8AnCkuMAn kLLAS 8

SIS1LM LNCLkNAAN ADA MANUSIA

SlsLem pencernaan makanan pada manusla Lerdlrl darl beberapa organ berLuruLLuruL dlmulal darl
1 8ongga MuluL
2 Lsofagus
3 Lambung
4 usus Palus
3 usus 8esar
6 8ekLum
7 Anus

8ongga MuluL
MuluL merupakan saluran perLama yang dllalul makanan ada rongga muluL dllengkapl alaL
pencernaan dan kelen[ar pencernaan unLuk membanLu pencernaan makanan ada MuluL LerdapaL
aClgl
Memlllkl fungsl memoLong mengoyak dan mengglllng makanan men[adl parLlkel yang kecllkecll
erhaLlkan gambar dlsamplng
bLldah
Memlllkl peran mengaLur leLak makanan dl dalam muluL serLa mengecap rasa makanan
ckelen[ar Ludah
Ada 3 kelen[ar ludah pada rongga muluL keLlga kelen[ar ludah LersebuL menghasllkan ludah seLlap
harlnya seklLar 1 sampal 23 llLer ludah kandungan ludah pada manusla adalah alr mucus enzlm
amllase zaL anLlbakLerl dll lungsl ludah adalah melumasl rongga muluL serLa mencerna karbohldraL
men[adl dlsakarlda

Lsofagus (kerongkongan)
Merupakan saluran yang menghubungkan anLara rongga muluL dengan lambung ada u[ung saluran
esophagus seLelah muluL LerdapaL daerah yang dlsebuL farlng ada farlng LerdapaL klep yalLu
eplgloLls yang mengaLur makanan agar Lldak masuk ke Lrakea (Lenggorokan) lungsl esophagus
adalah menyalurkan makanan ke lambung Agar makanan dapaL ber[alan sepan[ang esophagus
LerdapaL gerakan perlsLalLlk sehlngga makanan dapaL ber[alan menu[u lambung

Lambung
Lambung adalah kelan[uLan darl esophagus berbenLuk seperLl kanLung Lambung dapaL
menampung makanan 1 llLer hlngga mencapal 2 llLer ulndlng lambung dlsusun oleh oLoLoLoL polos
yang berfungsl menggerus makanan secara mekanlk melalul konLraksl oLoLoLoL LersebuL Ada 3 [enls
oLoL polos yang menyusun lambung
lungsl PCl Lambung
1 Merangsang keluamya sekreLln
2 MengakLlfkan epslnogen men[adl epsln unLuk memecah proLeln
3 ueslnfekLan
4 Merangsang keluarnya hormon koleslsLoklnln yang berfungsl merangsang empdu mengeluarkan
geLahnya


usus Palus

usus halus merupakan kelan[uLan darl lambung usus halus memlllkl pan[ang seklLar 68 meLer usus
halus Lerbagl men[adl 3 baglan yalLu duodenum ( 23 cm) [e[unum ( 23 m) serLa lleum ( 36 m)
ada usus halus hanya Ler[adl pencernaan secara klmlawl sa[a dengan banLuan senyawa klmla yang
Selaln lLu senyawa klmla yang dlhasllkan kelen[ar pankreas adalah
8lkarbonaL MeneLralkan suasana asam darl makanan yang berasal darl lambung
LnLeroklnase MengakLlfkan erepslnogen men[adl erepsln serLa mengakLlfkan Lrlpslnogen men[adl
Lrlpsln 1rlpsln mengubah pepLon men[adl asam amlno
Amllase Mengubah amllum men[adl dlsakarlda
Llpase Mencerna lemak men[adl asam lemak dan gllserol
1rlpslnogen 1rlpsln yang belum akLlf
klmoLrlpsln Mengubah pepLone men[adl asam amlno
nuklease Menguralkan nukleoLlda men[adl nukleoslda dan gugus pospaL
Pormon lnsulln Menurunkan kadar gula dalam darah sampal men[adl kadar normal
Pormon Clukagon Menalkkan kadar gula darah sampal men[adl kadar normal

