ( .
Example C.4.
Consider the integral
s+2 ds sH.s + 1?
along the
within the
circle
\s\
(C.48)
circle, at s
= 2, as given in Fig. C.6. Since there are two singularities = and at s = 1, whose residues are respectively 3
is
and +3, then the integral along the circle

S
s\s
+ 2 ds - 2*j(-3 + + iy
3)
(C.49)
C=|.|-2
Example C.5.
C.7.
Find the
integral of f(s) along the closed contour
shown
in Fig.
The
function /()
is
given as
'*"-(* +
35+5 IX* +
Jy
(C.50)
2)
'
' L
-2 -1
-Jy
FIG .
C7
Appendix
489
A partial fraction expansion of f(s) shows that
m ri + Txi + +
s 1 s
(C51)
integral along the closed
so that the residues are
and 2. The value of the

singularities lie is
path within which both the
then
j> /(s) ds
If f(z) is analytic in
iTTJil
2)
= 6tt/
(C.52)
a domain with no
is
singularities,
then the integral
along any closed path
zero, that
is,
if
This result
is
f(z)dz
(C.53)
known
as Cauchy's integral theorem.
D Proofs of some theorems on

appendix
positive real functions
Theorem D.l.
positive real.
If Z(s)
and W(s) are both
positive real, then Z(fV(s))
is
also
Proof.
also.
When Re s 0, both Re Z(s) and Re W(s) ^ 0, then Re Z( W(s)) 0, When s is real, both Z(s) and ff%s) are real, hence Z(W(s)) is real. Since
satisfies
Z(W(s))
both conditions of positive realness,
it is
positive real.
Theorem D.2.
Proof.
If Z{s) is positive real,
W(s)
=
=
1/* is positive real,
then Z(\/s) is positive real. hence Z(tV(s)} = Z(l/s) is positive
real.
Theorem D.3.
Proof.
If lV(s) is positive real, then l/fV(s) is also positive real.

l/s is positive real,
Z(s)
hence Z(W(s))
l/fV(s) is positive real
by
Theorem D.l.
Theorem D.4. The sum of positive real functions is positive real. Proof. Suppose Zx(s) and Z2(s) are both positive real. When Re s
^ 0,
then
ReZx k
so that
and
ReZ2 ^
0.
ReZj + ReZa = ReZ ^
is
Also, when s is real, both Zx and Z2 are real. The sum of two real numbers a real number. Therefore, Zx + Zt is positive real.
Theorem D.5.
(i.e., lie
The
poles
and zeros of Z(s) cannot have
positive real parts
in the right half of the s plane).
Proof
Laurent
Suppose there
series
the right-half plane. is a pole s expansion about s so that
Let us
make a
(*
- 5o)n
(S
- * )"
490
Appendix
ReZ<)
491
FIG. D.I
where n is real and approximated by
finite.
In the neighborhood of the pole S& Z(s) can be
Z(s)
,-^V(s - s n
)
i.e., let
We can represent Z(s) in polar form by substituting each term by its polar form; (j - o)+" = rV and k_n = Kt** so that
z<*) = ^ **~**.
.
Re Z{s) =
* cos (* -
nfl)
which is represented in Fig. D. 1 When 9 varies from to lit, the sign of Re Z(j) change 2n times. Since ReZ(s) t. when Re s 2. 0, it is seen that any change of sign of Re Z(s) in the right-half plane will show that the function is not positive real. Therefore, we cannot have a pole in the right-half plane. Since the
will
function 1/Z(s)
is
positive real if Z(s) is positive real,
it is
obvious that there
cannot be any zeros in the right-half plane also.
Theorem D.6.
ya> axis.
Only simple poles with
positive real residues
can
exist
on the
Proof.
poles
As a consequence of the may exist on they'd) axis if n =

is
derivation of
1,
Theorem D.5,
it is
seen that
1
and ^
<j>
= 0. The condition n
implies
that the pole
simple and the condition

seen that zeros
implies that the residue is positive
and real.
It is readily
on
they' to axis
must also be simple.
Theorem D.7.
Proof.
real
The poles and
zeros of Z(s) are real or occur in conjugate pairs.

exists without its conjugate, Z(s)
If
a complex pole or zero
cannot be
seen that
when
is real.
As a result of this theorem and Theorem D.S,
it is
both the numerator and denominator polynomials of Z(s) must be Hurwitz.
The highest powers of the numerator polynomial and the denominator polynomial of Z(s) may differ by at most unity. Proof. Let Z(s) be written as
Theorem D.8.
Z{s)
+ fln-iJ"-1 + m + bn.lS" *>m*

