Cloud Types

common cloud classifications Clouds are classified into a system that uses Latin words to describe the appearance of clouds as seen by an observer on the ground. The table below summarizes the four principal components of this classification system (Ahrens, 1994). Latin Root cumulus stratus cirrus nimbus Translation heap layer curl of hair rain Example fair weather cumulus altostratus cirrus cumulonimbus

Further classification identifies clouds by height of cloud base. For example, cloud names containing the prefix "cirr-", as in cirrus clouds, are located at high levels while cloud names with the prefix "alto-", as in altostratus, are found at middle levels. This module introduces several cloud groups. The first three groups are identified based upon their height above the ground. The fourth group consists of vertically developed clouds, while the final group consists of a collection of miscellaneous cloud types.

High-Level Clouds High-level clouds form above 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) and since the temperatures are so cold at such high elevations, these clouds are primarily composed of ice crystals. High-level clouds are typically thin and white in appearance, but can appear in a magnificent array of colors when the sun is low on the horizon.

Photograph by: Knupp

Mid-Level Clouds The bases of mid-level clouds typically appear between 6,500 to 20,000 feet (2,000 to 6,000 meters). Because of their lower altitudes, they are composed primarily of water droplets, however, they can also be composed of ice crystals when temperatures are cold enough.

Photograph by: Holle

Low-level Clouds Low clouds are of mostly composed of water droplets since their bases generally lie below 6,500 feet (2,000 meters). However, when temperatures are cold enough, these clouds may also contain ice particles and snow.

Photograph by: Holle

Vertically Developed Clouds Probably the most familiar of the classified clouds is the cumulus cloud. Generated most commonly through either thermal convection or frontal lifting, these clouds can grow to heights in excess of 39,000 feet (12,000 meters), releasing incredible amounts of energy through the condensation of water vapor within the cloud itself.

Photograph by: Holle

Other Cloud Types Finally, we will introduce a collection of miscellaneous cloud types which do not fit into the previous four groups.

Classifications High-Level Clouds

Last Update: 07/09/97

Cloud types include: cirrus and cirrostratus. Mid-Level Clouds Cloud types include: altocumulus, altostratus. Low-Level Clouds Cloud types include: nimbostratus and stratocumulus. Clouds with Vertical Development Cloud types include: fair weather cumulus and cumulonimbus. Other Cloud Types Cloud types include: contrails, billow clouds, mammatus, orographic and pileus clouds.

Cloud Classification
The classification of clouds was first conceptualized by French naturalist Jean Lamarck in 1801. Two years later, in 1803, the English scientist Luke Howard created a classification which was later adopted by the International Meteorological Commission in 1929. The first scientific study of clouds began in 1803, when a method of cloud classification was devised by the British meteorologist Luke Howard. The next development was the publication in 1887 of a classification system that later formed the basis for the noted International Cloud Atlas (1896). This atlas, considerably revised and modified through the years (most recently in 1956), is now used throughout the world.

Cloud types Clouds are generally classified according to genera in which Latin words are used to describe the appearance of clouds as seen by an observer on the ground. The table below summarizes the four principal components of this classification system. Latin Root cumulus stratus cirrus Translation heap Cloud altitude Clouds are further categorized according to their height above the ground (etages). These are:

nimbus

layer

curl of hair rain

High-Level Clouds Forms above 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) and are primarily composed of ice crystals. Denoted by the prefix cirro- or cirrus and includes cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus. Mid-Level Clouds Their bases appear between 6,500 to 20,000 feet (2,000 to 6,000 meters). Composed primarily of water droplets although they can also be composed of ice crystals when temperatures are cold enough. Denoted by the prefix alto- and includes altostratus, altocumulus and nimbostratus. Low-level Clouds Their bases generally lie below 6,500 feet (2,000 meters). Mostly composed of water droplets but may also contain ice particles and snow. Includes stratus, stratocumulus, cumulus and cumulonimbus.

When cloud particles become too heavy to remain suspended in the air, they fall to the earth as precipitation. Precipitation occurs in a variety of forms; hail, rain, freezing rain, sleet or snow. This portion of the Clouds and Precipitation module focuses on precipitation and has been organized into the following sections.

Sections
Latest Update: 07/21/97

Rain and Hail Atmospheric conditions that lead to the development of rain and hail. Freezing Rain A detailed look at freezing rain, associated dangers and the conditions that lead to its development. Sleet Atmospheric conditions that lead to the development of sleet. Snow

Atmospheric conditions that lead to the development of snow. Acknowledgments Those who contributed to the Precipitation sections of the Clouds and Precipitation module. The navigation menu (left) for this section is called "Precipitation" and the menu items are arranged in a recommended sequence, beginning with this introduction. In addition, this entire web server is accessible in both "graphics" and "text"-based modes, a feature controlled from the blue "User Interface" menu (located beneath the black navigation menus). More information about the user interface options, the navigation system, or WW2010 in general is accessible from About This Server. In meteorology, precipitation (also known as one of the classes of hydrometeors, which are atmospheric water phenomena) is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that is pulled down by gravity and deposited on the Earth's surface.[1] The main forms of precipitation include rain, snow, ice pellets, and graupel. It occurs when the atmosphere, a large gaseous solution, becomes saturated with water vapour and the water condenses, falling out of solution (i.e., precipitates).[2] Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapour to the air. Virga is precipitation that begins falling to the earth but evaporates before reaching the surface; it is one of the ways air can become saturated. Precipitation forms via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Moisture overriding associated with weather fronts is an overall major method of precipitation production. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds such as cumulonimbus and can organize into narrow rainbands. Where relatively warm water bodies are present, for example due to water evaporation from lakes, lake-effect snowfall becomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the backside of extratropical cyclones. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy. Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone's comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes. Rain drops range in size from oblate, pancake-like shapes for larger drops, to small spheres for smaller drops. Precipitation that reaches the surface of the earth can occur in many different forms, including rain, freezing rain, drizzle, ice needles, snow, ice pellets or sleet, graupel and hail. Hail is formed within cumulonimbus clouds when strong updrafts of air cause the stones to cycle back and forth through the cloud, causing the hailstone to form in layers until it becomes heavy enough to fall from the cloud. Unlike raindrops, snowflakes grow in a variety of different shapes and patterns, determined by the temperature and humidity characteristics of the air the snowflake moves through on its way to the ground. While snow and ice pellets require temperatures close to the ground to be near or below freezing, hail can occur during much

warmer temperature regimes due to the process of its formation. Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies, e.g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of ice needles, rather than rain or snow.[3] The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities. Global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics. Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year; 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[4] Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally-averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in). Climate classification systems such as the Kppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes.
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Contents
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1 Hydrometeor 2 Types 3 How the air becomes saturated o 3.1 Cooling air to its dew point o 3.2 Adding moisture to the air 4 Formation o 4.1 Raindrops o 4.2 Ice pellets o 4.3 Hail o 4.4 Snowflakes o 4.5 Diamond dust 5 Causes o 5.1 Frontal activity o 5.2 Convection o 5.3 Orographic effects o 5.4 Snow o 5.5 Within the tropics 6 Measurement 7 Return period 8 Role in Kppen climate classification 9 Effect on agriculture 10 Changes due to global warming 11 Changes due to urban heat island 12 Forecasting 13 See also 14 References 15 External links

[edit] Hydrometeor

This anvil-shaped Cumulonimbus incus cloud is composed of hydrometeors.

The term meteor describes an object from outer space which has entered the Earth's atmosphere and produces a light phenomenon.[5] In contrast, any phenomenon which was at some point produced due to condensation or precipitation of moisture within the Earth's atmosphere is known as a hydrometeor. Particles composed of fallen precipitation which fell onto the Earth's surface can become hydrometeors if blown off the landscape by wind. Formations due to condensation such as clouds, haze, fog, and mist are composed of hydrometeors. All precipitation types are hydrometeors by definition, including virga, which is precipitation which evaporates before reaching the ground. Particles removed from the Earth's surface by wind such as blowing snow and blowing sea spray are also hydrometeors.[6]

[edit] Types
See also: Precipitation types (meteorology)

A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation

Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[4] Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally-averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in). Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform,[7] and orographic rainfall. [8] Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation,[9] while stratiform processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense precipitation. Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice. Mixtures of different types of precipitation, including types in different categories, can fall simultaneously. Liquid forms of precipitation include rain and drizzle. Rain or drizzle that freezes on contact within a subfreezing air mass is called "freezing rain" or "freezing drizzle". Frozen forms of precipitation include snow, ice needles, ice pellets, hail, and graupel.[10]

[edit] How the air becomes saturated

[edit] Cooling air to its dew point

Late-summer rainstorm in Denmark

Air contains water vapour, measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg),[11] but most commonly reported as a relative humidity. How much water vapour a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) depends on its temperature. Warmer air can contain more water vapour than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated.[12] Water vapour normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. An elevated portion of a frontal zone forces broad areas of lift, which form clouds decks such as altostratus or cirrostratus. Stratus is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due to the lifting of advection fog during breezy conditions.[13] There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands.[14] The air can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift). Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface,[15] usually by being blown from one surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath.[16] Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation.[17]

Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming [edit] Adding moisture to the air

The main ways water vapour is added to the air are: wind convergence into areas of upward motion,[9] precipitation or virga falling from above,[18] daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land,[19] transpiration from plants,[20] cool or dry air moving over warmer water,[21] and lifting air over mountains.[22]

[edit] Formation
Main article: Water cycle

Condensation and coalescence are important parts of the water cycle.

[edit] Raindrops Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets, or when water droplets freeze onto an ice crystal, which is known as the Bergeron process. Air resistance typically causes the water droplets in a cloud to remain stationary. When air turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger droplets. As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall as rain. Coalescence generally happens most often in clouds above freezing. In clouds below freezing, when ice crystals gain enough mass they begin to fall. This generally requires more

mass than coalescence when occurring between the crystal and neighboring water droplets. This process is temperature dependent, as supercooled water droplets only exist in a cloud that is below freezing. In addition, because of the great temperature difference between cloud and ground level, these ice crystals may melt as they fall and become rain.[23] Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 millimetres (0.0039 in) to 9 millimetres (0.35 in) mean diameter, above which they tend to break up. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Contrary to the cartoon pictures of raindrops, their shape does not resemble a teardrop.[24] Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of short duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration.[25][26] Rain drops associated with melting hail tend to be larger than other rain drops.[27] The METAR code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain showers is SHRA.[28] [edit] Ice pellets
See also: Ice pellets

An accumulation of ice pellets

Ice pellets are a form of precipitation consisting of small, translucent balls of ice. This form of precipitation is also known as sleet in the United States.[29] Ice pellets are usually (but not always) smaller than hailstones.[30] They often bounce when they hit the ground, and generally do not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed with freezing rain. The METAR code for ice pellets is PL.[28] Ice pellets form when a layer of above-freezing air is located between 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) and 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) above the ground, with sub-freezing air both above and below it. This causes the partial or complete melting of any snowflakes falling through the warm layer. As they fall back into the sub-freezing layer closer to the surface, they re-freeze into ice pellets. However, if the sub-freezing layer beneath the warm layer is too small, the precipitation will not have time to re-freeze, and freezing rain will be the result at the surface. A temperature profile showing a warm layer above the ground is most likely to be found in advance of a warm front during the cold season [31], but can occasionally be found behind a passing cold front. [edit] Hail

See also: Hail

A large hailstone, about 6 cm (2.36 in) in diameter

Like other precipitation, hail forms in storm clouds when supercooled water droplets freeze on contact with condensation nuclei, such as dust or dirt. The storm's updraft blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud. The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the updraft, and are lifted up again. Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more.[32] Within METAR code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least 6.4 millimetres (0.25 in). GR is derived from the French word grle. Smaller-sized hail, as well as snow pellets, use the coding of GS, which is short for the French word grsil.[28] Stones just larger than golf ballsized are one of the most frequently reported hail sizes.[33] Hailstones can grow to 15 centimetres (6 in) and weigh more than .5 kilograms (1.1 lb).[34] In large hailstones, latent heat released by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone. The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones.[35] The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to be supported by the storm's updraft, it falls from the cloud.[36] Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing 0 C (32 F).[32] Hail-producing clouds are often identifiable by their green coloration.[37][38] The growth rate is maximized at about 13 C (9 F), and becomes vanishingly small much below 30 C (22 F) as supercooled water droplets become rare. For this reason, hail is most common within continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, as hail formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below the altitude of 11,000 feet (3,400 m).[39] Entrainment of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling which lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in. Accordingly, hail is actually less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the midlatitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater depth. Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations.[40] [edit] Snowflakes
Main article: Snowflake

Snowflake viewed in an optical microscope

Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets (about 10 m in diameter) freeze. These droplets are able to remain liquid at temperatures lower than 18 C (0 F), because to freeze, a few molecules in the droplet need to get together by chance to form an arrangement similar to that in an ice lattice; then the droplet freezes around this "nucleus." Experiments show that this "homogeneous" nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at temperatures lower than 35 C (31 F).[41] In warmer clouds an aerosol particle or "ice nucleus" must be present in (or in contact with) the droplet to act as a nucleus. Our understanding of what particles make efficient ice nuclei is poor what we do know is they are very rare compared to that cloud condensation nuclei on which liquid droplets form. Clays, desert dust and biological particles may be effective,[42] although to what extent is unclear. Artificial nuclei include particles of silver iodide and dry ice, and these are used to stimulate precipitation in cloud seeding.[43] Once a droplet has frozen, it grows in the supersaturated environment, which is one where air is saturated with respect to ice when the temperature is below the freezing point. The droplet then grows by diffusion of water molecules in the air (vapor) onto the ice crystal surface where they are collected. Because water droplets are so much more numerous than the ice crystals due to their sheer abundance, the crystals are able to grow to hundreds of micrometers or millimeters in size at the expense of the water droplets. This process is known as the Wegner-BergeronFindeison process. The corresponding depletion of water vapor causes the droplets to evaporate, meaning that the ice crystals grow at the droplets' expense. These large crystals are an efficient source of precipitation, since they fall through the atmosphere due to their mass, and may collide and stick together in clusters, or aggregates. These aggregates are snowflakes, and are usually the type of ice particle that falls to the ground.[44] Guinness World Records list the worlds largest snowflakes as those of January 1887 at Fort Keogh, Montana; allegedly one measured 38 cm (15 inches) wide.[45] The exact details of the sticking mechanism remain controversial. Possibilities include mechanical interlocking, sintering, electrostatic attraction as well as the existence of a "sticky" liquid-like layer on the crystal surface. The individual ice crystals often have hexagonal symmetry. Although the ice is clear, scattering of light by the crystal facets and hollows/imperfections mean that the crystals often appear white in color due to diffuse reflection

of the whole spectrum of light by the small ice particles.[46] The shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed.[44] Rarely, at a temperature of around 2 C (28 F), snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry triangular snowflakes.[47] The most common snow particles are visibly irregular, although near-perfect snowflakes may be more common in pictures because they are more visually appealing. No two snowflakes are alike due to the 10,000,000,000,000,000,000 water molecules which make up a snowflake,[48] which grow at different rates and in different patterns depending on the changing temperature and humidity within the atmosphere that the snowflake falls through on its way to the ground.[49] The METAR code for snow is SN, while snow showers are coded SHSN.[28] [edit] Diamond dust
See also: Diamond dust

Diamond dust, also known as ice needles or ice crystals, forms at temperatures approaching 40 F (40 C) due to air with slightly higher moisture from aloft mixing with colder, surface based air.[50] They are made of simple ice crystals that are hexagonal in shape.[51] The METAR identifier for diamond dust within international hourly weather reports is IC.[28]

[edit] Causes
[edit] Frontal activity Main article: Weather fronts

Stratiform or dynamic precipitation occurs as a consequence of slow ascent of air in synoptic systems (on the order of cm/s), such as over surface cold fronts, and over and ahead of warm fronts. Similar ascent is seen around tropical cyclones outside of the eyewall, and in comma-head precipitation patterns around mid-latitude cyclones.[52] A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas.[53] Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies other than Earth. When it gets cold, Mars has precipitation that most likely takes the form of ice needles, rather than rain or snow.[3]
[edit] Convection

Convective precipitation

Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus. It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the tropics appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs.[52][54] Graupel and hail indicate convection.[55] In midlatitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts.[56]
[edit] Orographic effects Main articles: Orographic lift, Precipitation types (meteorology), and United States rainfall climatology

Orographic precipitation

Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.[22] In Hawaii, Mount Waialeale, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it has the second highest average annual rainfall on Earth, with 460 inches (12,000 mm).[57] Storm systems affect the state with heavy rains between October and March. Local climates vary considerably on each island due to their topography, divisible into windward (Koolau) and leeward (Kona) regions based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the east to northeast trade winds and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.[58] In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina.[59] The Sierra Nevada range creates the same effect in North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts.[60][61]

[edit] Snow See also: Snow

Preferred region of heavy snowfall ("Banded Snowfall") around the comma head of a wintertime low pressure area, shaded in green

Lake-effect snow bands near the Korean Peninsula

Extratropical cyclones can bring cold and dangerous conditions with heavy rain and snow with winds exceeding 119 km/h (74 mph),[62] (sometimes referred to as windstorms in Europe). The band of precipitation that is associated with their warm front is often extensive, forced by weak upward vertical motion of air over the frontal boundary which condenses as it cools and produces precipitation within an elongated band,[63] which is wide and stratiform, meaning falling out of nimbostratus clouds.[64] When moist air tries to dislodge an arctic air mass, overrunning snow can result within the poleward side of the elongated precipitation band. In the Northern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the North Pole, or north. Within the Southern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the South Pole, or south. Within the cold sector, poleward and west of the cyclone center, small scale or mesoscale bands of heavy snow can occur within a cyclone's comma-head pattern. This pattern is a commashaped area of clouds and precipitation found around mature extratropical cyclones. These snow bands typically have a width of 20 miles (32 km) to 50 miles (80 km).[65] The bands in the comma head are associated with areas of frontogenesis, or zones of strengthening temperature contrast.[66]

Southwest of extratropical cyclones, curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across the relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow lake-effect snow bands. Those bands bring strong localized snowfall which can be understood as follows: Large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differences (larger than 13 C or 23 F) between the water surface and the air above.[67] Because of this temperature difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward, condensing into vertically oriented clouds (see satellite picture) which produce snow showers. The temperature decrease with height and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large-scale environment. The stronger the temperature decrease with height, the deeper the clouds get, and the greater the precipitation rate becomes.[68] In mountainous areas, heavy snowfall accumulates when air is forced to ascend the mountains and squeeze out precipitation along their windward slopes, which in cold conditions, falls in the form of snow. Because of the ruggedness of terrain, forecasting the location of heavy snowfall remains a significant challenge.[69]
[edit] Within the tropics

Rainfall distribution by month in Cairns showing the extent of the wet season at that location See also: Monsoon and Tropical cyclone Main article: Wet season

The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls.[70] The term green season is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities.[71] Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics.[72] Savanna climates and areas with monsoon regimes have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year.[73] Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season when the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough move poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season.[25] When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality improves,[74] freshwater quality

improves,[75][76] and vegetation grows significantly. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases. [25] Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. Unfortunately, the previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.[77] Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counterclockwise (northern hemisphere).[78] Although cyclones can take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may bring muchneeded precipitation to otherwise dry regions.[79] Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage.[80]

[edit] Measurement

Standard rain gauge See also: Rain gauge, Disdrometer, and Snow gauge

The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 100-mm (4-in) plastic and 200-mm (8-in) metal varieties.[81] The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm (1 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gauges have markings on the inner cylinder down to 0.25 mm (0.01 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the appropriate 0.25 mm (0.01 in) markings. After the inner cylinder

is filled, the amount inside it is discarded, then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty. These gauges are used in the winter by removing the funnel and inner cylinder and allowing snow and freezing rain to collect inside the outer cylinder. Some add anti-freeze to their gauge so they do not have to melt the snow or ice that falls into the gauge.[82] Once the snowfall/ice is finished accumulating, or as you approach 300 mm (12 in), one can either bring it inside to melt, or use luke warm water to fill the inner cylinder with in order to melt the frozen precipitation in the outer cylinder, keeping track of the warm fluid added, which is subsequently subtracted from the overall total once all the ice/snow is melted.[83] Other types of gauges include the popular wedge gauge (the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the tipping bucket rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge.[84] The wedge and tipping bucket gauges will have problems with snow. Attempts to compensate for snow/ice by warming the tipping bucket meet with limited success, since snow may sublimate if the gauge is kept much above freezing. Weighing gauges with antifreeze should do fine with snow, but again, the funnel needs to be removed before the event begins. For those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler you use to measure the rain with. Any of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough know-how.[85] When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE.[86][87] If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather office will likely be interested in the measurement.[88]

[edit] Return period

See also: 100-year flood

The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity and duration, is called the return period or frequency.[89] The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from charts based on historic data for the location.[90] The term 1 in 10 year storm describes a rainfall event which is rare and is only likely to occur once every 10 years, so it has a 10 percent likelihood any given year. The rainfall will be greater and the flooding will be worse than the worst storm expected in any single year. The term 1 in 100 year storm describes a rainfall event which is extremely rare and which will occur with a likelihood of only once in a century, so has a 1 percent likelihood in any given year. The rainfall will be extreme and flooding to be worse than a 1 in 10 year event. As with all probability events, it is possible to have multiple "1 in 100 Year Storms" in a single year.[91]

[edit] Role in Kppen climate classification

Updated Kppen-Geiger climate map[92] Af Am Aw BWh BWk BSh BSk Csa Csb Cwa Cwb Cfa Cfb Cfc Dsa Dsb Dsc Dsd Dwa Dwb Dwc Dwd Dfa Dfb Dfc Dfd ET EF

Main article: Kppen climate classification

The Kppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Kppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert. Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1,750 millimetres (69 in) and 2,000 millimetres (79 in).[93] A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall between 750 millimetres (30 in) and 1,270 millimetres (50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia.[94] The humid subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall (and sometimes snowfall) is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones.[95] Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20 and 40 degrees away from the equator.[96]

An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year round.[97] The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.[98] A steppe is a dry grassland.[99] Subarctic climates are cold with continuous permafrost and little precipitation.[100]

[edit] Effect on agriculture

Rainfall estimates for southern Japan and the surrounding region from July 2027, 2009.

Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some water to survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops. Drought can kill crops and increase erosion, [101] while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth.[102] Plants need varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, certain cacti require small amounts of water,[103] while tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive. In areas with wet and dry seasons, soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases during the wet season.[25] Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature.[104] Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.[77]

[edit] Changes due to global warming

Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1999 to 2008 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 See also: Global warming

Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which leads to more precipitation. As average global temperatures have risen, average global precipitation has also increased. Precipitation generally increased over land north of 30N from 1900 through 2005 but has declined over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically significant overall trend in precipitation over the past century, although trends have varied widely by region and over time. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia have become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughtsespecially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are suggested by the decreased salinity of mid- and high-latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less precipitation and/or more evaporation). Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1 percent per century since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6 percent per century) and the South (11.1 percent). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (9.25 percent).[105]

[edit] Changes due to urban heat island

Image of Atlanta, Georgia showing temperature distribution, with blue showing cool temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appear white. See also: Urban heat island

The urban heat island warms cities 0.6 C (1.1 F) to 5.6 C (10.1 F) above surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 20 miles (32 km) to 40 miles (64 km) downwind of cities, compared with upwind.[106] Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of 51%.[107]

[edit] Forecasting
Main article: Quantitative precipitation forecast

Example of a five day rainfall forecast from the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center

The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area.[108] A QPF will be specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF valid period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 GMT. Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail.[109] Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States.[110] Forecast models show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer, or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere, which decreases with height.[111] QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific amount, basis.[112] Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gage measurements, weather radar estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast.[113]

Cloud
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Clouds) Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Cloud (disambiguation).
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A cloud is a visible mass of droplets of water or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of the Earth or another planetary body. A cloud is also a visible mass attracted by gravity, such as masses of material in space called interstellar clouds and nebulae. Clouds are studied in the nephology or cloud physics branch of meteorology. On Earth the condensing substance is typically water vapor, which forms small droplets or ice crystals, typically 0.01 mm (0.00039 in) in diameter. When surrounded by billions of other droplets or crystals they become visible as clouds. Dense deep clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible range of wavelengths. They thus appear white, at least from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases, hence the gray or even sometimes dark appearance at the cloud base. Thin clouds may appear to have acquired the color of their environment or background and clouds illuminated by non-white light, such as during sunrise or sunset, may appear colored accordingly. Clouds look darker in the near-infrared because water absorbs solar radiation at those wavelengths.

Contents
[hide]

1 Classification o 1.1 High clouds (Family A) o 1.2 Middle clouds (Family B) o 1.3 Low clouds (Family C1) o 1.4 Low to middle clouds (Family C2) o 1.5 Vertical clouds (Family D) o 1.6 Other clouds o 1.7 Cloud fields 2 Colors 3 Clouds and climate o 3.1 Global brightening o 3.2 Bacteria in clouds 4 Other planets 5 Gallery 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links

[edit] Classification

A cumulus cloudscape over Swifts Creek, Victoria, Australia

Cloud types or genera are grouped into three general categories: cirriform (wispy), stratiform (layered in sheets) and convective or cumuliform (heaped, rolled and/or rippled). These designations distinguish a cloud's physical structure and process of formation. All weatherrelated cloud types form in the troposphere, the lowest major layer of the earth's atmosphere. The individual genus types result from the categories being cross-classified by height range within

the troposphere. This is determined by the base height of the cloud, not the cloud top, and base height ranges may vary depending on the geographical zone. Each cloud genus is divided into species and/or varieties determined by more specific aspects of its structure and/or process of formation in any particular situation. All Cirrus clouds are classified as high and thus constitute a single genus. Cumulus and stratus clouds in the high altitude range carry the prefix 'cirro', while similar genera in the middle range are prefixed by 'alto'. Any cumuliform or stratiform genus in the low or low to middle range either has no prefix or carries one that refers to a characteristic other than altitude. A vertically developed cloud genus or species typically occupies all altitude ranges and therefore has no height related prefix. This system was proposed in 1802, when it was presented to the Askesian Society by Luke Howard.

A sky of cirrus clouds. [edit] High clouds (Family A)

High clouds will form between 10,000 and 25,000 ft (3,000 and 8,000 m) in the polar regions, 16,500 and 40,000 ft (5,000 and 12,000 m) in the temperate regions and 20,000 and 60,000 ft (6,000 and 18,000 m) in the tropical region.[1] Clouds in Family A include:

Genus Cirrus (Ci) Genus Cirrocumulus (Cc) Genus Cirrostratus (Cs)

[edit] Middle clouds (Family B)

Middle clouds tend to form at 6,500 ft (2,000 m) but may form at heights up to 13,000 ft (4,000 m), 23,000 ft (7,000 m) or 25,000 ft (8,000 m) depending on the region. Generally the warmer the climate, the higher the cloud base. Nimbostratus clouds are sometimes included with the middle clouds.[1] The World Meterological Organization classifies Nimbostratus as a middle cloud that can thicken down into the low height range during precipitation. Clouds in Family B include:

Genus Altocumulus (Ac) Genus Altostratus (As)

[edit] Low clouds (Family C1)

Stratocumulus clouds, between Cumulus in the foreground and background

These are found from near surface up to 6,500 ft (2,000 m)[1] and include the stratus (dense and grey). When stratus clouds contact the ground, they are called fog. Clouds in Family C1 include:

Genus Stratocumulus (Sc) Genus Stratus (St)

[edit] Low to middle clouds (Family C2)

These clouds can be based anywhere from near surface to about 10,000 ft (3,000 m). Cumulus usually forms in the low altitude range but bases may rise into the lower part of the middle range during conditions of very low relative humidity. Nimbostratus normally forms from altostratus in the middle altitude range but the base may subside into the low range during precipitaion. Clouds in Family C2 include:

Genus Cumulus[2] (Cu) o Species Cumulus humilis (Cu hum) o Species Cumulus mediocris (Cu med) Genus Nimbostratus (Ns)

[edit] Vertical clouds (Family D)

A typical anvil shaped Cumulonimbus incus

These clouds can have strong up-currents, rise far above their bases and form at many heights. Clouds in Family D include:

Genus Cumulonimbus (associated with heavy precipitation and thunderstorms) (Cb) o Species Cumulonimbus calvus (Cb cal) o Species Cumulonimbus capillatus (Cb cap) o Variety Cumulonimbus incus (Cb inc) o Variety Cumulonimbus with mammatus (Cb mam) Official WMO term Cumulonimbus mamma. Genus Cumulus (Cu)[3][4] o Species Cumulus congestus (TCu) Pyrocumulus (No official abbreviation, not recognised by WMO as a distinct genus or species.)

[edit] Other clouds

A few clouds can be found above the troposphere; these include noctilucent and polar stratospheric clouds (or nacreous clouds), which occur in the mesosphere and stratosphere respectively. Some clouds form as a consequence of interactions with specific geographical features. Perhaps the strangest geographically specific cloud in the world is Morning Glory, a rolling cylindrical cloud which appears unpredictably over the Gulf of Carpentaria in Northern Australia. Associated with a powerful "ripple" in the atmosphere, the cloud may be "surfed" in glider aircraft.
[edit] Cloud fields

A cloud field is simply a group of clouds but sometimes cloud fields can take on certain shapes that have their own characteristics and are specially classified. Stratocumulus clouds can often be found in the following forms:

Actinoform, which resembles a leaf or a spoked wheel. Closed cell, which is cloudy in the center and clear on the edges, similar to a filled honeycomb. Open cell, which resembles a honeycomb, with clouds around the edges and clear, open space in the middle.

[edit] Colors

Cloud iridescence occurring in clouds

Sunset reflecting shades of grey and pink in clouds.

The color of a cloud, as seen from the Earth, tells much about what is going on inside the cloud. Clouds form because warm air tends to absorb water vapor, which is lighter than air, thus helping the mixture to rise. As it rises the air containing it cools and the vapor tends to condense out of the air as micro-droplets. These tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color. As a cloud matures, the dense water droplets may combine to produce larger droplets, which may combine to form droplets large enough to fall as rain. By this process of accumulation, the space between droplets becomes increasingly larger, permitting light to penetrate farther into the cloud. If the cloud is sufficiently large and the droplets within are spaced far enough apart, it may be that a percentage of the light which enters the cloud is not reflected back out before it is absorbed. A simple example of this is being able to see farther in heavy rain than in heavy fog. This process of reflection/absorption is what causes the range of cloud color from white to black. For the same reason, the undersides of large clouds and heavy overcasts can appear as various

degrees of grey shades, depending on how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. Other colors occur naturally in clouds. Bluish-grey is the result of light scattering within the cloud. In the visible spectrum, blue and green are at the short end of light's visible wavelengths, while red and yellow are at the long end. The short rays are more easily scattered by water droplets, and the long rays are more likely to be absorbed. The bluish color is evidence that such scattering is being produced by rain-sized droplets in the cloud. A greenish tinge to a cloud is produced when sunlight is scattered by ice. A cumulonimbus cloud emitting green is an imminent sign of heavy rain, hail, strong winds and possible tornadoes. Yellowish clouds are rare but may occur in the late spring through early fall months during forest fire season. The yellow color is due to the presence of pollutants in the smoke. Red, orange and pink clouds occur almost entirely at sunrise/sunset and are the result of the scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere. The clouds do not become that color; they are reflecting long and unscattered rays of sunlight, which are predominant at those hours. The effect is much like if one were to shine a red spotlight on a white sheet. In combination with large, mature thunderheads this can produce blood-red clouds.

[edit] Clouds and climate

Global cloud cover, averaged over the month of October, 2009. The outlines of the continents can often be traced through observations of clouds alone, with the sharpest outlines where very dry land is surrounded by ocean. NASA composite satellite image; larger image available here. See also: Cloud cover and Cloud feedback

The role of clouds in regulating weather and climate remains a leading source of uncertainty in projections of global warming.[5] This uncertainty arises because of the delicate balance of processes related to clouds, spanning scales from millimeters to planetary. Hence interactions

between the large scale (synoptic meteorology) and clouds becomes difficult to represent in global models. The complexity and diversity of clouds, as outlined above, adds to the problem. High clouds, such as cirrus, tend to have both shortwave and longwave (i.e., albedo and greenhouse) effects that nearly cancel, while low clouds like stratocumulus have a strong shortwave effect but almost no longwave effect. As such, much research has focused on the response of low clouds to a changing climate. Leading global models can produce quite different results, though, with some showing increasing low-level clouds and other showing decreases.[6][7]
[edit] Global brightening

New research indicates a global brightening trend.[8] The details are not fully understood, but much of the global dimming (and subsequent reversal) is thought to be a consequence of changes in aerosol loading in the atmosphere, especially sulfur-based aerosol associated with biomass burning and urban pollution. Changes in aerosol burden can have indirect effects on clouds by changing the droplet size distribution[9] or the lifetime and precipitation characteristics of clouds[10].
[edit] Bacteria in clouds

Bioprecipitation, the concept of rain-making bacteria, was proposed by David Sands from Montana State University. Such microbes - called ice nucleators - are found in rain, snow, and hail throughout the world, according to Brent Christner, a microbiologist at Louisiana State University. These bacteria may be part of a constant feedback between terrestrial ecosystems and clouds and may even have evolved the ability to promote rainstorms as a means of dispersal. They may rely on the rainfall to spread to new habitats, much as plants rely on windblown pollen grains, Christner said.[11][12]

[edit] Other planets

Main article: Extraterrestrial atmospheres

Within our Solar System, any planet or moon with an atmosphere also has clouds. Venus's clouds are composed of sulfuric acid droplets. Mars has high, thin clouds of water ice. Both Jupiter and Saturn have an outer cloud deck composed of ammonia clouds, an intermediate deck of ammonium hydrosulfide clouds and an inner deck of water clouds. Uranus and Neptune have cloudy atmospheres dominated by methane gas. Saturn's moon Titan has clouds believed to be composed largely of droplets of liquid methane. The CassiniHuygens Saturn mission uncovered evidence of a fluid cycle on Titan, including lakes near the poles and fluvial channels on the surface of the moon.

[edit] Gallery

Wind
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Wind (disambiguation).

Wind, from the Tacuinum Sanitatis

A breeze lifts a veil

Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On Earth, wind consists of the bulk movement of air. In outer space, solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the sun through space, while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet's atmosphere into space. Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale, their speed, the types of forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur, and their effect. The strongest observed winds on a planet in our solar system occur on Neptune and Saturn.

In meteorology, winds are often referred to according to their strength, and the direction the wind is blowing from. Short bursts of high speed wind are termed gusts. Strong winds of intermediate duration (around one minute) are termed squalls. Long-duration winds have various names associated with their average strength, such as breeze, gale, storm, hurricane, and typhoon. Wind occurs on a range of scales, from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes, to local breezes generated by heating of land surfaces and lasting a few hours, to global winds resulting from the difference in absorption of solar energy between the climate zones on Earth. The two main causes of large scale atmospheric circulation are the differential heating between the equator and the poles, and the rotation of the planet (Coriolis effect). Within the tropics, thermal low circulations over terrain and high plateaus can drive monsoon circulations. In coastal areas the sea breeze/land breeze cycle can define local winds; in areas that have variable terrain, mountain and valley breezes can dominate local winds. In human civilization, wind has inspired mythology, influenced the events of history, expanded the range of transport and warfare, and provided a power source for mechanical work, electricity, and recreation. Wind has powered the voyages of sailing ships across Earth's oceans. Hot air balloons use the wind to take short trips, and powered flight uses it to increase lift and reduce fuel consumption. Areas of wind shear caused by various weather phenomena can lead to dangerous situations for aircraft. When winds become strong, trees and man-made structures are damaged or destroyed. Winds can shape landforms, via a variety of Aeolian processes such as the formation of fertile soils, such as loess, and by erosion. Dust from large deserts can be moved great distances from its source region by the prevailing winds; winds that are accelerated by rough topography and associated with dust outbreaks have been assigned regional names in various parts of the world because of their significant effects on those regions. Wind effects the spread of wildfires. Winds disperse seeds from various plants, enabling the survival and dispersal of those plant species, as well as flying insect populations. When combined with cold temperatures, wind has a negative impact on livestock. Wind affects animals' food stores, as well as their hunting and defensive strategies.

Contents
[hide]

1 2 3 4

Cause Measurement Wind force scale Global climatology o 4.1 Tropics o 4.2 Westerlies and their impact o 4.3 Polar easterlies 5 Local considerations o 5.1 Sea and land breezes o 5.2 Near mountains 6 Average wind speeds o 6.1 Wind power density 7 Shear 8 Usage of wind o 8.1 History o 8.2 Transportation o 8.3 Power source o 8.4 Recreation 9 Role in the natural world o 9.1 Erosion o 9.2 Desert dust migration o 9.3 Effect on plants o 9.4 Effect on animals 10 Related damage 11 In outer space o 11.1 Planetary wind o 11.2 Solar wind 12 On other planets 13 See also 14 References 15 External links

[edit] Cause

Surface analysis of Great Blizzard of 1888. Areas with greater isobaric packing indicate higher winds.

Wind is caused by differences in pressure. When a difference in pressure exists, the air is accelerated from higher to lower pressure. On a rotating planet the air will be deflected by the Coriolis effect, except exactly on the equator. Globally, the two major driving factors of large scale winds (the atmospheric circulation) are the differential heating between the equator and the poles (difference in absorption of solar energy leading to buoyancy forces) and the rotation of the planet. Outside the tropics and aloft from frictional effects of the surface, the large-scale winds tend to approach geostrophic balance. Near the Earth's surface, friction causes the wind to be slower than it would be otherwise. Surface friction also causes winds to blow more inward into low pressure areas.[1] Winds defined by an equilibrium of physical forces are used in the decomposition and analysis of wind profiles. They are useful for simplifying the atmospheric equations of motion and for making qualitative arguments about the horizontal and vertical distribution of winds. The geostrophic wind component is the result of the balance between Coriolis force and pressure gradient force. It flows parallel to isobars and approximates the flow above the atmospheric boundary layer in the midlatitudes.[2] The thermal wind is the difference in the geostrophic wind between two levels in the atmosphere. It exists only in an atmosphere with horizontal temperature gradients.[3] The ageostrophic wind component is the difference between actual and geostrophic wind, which is responsible for air "filling up" cyclones over time.[4] The gradient wind is similar to the geostrophic wind but also includes centrifugal force (or centripetal acceleration).[5]

[edit] Measurement

A windmill style of anemometer

An occluded mesocyclone tornado (Oklahoma, May 1999)

Wind direction is reported by the direction from which it originates. For example, a northerly wind blows from the north to the south.[6] Weather vanes pivot to indicate the direction of the wind.[7] At airports, windsocks are primarily used to indicate wind direction, but can also be used to estimate wind speed by its angle of hang.[8] Wind speed is measured by anemometers, most commonly using rotating cups or propellers. When a high measurement frequency is needed (such as in research applications), wind can be measured by the propagation speed of ultrasound signals or by the effect of ventilation on the resistance of a heated wire.[9] Another type of anemometer uses pitot tubes that take advantage of the pressure differential between an inner tube and an outer tube that is exposed to the wind to determine the dynamic pressure, which is then used to compute the wind speed.[10] Sustained wind speeds are reported globally at a 10 meters (33 ft) height and are averaged over a 10 minute time frame. The United States reports winds over a 2 minute average,[11] while India typically reports winds over a 3 minute average.[12] Knowing the wind sampling average is important, as the value of a one-minute sustained wind is typically 14 percent greater than a tenminute sustained wind.[13] A short burst of high speed wind is termed a wind gust, one technical definition of a wind gust is: the maxima that exceed the lowest wind speed measured during a ten minute time interval by 10 knots (19 km/h). A squall is a doubling of the wind speed above a certain threshold, which lasts for a minute or more.

To determine winds aloft, rawinsondes determine wind speed by GPS, radio navigation, or radar tracking of the probe.[14] Alternatively, movement of the parent weather balloon position can be tracked from the ground visually using theodolites.[15] Remote sensing techniques for wind include SODAR, Doppler LIDARs and RADARs, which can measure the Doppler shift of electromagnetic radiation scattered or reflected off suspended aerosols or molecules, and radiometers and radars can be used to measure the surface roughness of the ocean from space or airplanes. Ocean roughness can be used to estimate wind velocity close to the sea surface over oceans. Geostationary satellite imagery can be used to estimate the winds throughout the atmosphere based upon how far clouds move from one image to the next. Wind Engineering describes the study of the effects of the wind on the built environment, including buildings, bridges and other man-made objects.

[edit] Wind force scale

See also: Tropical cyclone scales and Surface weather analysis

Historically, the Beaufort wind force scale provides an empirical description of wind speed based on observed sea conditions. Originally it was a 13-level scale, but during the 1940s, the scale was expanded to 17 levels.[16] There are general terms that differentiate winds of different average speeds such as a breeze, a gale, a storm, tornado, or a hurricane. Within the Beaufort scale, gale-force winds lie between 28 knots (52 km/h) and 55 knots (102 km/h) with preceding adjectives such as moderate, fresh, strong, and whole used to differentiate the wind's strength within the gale category.[17] A storm has winds of 56 knots (104 km/h) to 63 knots (117 km/h).[18] The terminology for tropical cyclones differs from one region to another globally. Most ocean basins use the average wind speed to determine the tropical cyclone's category. Below is a summary of the classifications used by Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers worldwide:
[hide]General wind classifications Tropical cyclone classifications (all winds are 10minute averages) NE Pacific Austr SW NW NW & alia Pacific Pacific Pacific N BOM FMS JMA JTWC Atlantic NHC & CPHC

10minut Beauf e Gener N ort sustai al Indian scale[1 ned term[19 Ocean 6] ] winds IMD (knots ) 0 1 2 <1 13 46 Calm Light air Light breeze

SW Indian Ocean MF

Depressi Tropical Tropic Tropical Tropical Tropical Tropical on disturba al low depressi depressi depressi depressi nce on on on on

710

Gentle breeze Modera te breeze Fresh breeze Strong breeze Deep Tropical Modera depressi depressi te gale on on Fresh gale Moderat Cyclonic e storm tropical Strong storm gale Whole Severe Severe gale cyclonic tropical storm storm Storm Tropic Tropical al Tropical cyclone cyclon storm (1) e (1) Tropic Tropical Severe al cyclone tropical cyclon (2) storm e (2) Severe tropical cyclone (3) Typhoon

1116

1721

2227 2829

7 3033 8 3440

4147

Tropical Tropical storm storm

10 11 12

4855 5663 6472

13 14 15 16 17

7385 8689 9099 100 106 107 114 115

Hurrica Very Severe ne severe tropica cyclonic l Tropical storm cyclon cyclone e (3) Severe tropica l cyclon e (4)

Hurrican e (1) Hurrican e (2) Major Typhoon hurrican e (3) Major hurrican e (4)

Intense tropical cyclone

Severe tropical cyclone (4)

Very

Severe Severe tropica tropical l cyclone

Super

119 intense Super tropical cyclonic cyclone cyclon (5) storm e (5) typhoon Major hurrican e (5)

>120

Wind plotting within a station model

The station model plotted on surface weather maps uses a wind barb to show both wind direction and speed. The wind barb shows the speed using "flags" on the end.

Each half of a flag depicts 5 knots (9.3 km/h) of wind. Each full flag depicts 10 knots (19 km/h) of wind. Each pennant (filled triangle) depicts 50 knots (93 km/h) of wind.[20]

Winds are depicted as blowing from the direction the barb is facing. Therefore, a northeast wind will be depicted with a line extending from the cloud circle to the northeast, with flags indicating wind speed on the northeast end of this line.[6] Once plotted on a map, an analysis of isotachs (lines of equal wind speeds) can be accomplished. Isotachs are particularly useful in diagnosing the location of the jet stream on upper level constant pressure charts, and are usually located at or above the 300 hPa level.[21]

[edit] Global climatology

Main article: Prevailing winds

The westerlies and trade winds

Winds are part of Earth's atmospheric circulation.

Easterly winds, on average, dominate the flow pattern across the poles, westerly winds blow across the mid-latitudes of the earth, to the north of the subtropical ridge, while easterlies again dominate the tropics. Directly under the subtropical ridge are the doldrums, or horse latitudes, where winds are lighter. Many of the Earth's deserts lie near the average latitude of the subtropical ridge, where descent reduces the relative humidity of the air mass.[22] The strongest winds are in the mid-latitudes where cold Arctic air meets warm air from the tropics.
[edit] Tropics See also: Trade wind and Monsoon

The trade winds (also called trades) are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics towards the Earth's equator.[23] The trade winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere.[24] The trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical cyclones that form over world's oceans.[25] Trade winds also steer African dust westward across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean Sea, as well as portions of southeast North America.[26] A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind that lasts for several months within tropical regions. The term was first used in English in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and neighboring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea in the southwest

bringing heavy rainfall to the area.[27] Its poleward progression is accelerated by the development off a heat low over the Asian, African, and North American continents during May through July, and over Australia in December.[28][29][30]
[edit] Westerlies and their impact

Benjamin Franklin's map of the Gulf Stream Main article: Westerlies

The Westerlies or the Prevailing Westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes between 35 and 65 degrees latitude. These prevailing winds blow from the west to the east to the north of the subtropical ridge,[31][32] and steer extratropical cyclones in this general manner. The winds are predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere.[24] They are strongest in the winter when the pressure is lower over the poles, and weakest during the summer and when pressures are higher over the poles.[33] Together with the trade winds, the westerlies enabled a round-trip trade route for sailing ships crossing the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as the westerlies lead to the development of strong ocean currents on the western sides of oceans in both hemispheres through the process of western intensification.[34] These western ocean currents transport warm, tropical water polewards toward the polar regions. The westerlies can be particularly strong, especially in the southern hemisphere, where there is less land in the middle latitudes to cause the flow pattern to amplify, which slows the winds down. The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes are within a band known as the Roaring Forties, between 40 and 50 degrees latitude south of the equator.[35] The Westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm, equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents,[36][37] especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse.
[edit] Polar easterlies Main article: Polar easterlies

The polar easterlies, also known as Polar Hadley cells, are dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the north and south poles towards the lowpressure areas within the Westerlies at high latitudes. Unlike the Westerlies, these prevailing

winds blow from the east to the west, and are often weak and irregular.[38] Because of the low sun angle, cold air builds up and subsides at the pole creating surface high-pressure areas, forcing an equatorward outflow of air;[39] that outflow is deflected eastward by the Coriolis effect.

[edit] Local considerations

Local winds around the world. These winds are formed trough the heating of land (from mountains or flat terrain) [edit] Sea and land breezes Main article: Sea breeze

A: Sea breeze (occurs at daytime), B: Land breeze (occurs at night)

In coastal regions, sea breezes and land breezes can be important factors in a location's prevailing winds. The sea is warmed by the sun more slowly because of water's greater specific heat compared to land.[40] As the temperature of the surface of the land rises, the land heats the air above it by conduction. The warm air is less dense than the surrounding environment and so it rises. This causes a pressure gradient of about 2 millibars from the ocean to the land. The cooler air above the sea, now with higher sea level pressure, flows inland into the lower pressure, creating a cooler breeze near the coast. When large-scale winds are calm, the strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the land mass and the sea. If an offshore wind of 8 knots (15 km/h) exists, the sea breeze is not likely to develop.

At night, the land cools off more quickly than the ocean because of differences in their specific heat values. This temperature change causes the daytime sea breeze to dissipate. When the temperature onshore cools below the temperature offshore, the pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land, establishing a land breeze, as long as an onshore wind is not strong enough to oppose it.[41]
[edit] Near mountains

Mountain wave schematic. The wind flows towards a mountain and produces a first oscillation (A). A second wave occurs further away and higher. The lenticular clouds form at the peak of the waves (B).

Over elevated surfaces, heating of the ground exceeds the heating of the surrounding air at the same altitude above sea level, creating an associated thermal low over the terrain and enhancing any thermal lows that would have otherwise existed,[42][43] and changing the wind circulation of the region. In areas where there is rugged topography that significantly interrupts the environmental wind flow, the wind circulation between mountains and valleys is the most important contributor to the prevailing winds. Hills and valleys substantially distort the airflow by increasing friction between the atmosphere and landmass by acting as a physical block to the flow, deflecting the wind parallel to the range just upstream of the topography, which is known as a barrier jet. This barrier jet can increase the low level wind by 45 percent.[44] Wind direction also changes because of the contour of the land.[45] If there is a pass in the mountain range, winds will rush through the pass with considerable speed because of the Bernoulli principle that describes an inverse relationship between speed and pressure. The airflow can remain turbulent and erratic for some distance downwind into the flatter countryside. These conditions are dangerous to ascending and descending airplanes.[45] Cool winds accelerating through mountain gaps have been given regional names. In Central America, examples include the Papagayo wind, the Panama wind, and the Tehuano wind. In Europe, similar winds are known as the Bora, Tramontane, and Mistral. When these winds blow over open waters, they increase mixing of the upper layers of the ocean that elevates cool, nutrient rich waters to the surface, which leads to increased marine life.[46] In mountainous areas, local distortion of the airflow becomes severe. Jagged terrain combines to produce unpredictable flow patterns and turbulence, such as rotors, which can be topped by lenticular clouds. Strong updrafts, downdrafts and eddies develop as the air flows over hills and

down valleys. Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, also known as upslope flow, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.[47] Winds that flow over mountains down into lower elevations are known as downslope winds. These winds are warm and dry. In Europe downwind of the Alps, they are known as foehn. In Poland, an example is the halny wiatr. In Argentina, the local name for downsloped winds is zonda. In Java, the local name for such winds is koembang. In New Zealand, they are known as the Nor'west arch, and are accompanied by the cloud formation they are named after that has inspired artwork over the years.[48] In the Great Plains of the United States, the winds are known as a chinook. In California, downsloped winds are funneled through mountain passes, which intensify their effect, and examples into Santa Ana and sundowner winds. Wind speeds during downslope wind effect can exceed 160 kilometers per hour (99 mph).[49]

[edit] Average wind speeds

The average windspeeds at 80 m altitude Main article: wind atlas

As described earlier, prevailing and local winds are not spread evenly across the earth, which means that wind speeds also differ by region. In addition, the wind speed also increases with the altitude.
[edit] Wind power density

Nowadays, a yardstick used to determine the best locations for wind energy development is referred to as wind power density (WPD). It is a calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a particular location, frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level over a period of time. It takes into account wind velocity and mass. Color coded maps are prepared for a particular area are described as, for example, "mean annual power density at 50 meters." The results of the above calculation are included in an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Lab and referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class.[50] At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 120.8 gigawatts.[51] Although wind produces only about 1.5 percent of worldwide electricity use,[51] it is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three

years between 2005 and 2008. In several countries it has achieved relatively high levels of penetration, accounting for approximately 19 percent of electricity production in Denmark, 10 percent in Spain and Portugal, and 7 percent in Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008. One study indicates that an entirely renewable energy supply based on 70 percent wind is attainable at today's power prices by linking wind farms with an HVDC supergrid.[52]

[edit] Shear

Hodograph plot of wind vectors at various heights in the troposphere, which is used to diagnose vertical wind shear Main article: Wind shear

Wind shear, sometimes referred to as windshear or wind gradient, is a difference in wind speed and direction over a relatively short distance in the Earth's atmosphere.[53] Wind shear can be broken down into vertical and horizontal components, with horizontal wind shear seen across weather fronts and near the coast,[54] and vertical shear typically near the surface,[55] though also at higher levels in the atmosphere near upper level jets and frontal zones aloft.[56] Wind shear itself is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small distance, but it can be associated with mesoscale or synoptic scale weather features such as squall lines and cold fronts. It is commonly observed near microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms,[57] weather fronts, areas of locally higher low level winds referred to as low level jets, near mountains,[58] radiation inversions that occur because of clear skies and calm winds, buildings,[59] wind turbines,[60] and sailboats.[61] Wind shear has a significant effect during take-off and landing of aircraft because of their effects on control of the aircraft,[62] and was a significant cause of aircraft accidents involving large loss of life within the United States.[57] Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by wind shear, which can bend the wave front, causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not, or vice versa.[63] Strong vertical wind shear within the troposphere also inhibits tropical cyclone development,[64] but

helps to organize individual thunderstorms into living longer life cycles that can then produce severe weather.[65] The thermal wind concept explains how differences in wind speed with height are dependent on horizontal temperature differences, and explains the existence of the jet stream.
[66]

[edit] Usage of wind

[edit] History

Winds according to Aristoteles.

As a natural force, the wind was often personified as one or more wind gods or as an expression of the supernatural in many cultures. Vayu is the Hindu God of Wind.[67][68] The Greek wind gods include Boreas, Notus, Eurus, and Zephyrus.[68] Aeolus, in varying interpretations the ruler or keeper of the four winds, has also been described as Astraeus, the god of dusk who fathered the four winds with Eos, goddess of dawn. The Ancient Greeks also observed the seasonal change of the winds, as evidenced by the Tower of the Winds in Athens.[68] Venti are the Roman gods of the winds.[69] Fjin, the Japanese wind god and is one of the eldest Shinto gods. According to legend, he was present at the creation of the world and first let the winds out of his bag to clear the world of mist.[70] In Norse mythology, Njord is the god of the wind.[68] There are also four dvrgar (Norse dwarves), named Norri, Suri, Austri and Vestri, and probably the four stags of Yggdrasil, personify the four winds, and parallel the four Greek wind gods.[71] Stribog is the name of the Slavic god of winds, sky and air. He is said to be the ancestor (grandfather) of the winds of the eight directions.[68] Kamikaze () is a Japanese word, usually translated as divine wind, believed to be a gift from the gods. The term is first known to have been used as the name of a pair or series of typhoons that are said to have saved Japan from two Mongol fleets under Kublai Khan that attacked Japan in 1274 and again in 1281.[72] Protestant Wind is a name for the storm that deterred the Spanish Armada from an invasion of England in 1588 where the wind played a pivotal role,[73] or the favorable winds that enabled William of Orange to invade England in 1688.[74] During Napoleon's Egyptian Campaign, the French soldiers had a hard time with the khamsin wind: when the storm appeared "as a blood-stint in the distant sky", the natives went to take cover,

while the French "did not react until it was too late, then choked and fainted in the blinding, suffocating walls of dust."[75] During the North African Campaign of the World War II, "allied and German troops were several times forced to halt in mid-battle because of sandstorms caused by khamsin ... Grains of sand whirled by the wind blinded the soldiers and created electrical disturbances that rendered compasses useless."[76]
[edit] Transportation

RAF Exeter airfield on 20 May 1944, showing the layout of the runways that allow aircraft to take off and land into the wind

There are many different forms of sailing ships, but they all have certain basic things in common. Except for rotor ships using the Magnus effect, every sailing ship has a hull, rigging and at least one mast to hold up the sails that use the wind to power the ship.[77] Ocean journeys by sailing ship can take many months,[78] and a common hazard is becoming becalmed because of lack of wind,[79] or being blown off course by severe storms or winds that do not allow progress in the desired direction.[80] A severe storm could lead to shipwreck, and the loss of all hands.[81] Sailing ships can only carry a certain quantity of supplies in their hold, so they have to plan long voyages carefully to include appropriate provisions, including fresh water.[82] While aircraft usually travel under an internal power source, tail winds affect groundspeed,[83] and in the case of hot air balloons and other lighter-than-air vehicles, wind may play a significant role in their movement and ground track.[84] In addition, the direction of wind plays a role in the takeoff and landing of fixed-wing aircraft and airfield runways are usually aligned to take the direction of wind into account. Of all factors affecting the direction of flight operations at an airport, wind direction is considered the primary governing factor. While taking off with a tailwind may be permissible under certain circumstances, it is generally considered the least desirable choice because of performance and safety considerations, with a headwind the desirable choice. A tailwind will increase takeoff distance and decrease climb gradient such that runway length and obstacle clearance may become limiting factors.[85] An airship, or dirigible, is a lighter-than-air aircraft that can be steered and propelled through the air using rudders and propellers or other thrust.[86] Unlike other aerodynamic aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, which produce lift by moving a wing, or airfoil, through the air, aerostatic aircraft, such as airships and hot air balloons, stay aloft by filling a large cavity, such as a balloon, with a

lifting gas.[87] The main types of airship are non-rigid (or blimps), semi-rigid and rigid. Blimps are small airships without internal skeletons. Semi-rigid airships are slightly larger and have some form of internal support such as a fixed keel. Rigid airships with full skeletons, such as the massive Zeppelin transoceanic models,[88] all but disappeared after several high-profile catastrophic accidents during the mid-20th century.[89]
[edit] Power source

This wind turbine generates electricity from wind power. See also: Wind power and High altitude wind power

Historically, the ancient Sinhalese of Anuradhapura and in other cities around Sri Lanka used the monsoon winds to power furnaces as early as 300 BCE.[90] The furnaces were constructed on the path of the monsoon winds to exploit the wind power, to bring the temperatures inside up to 1,200 C (2,190 F). An early historical reference to a rudimentary windmill was used to power an organ in the first century CE.[91] The first practical windmills were later built in Sistan, Afghanistan, from the 7th century CE. These were vertical-axle windmills, which had long vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades.[92] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn and draw up water, and were used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[93] Horizontal-axle windmills were later used extensively in Northwestern Europe to grind flour beginning in the 1180s, and many Dutch windmills still exist. High altitude wind power is the focus of over 30 companies worldwide using tethered technology rather than ground-hugging compressive-towers.[94] Oil is being saved by using wind for powering cargo ships by use of the mechanical energy converted from the wind's kinetic energy using very large kites.[95]
[edit] Recreation

Otto Lilienthal in flight

Wind figures prominently in several popular sports, including recreational hang gliding, hot air ballooning, kite flying, snowkiting, kite landboarding, kite surfing, paragliding, sailing, and windsurfing. In gliding, wind gradients just above the surface affect the takeoff and landing phases of flight of a glider. Wind gradient can have a noticeable effect on ground launches, also known as winch launches or wire launches. If the wind gradient is significant or sudden, or both, and the pilot maintains the same pitch attitude, the indicated airspeed will increase, possibly exceeding the maximum ground launch tow speed. The pilot must adjust the airspeed to deal with the effect of the gradient.[96] When landing, wind shear is also a hazard, particularly when the winds are strong. As the glider descends through the wind gradient on final approach to landing, airspeed decreases while sink rate increases, and there is insufficient time to accelerate prior to ground contact. The pilot must anticipate the wind gradient and use a higher approach speed to compensate for it.[97]

[edit] Role in the natural world

In arid climates, the main source of erosion is wind.[98] The general wind circulation moves small particulates such as dust across wide oceans thousands of kilometers downwind of their point of origin,[99] which is known as deflation. Westerly winds in the mid-latitudes of the planet drive the movement of ocean currents from west to east across the world's oceans. Wind has a very important role in aiding plants and other immobile organisms in dispersal of seeds, spores, pollen, etc. Although wind is not the primary form of seed dispersal in plants, it provides dispersal for a large percentage of the biomass of land plants.
[edit] Erosion

A rock formation in the Altiplano, Bolivia, sculpted by wind erosion See also: Aeolian processes

Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. There are two main effects. First, wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. This is called deflation. Second, these suspended particles may impact on solid objects causing erosion by

abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation. An example is the formation of sand dunes, on a beach or in a desert.[100] Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained, silty, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment.[101] It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces.[102] Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. [103] Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.[98]
[edit] Desert dust migration

During mid-summer (July), the westward-moving trade winds south of the northward-moving subtropical ridge expand northwestward from the Caribbean Sea into southeastern North America. When dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the ridge within the belt of trade winds moves over land, rainfall is suppressed and the sky changes from a blue to a white appearance, which leads to an increase in red sunsets. Its presence negatively impacts air quality by adding to the count of airborne particulates.[26] Over 50 percent of the African dust that reaches the United States affects Florida.[104] Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened because of periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in the dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year.[105] Dust events have been linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.[106] Similar dust plumes originate in the Gobi desert, which combined with pollutants, spread large distances downwind, or eastward, into North America.[99] There are local names for winds associated with sand and dust storms. The Calima carries dust on southeast winds into the Canary islands.[107] The Harmattan carries dust during the winter into the Gulf of Guinea.[108] The Sirocco brings dust from north Africa into southern Europe because of the movement of extratropical cyclones through the Mediterranean Sea.[109] Spring storm systems moving across the eastern Mediterranean Sea cause dust to carry across Egypt and the Arabian peninsula, which are locally known as Khamsin.[110] The Shamal is caused by cold fronts lifting dust into the atmosphere for days at a time across the Persian Gulf states.[111]
[edit] Effect on plants

Tumbleweed blown against a fence See also: Seed dispersal

Wind dispersal of seeds, or anemochory, is one of the more primitive means of dispersal. Wind dispersal can take on one of two primary forms: seeds can float on the breeze or alternatively, they can flutter to the ground.[112] The classic examples of these dispersal mechanisms include dandelions (Taraxacum spp., Asteraceae), which have a feathery pappus attached to their seeds and can be dispersed long distances, and maples (Acer (genus) spp., Sapindaceae), which have winged seeds and flutter to the ground. An important constraint on wind dispersal is the need for abundant seed production to maximize the likelihood of a seed landing in a site suitable for germination. There are also strong evolutionary constraints on this dispersal mechanism. For instance, species in the Asteraceae on islands tended to have reduced dispersal capabilities (i.e., larger seed mass and smaller pappus) relative to the same species on the mainland.[113] Reliance upon wind dispersal is common among many weedy or ruderal species. Unusual mechanisms of wind dispersal include tumbleweeds. A related process to anemochory is anemophily, which is the process where pollen is distributed by wind. Large families of plants are pollinated in this manner, which is favored when individuals of the dominant plant species are spaced closely together.[114] Wind also limits tree growth. On coasts and isolated mountains, the tree line is often much lower than in corresponding altitudes inland and in larger, more complex mountain systems, because strong winds reduce tree growth. High winds scour away thin soils through erosion,[115] as well as damage limbs and twigs. When high winds knock down or uproot trees, the process is known as windthrow. This is most likely on windward slopes of mountains, with severe cases generally occurring to tree stands that are 75 years or older.[116] Plant varieties near the coast, such as the Sitka spruce and sea grape,[117] are pruned back by wind and salt spray near the coastline.[118] Wind can also cause plants damage through sand abrasion. Strong winds will pick up loose sand and topsoil and hurl it through the air at speeds ranging from 25-40 miles per hour. Such windblown sand causes extensive damage to plant seedlings because it ruptures plant cells, making them vulnerable to evaporation and drought. Using a mechanical sandblaster in a laboratory setting, scientists affiliated with the Agricultural Research Service studied the effects of windblown sand abrasion on cotton seedlings. The study showed that the seedlings responded to the damage created by the windblown sand abrasion by shifting energy from stem and root growth to the growth and repair of the damaged stems. [1] After a period of four weeks the growth of the seedling once again became uniform throughout the plant, as it was before the windblown sand abrasion occurred. [119]
[edit] Effect on animals

Cattle and sheep are prone to wind chill caused by a combination of wind and cold temperatures, when winds exceed 40 kilometers per hour (25 mph) that renders their hair and wool coverings ineffective.[120] Although penguins use both a layer of fat and feathers to help guard against coldness in both water and air, their flippers and feet are less immune to the cold. In the coldest climates such as Antarctica, emperor penguins use huddling behavior to survive the wind and

cold, continuously alternating the members on the outside of the assembled group, which reduces heat loss by 50%.[121] Flying insects, a subset of arthropods, are swept along by the prevailing winds,[122] while birds follow their own course taking advantage of wind conditions, in order to either fly or glide.[123] As such, fine line patterns within weather radar imagery, associated with converging winds, are dominated by insect returns.[124] Bird migration, which tends to occur overnight within the lowest 7,000 feet (2,100 m) of the Earth's atmosphere, contaminates wind profiles gathered by weather radar, particularly the WSR-88D, by increasing the environmental wind returns by 15 knots (28 km/h) to 30 knots (56 km/h).[125] Pikas use a wall of pebbles to store dry plants and grasses for the winter in order to protect the food from being blown away.[126] Cockroaches use slight winds that precede the attacks of potential predators, such as toads, to survive their encounters. Their cerci are very sensitive to the wind, and help them survive half of their attacks.[127] Elk has a keen sense of smell that can detect potential upwind predators at a distance of 0.5 miles (800 m).[128] Increases in wind above 15 kilometers per hour (9.3 mph) signals glaucous gulls to increase their foraging and aerial attacks on thick-billed murres.[129]

[edit] Related damage

See also: Severe weather

Damage from Hurricane Andrew

High winds are known to cause damage, depending upon their strength. Infrequent wind gusts can cause poorly designed suspension bridges to sway. When wind gusts are at a similar frequency to the swaying of the bridge, the bridge can be destroyed more easily, such as what occurred with the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940.[130] Wind speeds as low as 23 knots (43 km/h) can lead to power outages due to tree branches disrupting the flow of energy through power lines.[131] While no species of tree is guaranteed to stand up to hurricane-force winds, those with shallow roots are more prone to uproot, and brittle trees such as eucalyptus, sea hibiscus, and avocado are more prone to damage.[132] Hurricane-force winds cause substantial damage to mobile homes, and begin to structurally damage homes with foundations. Winds of this strength due to downsloped winds off terrain have been known to shatter windows and sandblast paint from cars.[49] Once winds exceed 135 knots (250 km/h), homes completely collapse, and significant damage is done to larger buildings. Total destruction to man-made structures occurs when winds reach 175 knots (324 km/h). The Saffir-Simpson scale and Enhanced Fujita scale

were designed to help estimate wind speed from the damage caused by high winds related to tropical cyclones and tornadoes, and vice versa.[133][134] Australia's Barrow Island holds the record for the strongest wind gust, reaching 408 km/h (253 mph) during tropical cyclone Olivia on 10 April 1996, surpassing the previous record held by Mount Washington (New Hampshire) of 372 km/h (231 mph) on the afternoon of 12 April 1934.[135] Wildfire intensity increases during daytime hours. For example, burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day because of lower humidity, increased temperatures, and increased wind speeds.[136] Sunlight warms the ground during the day and causes air currents to travel uphill, and downhill during the night as the land cools. Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys.[137] United States wildfire operations revolve around a 24-hour fire day that begins at 10:00 a.m. because of the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth.[138]

[edit] In outer space

The solar wind is quite different from a terrestrial wind, in that its origin is the sun, and it is composed of charged particles that have escaped the sun's atmosphere. Similar to the solar wind, the planetary wind is composed of light gases that escape planetary atmospheres. Over long periods of time, the planetary wind can radically change the composition of planetary atmospheres.
[edit] Planetary wind Main article: Atmospheric escape

Possible future for Earth due to the planetary wind: Venus

The hydrodynamic wind within the upper portion of a planet's atmosphere allows light chemical elements such as hydrogen to move up to the exobase, the lower limit of the exosphere, where

the gases can then reach escape velocity, entering outer space without impacting other particles of gas. This type of gas loss from a planet into space is known as planetary wind.[139] Such a process over geologic time causes water-rich planets such as the Earth to evolve into planets such as Venus over billions of years.[140] Planets with hot lower atmospheres could result in humid upper atmospheres that accelerate the loss of hydrogen.[141]
[edit] Solar wind Main article: Solar wind

The plasma in the solar wind meeting the heliopause

Rather than air, the solar wind is a stream of charged particlesa plasmaejected from the upper atmosphere of the sun at a rate of 400 kilometers per second (890,000 mph). It consists mostly of electrons and protons with energies of about 1 keV. The stream of particles varies in temperature and speed with the passage of time. These particles are able to escape the sun's gravity, in part because of the high temperature of the corona,[142] but also because of high kinetic energy that particles gain through a process that is not well-understood. The solar wind creates the Heliosphere, a vast bubble in the interstellar medium surrounding the solar system.[143] Planets require large magnetic fields in order to reduce the ionization of their upper atmosphere by the solar wind.[141] Other phenomena include geomagnetic storms that can knock out power grids on Earth,[144] the aurorae such as the Northern Lights,[145] and the plasma tails of comets that always point away from the sun.[146]

[edit] On other planets

Strong 300 kilometers per hour (190 mph) winds at Venus's cloud tops circle the planet every four to five earth days.[147] When the poles of Mars are exposed to sunlight after their winter, the frozen CO2 sublimes, creating significant winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 kilometers per hour (250 mph), which subsequently transports large amounts of dust and water vapor over its landscape.[148] Other Martian winds have resulted in cleaning events and dust devils.[149][150] On Jupiter, wind speeds of 100 meters per second (220 mph) are common in zonal jet streams.[151] Saturn's winds are among the solar system's fastest. CassiniHuygens data indicated peak easterly winds of 375 meters per second (840 mph).[152] On Uranus, northern hemisphere wind speeds reach as high as 240 meters per second (540 mph) near 50 degrees north latitude.[153][154] [155] At the cloud tops of Neptune, prevailing winds range in speed from 400 meters per second (890 mph) along the equator to 250 meters per second (560 mph) at the poles.[156] At 70 S

latitude on Neptune, a high-speed jet stream travels at a speed of 300 meters per second (670 mph).[157]