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INTRODUCTION
Today’s complex power scenario demands uninterrupted supply for
consumer. Therefore generator is the ultimate source of today’s life and its function
is of heart of power system. Hence it needs the maximum protection from the
occurring faults.
generator or motor depending upon the form of input energy. These generator are
generator and simultaneously to the economical situation. The faults are described in
Sr. Abnormal
Effects Protection
No. Condition
1. Thermal over Over heating of stator Thermocouples of
loading continuous winding and insulation resistor thermometer
overloading failure failure. embedded in stator slots.
of coolant.
2. External faults fed Unbalanced loading stresses Negative phase sequence
by generator on winding and shaft. protection for large
Excessive heating for machine overload
prolonged short circuit. protection for small
generator.
3. Stator faults phase winding burnt out, welding Biased differential
to phase, phase to of core lamination protection sensitive earth
earth inter turn fault protection, inter turn
fault protection.
4. Rotor Earth fault Single fault does not Rotor earth fault
harmful, second fault causes protection
unbalanced magnetic forces
causing damage to shaft,
bearing etc.
5. Loss of field Generator runs as induction Loss of field or
tripping of field generator field failure production
circuit breaker driving excitation current
from bus-bar speed increases
slightly.
6. Motoring of Effect depend upon type of Reverse power protection
generator that is it prime motor and the power by directional power
turns as such drawn from the bus-bar relays direct the reversal
motor. during motoring. of power.
7. Over voltage Insulation failure Lightening arrestor
connected near
connected near
generator terminal.
8. Over fluxing Heating of core Over fluxing protection
by volts/
hertz relay.
9. Under frequency failure of blades of Steam Frequency relays.
turbines.
For this range of phase angle power factor is negative that is Cosφ is
negative. P=VIcosφ.
power.
i) When number of units are operating in parallel and failure of one unit may result in
ii) When one of the unit from all connected parallel units is overloaded and its
decreases and ultimately emf generated goes on decreasing and finally a critical
iii) When load is suddenly thrown off, terminal voltage of bus-bar increases instantly.
If this condition is not detected properly again alternator will run as synchronous
motor.
rotate as synchronous motor taking power from the bus-bar. During the motoring
action of the generator the power flows from the bus-bars to the machine and this
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
i) Normal Condition :- During normal condition angle between load current and
below.
V I
For this range of phase angle power factor (cosφ) is positive and
V I
The static relays do not have moving parts in their measuring circuits, hence relay
timer of low values can be achieved ( 1 cycle, 1 ½ cycle ) such low relay times are
By using special circuits, the resting times and overshoot time can be
Static relays restricted by power line carrier can be used for remote
the digital computer. The switching is carried out in such sequence that the stability
is improved.
imposed on a protective system such that for certain conditions, the relay should
operate and for some other conditions, the relay should remain stable in such cases,
and the turbine acts as a load. Motoring protection is mainly for the benefit of the
prime mover and load coming on the generator bus-bar while motoring reerse power
protection measures the power flow from bus-bars to the generator running as a
motor. Normally the power taken in most cases is low of the order of 2% to 10% of
power flow in any one direction, phase is sufficient. The setting depend on the type
of prime mover.
1) STEAM TURBINE
Back pressure steam turbines sets should be protected by sensitive reverse power
protection. The blades of steam turbine gets overheated quickly as the steam gets
trapped, if rotated in opposite direction due to windage. In steam turbine the steam
acts like coolant of the turbine blades and maintain them at constant pressure and
temperature. If the steam flows stops the blades get overheated due to windage. In
condensing type steam turbine the heating of blades is slower hence reverse power
For large turbo generator with back pressure type, non condensing
steam turbines, sensitive reverse power protection with sensitivity of the order 0.5%
rated power is preferred. The relay should have directional stability for the entire
2) RECIPROCATING PUMP :
is sensitive and engine must be disconnected from generator shaft during motoring.
3) HYDRAULIC TURBINE :
the low water flow because such a flow causes cavitation. However reverse power
protection may be provided to operate for motoring power less than 3% of rated
power.
4) GAS TURBINE :
a motor because the gas turbine offers a load of 10 to 50% of full load during
The reverse power protection is generally set for 10% of rated power
in reverse condition.
rotation of rotor.
STATIC RELAYS
power consumption is much lower than conventional one reduced consumption has
increased.
Solid state devices do not have moving contacts. Therefore there are
no problems of contact bounce, arcing, contact erosion etc. in the static relay circuit.
The static relays do not have moving parts in their measuring circuits, hence relay
timer of low values can be achieved ( 1 cycle, 1 ½ cycle ) such lo relay times are
By using special circuits, the resting times and overshoot time can be
Static relays restricted by power line carrier can be used for remote
the digital computer. The switching is carried out in such sequence that the stability
is improved.
imposed on a protective system such that for certain conditions, the relay should
operate and for some other conditions, the relay should remain stable in such cases,
the output stages are relatively indifferent to vibrations and shocks. The risk of
unwanted tripping is, therefore less with static relays as compared to the
electromechanical relays. This aspects makes the static relays. Unequally suitable
can be obtained from station battery supply and conveniently changed to suit local
requirement.
Such transients are caused by operation of breaker and isolator in the primary circuits
of current transformer and potential transformer, severe over voltage are also caused
by breaking of control circuit relay contact etc. Such voltage spikes of small
duration can damage the semiconductor components and can also cause null-
operation of relays.
These include, use of filter circuit in relays, screening the cable connected to relays.
temperature for example the amplification factor of a transistor, the forward voltage
digital measuring techniques etc. Thus modern static relays are designed to suit wide
limits of temperature.
iv) Price
v) In electro mechanical relays the pick up of relay are rest of relays does not effect
the relay characteristics since the operation is based on the comparison between
operating torques.
COMPONENTS
DESIGN OF TRANSFORMER
winding on each core having primary consisting of two winding current coil and
RATTING OF TRANSFORMER
Primary Secondary
transformer)
transformer of 230 v/8 v and lamp. Then turns per volt are calculated. Secondly
design a current transformer for 5 A/1 A. Turns per volt are calculated. Then taking
made.
DESIGN DATA
Cross section area of core - 1.2 sq. inch Lamination -15 Nms, NGO
Laminations - 12 Nms
Data Specification
(16-0-16 v)
2) IC 7912
FUNCTION OF COMPONENT
Transformer –
Bridge Rectifier –
Capacitors –
These are used filtering pulsated output voltage of bridge rectifier and
used.
v. This step down Ac voltage will be rectified in bridge rectifier. The capacitor will
remove ripples from rectified output. This DC is now an input to the combination of
12 v with respect to common point that is ground point. The ground point is
achieved by tie the common points of 7812 and 7912 to the center tap of transformer
completely removes chattering of relay contacts and suppress back emf induced in
relay coil.
Rating IN 4007
3) Transistor
It is high gain current amplifier transistor. Its base has been given the
4) Capacitor connected across output terminal of rectifier bridges 1 and 2 are for
filtering purpose.
VOLTAGE COMPARATOR
IN STATIC RELAY
Voltage Comparator Element in Static Relay –
the voltage at one of its input against the voltage at the other. Also to produce either
a high or low output voltage, depending on which input has higher level.
shown in fig. By using such type of comparator we can get three types of output.
Vo = 0 for Vp < Vn
Where VOL and VOH denote low and high output levels. Thus if we
rewrite as
following graph.
VO
VOH
Vd
Govt. Poly. Washim. 22
Reverse Power Protection of An Alternator
VOL
depending upon the output from comparator that is if output voltage is high it is said
comparator.
The Relay has an energizing coil when the fault occurs input to relay
is sufficient, the coil energized and it pulls off the plate which opens the contacts and
hence the contactors are opened and protective machine is disconnected from the
Relay used in circuit has two set of contacts, one is Normally close
Rating ( 12 V, 200 Ω )
condition. A small buzzer will not give sound when abnormal condition is reached.
CONTACTOR
into picture for breaking the circuit when abnormal condition is reached.
rest (corresponding to the position of main contacts either open or closed) operated
Conductor has main contact as well as auxiliary contact the main contacts are used
for switching on and off the power circuit whereas auxiliary contacts are used in the
contactor has three main contacts and a few auxiliary contacts whereas relay contact
WORKING
WORKING OPERATION :
synchronous generator to dead state. When its prime mover faults that is when starts
the bus-bar are synchronized in all aspects. All the parameter of the synchronous
I the normal state the magnetic flux created by pressure coil and
current coil of transformer one are subtractive and that of transformer two are
additive so at the secondary side output voltage of transformer one will be less than
bridges and their positive volt terminals are connected to comparator’s (Op-amp) pin
no.2 and 3 that is DC output of transformer one is connected to pin no.3 and that of
transformer two is connected to pin no.2 and as we have seen in normal condition
pin no 6 of IC 741, output voltage will be negative and as we are using transistor CL
100 (N-P-N) with output of IC 741 connected to its base. It will not conduct and coil
will not getting energized, so its Nc contacts will remain in that state only.
that of bus-bar voltage, it will act as a load on bus-bar and on the verge of motoring
at that instant due to reversal of power, that is currents direction is negative with
respect to voltage. Magnetic flux created by transformer one’s pressure and current
coil will be additive in nature and that of transformer two will be differentiative. In
one) will be at higher potential with respect to second bridge. So potential at pin no
three of IC 741 is high and that of pin no.2 is low, so output of Op-amp IC 741 of pin
no.6 will be positive and transistor CL 100 N-P-N will conduct because N-P-N
transistors base will get +ve potential and relay coil will get energized and will open
basic property of single phase Ac supply. By reversing phase and neutrals of current
coil with respect to pressure coil. We obtained both normal as well as abnormal
condition and further operation takes place as stated above that is during abnormal
condition relay open its close contacts and buzzer will not gives sound.
During normal condition relay closes its contact and buzzer will gives
sound.
CONCLUSION
as it is synchronized machine, so when it receives the power from the grid, it starts
rotating as motor. The main and serve damage is to the turbine that is the prime
waste of the in repair or replacement in turbine or prime mover and also economical
loss. It also avoids cascade tripping of generating units and ultimately maintaining
REFERENCES
1) Switch Gear and Protection
- S. S. Rao
- T. S. M. Rao
- A. K. Sawhney
4) Integrated Ciecuit
- K. R. Botkar