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Acknowledgements
The work is supported by the National Institute for HealthResearch (NIHR). Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, UK,and The Wellcome Trust, London, UK. We would like to thankG. Goodwin (head of the Department of Psychiatry, Universityof Oxford, UK), C. Kennard (head of the Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford, UK), K. Porcheret(Nuffield Laboratory of Ophthalmology, University of Oxford,UK), K. Davies and P. Oliver (Medical Research CouncilFunctional Genomics Unit, University of Oxford, UK) for theirvaluable input during the preparation of this manuscript.
Competing interests statement
The authors declare no competing financial interests.
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ScIENcE AND SOcIETY
Music training for the developmentof auditory skills
Nina Kraus and Bharath Chandrasekaran
Abstract | The effects of music training in relation to brain plasticity have causedexcitement, evident from the popularity of books on this topic among scientistsand the general public. Neuroscience research has shown that music training leadsto changes throughout the auditory system that prime musicians for listeningchallenges beyond music processing. This effect of music training suggests that, akinto physical exercise and its impact on body fitness, music is a resource that tonesthe brain for auditory fitness. Therefore, the role of music in shaping individualdevelopment deserves consideration.
Thh yea f eny-mt tain-in, ften beinnin in eay chidhd,mician deep an expetie in theiintment matey e thei ice
1
. Inthe ce f tainin, mician incea-iny ean t attend t the fine-ainedactic f mica nd. Thee incdepitch, timin and timbe, the thee baiccmpnent int hich any nd thateache the hman ea — incdin mic peech — can be bken dn
2
. Pitchefe t the anizatin f nd n andeed cae ( e hih pitch) and ia bjectie pecept f the feqency f thend. Timin efe t pecific andmakin the nd (f exampe, the net andffet f the nd) and timbe efe t theqaity f the nd — a mtidimeninaattibte that et fm the pecta andtempa feate in the actic ina.Attentin t thee cmpnent i empha-ized din mic tainin. F exampe, a iinit i tained t pay patica atten-tin t pitch ce t effectiey tne the iin, an intmentait payin in ancheta ha t hae a keen ene f timince and a cndct need t ey n tim-be ce t diffeentiate the cntibtin f ai intment.Thee i n eidence that mic tain-in indce chane in the bain. Indeed, themician’ bain ha been ed a a mde f nepaticity
3,4
. Eay tdie inetiatedh mic tainin pime the bain fpcein mica nd and examinedthe extent t hich ch paticity i pecifict pcein mica nd
1,4,5
. Theetdie eeaed that mic tainin indcefnctina and tcta chane in theadity ytem
6
. F exampe, cmpaedt nn-mician, pianit h inceaednea actiity (meaed by
magnetic surceimaging
) in the adity ctex in epnet heain pian nte
7
. The tenth f nena actiatin t pian nte afnd t ceate ith the ae at hichpian tainin bean and ith the nmbef yea f mic tainin. Thi etthat enhanced fnctina paticity efectexpeience and i nt meey a efectin f innate diffeence beteen mician andnn-mician.Mician a h tcta diffeencein the bain eatie t nn-mician
8,9
, ithae ey matte me in aea that aeimptant f payin an intment. Theeaea incde mt, adity and i-patia ein
8
. In additin, mica aptitdeceate ith the me f the pimay adity ctex and ith nephyiicaepne t inida tne in thi aea
9
.Mee, mician h enhanced eec-tphyiica epne in the adity ctex t
cntur and interval infrmatin
inmedie
10
, and in the adity baintem
11
hen itenin t mica intea.Ntaby, many f thee tdie ed c-eatina data t infe that fnctina andtcta diffeence beteen the bain f mician and nn-mician ae a cne-qence f yea f expeience ith mic.Hee, caaity cannt be deied fmceatina anayi — the diffeencecd efect pe-exitin enetic diffe-ence beteen the t p. T addethi ie, nitdina tdie hae beencndcted in hich chiden ee andmy ained t mic tainin and then peidi-cay aeed e time
12,13
. Cmpaedith chiden h ee ained t at tain-in, chiden h ndeent mic taininhed enhanced bain epne t btepitch chane in mica timi
13
. Fifteenmnth f intene mic tainin ha abeen hn t indce tcta chane inthe pimay adity and pimay mtaea
12
. Thee tcta chane ee a-ciated ith imped adity and mtki, epectiey. Taken tethe, thee dataet that mic tainin can cae fnc-tina and tcta chane in the bainthht ifetime, and that theechane may impe mic pcein.
