PROPAGATION AND ANTENNAS

ELECTOMAGNETIC WAVES

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES A WAVE IS A CARRIER OF ENERGY OR INFORMATION, WHICH IS A FUNCTION OF TIME AND SPACE. MAXWELL PREDICTED THE EXISTENCE OF EM WAVES AND ESTABLISHED IT THROUGH MAXWELL'S EQUATION. EXAMPLES : RADIO, RADAR BEAMS, TV SIGNALS etc.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES OSCILLATIONS WHICH PROPAGATE THROUGH FREE SPACE WITH THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT (i.e.3x108 m/s) THESE ARE TRANSVERSE WAVES (OSCILLATIONS PERPENDICULAR TO DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION) IT HAS ELECTRIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC FIELD WHICH ARE HENCE PERPENDICULAR TO DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION AND ALSO MUTUALLY PERPENDICULAR.

EM WAVES SPREAD UNIFORMLY IN ALL DIRECTIONS IN FREE SPACE FROM A POINT SOURCE. THE PLANE JOINING ALL THE POINTS OF IDENTICAL PHASE AT A PARTICULAR INSTANT IS CALLED A WAVE FRONT. IN FREE SPACE, IT IS SPHERICAL.

DEFINITIONS

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION POWER ESCAPING INTO SPACE IS SAID TO BE RADIATED & IS GOVERNED BY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF FREE SPACE. FREE SPACE SPACE THAT DOES NOT INTERFERE WITH THE NORMAL RADIATION & PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES. IT DOES NOT HAVE MAGNETIC OR GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS, SOLID BODIES OR IONISED PARTICLES.

ISOTROPIC SOURCE :- WHICH RADIATES EQUALLY IN ALL DIRECTIONS IN SPACE. ISOTROPIC MEDIUM :- IN WHICH VELOCITY OF RADIATION IS CONSTANT AT ALL POINTS (AS IN FREE SPACE). THIS MAKES THE WAVE FRONT SPHERICAL.

WAVES IN FREE SPACE

WAVES IN FREE SPACE

Q Wave front Q P Wave front P

P & Q are the two wave fronts. The power Pt at point O is transmitted in all directions and is called isotropic radiation. The power density of a wave front P is different from the power density of the wave front Q

POWER DENSITY =

DISTANCE

RATIO OF RADIATED POWER PER UNIT ARC. 1/(SQUARE OF FROM SOURCE) (INVERSE SQUARE LAW)

= Pt/4r2 WHERE r= POWER DENSITY AT A DISTANCE r FROM AN ISOTROPIC SOURCE Pt = TRANSMITTED POWER

 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY OF AN EM WAVE (SIMILAR TO: VOLTAGE

SQUARE ROOT OF POWER DENSITY AT THAT POINT. SQUARE ROOT OF POWER)

IT MAY BE SHOWN = 30 Pt VOLTS /m r

IN ANALOGY TO THE RELATION BETWEEN POWER AND VOLTAGE, IT MAY BE SHOWN = 2 z WHERE z = CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF FREE SPACE z = 2 = (30 Pt) r2
or z = 120 or z = 377 ohms
/

( Pt/4r2 )

APPLICATIONS IN ALL COMMUNICATIONS LIKE POLICE RADIO TV SATELLITE IONOSPHERIC TROPOSPHERIC WIRELESS CELLULAR MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS IN ALL TYPES OF RADARS LIKE DOPPLER RADAR AIRPORT SURVEILLANCE RADAR WEATHER FORECASTING RADAR REMOTE SENSING RADAR GROUND MAPPING RADAR FIRE CONTROL RADAR ALSO USED IN RADIO THERAPY, MW OVENS etc.

FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS
FREQUENCY DESIGNATION

30 TO 300 HZ 300 TO 3000 HZ 3 TO 30 KHZ 30 TO 300 KHZ 3 TO 30 MHZ 30 TO 300 MHZ 3 TO 30 GHZ 30 TO 300 GHZ

EXTREMELY LOW FREQUENCY (ELF) FREQUENCY (VF) VOICE VERY LOW FREQUENCY (VLF) LOW FREQUENCY (LF) HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF) SUPER HIGH FREQUENCY (SHF) EXTREMELY HIGH FREQUENCY(EHF)

300 TO 3000 KHZ MEDIUM FREQUENCY (MF)

300 TO 3000 MHZ ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY (UHF)

Propagation mechanism
Frequency < 500 kHz 500 kHz 1.5 MHz Mechanism of propagation Surface wave Surface wave for short distance Ionospheric wave for longer distance Ionospheric wave Space wave (line of sight)

1.5 MHz 30 MHz > 30 MHz

Radio frequency bands used in Railways

Frequency Band range VHF 30 MHz 300 MHz UHF 300 MHz 3 GHz Application Walkie-talkie 2 GHz UHF links, Train radio through leaky coaxial cable in tunnels, GSM & GSM-R SHF (MW) 3GHz 30 GHz 7 GHz MW, 18 GHz MW HF communication (3 MHz-30 MHz band) was once used in Railways; Now obsolete

GSM & GSM-R

Type GSM-900 GSM-1800 GSM-1900 GSM-R Up link (MS to BTS) 890-915 MHz 1710-1785 MHz 1850-1910 MHz 876-915 MHz Down link (BTS to MS) 935-960 MHz 1805-1880 MHz 1930-1990 MHz 921-960 MHz

POLARISATION OF A WAVE

 THE POLARISATION OF A WAVE IS DEFINED AS THE DIRECTION OF THE ELECTRIC FIELD AT A GIVEN POINT OF TIME TYPES OF POLARISATION LINEAR POLARISATION i) HORIZONTAL POLARISATION ii) VERTICAL POLARISATION iii)THETA POLARISATION CIRCULAR POLARISATION ELLIPTICAL POLARISATION

POLARISATION OF A WAVE

A WAVE IS SAID TO BE LINEARELY POLARISED IF THE ELECTRIC FIELD LIES WHOLLY IN ONE PLANE CONTAINING THE DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION. IF EY=0 AND EX IS PRESENT, WHEN A WAVE TRAVELS IN Z-DIRECTION WITH E-FIELD LYING IN XY-PLANE, IT IS SAID TO BE HORIZONTALLY POLARISED. IF EX=0 AND EY IS PRESENT, THEN THE WAVE IS VERTICALLY POLARISED. IF EX AND EY ARE PRESENT AND ARE IN PHASE, THEN THE WAVE IS THETA POLARISED.

FOR HORIZONTALLY POLARISED WAVE, THE ELECTRIC FIELD LIES IN A PLANE PARALLEL TO EARTHS SURFACE. ALL THE ELECTRIC INTENSITY VECTORS ARE VERTICAL FOR A VERTICALLY POLARISED WAVE. THE DIRECTION OF POLARISATION IS SAME AS THE DIRECTION OF ANTENNA. THUS, VERTICALLY POLARISED WAVE IS RADIATED BY VERTICAL ANTENNA. HORIZONTALLY POLARISED WAVE IS RADIATED BY HORIZONTAL ANTENNA.

PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS OF EM WAVES

PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS OF EM WAVES THE WAVE PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS BETWEEN TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER ARE CONTROLLED BY 1) TRANSMITTING ANTENNA 2) OPERATING FREQUENCIES 3) MEDIA BETWEEN TX AND RX THE EM WAVE RADIATED BY THE TX ANTENNA IS A TRANSVERSE WAVE.

IT MOVES FROM TX TO RX IN THE FOLLOWING WAYS A PART OF THE WAVE TRAVELS ALONG OR NEAR THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. THIS IS GROUND WAVE. 2. SOME WAVES NEITHER FOLLOWS THE EARTH, NOR MOVES TOWARD THE SKY, BUT TRAVELS DIRECTLY FROM THE TX TO THE RX ANTENNA. THESE ARE SPACE OR TROPOSPHERIC WAVES. WAVES 3. SOME WAVES TRAVEL UPWARDS TOWARDS THE SKY AND GET REFLECTED BACK TO THE RECEIVER.

GROUND WAVES ARE USEFUL FOR COMMUNICATION AT VLF, LF & MF RANGES (BROADCAST SIGNALS RECEIVED DURING DAY) SPACE WAVES ARE USEFUL ABOVE THE FREQUENCY OF 30 MHZ (FM RECEPTION IS NORMALLY BY SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION) SKY WAVES ARE USEFUL FOR FREQUENCIES BETWEEN 2 TO 30 MHZ (RESPONSIBLE FOR LONG DISTANCE COMMUNICATION)

FACTORS INFLUENCING EM WAVE PROPAGATION

FACTORS INFLUENCING EM WAVE PROPAGATION 1. EARTHS CURVATURE IN TERMS OF CONDUCTIVITY, PERMITTIVITY AND PERMEABILITY. 2. FREQUENCY OF OPERATION. 3. POLARISATION OF TRANSMITTING ANTENNA. 4. HEIGHT OF TRANSMITTING ANTENNA. 5. TRANSMITTER POWER. 6. CURVATURE OF THE EARTH.

8. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE IN THE TROPOSPHERIC REGION. 9. MOISTURE CONTENT IN THE TROPOSPHERE. 10.CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IONOSPHERE. 11.EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD. 12.REFACTIVE INDEX OF TROPOSPHERE AND IONOSPHERE. 13.DISTANCE BETWEEN TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER. 14.ROUGHNESS AND TYPE (HILLY, FOREST, SEA OR RIVER) OF THE EARTH.

GROUND WAVE

GROUND WAVE
IT PROPAGATES FROM TRANSMITTER TO RECEIVER BY GLIDING OVER THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. IT EXISTS WHEN 1) BOTH TRANSMITTING AND RECEIVING ANTENNAS ARE CLOSE TO THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. 2) THE ANTENNAS ARE VERTICALLY POLARISED.

IT IS OF IMPORTANCE AT MF (BROADCAST) AND LF IT IS LIMITED TO ONLY A FEW KM. FIELD STRENGTH VARIES WITH CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH AND IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO THE SQUARE OF THE DISTANCE AND THE FREQUENCY

REQUIRES RELATIVELY HIGH TRANSMITTER POWER. NOT AFFECTED BY THE CHANGES IN ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS. CAN BE USED TO COMMUNICATE BETWEEN SHIPTO-SHIP, SHIP-TO-SHORE, MARITIME MOBILE COMMUNICATION AND RADIO NAVIGATION. HORIZONTALLY POLARISED ANTENNAS ARE NOT PREFFERED, AS THE HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF THE ELECTRIC FIELD IN CONTACT WITH THE

SKY WAVES OR IONOSPHERIC WAVES

SKY WAVES OR IONOSPHERIC WAVE PROPAGATION IT IS THE UPPER PORTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE (BETWEEN APPROX.50KM AND 400KM ABOVE THE EARTH) IN THIS REGION, GASES GET IONISED BY ABSORBING LARGE QUANTITIES OF RADIATION AND FORM DIFFERENT LAYERS. IONISATION INCREASES WITH ALTITUDE.

The amount of ionization depends upon the rate of formation of the ions and the rate of recombination. At lower altitudes since the atmospheric pressure is large the rate of combination is large so that ionization is small. At higher altitudes since the atmospheric pressure is low the rate of re-combination is small so that ionization

 D- Layer

50Km 90Km above the earths

surface. It will disappear at night.. E- Layer surface. F1 & F2 220Km and 250-350Km 110Km above the earths

respectively. At night these two layers make one layer. The ionization of all the layers is

F2 F1 F F

250-350 Km 220 Km 200 Km

Altitude

100-120 Km

50-90 Km

6 6

12
Time (in hrs)

18

24

MECHANISM OF IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION As the wave passes through the ionosphere, the ionisation density increases, and the refractive index of the layer decreases. Hence, the incident wave is gradually bent away from the normal. At a certain point, it finally becomes parallel to the layer and then bends downwards and returns from the ionised layer. The bending of a wave by the ionosphere follows optical laws (Snells Law): = (sin i)/(sin r) where i = angle of incidence at the lower edge of the atmosphere r = angle of refraction.

CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION Virtual height : It is defined as the height that is reached by a short pulse of energy which has the same time delay original wave. Virtual height of a layer is always greater than actual height.

Ionospheric Layer Virtua l height

Actual height

2. Critical Frequency : Fc for a given layer is defined as the highest frequency that will be reflected to earth by that layer at vertical incidence. It is the limiting frequency below which a wave is reflected and above which it penetrates through an ionospheric layer at normal incidence. Refractive Index, by definition, is equal to square root of dielectric constant, i.e. = r 1- (81N/F2)

i.e (sin i)/(sin r) =

Here N = Electron Density F = Frequency in KHz

For the wave to be reflected back, r=900 i.e. sin i = 1- (81N/F2) or, sin2 i = 1- (81N/F2) or, 1- sin2 i = 81N/F2 or, cos2i = 81N/F2 or, F = ( 81N)/cos i = 9( N)/cos i = 9( N) sec i If i=00, then F= 9 N = FC

This is the critical frequency.

Above this frequency, the wave will not be reflected back to earth. At any other angle, the frequency which will be capable of being reflected back will be F = FC sec i This is referred to as the SECANT RULE and gives the MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY at various angles of incidence. MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY : It is the highest frequency of wave that is reflected by the layer at an angle of incidence other than normal.

SKIP DISTANCE: It is the shortest distance from the DISTANCE transmitter that is covered by a fixed frequency ( FC)

SKIP DISTANCE

Large angle of incidence long distance from TX.

Ray returns to ground at a Ray returns to ground at

Angle of incidence reduced a shorter distance.

Ultimately, possibility of a certain distance not being covered exists, since ray escapes.

SKIP FREQUENCY: It is the maximum frequency above which it is not possible for a signal to reach a point via Ionospheric Reflection. OPTIMUM WORKING FREQUENCY (OWF): The frequency of wave which is normally used for ionospheric communication is known as OWF. It is generally chosen to be about 15% less than the MUF. It is always desirable to use as high a frequency as possible (but not too near the skip frequency or MUF), since any slight variation in the ionosphere condition may cause a loss of signal.

SPACE WAVE OR TROPOSPHERIC WAVE

SPACE WAVE OR TROPOSPHERIC WAVE PROPAGATION Troposphere is the region of atmosphere within 16 Km above the surface of the earth. The EM wave that propagates from the transmitter to the receiver in the earths troposphere is called Space Wave or Tropospheric Wave. Space Wave propagation is useful at frequencies above 30MHz. It is useful for FM, TV and Radar applications.

The space wave field strength is affected by 2. Curvature of the earth: The field strength at the receiver becomes small as the direct ray may not reach the receiving antenna. The ground reflected rays diverge after their incidence on the earth. The curvature of the earth creates shadow zones, zones also called diffraction zones. These are the regions where no signal reaches. Reduces the possible distance of communication. Field strength available at receiver becomes small.

Ground Reflected Ray

Direct Ray

Shadow Zone

2. Effect of Earths Imperfections and Roughness Earth is basically imperfect and rough For perfect earth, reflection coefficient is unity. But actual earth makes it different. For reflection from perfect earth, phase change is 1800. But actual earth makes it different. Amplitude of ground reflected ray is smaller than that of Direct ray. The field strength at receiver is reduced due to the roughness.

3.Effect Of Hills, Buildings and Other Obstacles These create Shadow Zones. Hence possible distance of transmission is reduced. 4. Height Above Earth Field varies with height above earth. Field variation is characterised by maxima, minima and nulls Maximas,minimas depend on frequency, height of transmitting antenna, ground characteristics and polarisation of the wave.

Actual Earth Perfectly Reflecting Earth

Field Strength (V/M)

Field strength in free space

Height above earth (Km)

5.Transition between Ground Wave and Space Wave When the transmitting antenna is close to earth, Ground Wave exists and the field strength is independent of height of antenna. Antenna height has an effect on field strength, which depends upon frequency, polarisation and constants of earth. At higher heights, Space Wave dominates.

Atmospheric Effects in Space Wave Propagation Atmosphere consists of gas molecules and water vapour. So, density is higher compared to free space. For standard atmosphere; Pressure, Temperature, Humidity decrease linearly with altitude. Thus Refractive Index of air depends upon height. This gives rise to phenomenon like Reflection Refraction Scattering

REFLECTION Occurs when waves strike smooth surface, such as water, smooth earth, etc. Both Reflected and Direct wave reaching the receiver ensures reduced signal strength. These may arrive either in phase, or out of phase, or partially out of phase. For perfectly smooth surface, and under condition of amplitude being equal and exactly out of phase at receiver, the received wave may get completely cut off. off This is FADING. FADING Hence care should be taken during survey that there

DIFFRACTION Obstacle (like tall buildings or hill tops) in the path of the wave, increases transmission loss. Wave arrives at the receiver by the process of diffraction.

REFRACTION Due to the varying refractive indices with height, the wave does not follow a straight path from Transmitting to Receiving antennas. It follows a bent path, i.e. follows the curvature of the earth. Hence radius of the earth seems to be larger than actual for the beam. beam Also the path varies during various hours of day and at various place.

K-FACTOR

K-Factor To correlate between earths curvature and the curvature of the MW beam path, it is customary to take one of the curvatures to be a straight line (generally MW beam). Due to this assumption, the actual curvature of the beam will also have to be modified to keep the earlier correlation same. The modification of earths curvature is done by multiplying actual earths curvature by K-Factor. K-Factor depends upon atmospheric conditions.

The amount and direction of bending subjected by the MW beam is defined either by the Refractive Index Gradient dN/dh (where N is the Radio Refractivity and h is the height of the layer above the surface of the earth) or very often by the Effective Earths Radius Factor K. Definition K is a factor which when multiplied by the actual earths radius, gives the value of the modified earths radius employed in profile chart to make the MW beam a straight line.

It can be Shown that K-Factor= 157/(157+dN/dh) Here, N (Radio Refractivity) = 77.6(P/T)+3.73x105(e/T2) Where, P = Total Atmospheric Pressure in Millibar T = Absolute Temperature in 0Kelvin. e = Water Vapour Pressure in Millibar.

CONDITIONS 2. When dN/dh = -40 UNITS/Km; K = 4/3 (This is Standard Atmospheric Condition) 3. When dN/dh = -157 UNITS/Km; K = infinity.(This is Super Refractive Atmospheric Condition) 4. When dN/dh = 0 UNITS/Km; K = 1 (This is Sub Refractive Atmospheric Condition) 5. When dN/dh = +79 UNITS/Km; K = 2/3 (This is Sub Refractive Atmospheric Condition)

Atmospheric condition Sub refractive Typical subrefractive Standard Typical Standard Super refractive Extreme super std. (Flat earth)

dM/dh (units per meter) 0.377 to 0.157 0.235

dn/dh (units per meter) 0.22 to 0 X 10-6 0.078 X 10-6

dN/dh (units per km) +220 to 0 +78

MW propagation Sub-normal refraction Sub-normal refraction Standard Refraction Standard Refraction Reflection Ducting

5/12 to 1 2/3

0.157 to 0.1 0.118 0.1 to 0 0

0 to -0.058 X 10-6 -0.039 X 10-6 -0.058 to -157 X 10-6 -157 X 10-6

0 to -58 -39 -58 to -157 -157

1 to 1.6 4/3 (1.33) 1.6 to Infinity Infinity

 Change in the value of K from 1 to infinity have less influence upon the received signal (excepting multipath fading). For K<1, the path is vulnerable to extreme multipath fading. For K= -ve, path is susceptible to blackout fading.

n is Atmospheric Refractive Index . Variation of n w.r.t. height is low i.e. of the order 10-6 per meter. Hence, we consider certain scaled meter parameters. dN/dh = 1000. dn/dh i.e. N parameter variation gives variation of RI per km. We can use convenient ranges of integer-values for dN/dh corresponding to normal, sub-normal & supernormal conditions of atmosphere. M Vs. h graph gives convenient graphical representation of normal, sub-normal & supernormal conditions of atmosphere. Since M = (n-1) 106 + 0.157 h , we have interpolated curvature of earth into M . Hence, M vs.h plot gives modified RI profile. K is Effective earth radius factor i.e. factor to

Significance of 0.157
1/Earth radius = 1/6378 km = 157 X 10-6 / m = 0.157 / km i.e. 0.157 is Earth curvature factor. Variation of RI causes curving of beam. Curvature of beam can be expressed in terms of curvature of earth i.e. a scaling factor X 0.157 to have a feel of various refractive conditions.
Condition Variation of RI (Curvature of beam) expressed in terms of curvature of earth Sub-normal (2.4 to 1) X 0.157 Typical sub-normal 1.5 X 0.157 Normal (1 to 0.64) X 0.157 Typical normal 0.75 X 0.157 Super-normal (0.64 to 0) X 0.157 Extreme super-normal 0 X 0.157 i.e. constant or straight

Super Standard Refraction Arises due to reduction in atmospheric density with increased height. K increases Results in flattening of the effective Earths curvature. Condition causing it Passage of cool air over warm body of water. Atmospheric density increases near the surface (due to low temperature & high humidity). High downward bending of wave is caused. In moderate conditions, K propagated parallel to earth. infinity, and wave is

In extreme cases, K=-ve and causes a blackout fade.

SUB - STANDARD REFRACTION Arises due to increase in atmospheric density with height. Condition causing it When fog is formed with the passage of warm air over cool air or moist surface. Causes upward bending of beam (Earths bulge).
K= infinity K=4/3 K=2/3 K=1

Earth appears to be increasingly flat as the value of of K increases. For K=infinity, the earth appears to be perfectly flat for the MW beam, since the beam curves at the same rate as earth. The curvature for various values of K can be calculated by h=d1d2/(12.75K) where, h= Change in vertical distance from a horizontal reference line. d1= Distance from a point to one end of the path (in Km) d2= Distance from same point to other end of the path (in Km)

How to plot path profiles

Ideally, we have to plot the path taken by the rays for normal , sub-normal & supernormal conditions. If we plot the path profile (using details obtained from Survey maps) on plain graph paper, curvature of Earth is not accounted for. Hence, for convenience of analysis , bending of radio path to be interpolated in earth curvature for all conditions (normal , subnormal & super-normal ) and using such curvedabscissa graph sheets, path profiles to be plotted

Profile Charts
Profile charts for various values of K available Bend of radio path transferred to earth radius as per value of K Mark the terrain specific details from Survey maps on these charts Mark the tower / antenna

Profile Chart for K= 4/3 (Normal condition)

H E I G H T
in

m Distance in km

Profile Chart for K= 2/3 (Sub-normal condition)

H E I G H T
in

m Distance in km

Profile Chart for K= Infinity (Super-normal condition)

H E I G H T in M

Distance in km

M-PROFILES

The characteristics of troposphere is studied by another term called Modified Refractive Index It is defined in terms of the mean sea level elevation as M=N+15.75h When a graph is plotted with height in Y-axis and M in X-axis, the plot is called M-PROFILE. The slope of M-Profile determines the degree of bending of MW beam in relation to earth.

M- profile
SUPER STANDAR D STANDARD

K=infinity

K= 4/ 3

2/3 K=

SUB STANDAR D

M-profile : Sub-normal condition

dM/dh = 0.235 per meter at the heights under consideration At higher values of h, dM/dh reaches normal profile

M- profile : Super-normal condition

dM/dh 0.1 to 1 at heights of h consideration

h

At higher values of h, dM/dh reaches normal profile

M

uper-normal condition with ground-based duct

Extreme case of superstandard condition, when there is temperature inversion

h

Signal gets trapped in the duct and may cause over-reach problems
M

Super-normal condition with elevated duct

Duct not close to ground, but elevated Signal gets trapped in duct in atmosphere
M

Essential clearances for Radio path

By clearance of radio path , we mean ...

Clearance of zone of constructive arrival rays to the full extent in Normal condition Clearance of zone of constructive arrival rays to sufficient extent in Sub-normal condition Clearance of reflection point from reflective bodies to avoid ground reflected rays interference and consequent fading

Clearance in Normal & Sub-normal conditions Clearance of zone of constructive arrival rays
to the required extent Zone of constructive arrival means First Fresnel Zone For normal condition, take typical value K = 4/3 For sub-normal condition, take typical value K = 2/3 Let us understand Fresnel Zone & computation of its

Concept of Fresnel Zone

When MW beam is transmitted from an antenna, the beam gradually spreads conically (Huygens Principle). The total MW energy reaching antenna B is the sum of the energies passing through various zones called FRESNELS ZONES. Maximum energy (primary energy) is concentrated in the central zone, called FIRST FRESNELS ZONE.

The successive zones have a path difference of /2 and are 1800 out of phase when reaching antenna B. Thus, 1st, 3rd, 5th, etc Fresnel Zone are in phase 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc