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PUBLISHER: JASON L. STERN
WRITER EDITOR: PAUL A. ARNOLD EXECUTIVE EDITOR: GEORGE CLACK
THIS PUBLICATION IS MADE POSSIBLE BY BP AMERICA INC. EDITOR: PAUL MALAMUD
DESIGNER: CHLOE ELLIS
PHOTO RESEARCH: MAGGIE SLIKER
Cover: Bottom left: The dome of the U.S. Capitol building, Washington, D.C., headquarters of the Legislative
Branch of the U.S. government. Top: The White House, headquarters of the federal executive. Bottom right: The
Supreme Court building, headquarters of the federal judiciary.
Credits from top to bottom are separated by dashes, left to right by semicolons. All photos are AP/Wide World un-
less otherwise noted. Cover: PictureQuest RF—Garry Black /Masterfile; Catherine Gehm.Page 3: Michael Ventura/
Folio, Inc. 4: National Archive Records Administration (3). 7: © Jim West/The Image Works. 8: © Bob Daemmrich/
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Copyright © 2004 Braddock Communications, Inc. P.O. Box 710720, Herndon, Virginia 20171-0720
AMERICA
ABOUT
Overview of national, state, and local governments in the United States ................3
Understanding how the American system of government operates .........................3
The role of the U.S. Constitution .…………………………………………………………4
How federal, state, and local governments interact ..................................................5
Local government.........................................................................................................25
Structure of local governments ................................................................................25
Acknowledgments
The publisher would like to extend a special note of thanks to Michael P. Brien and Howard
Miller of BP America Inc. for their assistance in making this publication possible. The assis-
tance of the following individuals in providing information and assistance for this publication is
also gratefully acknowledged:
3
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
The U.S. Constitution is the blueprint of Rights. The Bill of Rights guarantees
for the American system of government. important freedoms to every American,
Ratified in 1788, the Constitution defines including freedom of speech, press, and
three separate branches of government religion, and the right to be free from
(legislative, executive, and judicial), their unreasonable searches, and to have a
powers, and how positions in each are to trial by jury.
be filled. The Constitution, as the supreme law
One defining characteristic of of the land, limits the
the Constitution is the system of legislative and ex-
checks and balances it created to ecutive powers of all
distribute power among the three levels of government.
branches. Any law or portion of
Each a law that is deemed
branch by the courts to be
exercises in conflict with the
some form Constitution is nullified,
of power with the U.S. Supreme
over the Court having the final
others. For say in such
example, matters.
justices Amend-
of the ments to the
Supreme Constitution
Court (judiciary) are appointed by the are adopted
President (executive), but subject to the when pro-
consent of the U.S. Senate (legislative). posed by
Likewise, the judiciary can strike down two-thirds of
as unconstitutional laws passed by Con- the House
gress and signed by the President. These and Senate
and other checks and balances ensure and ratified by three-fourths of the states.
that no single branch of government This is a difficult process, with only 27
exercises too much power. amendments having been made since the
Because the government may ex- Constitution was ratified. Of these, only 16
ercise only those powers specifically have been adopted since 1800.
granted to it in the Constitution, the
Constitution is an important protection On the right, two overlapping pages of the original text
of the rights and powers of the people. of the Constitution. On the left, a printed, annotated
version of a House joint resolution amending the
The first ten amendments to the Consti- Constitution and proposing a Bill of Rights with 17
tution are collectively known as the Bill amendments, August 24, 1789.