?"
+ OyS + a. + +b
Pis)
Q(s)
492
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
FIG. D.2
m n ^ 2, when s = , Z() will have a zero of order 2 or greater at s = oo, which is on the/w axis. Similarly, if n - m 2, then, at s = , Z(s) will have a pole of order 2 or more at * = oo. Since Z(s) cannot have multiple poles or zeros on the/a> axis, these situations cannot exist; therefore \n m\ <.\.
If
Theorem D.9. The lowest powers of P(s) and Q(s) may differ by at most unity, Proof. The proof is obtained as in Theorem D.8 by simply substituting 1/s for s and proceeding as described.
Theorem D.10.
(b) If F(s)
A rational function F(s) with real coefficients is positive real if:

they'a> axis,
(a) F(s) is analytic in the right-half plane.
has poles on
they must be simple and have
real, positive
residues.
(c)
Re F(ja>) ^
for all
o>.
We need only show that these three conditions fulfill the same requirements as Re Z(s) ^ for Re s ^ 0. We will make use of the minimum modulus
Proof.
states that if a function is analytic within a given region, the min imum value of the real part of the function lies on the boundary of that region. The region with which we are concerned is the right-half plane which is bounded by a semicircle of infinite radius and the imaginary axis with small indentations for theyVu axis poles. If the minimum value on theya) axis is greater than zero, then Re Z(s) must be positive over the entire right-half plane (Fig. D.2).
theorem which
appendix
An
aid to
the improvement
of
filter
approximation
E.I
INTRODUCTION
The introduction of an additional pole and zero in the second quadrant of the complex frequency plane, and at their conjugate locations, can give amplitude or phase corrections to a filter approximant over some desired band of frequencies without significantly changing the approximant at other frequencies. However, a cut-and-try procedure for finding the best positions for such a pole-zero pair can be tedious. visual aid is presented herein which reduces the amount of labor required to make modest corrections of this type. Constant phase and constant logarithmic gain contours for the correction by a pole-zero pair1 are plotted on transparent overlays. One of these may be placed over a suitably scaled sheet of graph paper representing the complex frequency plane. Then the pair-shaped phase and gain corrections along the jm axis are indicated by the intersections of the overlay
contours with this axis. Corrections which best reduce the errors in the original approximant are then sought by variation of the overlay position and orientation. Either phase or amplitude may be corrected. However, it is not always possible to simultaneously improve both the phase and the amplitude characteristics of an approximant by a single pair-shaped
correction.
F. F.
Kuo and M.
4,
Karnaugh, reprinted from the

1962, pp. 400-404.
IRE Transactions on Circuit Theory,
CT-9, No.
1
December
This will be called, hereafter, a pair-shaped correction.

493
494
Network
analysis
and synthesis
E.2
CONSTANT LOGARITHMIC GAIN CONTOURS
in
Suppose we begin with a transfer function G(s) with certain deficiencies its amplitude or phase response. Let us consider the transfer function of a corrective network G^s) such that the product
GAs)-GM<K)
will
CE.1)
this
paper,
have better gain or phase characteristics. For the purposes of we will restrict G^s) to have the form
O^-C <'-)<'-> (s
(E.2)
p)(s
p)
where C is a constant, and q and p are a zero and a pole, respectively, in the second quadrant of the complex frequency plane. If the correction p is to be applied at sufficiently high frequencies such that s qo*s
then
GMcsZtzA
s-p
(E.3)
Let us consider the effect when the pole-zero pair in Eq. E.3 is used to augment any given rational function in the complex frequency plane.
The added
gain, in decibels,
due to
this pole-zero pair is
D=
where we have neglected the
20 log10
-q s- p
s
(E.4)
effect
of the constant
(lO)*'
20
C in Eq.
E.3. If
we let
(E.5)
fc
= =
then
(E.6)
s-p
a
circle
For
fixed k, this is the equation of

is
with inverse points* at q and
p. Its radius
kjp^q\
P
II
- *"l
(E7)
and
its
center
is
at
Press, Oxford, * E. C. Titchmarsh, The Theory of Functions, Oxford University England, second edition 1939, pp. 191-192.
Appendix E
Let
495
(E.9)
Then
II
5
k*\
(E.10)
(E.ll)
Here, s
is e. It is
is the midpoint between the pole and zero, and their separation easy to see from Eq. E.l 1 that the center of each circle of constant
is externally collinear with the pole and zero. For the purpose of drawing the family of constant gain contours, we may let s be the origin of coordinates and the scale factor e may be set equal to unity. Furthermore, only half the pattern need be drawn because the function D has negative symmetry with respect to a reflection about the perpendicular bisector of the pole-zero pair.
gain
E.3
CONSTANT PHASE CONTOURS
Figure E.la represents a pole at/>, a zero at q and an arbitrary point complex frequency plane. When the pole and zero are used to correct a given phase characteristic, the added phase at s is
s in the
4>
9,
(E.12)
where BQ and 6 9 are measured with respect to a single arbitrary reference. In Fig. E.l A, a circle has been drawn through p, q, and s. Angle ^ is
FIG. E.l. Derivation of constant phase contours.
496
Network
analysis
and synthesis
equal to one half the subtended arc ps'q. Therefore, the arc qsp is a constant phase contour. The angle at the center of the circle between cp and the perpendicular bisector of chord pq is also equal to All of the <f>. circular contours of constant phase have their centers on this perpendicular
bisector.
Note that minor arc ps'q

phase angle
is
also a contour of constant phase, but the
is
<f>
(E.13)
negative, as indicated
convention for positive rotation
by the clockwise rotation from s'p to s'q. The is herein taken to be counterclockwise.
E.4
CONTOUR DRAWINGS
in Figs. E.2
Sets of constant phase
drawn
and
E.3.
and constant logarithmic gain contours are The curves are symmetric about the zeroTherefore,
decibel line, except that the gain curves are of opposite sign.
only one half of each figure has been drawn.

7.5*
=^5*
1
V
/i?\
I
~~yf
-K s
v>
9'
10*
^.s\
lb"
30
i
\
1
Ills
2\
1.71 1
5|
]l
|] .2
0.7
0.6
db
0.5
'
TO*
/
'
20
lb"
/
^v
v^jy
-J'l
10"
9*
*Sf
rV.
7.5"
FIG. E.2. Constant amplitude and phase contours.
Appendix E
497
FIG. E.3. Constant amplitude and phase contours.
The
zero-decibel line
is
joining the pole and zero.
the perpendicular bisector of the line segment It is a gain contour of infinite radius.
these perpendicular axes
through the pole and zero is a zero phase contour. Together, form a useful reference system. The signs of the phase and gain in the four quadrants formed by these axes are shown in
The
line
Fig. E.4.
The corrections in
Figs. E.2
and E.3 do not carry algebraic signs because
498
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Zero gain
.1
G<t>-
G+
-x^-*-Zero phase
G<t>+
G+
FIG. E.4. Signs of the gain
G and phase
<f>
corrections.
only half of the symmetrical pattern has been drawn. The signs may be obtained from Fig. E.4, and are important in selecting the orientation of
the pole-zero pair.
E.5
CORRECTION PROCEDURE
In correcting a given approximant, it is first necessary to plot the desired magnitude and/or phase corrections versus frequency. When the contours of Fig. E.2 or E.3 are overlaid on a second sheet representing the complex frequency plane, the contour intersections with the ja> axis indicate the
corrections that will actually be realized.
There are several variables at the designer's disposal. The first is the distance between the correcting pole and zero. Since the scale of the contours in Figs. E.2 and E.3 is not specified, the frequency scale of
the underlying complex plane determines the distance between the pole and zero. The second design variable is the location of the center of the pole-zero pair. The distance of the center from a given band on theyeo
axis determines the
magnitude of the correction. is the orientation of the pole-zero pair. Figure E.4 shows how the orientation affects the gain and phase corrections. As a simple example, suppose one wishes to have zero phase correction at co = 1.0, negative phase correction above and positive correction below that frequency. The attack would be to point the zero phase axis at co = 1.0 with the pole nearest to they'to axis. If it is desired to have equal phase correction above and below co = 1.0, the zero phase axis should be oriented parallel to the real axis of the complex frequency plane. If one wishes to have more phase correction above co = 1.0 and less below, the
The
third variable
Appendix E
499
zero phase axis should be rotated clockwise with respect to the a (real)
axis.
We thus see that by varying the frequency scale of the complex frequency
plane, the position of the center of the pole-zero pair,
and the orientation
of the pole-zero pair, the pair-shaped correction can be made to approxi-
mate the desired correction. It must be emphasized that the method suggested herein is an aid to cut-and-try correction. As such, it is easier to use the method than to precisely set down rules for applying it. However, a few rather general
may be helpful. Unless the pole and zero both lie on the real axis, one must remember that another pole and zero are located at conjugate positions. The contributions from both pole-zero pairs may be added algebraically. In most practical cases, the desired correction will have a band-pass character.
statements
Therefore, only one pole-zero pair will normally contribute significantly
at
any frequency.
The shape and magnitude of the

in
desired correction will dictate the
which the/co axis must of the desired correction will dictate the proper scaling of the jco axis. Usually, only a few trials are needed to fix the pole and zero locations for
the best
It will
fit.
intersect the correction contours.
way The broadness
be found that a worthwhile correction can be made in either the phase or the gain characteristic. Only fortuitously can they be improved simultaneously by a single pair-shaped correction. Example E.1. The amplitude response of a third-order Butterworth filter is given by the solid curve in Fig. E.5. It is desired to steepen the gain roll-off near the cutoff frequency o c = 1 This is done by increasing the gain just below o) = m e and decreasing it above that frequency. Figure E.6 illustrates the type of correction desired. Figure E.7 shows a pole-zero pair that achieves this type of correction. The gain at to = 1 remains unchanged by this particular choice. Other pole-zero pairs that "aim" the zero-decibel line at to = 1 but give asymmetrical corrections about that point might also be used. The dashed curve in Fig. E.S shows the corrected gain.
.
different pole-zero pair, also shown in Fig. E.7, has been chosen to minimize the deviation of the slope of the phase response from its slope at to = 0. This pair-shaped correction decreases the phase for m < 0.7 and increases it for
co
> 0.7.
Figure E.8 shows the deviation of the phase responses from linear phase. It is clear from Figs. E.5 and E.8 that the gain corrected approximant has a poorer phase response than the original, while the phase corrected approximant
has a gentler gain roll-off than the original.
500
Network
2
anal/sis
and synthesis
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.5
2.0
Frequency,
u
filters.
FIG. E.5. Amplitude response of corrected and uncorrected Butterworth
This will not surprise the experienced