Transfer effets
The impact f mic tainin n the ne-a pcein f mic ha n been edcmented
14
. Hee, ae the chane in amician’ bain pecific t mic pcein
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Pattern detectionSelectiveenhancementof soundsDynamic yet stablerepresentationof sounds
Sound to meaning
d they tanfe t the dmain thatine the pcein f pitch, timin andtimbe ce? Be, e decibe data thatppt the ie that the fine-ained adi-ty ki f mician, hich ae acqiedthh yea f tainin, pecate t thedmain, ch a peech, anae, em-tin and adity pcein
6
. Th, mictainin impe adity ki that ae ntexciey eated t mic
15–18,22,60,62,64
.Mic and peech ae peceptay di-tinct bt hae many cmmnaitie at bthan actic and cnitie ee. At the ac-tic ee, mic and peech e pitch, timinand timbe ce t cney infmatin
2
. At acnitie ee, mic and peech pceineqie imia memy and attentin ki,a e a an abiity t inteate diceteactic eent int a cheent peceptateam accdin t pecific yntactic e
19
.Mician h an adantae in pceinpitch, timin and timbe f mic cm-paed ith nn-mician
20
. Mic tain-in a ine a hih kin-memy ad, min f eectie attentin kiand impicit eanin f the actic andyntactic e that bind mica ndtethe. Thee cnitie ki ae a cciaf peech pcein. Th, yea f actieenaement ith the fine-ained actic f mic and the cncmitant deepmentf ‘nd t meanin’ cnnectin may etin enhanced pcein in the peech andanae dmain.Indeed, mician h enhancedeked ptentia in the ctex and bain-tem in epne t pitch chane dinpeech pcein cmpaed ith nn-mician
16,21,22
. Din peech pcein,pitch ha exta-initic fnctin (fexampe, it can hep the itene t jdethe emtin intentin f a peake anddetemine the peake’ identity
23
) a e aa initic fnctin (f exampe, in tneanae, a chane in pitch ithin a yabechane the meanin f a d). Micianae a bette abe t detect ma deiatinin
pitch cnturs
that can detemine hethea peake i pdcin a tatement a qe-tin (demntated behaiay a e ain tem f eent-eated ptentia ecdede the ctex)
16
. Ftheme, cmpaedith nn-mician, mician h a mefaithf baintem epeentatin (meaedin the
frequency-fllwing respnse
(FFr))f initic pitch cnt in an nfamiiaanae
18,24
. Thee et et that n-tem tainin ith mica pitch pattencan benefit the pcein f pitch pattenf fein anae
21,25
.D ch tanfe effect cc at at-matic, pe-attentie (that i, befe cncipeceptin) ee f adity pcein,that i, in the baintem? stdie in hmanand anima h that baintem adity pcein
(Box1)
i haped by bth n-tem and ht-tem expeience
2,20,22,26,27,30,31
.Pcein at the ee f the baintem canbe nn-inaiey examined by meainthe
nset respnse
and the FFr
28,29
. schmeaement hae hn that the adi-ty baintem epne t peech efectthe phyica ppetie f nd ith chfideity that hen the eectica epneecded fm the baintem i payed aa nd fie, the epne nd a t ikethe tim that eked it
28,29
. Th, thenet epne and the FFr can be ed t
Box 1 |
cognitive–sensory interplay in musiians
Music training is a demanding task that involves activeengagement with musical sounds and the connection of ‘sound’ to ‘meaning’, a process that is essential for effectivecommunication through music, language and vocal emotion.Formation of efficient sound-to-meaning relationshipsinvolves attending to sensory details that includefine-grained properties of sound (pitch, timing and timbre)as well as cognitive skills that are related to workingmemory: multi-sensory integration (for example, followingand performing a score), stream-segregation (the ability toperceptually group or separate competing sounds),interaction with other musicians and executive function (seethe figure, top part). The cognitive–sensory aspects of musictraining promote neural plasticity and this improves auditoryprocessing of music as well as of other sounds, such asspeech (see the figure, lower part). Sound travels from thecochlea to the auditory cortex (shown by light, ascendingarrows) via a series of brainstem nuclei that extract andprocess sound information. In addition, there are feedbackpathways (known as the corticofugal network) that connectthe cortex to the brainstem and the cochlea in a top-downmanner (shown by dark, descending arrows). In musicians,neuroplastic changes have been observed in the auditorycortex as well as in lower-level sensory regions such as theauditory brainstem. The enhanced subcortical encoding of sounds in the brains of musicians compared tonon-musicians is probably a result of the strengthenedtop-down feedback pathways. Active engagement withmusic improves the ability to rapidly detect, sequence andencode sound patterns. Improved pattern detectionenables the cortex to selectively enhance predictablefeatures of the auditory signal at the level of the auditorybrainstem, which imparts an automatic, stablerepresentation of the incoming stimulus.