4
HOW FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS INTERACT
The Constitution not only defines ates certain laws and programs that are
the structure and powers of the federal funded federally, but administered by the
government, but also contains general states. Education, social welfare, assisted
provisions regarding state government. housing and nutrition, homeland security,
Each state, in turn, has its own transportation, and emergency response
constitution which contains provisions are key areas where states deliver services
for local governments within the state. using federal funds and subject to federal
Local governments may include cities, guidelines.
counties, towns, school districts, and This gives the federal government the
special-purpose districts, which govern power to influence the states. For exam-
such matters as local natural resources ple, in the 1970s, the federal government
or transportation networks. wanted to lower highway speed limits to
The federal government is limited to reduce energy consumption. Rather than
the powers and responsibilities specifi- simply legislate a lower speed limit, the
cally granted to it by the U.S. Constitu- federal government threatened to with-
tion. Some of the powers listed in the hold money for road projects from states
Constitution include regulating commerce that did not themselves lower the speed
between the states, providing for national limit in their states. In many cases, the
defense, creating money, regulating im- states must also partially fund the pro-
migration and naturalization, and entering grams to qualify for federal funds.
into treaties with foreign countries. A local government is chartered ac-
Over time, however, the Constitution cording to its state’s constitution. Just as
has been interpreted and amended to the policies enacted by the state govern-
adapt to changing circumstances, and the ment must not conflict with federal law, a
powers exercised by the federal govern- local government is subject to the legal
ment have changed with it. Working with environment created by the state’s consti-
the states, the federal government cre- tution and statutes.
5
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
Matthew Thomas, leader of the Narragansett Indian tribe, addresses 24 eastern U.S. tribes at a
meeting in Mashantucket, Connecticut, in 2003. Like other groups, Native Americans pursue unified
political agendas.
6
Similarities and differences between the U.S.
system of government and other forms of
democratic government
President (or comparable of-
ficial).
In the United States,
the President is both head
of government and head of
state. The President is elected
separately from the legisla-
ture and may or may not be
of the legislature’s majority
political party. The President’s
cabinet consists of individuals
who are Constitutionally pro-
hibited from being members
Arab-Americans vote in the 2004 U.S. presidential election in a school
of Congress at the same time.
in Dearborn, Michigan. The United States is pri-
marily a two-party system, in
As a constitutional federal republic, the stark contrast to many par-
United States is not unique. Many “de- liamentary systems where there may be
mocracies” are in fact constitutional re- ten or more parties represented in the
publics, and share with the United States legislature. This results in clearly defined
long traditions of democratic representa- political lines in the United States, with-
tion, the rule of law, and constitutional out the formal need for coalition-building
protections. often required to create a ruling major-
One significant difference between ity in a parliamentary system. One factor
the United States and some other major contributing to the two-party system in
democracies is the selection and role of the United States is the single-member
the head of government. In parliamen- district system of electing Representa-
tary systems, the head of government tives. In some parliamentary systems,
is a prime minister selected from the proportional representation is used,
parliament, and is typically the leader of which allows many parties to be repre-
the majority political party or coalition. sented in parliament.
The prime minister appoints a cabinet One other significant difference is
of ministers often consisting of other that elected officials in the United States
members of parliament. A separate head serve for a defined period of time before
of state may be a monarch or an elected facing reelection. In many parliamentary
7
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
Texas: In a scene played out in many courtrooms, an attorney addresses jurors in a civil trial. Civil cases, unlike
criminal cases, revolve around damages for wrongful acts and sometimes result in monetary awards.
systems, elections may be called sud- other countries vest such authority in
denly by the ruling party or if there is their judiciaries.
a vote of no confidence in the govern- Finally, the revenues and expendi-
ment. In some parliamentary systems, tures of the U.S. government are much
parliament may be dissolved by the head smaller than most of its counterparts in
of state and new elections ordered. other industrialized nations when mea-
Differences in the judicial system are sured as a percentage of gross domestic
not as significant as in the legislative, product. Much of the difference is due to
because the United States legal sys- the social services and benefits (such as
tem is based predominantly on English health care and old-age pensions) that
common law. Defendants in criminal governments in some other nations pay
cases have the right to a public trial by for. In the United States, many of these
jury and the right to be represented by services are delivered by the private sec-
counsel. One major difference in the ju- tor or are not funded to the same extent
diciary, however, is the power of the U.S. by the government, and thus are not
Supreme Court to declare laws uncon- counted in government expenditures.
stitutional, thereby nullifying them. Few
8
The federal government
The U.S. Capitol building in Washington, D.C. has long symbolized representative government in America. It is
divided into two chambers, the House of Representatives and the Senate, both of which need to concur for a new
law to take effect.