to achieve moderate corrections in
filter
designer.
It is possible,
however,
both gain and phase by using two pairshaped corrections. A useful approach to this objective lies in localizing the gain correction further out of band, and the phase correction further in-band than in the separate corrections just discussed. This can be done by shifting the pole-zero centers to higher or lower frequencies and also by experimenting with nonsymmetrical corrections.
FIG. E.6. Amplitude correction to steepen
fall-off
of third-degree Butterworth
filter.
Appendix E
501
Loss
correction
1.2
o
1.0
Butterworth
poles
0.8
X o
Phase
correction
0.6
0.4
0.2
J_
\
_L
j
-0.2
-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2

\
\ \
-0.4
\ \ \
-0.6
x o
-0.8
o X
-1.0 -1.2
FIG. E.7. Poles and zeros of the original
filter
and correction equalizers.
20
>
10
With >hase :orrect on
s -10
^
0.2
^'
/
/ /
/ /
/ / /
^^v
Tl ird-orc er
\\ 1
\
Biitterwo rvn'/
zL
-20 -30
-40
0.4 0.6
>
\
/w th amp litude
correct on
\
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Frequency, rad/sec
FIG. E.8. Phase deviation from slope at zero frequency.
502
Network
anal/sis
and synthesis
E.6
CORRECTION NETWORK DESIGN
few words are in order concerning the synthesis of the equalizer from the pole-zero pair obtained by the method described. In order to provide optimum power transfer and to facilitate cascading
the correction network with the original should be of the constant-resistance type.
filter,
the correction network
We will restrict
our discussion
is
to the bridged-T network in Fig. E.9, given as G(s)
whose voltage
transfer function
(E.14)
provided the network equation
is
of the constant resistance type as given by the
Z (j)Z2(i) =
1
(E.15)
1
For normalization purposes, we
will let
R =
t
Q.
Let the pole-zero correction be written in general as

G(s)
Since the correction has
+as+a fc(s* + b lS + b
s
(E.16)
)
minimum
phase,
we know
kb
that {a ( , b t
^ 0}.
In
addition, since the d-c gain cannot exceed unity,
We
â
can express the impedance Z^s) in terms of G(s) in Eq. E.14 as

Zl(s)
_L_ 1= (
G(s)
l)s*
+ (kb, - ajs + (fcb ~, T~, s + a ts + a

all
1
a)
(Ai')
Since Z^s) must be positive real, the coefficients must
be nonnegative
so that
k- ^0
kbi kb
<*i
^ ^
(E.18)
Zi
So
So
Vi
So
Z2
So
v2
FIG. E.9. Bridged-T network.
Appendix E
503
-ju
FIG. E.I0. Poles and zeros of Zt(s).
Moreover, in order for a biquadratic driving-point immittance to be

positive real, the following condition
must apply. 8
Details concerning the synthesis of
Z^j) are
also given in Seshu's paper.

< and 0, Rack* has shown that in
Let us plot the pole-zero pair of
Zt{s) as in Fig. E.10. We can represent

n p and n t
.
the locations of the poles and zeros in terms of the polar angles
and
their distances
from the
origin,
finite
order for in-band loss to be
^<2
(E.20)
In addition he has shown that for an unbalanced bridged-T circuit, if a = max [0M , <f>9] then the larger the angle a, the larger the in-band loss. In particular, should be less than 70 to restrict the in-band loss to
reasonable proportions.
If
one considers other network configurations
Trans, on Circuit Theory, CT-6,

4
*S. Seshu, Minimal Realizations of the Biquadratic December 1959, 345-350.
Minimum
Function,
IRE
A.
J.
Rack, private communication.
504
Network
such as lattice networks, it is conceivable that Rack's restrictions might 5 be relaxed. For lattice network design, Weinberg's method is applicable, although here again, the in-band loss restrictions are severe.
E.7
CONCLUSION
have presented here a simple visual aid to the correction of the amplitude or phase response of filters. The method has the advantage of facilitating the commonly used cut-and-try approach to this problem. It has the disadvantage, in many cases, of failing to provide simultaneous amplitude and phase corrections in a single step.
1
We
L. Weinberg,
"RLC lattice
networks," Proc. IRE, 41, September 1953, 1139-1144.
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Goldman,
S.,
McGraw-Hill, Frequency Analysis, Modulation and Noise,

'
New
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^w/y^w, Transmission and Filtering of Signals,

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Martin, Transform Calculusfor Electrical Engineers,
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S. Seely,
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Lynch,
Hill,
G. Truxal, Introductory System Analysis, McGraw-
New York,
1961.
Paskusz, G. F. and B. Bussell, Linear Circuit Analysis, Prenctice-Hall, Inc.
Englewood
Pearson, S.
I.
Cliffs, N.J., 1964.
and G.
J.
Maler, Introductory Circuit Analysis, John Wiley

1965.
and Sons,
New York,
Bibliography
Pfeiffer, P. E.,
507
Linear System Analysis, McGraw-Hill,

S. Seely,
Reza, F.
M. and
S.,
Modem Network Analysis,
New York, 1961. McGraw-Hill, New

Cliffs, N.J.,
York, 1959.
Sanford, R.
1965.
Physical Networks, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Schwarz, R. J. and B. Friedland, Linear Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York,

1965.
Scott,
R.
E., Elements
of Linear
Circuits,
Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Massachusetts, 1965.
Seely, S.,
Seshu, S.
Dynamic Systems Analysis, Reinhold, New York, 1964. and N. Balabanian, Linear Network Analysis, John Wiley and
1959.
Sons,
Skilling,
New York,
H. H., Electrical Engineering Circuits, Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965. Van Valkenburg, M. E., Network Analysis, Second Edition, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1964. Weber, E., Linear Transient Analysis, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1954.
Zadeh, L. A. and C. A. Desoer, Linear Systems Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963.
NETWORK SYNTHESIS
Balabanian, N., Network Synthesis, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
1958.
Cliffs, N.J.,
Bode, H. W., Network Analysis and Feedback Amplifier Design, D. Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., 1945. Calahan, D. A., Modern Network Synthesis, Hayden, New York, 1964. Chen, W. H., Linear Network Design and Synthesis, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1964.
Geffe, P. R., Simplified
Modern
Filter Design,
John F. Rider,
New York,
1963.
Guillemin, E. A., Synthesis of Passive Networks, John Wiley and Sons,
New York,
1957.
Guillemin, E. A., The Mathematics of Circuit Analysis, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1949. Hazony, D., Elements of Network Synthesis, Reinhold, New York, 1963. Kuh, E. S. and D. O. Pederson, Principles of Circuit Synthesis, McGrawHill, New York, 1959. Matthaei, G. L., L. Young, and E. M. T. Jones, Microwave Filters, Impedance-Matching Networks and Coupling Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.
508
Network
analysis
and synthesis
Filtern mit Hilfe des Kataloges Normierter
Saal, R.,
Der Entwurf von

J.
Tiefpdsse, Telefunken
GMBH,
1961.
Skwirzynski,
K., Design Theory
and Data for
Electrical Filters,
D. Van
Nostrand, Princeton, 1965.

Storer, J. E., Passive
Network Synthesis, McGraw-Hill,
Truxal,
Tuttle,
J.
G., Control System Synthesis, McGraw-Hill,

F.,
D.
Network Synthesis, Vol.
New York, 1957. New York, 1955. 1, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1958.
E., Introduction to Modern Network Syntheses, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1960. Weinberg, L., Network Analysis and Synthesis, McGraw-Hill, New York,
Van Valkenburg, M.
1962.
Yengst,
W. C, Procedures of Modern Network Synthesis, Macmillan, New
York, 1964.
Name
Aaron, M. R., 448 Aitken, A. C, 469 Angelo, E. J., 268 Ash, R. B., S06
Balabanian, N., 505, 507
J. L., 506 Bashkow, T. R., 283, 438 Bellman, R., 469 Bode, H. W., 221, 507 Bohn, E. V., 505 Brenner, E., 505 Brown, R. G., 506 Brown, W. M., 506 Bubnicki, Z., 283 Budak, A., 395 Bussell, B., 506
Index
Eisenman, R. L., 469 Elmore, W. C, 390 Ende, F., 381

Faddeeva, V. N., 469 Faddev, D. K., 469 Fano, R. M., 448 Feshbach, H., 86 Foster, R. M., 321 Franklin, P., 198 Friedland, B. O., 506 Fujisawa, T., 458 Fukada, M., 381
Barnes,
Calahan, D. A., 507
Gantmacher, F. R., 469 W. H., Jr., 506 Geffe, P. R., 507 Giordano, A., 506 Goldman, S., 137, 505
Hayt,
Goldstone, L. O., 153 Guillemin, E. A., 296, 299, 506, 507.
428 Cassell, W. L., 506 Cauer, W., 324 Chen, W. H., 506 Chien, R. T., 506
Carlin,
H.
I.,
Harman, W. W., 506
Darlington,
S.,
431, 457
Davis, H. F., 51
W. H., Jr., 506 Hazony, D., 507 Hobson, E. W., 471 Hohn, F. E., 469 Huelsman, L. P., 261, 469, 506
Hayt,
Jahnke, E., 381 James, R. T., 389 Javid, M., 505
de Pian,
L.,
506
Desoer, C. A., 507

Dirac, P. A. M., 33, 470, 471
Dutta Roy,
S.
C, 283
509
510
Name
Index
Reza, F. M., 507
Jones, E.
Jordan, E.
M. T., 507 C, 413

27
Rowe, H.
E.,
505
Justice, G.,
Saal, R., 441
Karnaugh, M., 493

Kautz,
Sands, M., 390
W.
H., 47, 367
Sanford, R.
S.,
507
Kemmerly, J. E., 506 Kim, W. H., 506 Ku, Y. H., 506 Kuh, E. S., 507 Kuo, F. F., 279, 393, 493
Larky, A.
I.,
Saraga, W., 443 Schwartz, L., 470, 471
Schwartz, M., 505 Schwarz, R. J., 507 Scott, R. E., 507 Seely, S., 506, 507
262
469
Semmelman, C.
Seshu,
S.,
L.,
447
Lathi, B. P., 505
503, 507
Le
Corbeiller, P.,
Legros, R., 506

Leichner, G. H., 279
Le Page, W.
Ley, B.
J.,
R.,
506 505
506
.,
H. H., 100, 104, 106, 181, 507 J. K., 508 So, H. C, 449, 450 Storer, J. E., 508 Szentirmai, G., 441, 453
Skilling,
Skwirzynski,
Lighthill,
M.
65, 136, 471, 473,
Lutz, S. G., 506
Tellegen, B. D. H., 272
Lynch,
Lytle,
W.
A., 506
D. W., 506
Maler, G. J., 506 Marcus, M., 469 Martin, A. V. J., 506 Mason, S. J., 505 Matthaei, G. L., 507 Mine, H., 469 Morse, P. M., 86
Nering, E. D., 469 Nilsson, J. W., 506
Temple, G., 34, 471 Terman, F. E., 236 Thomson, W. E., 384 Titchmarsh, E. C, 494 Tompkins, C. B., 447 Tropper, A. M., 469 Truxal, J. G., 506, 508 Tuttle, D. F., 508
Ulbrich, E., 441
Valley, G. E.,
Jr., 293 Valkenburg, M. E., 135, 263, 296,
Van
297, 325, 329, 331, 344, 347, 376,
O'Meara, T. R., 283 Orchard, H. J., 385

Paley, R. E.
507, 508
Von
Weiss, H., 469
A. C, 291
Papoulis, A., 379, 381, 505
Walker, F., 283 Wallman, H., 293
Paskusz, G. F., 506
Weber,
Pearson, S.
506 Pederson, D. O., 507 Perlis, S., 469 Pfeiffer, P. E., 507 Pipes, L. A., 469
I.
E., 507 Weinberg, L., 400, 435, 504 Widder, D. V., 136 Wiener, N., 291
Yengst,
W. C, 508
L.,
Young,
Rack, A.
J.,
507
503
Zadeh, L. A., 507 Zimmerman, H., 505
Raisbeck, G., 8, 294
Rehberg, C. F., 506
Subject Index
ABCD
parameters, 262
15,
Admittance, driving-point, All-pass network, 221, 357

Amplifier, 11
187
Cauchy-Riemann equations, 485 Cauer ladder expansion, 324 Causality, 9, 290

Characteristic equation, 77
Characteristic impedance, Characteristic value, 78
impulse response of, 201 Amplitude response, 212, 342
414
computer program for, 450 evaluation by vector method, 215 Amplitude spectrum, 3 Analytic function, 485 Approximation problem, 17, 365 Available gain, 418 Available power, 418
Band-elimination
filter
Cbebyshev
filter,
373
approximation, 366 locus of poles, 376, 378 tables of, 373, 400, 435
transient response, 392 Chebyshev polynomial, 373
Circuit, bridged-T 258, 275,
502
double-tuned, 238
transformation,
reciprocal, 8,
409
Band-pass filter transformation, 407 Bandwidth, half-power, 235 spectral, 67, 389
Bessel
filter,
single-tuned,
255 229 symmetrical, 259
Coefficient of coupling, 122
383, 435
Compensation theorem, 181 Complementary function, 82
phase response of, 387

tables of,
Complex
variables, 481
400, 435
analysis,
483 484 487

18,
392 Bessel polynomial, 386, 395

transient response of,
differentiation,
integration,
Biquadratic immittance, 305, 503
Computer
programs,
438,
439,
Black box, 15
Bode plots, 221 Bounded real function, 419

Break frequency, 225 Bridge circuit, 285, 354
Butterworth
filter,
441, 447 448, 450 453, 457 Constant-resistance network, 352, 502
Contour
integration,
487
368, 434, 500
Controlled source, 268 Convergence in the mean, 49, 51 Convolution integral, 197
Crest factoT, 27 Critical coupling, 242 Current source, 12
Cutoff frequency, 17, 225
amplitude response of, 369, 387, 394,
500
pole locus of, 371 step response of, 391, 394
tables of, 372, 400,
435
Damping
Canonical form, 325, 400, 433 Capacitor, 13, 103, 176 Cauchy integral theorem, 489 Cauchy residue theorem, 487
factor,
225
d-c value, 25
Delay, 32, 212, 245, 384

distortion,
245
time, 388
511
512
Subject Index
Delta function, see Unit impulse Delta-wye transformation, 257 Differential equation, 75, 145
forcing function of, 75 homogeneous, 75, 76
integrodifferential equation, 91,
linear,
Fourier transform, phase spectrum, 64,
65
properties of, 67
145
76 nonhomogeneous, 75 ordinary, 76
simultaneous, 93, 146
11,
Differentiator,
18,
193
Digital computer, 18,
438
symmetry conditions, 68 Free response, 106 Frequency, angular, 2 complex, 4 domain, 14, 134, 367 forced, 192 natural, 192 Frequency normalization, 18, 402 Frequency transformation, 18, 404
Gain contours, logarithmic, 494, 496
Gaussian filter, 291 Generalized functions, 34, 64, 470 g parameters, 286 Green's function, 86 Gyrator, 272, 287
Hall effect, 273 High-pass filter transformation, 405 Hurwitz polynomial, 294, 316 347
Distributions, theory of,
470
123
Dot reference
for transformer,
Doublet, 40, 479 Duhamel superposition integral, 201
Duty
cycle,
26
Energy density, 71 Energy spectrum, 71 Equal ripple approximation, see Chebyshev approximation Essential singularity, 486
Excitation, 1
Hybrid (h) parameters, 260 Hybrid matrix, 261, 449

379,
Ideal low-pass
filter,
Faraday's law of induction, 122 Filter approximation, 368, 373,

383, 493
Filter design, 17, 365, 397, 433,
292, 367
Ideal transformer, 263, 273, 275,
424
computer programs
for,
457 441, 457
Immittance, 15, 315 Impedance, 15, 176

driving-point,
15, 253,
Final conditions, 106, 109 Final value theorem, 165
315
matrix, 254
transfer,
Flux linkage, 122 Forced response, 106

Foster network, 321, 325
188
transformer, 263
Fourier series,
1,
46,
50
amplitude spectrum, 57 complex form, 55 cosine series, 53 evaluation of coefficients, 52, 58

orthogonality conditions, 49
Impulse function, see Unit impulse Impulse response, 44, 85, 111, 194 Incident power, 416
Incidental dissipation,
Initial conditions, Initial
276
86 107, 176
Inductor, 13, 104, 176

13, 77,
value theorem, 165
phase spectrum, 57
Insertion loss, 429

filter synthesis,
symmetry
conditions, 53
431
Fourier transform, 1, 63 amplitude spectrum, 64, 65

discrete, 56,
Insertion
power
ratio,
430
voltage ratio, 429

Integrator, 11, 18, 193
Integrodifferential equation, 91, 145
63
inverse,
64
of unit impulse, 65 of unity, 68
Kirchhoffs laws, 100, 104
Subject Index
513
Ladder network, 279, 346, 347, 453 Laguerre polynomial, 48 Laplace transform, 1, 134
definition of, 135
inverse,
Node equations, Norm, 47
106,
255
136
Normalization, frequency, 402 magnitude, 402 Norton's theorem, 180, 185

Open-circuit
properties of, 137

table of, 168
impedance
parameters,
uses of, 144 Lattice network, 285, 354, 503
254, 343
Optimization techniques, 447
Laurent
486 L-C immittance, 315 properties of, 315 synthesis of, 319
series,
Optimum (L)
filter,
379
amplitude response of, 380 polynomials, 382
Least squares, principle of, 49, 366 Legendre polynomial, 381
Orthogonal set, 47 Orthonormal set, 47

Overcoupling, 242 Overshoot, 388, 392
Linear phase filter, see Bessel Linear system, 8

derivative property,
ideal elements, 12 ideal models, 10
filter
Paley-Wiener criterion, 291

Parseval's equality,
50
theorem, 71
Partial fraction expansion, 148
MAC,
Project,
448
Machine-aided design, 448
conjugate poles, 150 multiple poles, 151

real poles, 149 Particular integral, 82
Magnitude normalization, 18, 402 Matrix algebra, 461 definitions, 462 operations, 464 references, 469 Maximally flat response, see Butterworth filter Mean squared error, 48
Passive network, 8
Peaking
circle,
233, 241
Peak-to-valley ratio, 251 Phase contours, logarithmic, 495
Minimum
443
inductance
transformation,
Phase response, 212, 343 computer program for, 450 evaluation by vector method, 215 linearity of, 213, 383
Phase
shift, 1
Minimum modulus theorem, 492 Modulation, amplitude, 70

Monotonic
filter,
distortion,
213
3,
see
Optimum
filter
minimum, 220, 346

spectrum,
Phasor, 5
Plancheral's theorem, 71
Pole, definition of, 155
Multiple-access computer, 448
57
Mutual inductance, 122

Negative impedance converter (NIC), 261 Network, analysis, 7, 100, 175, 253
linear, 8,
Pole-zero diagram, 156

Port, 12, 253
Positive real
(p.r.)
100
function,
16, 299,
n-port,
449
100
passive, 8,
reciprocal, 8, 100,
255
symmetrical, 259
synthesis, 290, 315, 341, 397, 431
490 Power, average, 301, 315 available, 418 Propagation constant, 414
Proportionality, principle of, 8
time-invariant, 9,
100
Pulse transmission, 389, 392
514
Q,
Subject Index
236
Spectra, continuous, 3, 63
line (discrete), 3,
circuit, 233,
57
Ramp
function, 31
Stability,
116,
290
R-C admittance, R-C impedance,
properties of, 331
marginal, 293
Steady-state solution, 106, 109
properties of, 325

16, 290,
synthesis of, 329

Realizability conditions,
Steepest descent method, 447
301,
Step function, see Unit step

Step response, 44, 45, 85, 111, 194
Synthesis procedures elementary, 308
filter
342,
490
for driving-point functions, 301 for transfer functions, 342
synthesis,
397
Reciprocal network,
8,
255
Rect function, 65 Reference impedance factor, 415 Reflected parameter, 415 Reflected power, 416 Reflection coefficient, 416, 421, 458 Remainder function, 308 Residue, definition of, 162 evaluation by vector method, 162 Residue condition for two-ports, 344 Resistor, 13, 103, 175 Response, critically damped, 118 overdamped, 118 underdamped, 119 Ringing, 388 Rise time, 388 R-L admittance, properties of, 325 synthesis of, 329 R-L impedance, properties of, 331 synthesis of, 331
Sampled-data system, 142 Sampler, 18, 142
Scattering parameters, 415, 419
L-C R-C R-L
functions, 315, 319
functions, 325, 329, 331

functions, 325, 329, 331 functions, 333
R-L-C
transfer functions, 347, 352
System function,
Terminals, 12
14, 187,
194
Thevenin's theorem, 180
Time constant, 24 Time delay, 32, 212, 245, 384, 388 Time delayer, 11 Time domain, 14, 134, 366
Time-invariant system, 8
Transfer function,
341, 352
14,
16,
188,
266,
admittance, 188, 347
impedance,
16,
188, 347
Transformed
175 Transformer. 122. 177 ideal, 263

circuit,
unity coupled, 125
Transient response of low-pass
filters,
388
Transient solution, 106
Transistor,
element, 416
matrix, 420
Settling time, 388
common
line,
emitter,
Short-circuit
admittance
circuit,
parameters,
Transmission
coefficient, 421,
286 457
257, 344
Transmission
413, 425
Shunt peaked
248, 400
Signal, continuous,
23
decomposition parts, 21
deterministic,
into
even
and odd
Transmission matrix, 262 Transmittance, 16 Two-port, 12, 16, 254, 264

cascade connection, 271 equivalent circuits of, 268, 271 matrix representation, 264
parallel connection of,
series
periodic, 20,
20 46
symmetrical, 21, 54
273
Signum (sgn) function, 30

Sine function, 65
Singularity,
connection of, 275
486
Undercoupling, 241
Subject Index
Voltage ratio, 16, 188 Voltage source, 12 Voltage standing wave
y-parameters, 257, 344
515
Undetermined coefficients, method g2 Uniform loading, 278 Unit coupled transformer, 121
47(j
derivative of,
of,
ratio,
428
Unit impulse (delta) functions, 33, 43,
see also Short-circuit parameters

z -parameters, 254 343 see also Open-circuit parameters
40
480
properties of, 34, 36, 476,
Unit ramp Unit step function, 28, 474 derivative of, 34, 37, 475
function, 31
z-transform, 142
Zero, definition of , 155 Zero of transmission, 345
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NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS

PETER CLARKE SECOND HAND BOOKS

Wiley International Edition

Toppan Company. Ltd.

1962, 1966 by John Wiley Copyright All Rights Reserved

& Sons, Inc.

Wiley International Edition

not to be sold outside the country is consigned by the publisher.

Libray of Congress Catalog Card

Printed in Singapore by Toppan Printing Co. (S) Pte. Ltd.

Father and Mother

five years, digital

this chapter for cultural interest, if

not for survival.

in the discussion of signals or in a separate appendix.

network Chapters 9 and 15 are to be used in a subsequent course on

am particularly indebted to Mac Van Valkenburg of Princeton University

Preface to the First Edition

analysis to synthesis can

The book was

originally conceived as a set of notes for a second course

in network analysis at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. It assumes

understanding of network topology.

brief description of the subject matter follows.

Preface to the First Edition

In addition, there are three appendices

Preface to the First Edition

Jeunesse of the Bell Telephone Laboratories for their efficient and

careful typing of the manuscript.

Signals and Systems

Complex Frequency Network Analysis Network Synthesis

The Frequency Domain: Fourier Analysis

Orthogonal Functions Approximation Using Orthogonal Functions

Properties of Fourier Transforms

Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations Nonhomogeneous Equations

Simultaneous Differential Equations

100 103 106

The Laplace Transform

134 135 137

144 148 155

187 194 197 201

Amplitude, Phase, and Delay

Amplitude and Phase Response

Double-Tuned Circuits On Poles and Zeros and Time Delay

229 238 245

Analysis of Ladder Networks

253 264 266 271 276 279

Elements of Readability Theory

Hurwitz Polynomials Positive Real Functions Elementary Synthesis Procedures

290 294 299 308

Synthesis of One-Port Networks with Two Kinds of Elements

315 319 325 329 331 333

Elements of Transfer Function Synthesis

345 347 352

Topics in Filter Design

365 365 368 373 388 392

The Scattering Matrix

Scattering Parameters for a One-Port Scattering Matrix for

Network a Two-Port Network

Properties of the Scattering Matrix

413 415 419 426 429

Darlington's Insertion Loss Filter Synthesis

The Uses of Digital Computers

438 450 453 457