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www.a.m/w/
A m p l i t u d e A m p l i t u d e A m p l i t u d e A m p l i t u d e
a b
TimingPitchTimbre
360 ms10 ms10 ms10 ms10 ms
StimulusResponse
100300500
Frequency (Hz)TimeTimeTime
QuietNoise0.150.200.250.300.35
S t i m u l u s - t o - r e s p o n s e (
r
)
MusiciansNon-musicians
–1–2–3–40.10.20.30.4
r = –0.445p = 0.01
Stimulus-to-response (
r
)
S I N p e r c e p t i o n ( H I N T s c o r e )
ndetand h the bain epeent pitch,timin and timbe
(FIG. 1)
. Thee epneiinate in the baintem, bt they ae inf-enced by ctica tcte ia cticfafeedback pathay
30
. Thi feedback enetp-dn ctica infence een at theeaiet tae f adity pcein
20,30,31
.T detemine hethe tanfe effectcc at bctica tae f adity pcein, eeache hae meaedthe baintem epne a mician andnn-mician hea peech nd. Theetdie hae eeaed that mician hbaintem paticity nt ny f mic tim-i bt a f peech timi
22
. specificay,cmpaed ith nn-mician, micianhed pei epeentatin (eatecepndence beteen tim andnea epne) f ice pitch ce —incdin
fundamental frequency
a e a
harmnic cmpnents in speech
and
time-varying cmpnents in speech
— at the eef the baintem
17,22,32
, and pei encd-in f initic pitch cnt
18,33
(FIG. 1)
.Thi et that mic tainin caechane in adity pcein in thebctica eny cicity.In a f thee tdie, the nea encd-in f nd a pitiey ceated iththe nmbe f yea f mic tainin. Thi,tethe ith nitdina data
12,13
, etthat expeience pmte nepaticity.Mician ae a me accate at jd-in timbe diffeence beteen diffeentintment, a e a din ice pce-in
34
, and adity baintem epne fmmician h fate nea epne t thenet f, and t the actic andmak in,the peech nd that efect the dynamictanitin fm a cnnant t a e
17,22
.Thee ha been cnideabe inteet andcntey in eatin t the effect f mi-ca expeience n enea cnitie abiitie.Athh thee ae indicatin that mictainin can enhance cnitie abiity
35
,the extent and pecificity — hethe thechane ae de t mic tainin pe e t the cnitie efft ined in mictainin — f ch impement ae tincea
36–38
and aant fthe eeach.Ie ch a thee make the e f pe-attentie nea indice
28
(FIG. 1)
paticay enticin, a thee nea meae d nteqie actie paticipatin cnitieenaement fm paticipant. Indeed, theadity baintem epne t nd can becected een hen an indiida i eep-in enaed in anthe tak (f exampe,atchin a btited mie). Th, theadity baintem epne efectthe cent tate f the ne ytem— the tate at that time, fmed by an indi- ida’ ife expeience ith nd. Thhexaminatin f thi nea index in mi-cian (in cmpain ith a cnt pf nn-mician), e can examine adity pcein in the abence f attentin kin-memy cnfnd.
Seletive enhanement in the brain
The effect f mic tainin n bain pa-ticity i nt jt a ‘me-knb effect’ —nt eey feate f the adity inaimpe t the ame extent — bt eadt the fine-tnin f adity ina thatae aient (ith ‘nd t meanin’ inifi-cance)
(FIG. 2)
. Mician, cmpaed ithnn-mician, me effectiey epeentthe mt meaninf, infmatin-beaineement in nd — f exampe, the e-ment f a baby’ cy that ina emtinameanin
39
, the ppe nte f a micachd
11,40
the ptin f the MandainChinee pitch cnt that cepnd ta nte an the diatnic mica cae
33
.Ftheme, mician h impe-ment in adity eba memy and adi-ty attentin, bt nt in ia memy ia attentin
41,38
. Th, mic taininindce an enhancement f the pceinf adity ina, the chaacteitic f hich depend n the nate f the tainin(f exampe, cndct h peipeiphea patia adity pcein ea-tie t pianit
42
), n the pactice tateie(f exampe, mician h ean ‘by ea’h pei adity encdin f mica
Figure 1 |
na a , mg a mb ma ay bam.
Timing, pitch and timbre are the basic information-bearing elements in music and speech. The auditorybrainstem response
represents a faithful reconstruction of these features and can be recorded in a non-invasive manner in human participants.
a
| The auditory brainstem response to a speech sound can bestudied in the time domain as changes in amplitude across time (top, middle and bottom-left panels) andin the spectral domain as spectral amplitudes across frequency (bottom-right panel).
The auditory brain-stem response reflects acoustic landmarks in the speech signal with submillisecond precision in timingand phase-locking that corresponds to (and physically resembles) pitch and timbre information in thestimulus. Here, a speech stimulus (/da/) and the brainstem response to this stimulus are shown by blackand red traces, respectively.
b
| A comparison of stimulus-to-response correlations in musicians and non-musicians. In musicians and non-musicians the brainstem response is positively correlated with the entirespeech stimulus. However, when the stimulus is presented in the presence of background noise, musi-cians represent the sound features more faithfully than non-musicians (top panel). More faithful stimulus-to-response correlations in musicians are functionally relevant; individuals who had higher correlationsbetween the stimulus and the brainstem response to the stimulus in the presence of background noiseexhibited better speech-in-noise (SIN) perception in standardized tests (for example, the Hearing inNoise Test (HINT)) (bottom panel). Part
b
, top panel is reproduced, with permission, from
REF. 17
©
(2009)Society for Neuroscience. Part
b
, bottom panel, data from
REF. 17
.
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