9
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
Full chamber
2. The bill is introduced in the Senate ing interest groups to represent their
and/or House. It is assigned a number views.
and its title and sponsors are published 5. Once the hearings are completed, the
in the Congressional Record. subcommittee may meet to “mark up”
3. The Parliamentarians of the House the bill, which is the process of propos-
and Senate assign the bill to the com- ing and considering amendments to the
mittee with appropriate jurisdiction. The bill as written. It then votes on whether
chair of the committee may then assign to report the bill favorably to the full
the bill to the most appropriate subcom- committee. If not favorably reported, the
mittee. It is important to note that the bill dies.
committee and subcommittee chairs 6. The full committee may repeat any
have a great deal of power over how a or all of the subcommittee’s actions:
bill assigned to them is considered. If hearings, markup, and vote. If the
the chair opposes the legislation, he or committee votes favorably on the bill,
she may simply not act on it. it is ordered reported to either the full
4. The subcommittee may hold hear- House of Representatives or the full
ings on the bill and invite testimony Senate, depending on which chamber
from public and private witnesses. Many is considering the bill.
witnesses are Executive Branch officials, 7. When the bill reaches the floor of the
experts, or affected parties from trade House or Senate, the membership of the
associations, labor unions, academia, entire body may debate it. At this point,
public interest groups, or the business the bill may be further amended, re-
community. Individuals may also make ferred back to committee, or voted on.
their views known by testifying, by pro- 8. If the bill is passed by the House or
viding a written statement, or by allow- Senate, it is referred to the other cham-
10
Vote by subcommittee Vote by full committee
President
If passed in identical
form by other chamber, If the President signs the bill
bill is presented to the or takes no action while
President Congress is in session, the
bill becomes law
11
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
12
President Bush chairs a cabinet meeting, November, 2004.
13
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
• Vetoing legislation passed by Congress; Executive departments and agencies
• Granting pardons and reprieves for fed-
Beneath the President and Vice Presi-
eral crimes (except impeachment).
dent are 15 departments and numerous
In addition to these constitutional
agencies which together make up the
powers, the President in practice has oth-
“government” that we see every day. They
er powers that are either informal or not
are responsible for administering the law,
expressly provided for in the Constitution.
enforcing it, and delivering various gov-
First and foremost, the President may
ernmental services. Their functions are
issue Executive Orders, which are direc-
far-reaching and affect the lives of every
tives that have the force of law. Executive
American.
Orders are commonly used for purposes
such as:
The 15 departments are:
• Establishing new programs, offices, or
commissions to promote or carry out • Department of Agriculture (USDA)
the President’s political agenda; • Department of Commerce (DOC)
• Creating policies that affect how legisla- • Department of Defense (DOD)
tion passed by Congress is to be carried • Department of Education (ED)
out or enforced; • Department of Energy (DOE)
• Declaring when the federal workforce • Department of Health and Human
will observe holidays. Services (HHS)
Executive Orders can be a powerful • Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
tool for the President to achieve policy • Department of Housing and Urban
objectives, and this power has been Development (HUD)
upheld by the Supreme Court. Individual • Department of the Interior (DOI)
Executive Orders may be overturned or • Department of Justice (DOJ)
modified by Congressional legislation, but
such legislation requires the President’s
signature to have effect, unless Congress
overrides a presidential veto. Executive
Orders may also be challenged in court if
they are perceived to violate the Constitu-
tion or conflict with existing law.
Finally, the President serves as the
head of his or her political party, and
can use the stature and visibility of the
presidency to articulate political views and
advance political objectives, both with the
public and with members of his or her
party in Congress.
Federal government agencies collect data, as well as
initiate programs. This scientist, who works for the U.S.
Department of Energy, uses an aircraft to collect data
on air pollution over New England.
14
Old-age pensions, known as Social Security in the United States, are paid to millions by the U.S. government.
Above, printed checks wait to be mailed from the U.S. Treasury’s financial management facility in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
• Department of Labor (DOL) and Budget, and the U.S. Trade Repre-
• Department of State (DOS) sentative. Other positions that are cur-
• Department of Transportation (DOT) rently or have recently been considered
• Department of the Treasury cabinet-level positions are the director of
• Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). the Environmental Protection Agency, the
Each department is headed by a sec- director of Central Intelligence, and the
retary, who is appointed to the position by President’s national security advisor.
the President subject to Senate confirma- In addition to the cabinet-level depart-
tion. The departmental secretaries by law ments, there are numerous independent
make up the President’s Cabinet, a group Executive Branch agencies and commis-
of people who advise the President on any sions, some of which are quite large.
subject relating to their responsibilities. Some examples include the U.S. Postal
The President may also accord cabinet- Service, the Environmental Protection
level status to other top Executive Branch Agency, and the National Aeronautics and
officials. Typically this includes the Vice Space Administration (NASA).
President, the President’s Chief of Staff, Regulatory agencies are an espe-
the director of the Office of Management cially powerful type of agency. They are
15
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
empowered by Congress to make and are appointed by the President subject
enforce rules governing specific parts of to Senate approval. Their rules have the
the economy often dealing with complex force of law, but may be challenged in the
technical issues. Major regulatory agen- courts or overturned by Congress.
cies include: Of all the independent agencies, none
• Securities and Exchange Commission is more independent than the Federal
(SEC) Reserve System, the nation’s central bank
• Federal Trade Commission (FTC) also known simply as “the Fed.” The
• Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) Board of Governors of the Federal Re-
serve is responsible for establishing the
• Food and Drug Administration (in HHS)
(FDA) nation’s monetary policy, setting inter-
• Federal Communications Commission est rates, and determining the supply of
(FCC) money. Decisions made by the Fed have
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) far-reaching effects on the nation’s econ-
• Equal Employment Opportunity omy, interest rates, inflation, job creation,
Commission (EEOC) and international trade. In fact, many
• Occupational Safety and Health consider the Chairman of the Board of
Administration (in DOL) (OSHA). Governors to be the second most pow-
Together with other regulatory agen- erful individual in government after the
cies, these bodies make rules that affect President.
nearly every business and consumer.
Commission members and agency heads
Presidential Succession
T he Department of Homeland Security is the nation’s newest cabinet-level depart-
ment. The date of creation is important because the presidency passes to the Vice
President in case of death or incapacitation of the President. If the Vice President is
unable to serve, the line of succession is as follows:
• Speaker of the House;
• President Pro Tem of the Senate;
• Department secretaries, generally in the order the departments were
created, beginning with the Secretary of State.
16
The U.S. Supreme Court building in Washington, D.C., houses the nation’s highest court. The nine justices on the
court play a decisive role interpreting legal and constitutional issues for the nation.
17
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
considered essential to ensure fairness and popular opinion, the process of se-
and equal justice for all citizens. The lecting judges has become highly politi-
Constitution promotes judicial indepen- cal. Supreme Court Justices and lower
dence in two major ways. First, federal court judges are nominated by the Presi-
judges are appointed for life, and they dent and take office only when confirmed
can be removed from office only through by the Senate.
impeachment and conviction by Con- The Supreme Court currently has
gress of “Treason, Bribery, or other high nine justices, a number set by law. Lower
Crimes and Misdemeanors.” Second, the federal courts, including their jurisdic-
Constitution provides that the compensa- tions, number of judges, and budgets,
tion of federal judges “shall not be dimin- are established by Congress. All federal
ished during their Continuance in Office,” judges require confirmation by the Senate
which means that neither the President in order to take office permanently. The
nor Congress can reduce the salary of a President, however, may appoint judges
federal judge. These two protections help for a temporary term while the Congress
an independent judiciary to decide cases is not in session. Federal magistrates, who
free from popular passions and political perform judicial activities such as setting
influence. bail, issuing warrants, and conducting
Although the judiciary was envisioned hearings for minor offenses, are appoint-
by the writers of the Constitution to be a ed to eight-year terms by Federal District
branch insulated from political pressures Court judges.
18
The Supreme Court and Civil Rights
T he Supreme Court’s role as an equal
partner in government was solidified by
the famous case of Marbury v. Madison
in 1803. In this case, the Supreme
Court for the first time declared a law
passed by Congress and signed by the
President unconstitutional, thereby nul-
lifying the law. Rather than being simply
White and black students study together at Clinton High
School in Clinton, Tennessee, in 1964. The 1960s saw a court that interprets the law, the Su-
many advances in racial integration in the United States, preme Court has the power to void laws.
prompted by public opinion and the federal court system.
Although it was 54 years before the Supreme Court declared another law unconsti-
tutional, it has become increasingly active since the middle of the 20th century, espe-
cially in the area of civil rights. A succession of landmark cases was a driving force in
the expansion of rights for minorities and protections for defendants in criminal cases.
Many of these, though controversial at the time, are now praised as enduring victories
over injustice. The following are examples of some cases that had a lasting impact:
• In 1954, the court held in Brown v. Board of Education that having separate
schools for whites and blacks was inherently unequal, and resulted in a massive
desegregation effort in public schools.
• In 1956, the court upheld a lower court ruling overturning state laws that dis-
criminated against minorities. Practices such as forcing blacks to sit at the back
of buses (the situation that originated the case) were outlawed.
• In the 1967 Miranda v. Arizona case, the court held that individuals in police
custody must be told of their rights to remain silent and to have legal counsel.
These rights are now known as “Miranda rights.”
In these and many other important cases, the Supreme Court overturned state and
local laws and practices that had the effect of denying minorities equal rights under
the law. An important basis for these decisions was the Fourteenth Amendment, which
states in part:
“No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or im-
munities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life,
liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its juris-
diction the equal protection of the laws.”
“… the judiciary is the safeguard of our liberty and our property under the
Constitution.”
Charles Evans Hughes, Chief Justice of the
United States, 1930-1941
19
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
20
State governments
The state Supreme Court building in San Francisco, California, hosts that court and other regional courts as well,
including a federal appeals court. A system of federal courts stretches throughout the nation, and provides a
national legal structure, in addition to state courts and state laws.
21
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
Executive
Judicial
The executive branch of each state is
State court systems have jurisdic-
responsible for administering the day-to-
tion over matters not covered by federal
day operations of government, providing
courts, including most civil cases between
services and enforcing the law. It is led by
parties in the same state, criminal cases
a governor, elected by statewide ballot for
where violations involve state or local
a two- or four-year term, depending on
laws, family law, and issues relating to the
the state. Other top executive officials who
state constitution.
may be elected rather than appointed are
The highest court in each state is the
the lieutenant governor, secretary of state,
state supreme court or court of appeals.
attorney general, comptroller, and mem-
Justices are typically elected to lengthy
bers of various boards and commissions.
terms, but do not serve for life. The high
Positions not filled by election are usually
court usually has only appellate jurisdic-
filled by appointment by the governor.
tion—reviewing decisions by lower courts
—and its decisions in turn may be ap-
Legislative
pealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. The
All states have a popularly elected structure of lower state courts varies
legislature consisting of two chambers, except widely by state. Some states have sepa-
Nebraska, which has a single-chamber rate courts for civil and criminal matters,
legislature. Legislators are elected from and all states have some form of local
single-member districts and typically serve municipal or county courts to handle mi-
a two-year or four-year term. The names nor offenses and small claims.
of the chambers vary by state. In most
states the upper chamber is called the POWERS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
senate, while the lower chamber may be OF STATE GOVERNMENTS
called the house of representatives, house
As sovereign entities within the frame-
of delegates, or state assembly.
work of the U.S. federal system, each state
Primary duties of the legislature
has its own constitution, elected officials,
include enacting new laws, approving the
and governmental organization. States
22
Members of the energy committee of the Massachusetts State Legislature listen to testimony by experts on a pro-
posal to site energy-generating wind turbines offshore, 2003.
have the power to make and enforce laws, courts and the criminal justice system;
levy taxes, and conduct their affairs largely • Generally providing for the public safety;
free from intervention from the federal • Issuing marriage licenses and driver’s
government or other states. licenses;
State governments have primary re- • Issuing and recording birth and death
sponsibility for providing many important certificates;
services that affect the everyday lives of • Administering publicly funded health,
their residents. These include: housing, and nutrition programs for
• Setting educational standards and es- low-income and disabled residents;
tablishing methods for funding public • Managing state parks and other lands
education; for recreation and environmental con-
• Building and maintaining transportation servation purposes;
networks; • Administering and certifying elections,
• Establishing state-sponsored colleges including elections for federal officials;
and universities; • Commanding the state National Guard,
• Licensing and regulating businesses except when called to national service.
and professions; Some of these responsibilities are
• Creating and overseeing non-federal delegated to or shared with local govern-
23
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
24
Local government
STRUCTURE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
or in state law.
also share responsibility with the state for
There are over 500,000 elected of-
providing social benefits for low-income
ficials in the United States. Of these, fewer
residents, monitoring and enforcing envi-
than 8,500 are at the national and state
ronmental regulations and building codes,
level. The rest are local government of-
overseeing child welfare, and performing
ficials — city council members, school
judicial functions. In some states, counties
board members, mayors, sheriffs, and
are the geographic units for public school
an array of other individuals who serve in
districts, but schools usually have a sepa-
various capacities.
rate administrative structure.
Counties are run by popularly elected
County government
officials. There is typically a board of su-
Counties are the basic territorial divi- pervisors or a county commission which
sion within a state and range in size from sets policy and often exercises executive
under 100 square kilometers to over functions as well. Other elected county po-
200,000 square kilometers. In 48 states, sitions may include sheriff, judge, justice
counties are also the primary governing of the peace, medical examiner, comp-
entity below the state government (coun- troller, assessor, or prosecutor, among
ties in Connecticut and Rhode Island do others. In addition to these elected of-
not have governmental functions). ficials, many counties have a professional
Major functions of county govern- administrator, who is hired to manage the
ments include recordkeeping (births, county government’s overall operations.
deaths, land transfers, etc.), administra-
tion of elections (including voter registra-
tion), construction and maintenance of
local and rural roads, zoning, building *In Louisiana, the political division which would be called a
county in other states is known as a parish. In Alaska, it is
code enforcement, and law enforcement known as a borough.
(especially in rural areas). Some counties
25
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
26
Children peer with curiosity out of a school bus. Of all the forms of local government in the United States, school
districts are often the ones that draw the most attention from the public. In the United States, school districts have
considerable autonomy setting education policy.
27
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
28
Nongovernmental organizations and institutions
that influence public policy
The then-Governor of Massachusetts Paul Cellucci addresses members of the Cato Institute, a Washington, D.C.
think tank, 2001. Think tanks, groups of scholars who research and write on public policy, are one of many kinds of
private organizations in the United States that seek to influence the government.
The U.S. system of government was and other forms of media publicizing
designed to be deliberative, accessible varying opinions, both critical and sup-
by citizens, and open to a wide variety of portive of government policy.
opinions and interests. Just as the gov- The media serves at least three
ernment has evolved and grown over important functions in influencing pub-
time, so too have the institutions that lic policy. First, policy makers are under
seek to influence the government. constant scrutiny by the extensive media
industry. Public officials realize that almost
THE MEDIA
anything they do or say—even in private
The media in the United States is con- —may appear in the media, and so are re-
trolled by the private sector and faces no luctant to make decisions or perform acts
political censorship by the government. that they would not want publicized.
There is a strong tradition of independent Second, the media reports facts and
newspapers, magazines, television, radio, conducts independent analysis concerning
29
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
public policy issues, thereby educating the research, publish books and articles, and
public. Finally, the media provides a forum prepare position papers on topics related
for publishers and broadcasters (and their to public policy. Their experts are often
readers and listeners) to present editorial called to testify before Congress, and their
opinions that may influence others. Many published works are often cited by others
large newspapers, for example, endorse to support their own positions.
particular candidates for office or publish While some of these groups have a
guest articles favoring one policy over distinct partiality towards liberal or con-
another. servative policies, many are highly re-
By bringing the acts of public officials spected as authoritative sources of study
to light, educating the public about the on matters that affect public policy. Some
issues, and deliberately favoring certain prominent think tanks with a long history
candidates and policies, the media can of contributing to the public policy debate
influence policy directly or, by shaping include the Brookings Institution, Heri-
public opinion, indirectly. tage Foundation, Cato Institute, American
Enterprise Institute, Center for Strategic
SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS / and International Studies, and the Com-
NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS petitive Enterprise Institute, among
(NGOs) others.
30
How organizations attempt to
influence public policy
31
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
to policymakers how pro-
posed legislation will affect
the corporation, they also
serve other functions:
• Ensuring that their em-
ployers are aware of laws
and policies that apply to
them. This facilitates com-
pliance with the law.
• Providing expert, sub-
stantive advice about the
A union official addresses a labor rally in New York City, 2004. This group
had gathered to demonstrate support for striking grocery store workers in effects of proposed legis-
California. lation, which can help law-
makers create fairer laws
Unions are considered influential with fewer unintended
because of their ability to mobilize their consequences.
members to vote and speak out. Unlike
business associations, which typically rep- Corporate representatives who are
resent a relatively small number of compa- effective and principled advocates of
nies, trade unions represent thousands or the interests of their companies and
millions of workers, who are also voters. of the business community as a
whole help government arrive at
INDIVIDUALS AND PRIVATE- better-informed … decisions.”
SECTOR BUSINESSES Bryce Harlow, 1984
32
and help raise funds for political cam-
paigns. Other activities include:
• Conducting voter education programs
• Conducting issue and opinion research
• Providing information about govern-
ment officials and activities.
The minor political parties also pro-
vide organized opposition to those in
power, placing an additional check on
government power.
33
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
T he various levels of government use a wide variety of taxes and fees to pay
for their operations. The following is a summary of the major sources of rev-
enue for each level of government.
Federal
State
• Personal income tax (43 states)
• Corporate income tax
• State sales tax (45 states)
• Excise taxes
• Business and professional permits and licenses
• Lotteries
• Transfers from the Federal Government
34
Glossary
Appellate: A court that hears cases ap- between U.S. Representatives and U.S.
pealed from lower courts. Some courts Senators to resolve differences when two
have both original jurisdiction (that is, versions of a similar bill have been passed
cases may be tried first in the court) and by the House and Senate. Identical bills
appellate jurisdiction. must pass in both chambers before the
Bill: Legislation introduced in either the bill can be presented to the President.