kCSLS LNCLkNAAN MAkANAN
encernaan makanan secara klmlawl pada usus halus Ler[adl pada suasana basa rosesnya sebagal
berlkuL
a Makanan yang berasal darl lambung dan bersuasana asam akan dlneLralkan oleh blkarbonaL darl
pancreas
b Makanan yang klnl berada dl usus halus kemudlan dlcerna sesual kandungan zaLnya Makanan
darl kelompok karbohldraL akan dlcerna oleh amylase pancreas men[adl dlsakarlda ulsakarlda
kemudlan dluralkan oleh dlsakarldase men[adl monosakarlda yalLu glukosa Clukaosa hasll
pencernaan kemudlan dlserap usus halus dan dledarkan ke seluruh Lubuh oleh peredaran darah
c Makanan darl kelompok proLeln seLelah dllambung dlcerna men[adl pepLon maka pepLon akan
dluralkan oleh enzlm Lrlpsln klmoLrlpsln dan erepsln men[adl asam amlno Asam amlno kemudlan
dlserap usus dan dledarkan ke seluruh Lubuh oleh peredaran darah
d Makanan darl kelompok lemak perLamaLama akan dllaruLkan (dlemulslflkasl) oleh calran
empedu yang dlhasllkan haLl men[adl buLlranbuLlran lemak (dropleL lemak) uropleL lemak
kemudlan dluralkan oleh enzlm llpase men[adl asam lemak dan gllserol Asam lemak dan gllserol
kemudlan dlserap usus dan dledarkan menu[u [anLung oleh pembuluh llmfe

usus 8esar (kolon)

Merupakan usus yang memlllkl dlameLer leblh besar darl usus halus Memlllkl pan[ang 13 meLer
dan berbenLuk seperLl huruf u Lerballk usus besar dlbagl men[adl 3 daerah yalLu kolon asenden
kolon 1ransversum dan kolon desenden lungsl kolon adalah
a Menyerap alr selama proses pencernaan
b 1empaL dlhasllkannya vlLamln k dan vlLamln P (8loLln) sebagal hasll slmblosls dengan bakLerl
usus mlsalnya Lcoll
c MembenLuk massa feses
d Mendorong slsa makanan hasll pencernaan (feses) keluar darl Lubuh engeluaran feses darl
Lubuh ddefekasl

8ekLum dan Anus
Merupakan lubang LempaL pembuangan feses darl Lubuh Sebelum dlbuang lewaL anus feses
dlLampung Lerleblh dahulu pada baglan recLum Apablla feses sudah slap dlbuang maka oLoL splnkLer
recLum mengaLur pembukaan dan penuLupan anus CLoL splnkLer yang menyusun rekLum ada 2
yalLu oLoL polos dan oLoL lurlk
Cangguan SlsLem encernaan
- ApendlklLls8adang usus bunLu
- ulare leses yang sangaL calr aklbaL perlsLalLlk yang Lerlalu cepaL
- konLlpasl kesukaran dalam proses uefekasl (buang alr besar)
- MaldlgesLl1erlalu banyak makan aLau makan suaLu zaL yang merangsang lambung
- aroLlLlslnfeksl pada kelen[ar paroLls dlsebuL [uga Condong
- 1ukak Lambung/Maag"8adang" pada dlndlng lambung umumnya dlaklbaLkan lnfeksl PellcobacLer
pylorl
- xerosLomlaroduksl alr llur yang sangaL sedlklL
Cangguan pada slsLem pencernaan makanan dapaL dlsebabkan oleh pola makan yang salah lnfeksl
bakLerl dan kelalnan alaL pencernaan ul anLara gangguangangguan lnl adalah dlare sembellL
Lukak lambung perlLonlLls kollk sampal pada lnfeksl usus bunLu (apendlslLls)
SlsLem AlaL Cerak
CLoL merupakan alaL gerak akLlf ada umumnya hewan mempunyal kemampuan unLuk bergerak
Cerakan LersebuL dlsebabkan karena ker[a sama anLara oLoL dan Lulang 1ulang Lldak dapaL berfungsl
sebagal alaL gerak [lka Lldak dlgerakan oleh oLoL CLoL mampu menggerakan Lulang karena
mempunyal kemampuan berkonLraksl
kerangka manusla merupakan kerangka dalam yang Lersusun darl Lulang keras (osLeon) dan Lulang
rawan (karLllago)
ersendlan adalah hubungan anLara dua Lulang aLau leblh
ersendlan dlbedakan men[adl 2 yalLu
1 Pubungan SlnarLrosls
- Slnkondrosls anLara Lulang dlhubungkan melalul Lulang rawan sehlngga memungklnkan sedlklL
gerak aklbaL elasLlslLas Lulang rawan
ConLoh
hubungan Lulang rusuk dengan Lulang dada
Pubungan ruasruas Lulang belakang
- Slnflbrosls kedua u[ung Lulang dlhubungkan dengan [arlngan lkaL flbrosls yang pada akhlrnya
mengalaml penulangan dan Lldak memungklnkan adanya gerak
ConLoh
Pubungan anLar LulangLulang Lengkorak
2 Pubungan ularLrosls
Pubungan anLar Lulang lnl memunklnkan Ler[adlnya gerak karena pada u[ungu[ung Lulang LerdapaL
laplsan Lulang rawan hyalln yang dllumasl dengan calran synovlal mellpuLl
- Sendl Lngsel LerdapaL pada hubungan anLara
o ruasruas [arl
o slku
o luLuL
S1kUk1Uk CkGAN 1UM8UnAN
Crgan Lumbuhan bl[l yang penLlng ada 3 yaknl akar baLang daun
Sedang baglan laln darl keLlga organ LersebuL adalah modlflkaslnya conLoh umbl modlflkasl akar
bunga modlflkasl darl ranLlng dan daun

AkA8

Asal akar adalah darl akar lembaga (radlx) pada ulkoLll akar lembaga Lerus Lumbuh sehlngga
membenLuk akar Lunggang pada MonokoLll akar lembaga maLl kemudlan pada pangkal baLang
akan Lumbuh akarakar yang memlllkl ukuran hamplr sama sehlngga membenLuk akar serabuL

Akar monokoLll dan dlkoLll u[ungnya dlllndungl oleh Ludung akar aLau kallpLra yang fungslnya
mellndungl u[ung akar sewakLu menembus Lanah selsel kallpLra ada yang mengandung buLlrbuLlr
amylum dlnamakan kolumela

1 lungsl Akar
a unLuk menambaLkan Lubuh Lumbuhan pada Lanah
b uapaL berfungsl unLuk menylmpan cadangan makanan
c Menyerap alr dam garamgaram mlneral LerlaruL

2 AnaLoml Akar
ada akar muda blla dllakukan poLongan mellnLang akan LerllhaL baglanbaglan darl luar ke dalam
a Lpldermls
b korLeks
c Lndodermls
d Slllnder usaL/SLele

a Lpldermls
Susunan selselnya rapaL dan seLebal saLu lapls sel dlndlng selnya mudah dllewaLl alr 8ulu akar
merupakan modlflkasl darl sel epldermls akar berLugas menyerap alr dan garamgaram mlneral
LerlaruL bulu akar memperluas permukaan akar

b korLeks
LeLaknya langsung dl bawah epldermls selselnya Lldak Lersusun rapaL sehlngga banyak memlllkl
ruang anLar sel Sebaglan besar dlbangun oleh [arlngan parenklm

c Lndodermls
Merupakan laplsan pemlsah anLara korLeks dengan slllnder pusaL Selsel endodermls dapaL
mengalaml penebalan zaL gabus pada dlndlngnya dan membenLuk seperLl LlLlkLlLlk dlnamakan LlLlk
Caspary ada perLumbuhan selan[uLnya penebalan zaL gabus sampal pada dlndlng sel yang
menghadap slllnder pusaL blla dlamaLl dl bawah mlkroskop akan Lampak seperLl huLuf u dlsebuL sel
u sehlngga alr Lak dapaL menu[u ke slllnder pusaL 1eLapl Lldak semua selsel endodermls
mengalaml penebalan sehlngga memungklnkan alr dapaL masuk ke slllnder pusaL Selsel LersebuL
dlnamakan sel penerus/sel peresap

dSlllnder usaL/SLele
Slllnder pusaL/sLele merupakan baglan Lerdalam darl akar
1erdlrl darl berbagal macam [arlngan
erslkel/erlkamblum
Merupakan laplsan Lerluar darl sLele Akar cabang LerbenLuk darl perLumbuhan perslkel ke arah luar
8erkas embuluh AngkuL/vasls
1erdlrl aLas xllem dan floem yang Lersusun berganLlan menuruL arah [arl [arl ada dlkoLll dl anLara
xllem dan floem LerdapaL [arlngan kamblum
Lmpulur
LeLaknya pallng dalam aLau dl anLara berkas pembuluh angkuL Lerdlrl darl [arlngan parenklm

8A1AnC
1erdapaL perbedaan anLara baLang dlkoLll dan monokoLll dalam susunan anaLomlnya

!arlngan 8aLang

1 8aLang ulkoLll
ada baLang dlkoLll LerdapaL laplsanlaplsan darl luar ke dalam
a Lpldermls
1erdlrl aLas selapuL sel yang Lersusun rapaL Lldak mempunyal ruang anLar sel lungsl epldermls
unLuk mellndungl [arlngan dl bawahnya ada baLang yang mengalaml perLumbuhan sekunder
laplsan epldermls dlganLlkan oleh laplsan gabus yang dlbenLuk darl kamblum gabus
b korLeks
korLeks baLang dlsebuL [uga kullL perLama Lerdlrl darl beberapa lapls sel yang dekaL dengan laplsan
epldermls Lersusun aLas [arlngan kolenklm makln ke dalam Lersusun aLas [arlngan parenklm
c Lndodermls
Lndodermls baLang dlsebuL [uga kullL dalam Lersusun aLas selapls sel merupakan laplsan pemlsah
anLara korLeks dengan sLele Lndodermls Lumbuhan Angulospermae mengandung zaL Lepung LeLapl
Lldak LerdapaL pada endodermls Lumbuhan Cymnospermae
d SLele/ Slllnder usaL
Merupakan laplsan Lerdalam darl baLang Lapls Lerluar darl sLele dlsebuL perlslkel aLau perlkamblum
lkaLan pembuluh pada sLele dlsebuL Llpe kolaLeral yang arLlnya xllem dan floem LeLak sallng
berslslan xllem dl sebelah dalam dan floem sebelah luar
AnLara xllem dan floem LerdapaL kamblum lnLravaslkuler pada perkembangan selan[uLnya [arlngan
parenklm yang LerdapaL dl anLara berkas pembuluh angkuL [uga berubah men[adl kamblum yang
dlsebuL kamblum lnLervaslkuler keduanya dapaL mengadakan perLumbuhan sekunder yang
mengaklbaLkan berLambah besarnya dlameLer baLang
2 8aLang MonokoLll
ada baLang MonokoLll epldermls Lerdlrl darl saLu lapls sel baLas anLara korLeks dan sLele umumnya
Lldak [elas ada sLele monokoLll LerdapaL lkaLan pembuluh yang menyebar dan berLlpe kolaLeral
LerLuLup yang
arLlnya dl anLara xllem dan floem Lldak dlLemukan kamblum 1ldak adanya kamblum pada MonokoLll
menyebabkan baLang MonokoLll Lldak dapaL Lumbuh membesar dengan perkaLaan laln Lldak Ler[adl
perLumbuhan menebal sekunder Mesklpun demlklan ada MonokoLll yang dapaL mengadakan
perLumbuhan menebal sekunder mlsalnya pada pohon Pan[uang (Cordyllne sp) dan pohon nenas
seberang (Agave sp)
uAun
uaun merupakan modlflkasl darl baLang merupakan baglan Lubuh Lumbuhan yang pallng banyak
mengandung klorofll sehlngga keglaLan foLoslnLesls pallng banyak berlangsung dl daun
AnaLoml daun dapaL dlbagl men[adl 3 baglan
1 Lpldermls
Lpldermls merupakan laplsan Lerluar daun ada epldermls aLas dan epldermls bawah unLuk
mencegah penguapan yang Lerlalu besar laplsan epldermls dllaplsl oleh laplsan kuLlkula ada
epldermls LerdapaLsLoma/muluL daun sLoma berguna unLuk LempaL berlangsungnya perLukaran gas
darl dan ke luar Lubuh Lumbuhan
2 arenklm/Mesofll
arenklm daun Lerdlrl darl 2 laplsan sel yaknl pallsade ([arlngan pagar) dan spons ([arlngan bunga
karang) keduanya mengandung kloroplasL !arlngan pagar selselnya rapaL sedang [arlngan bunga
karang selselnya agak renggang sehlngga maslh LerdapaL ruangruang anLar sel keglaLan
foLoslnLesls leblh akLlf pada [arlngan pagar karena kloroplasLnya leblh banyak darlpada [arlngan
bunga karang
3 !arlngan embuluh
!arlngan pembuluh daun merupakan lan[uLan darl [arlngan baLang LerdapaL dl dalam Lulang daun
dan uraLuraL daun
























SUMMARY CLASS 8

DGESTON SYSTEM N HUMANS
Digestive system in humans consists of several organs, consecutive starts
1. Oral cavity,
2. Oesophagus
3. Side
4. Small intestine
5. Colon
6. Rectum
7. Anus.

Mouth cavity
The mouth is the first channel through which the food. n the oral cavity, equipped with
means of digestion and digestive glands to help digestion of food. n the mouth there is:
a.Gigi
Has the function of cut, tear and grind food into tiny particles. Note the picture beside.
b.. Tongue
Having adjusted the role of food in your mouth and taste the food.
c.. Salivary Glands
There are three salivary glands in the oral cavity. All three salivary glands produce saliva
every day about 1 to 2.5 liters of saliva. The content of saliva in humans are: water, mucus,
enzymes amylase, antibacterial agents, etc.. Salivary function is to lubricate the mouth and
digest carbohydrates into disaccharides.

Oesophagus (Esophagus)
s the channel that connects the mouth to the stomach. At the end of the esophageal tract
after oral there is an area called the pharynx. n the pharynx there is a valve, the epiglottis
which regulates food from entering the trachea (windpipe).The function of the esophagus is
distributing food to the stomach. So that food can walk along the esophagus, there is a
peristaltic motion so that food can go toward the stomach

Side
Stomach is a continuation of the esophagus, shaped like a sac. Stomach can hold 1 liter of
food up to 2 liters. Gastric wall composed by smooth muscles that serves food mechanically
eroded through the contraction of the muscle. There are three types of smooth muscles that
make up the hull
Gastric HC functions:
1. Stimulate keluamya sekretin
2. Activating Pepsin Pepsinogen be to break down proteins.
3. Disinfectant
4. Stimulates the release of hormones that function to stimulate empdu Kolesistokinin
removing sap.


Small intestine

The small intestine is the continuation of the hull. The small intestine has a length of about 6-
8 meters. The small intestine is divided into 3 parts, namely the duodenum ( 25 cm),
jejunum ( 2.5 m), and ileum ( 3.6 m). n the small intestine occurs only chemical digestion
alone, with the aid of chemical compounds that
n addition, chemical compounds produced by the pancreas gland is:
Neutralize acidic bicarbonate of foods derived from gastric
Activating Enterokinase erepsinogen be erepsin and activates trypsinogen to trypsin. Trypsin
changed peptone into amino acids.
Changing amylase starch into disaccharides
Lipase Digesting fats into fatty acids and glycerol
Trypsin trypsinogen is not yet active.
Changing chymotrypsin Peptone into amino acids
Describe nuclease nucleotides into nucleosides and phosphate groups
Hormone nsulin Lowering blood sugar levels up to normal levels
Raising the hormone Glucagon blood sugar levels up to normal levels

FOOD DGESTON PROCESS
Chemical digestion in the small intestine occurs in alkaline conditions. The process is as
follows:
a. Food that comes from the stomach and the atmosphere will be neutralized by bicarbonate
acid from the pancreas.
b. Foods that are now in the small intestine and then digested according to the womb is his
substance. Food from the carbohydrates are digested by pancreatic amylase into
disaccharides. Then described by disakaridase disaccharides into monosaccharides, namely
glucose. Glukaosa products of digestion and then absorbed by the small intestine, and
circulated throughout the body by blood circulation.
c. Food from the group after dilambung digested proteins into peptone, peptone then be
broken down by enzymes trypsin, chymotrypsin, and erepsin into amino acids. Amino acids
and then absorbed by the intestine and circulated throughout the body by blood circulation.
d. Foods of the fat, will first diluted (emulsified) produced by the liver bile into granules of fat
(fat droplets). Fat droplets and then broken down by lipase into fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty
acids and glycerol and then absorbed by the intestine and distributed to the heart of the
lymph vessels.

Large ntestine (Colon)

An intestine that has a diameter larger than the small intestine. Has a length of 1.5 meters,
and shaped like the letter U inverted. The large intestine is divided into three regions,
namely: ascending colon, transverse colon, and descending colon.Colon function is:
a. Absorb water during digestion.
b. Place produces vitamin K, and Vitamin H (Biotin) as a result of symbiosis with gut
bacteria, such as E. coli.
c. Form a mass of feces
d. Encourage food waste products of digestion (feces) out of the body. Feces from the body
ddefekasi expenditure.

Rectum and Anus
s the hole through which feces disposal of the body. Before being discharged through the
anus, the feces are accommodated in advance in the rectum. f the stool is ready discarded
then spinkter rectum muscles regulate the opening and closing of the anus. Spinkter
muscles that make up the rectum there are two, namely smooth muscle and striated
muscle.
Digestive System Disorders
appendicitis, Appendicitis.
Diarrhea-a very liquid stool that is too fast due to peristalsis.
Kontipasi-difficulty in the process of defecation (bowel movements)
Maldigesti-eating or eating too much of a substance that stimulates the stomach.
parotitis-nfection of the parotid gland is also called Mumps
Ulcers Lambung/Maag- "nflammation" on the wall of the stomach, generally caused by
Helicobacter pylori infection
Xerostomia-Production of saliva is very little
Disorders of the digestive system can be caused by wrong diet, bacterial infections, and
abnormalities of the digestive tract. Among these disturbances are diarrhea, constipation,
peptic ulcers, peritonitis, colic, to the infection of the appendix (appendicitis).
Motion System Tools
Muscle is an active movement of the tool. n general, animals have the ability to move. The
movement is due to cooperation between the muscle and bone. Bone can not serve as a
tool motion if it is not driven by the muscle. Muscles can move the bones because they have
the ability to contract.
Human skeleton is the framework within, which is composed of hard bone (osteon) and
cartilage (cartilage)
Joints is the relationship between two or more bones.
Joints can be divided into two namely:
1. Sinartrosis Relations
Sinkondrosis: between the bones connected by cartilage, allowing some motion due to the
elasticity of cartilage.
Example:
relationship ribs to the sternum.
The relationship of spinal segments.
Sinfibrosis: both ends of the bones associated with connective tissue fibrosis that
eventually grow reinforcement and not allow the motion.
Example:
Relations between the bones of the skull
2. Diartrosis Relations
The relationship between bone memunkinkan the motion because at the ends of the bones
contained hyalin cartilage layer, which is lubricated with synovial fluid, including:
Hinge joints, there is the relationship between:
o knuckles
o elbow
o knee
STRUCTURE OF PLANT ORGANS
The organs of seed plants that are important there are three, namely: roots, stems, leaves.
Being another part of the three organs are modified, for example: modification of root tubers,
flowers modification of twigs and leaves.

ROOTS

Root is the root origin of the institution (radix), in dikotil, the roots continue to grow so that
the institutions form the root riding, in monocots, roots die institution, then the base of the
stem will grow roots that have similar size to form root fibers.

Dikotil monocot root and root tip is protected by a hood or kaliptra, whose function is to
protect the root tip when penetrating the soil, there kaliptra cells containing beads of
amylum, called kolumela.

1. Root Function
a. To tether the body plant in soil
b. Can serve to store food reserves
c. Dam water absorbs mineral salts dissolved

2. Anatomy of Roots
n young roots when it's done a cross-section will look the parts from outside to inside.
a. Epidermis
b. Cortex
c. Endodermis
d. Cylinder Center / Stele

a. Epidermis
The composition of the cells tightly and thick single layer of cells, cell walls easily bypassed
water. Root hairs is a modification of the root epidermal cells, serves to absorb water and
dissolved mineral salts, the root hairs extending root surfaces.

b. Cortex
t is located directly below the epidermis, the cells are not compact, so many have the space
between cells. Largely constructed by the parenchymal tissue.

c. Endodermis
An insulating layer between the cortex with a central cylinder. Endodermis cells can
experience a thickening agent cork on the walls and formed like dots, called point
Caspary. n the subsequent growth of the cork until the thickening agent in the cell walls
facing the central cylinder, when examined under a microscope would look like hutuf U,
called U-cells, so water can not go to the central cylinder.But not all the cells of endodermis
thickened, allowing water to enter the central cylinder. These cells are called successor cells
/ cell impregnation.

d.Silinder Center / Stele
Cylinder center / stele is the deepest part of the root.
Consisting of a variety of networks:
- Persikel / Perikambium
s the outermost layer of the stele. Branch roots are formed from the growth persikel
outwards.
- File Transport Tubes / Vasis
Consisting of xylem and phloem are arranged alternately in the direction of the toes. n dikotil
between xylem and phloem tissue contained cambium.
- Pith
t lies most within or between beam transport vessels consists of parenchymal tissue.

STEM
There is a difference between the stem and monocot dikotil in anatomical structure.

Trunk Network

1. Trunk dikotil
n the trunk there dikotil layers from outside to inside:
a. Epidermis
Consisting of a compact cell membranes, has no space between cells. The function of the
epidermis to protect the underlying tissue. n the secondary stem growth, the epidermal layer
was replaced by a cork layer that is formed from the cork cambium.
b. Cortex
Stem cortex is also called the first skin, composed of several layers of cells, which is close to
the epidermal layer composed of a network kolenkim, getting into a tissue composed of
parenchyma.
c. Endodermis
Endodermis stem is also called the skin, composed of a layer of cells, an insulating layer
between the cortex to the stele. Endodermis Anguiospermae starchy plants, but absent in
gymnosperms plant endodermis.
d. Stele / Center Cylinder
s the innermost layer of the stem. Outermost layers of the stele called perisikel or
perikambium. lkatan vessels in the stele called the type of collateral, which means the xylem
and phloem. The location of each side by side, next to the xylem and phloem outer.
Between xylem and phloem cambium intravasikuler there, on the subsequent development
of parenchymal tissue contained between the beam transport vessels also turned into
cambium, called the cambium intervasikuler. Both can hold a secondary growth resulting in
increasing the amount of trunk diameter.
2. Monocot stem
n monocot stems, the epidermis consists of a single layer of cells, the boundary between
the cortex and the stele is generally unclear. On the stele there is a monocot vessels bond
spreads and collateral type of closed
meaning between the xylem and phloem cambium was not found. The absence of cambium
in the stem monocot monocot cause can not grow bigger, in other words do not occur
secondary thickening growth. Nevertheless, there is a monocot that can hold a secondary
thickening growth, for example on Hanjuang tree (Cordyline sp) and the tree opposite the
Pineapple (Agave sp.)
LEAF
Leaf is a modification of the stem, is part of a plant's most lots contain chlorophyll so that
programs most photosynthesis takes place in the leaves.
Leaf anatomy can be divided into 3 parts:
1. Epidermis
The epidermis is the outermost layer of leaves, there are upper epidermis and lower
epidermis, to prevent the evaporation that is too large, the epidermis layer is coated by a
layer of cuticle. n the epidermis terdapatstoma / mouth leaves, the stoma is useful for the
meeting place of exchange of gases into and out of a plant.
2. Parenchyma / mesophyll
Leaf parenchyma consists of two layers of cells, namely the palisade (fence networks) and
sponge (sponge tissue), both contain chloroplasts. Rail network cells are tightly sponge
tissue cells are somewhat tenuous, so there are still spaces between cells. Photosynthetic
activity is more active on the network fence because kloroplastnya more than the sponge
tissue.
3. Tubes Networks
Leaf vascular tissue is a continuation of the stem tissue, bones contained in the leaves and
leaf veins.