House or the Senate. Confirmation: The act of the U.S. Senate
Bill of Rights: Name given to the first ten approving a presidential nominee to an
amendments to the U.S. Constitution be- executive branch post or federal judge-
cause they specifically protect the rights ship.
of individuals. Congressional Record: The official
Cabinet: The President’s closest advisors, transcript of the proceedings of the U.S.
consisting of the Vice President and, by Congress.
law, the heads of the 15 Executive Branch Constitution: The basic laws and prin-
departments. The President or Congress ciples of a nation that define the powers
may also accord cabinet-level status to and responsibilities of government and
other top officials. the rights of the people. The United States
Caucus: In U.S. presidential politics, a has a written constitution, but constitu-
system used by some states to select tions in some other nations are unwritten.
delegates to state and national nominat- Department: The highest administra-
ing conventions. In a caucus, local party tive division of the Federal Government,
members gather to discuss candidates comparable to a ministry in parliamentary
and issues, and then vote. In Congress, systems. Departments are created by law,
a caucus is a meeting of members of the and the head of a department is called
same political party or special interest a secretary (except for the head of the
group. Department of Justice, whose title is At-
Chamber: A legislative body. The U.S. torney General).
Congress is comprised of two chambers: Electoral College: In U.S. presidential
the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of elections, the Electoral College is the
Representatives. Chamber also refers to group of electors who actually cast bal-
the hall where each body meets to con- lots for the President. When a voter casts
duct official business. a ballot for a presidential candidate, he or
Checks and balances: System set forth she is actually voting for a slate of electors
in the U.S. Constitution which divides from their state who will cast their ballots
governing power between the Executive, for their candidate.
Legislative, and Judicial Branches. Each Excise tax: A tax on the production or
branch exercises some form of authority sale of specific products. In the United
over the others, thereby balancing power States, excise taxes are commonly levied
across many individuals and institutions. at the federal, state, and local levels on
Conference Committee: A meeting products such as alcohol and tobacco.
35
HOW THE U.S. IS GOVERNED
36
Additional Resources
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Contains general information about the
The White House structure and responsibilities of county
http://www.whitehouse.gov governments. Also provides extensive da-
Click on “Your Government” for a general tabases with demographic and economic
overview of the structure of the federal statistics for individual counties.
government and links to the websites of PUBLIC POLICY RESEARCH
executive departments and agency and to ORGANIZATIONS
other branches of government. Private-sector “think tanks” are often the
USInfo birthplace of new ideas and innovation
http://usinfo.state.gov in the public policy arena. Their scholars
Thomas conduct original research and review the
http://thomas.loc.gov/ philosophical, economic, social, cultural
“Thomas” is a service of the Library of and political implications of public poli-
Congress, and is an official source of cies. The following are the websites of
legislative information. It contains links some influential think tanks representing
to congressional calendars, vote records, a cross-section of the political spectrum:
legislation (both proposed and passed), Brookings Institution
and other useful legislative information. http://www.brookings.org
FirstGov.gov The Heritage Foundation
http://www.firstgov.gov http://www.heritage.org
FirstGov is the U.S. Government’s official American Enterprise Institute
Internet portal for information about gov- http://www.aei.org
ernment benefits, services, and information. The Cato Institute
FirstGov also provides links to the websites http://www.cato.org
of state, local and tribal governments. The Urban Institute
http://www.urbaninstitute.org
STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT
National Conference of State C-SPAN
Legislatures (NCSL) http://www.c-span.org/
http://www.ncsl.org/ C-SPAN is a service of the cable television
Provides current information about industry and provides live television
the structure and activities of state coverage of the proceedings of the U.S.
legislatures. Click on “Legislatures” and House of Representatives, the U.S. Senate,
“Websites” for links to individual states’ and other forums where public policy is
legislature websites, state constitutions, debated or discussed. The C-SPAN website
and legislation. provides current and archived news and
National Association of Counties information about politics, public policy
(NACo) and governmental actions.
http://www.naco.org/
Executive Legislative Judicial Executive Legislative Judicial Executive
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Legislative Judicial Executive Legislative
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Programs Executive Legislative
http://usinfo.state.gov/
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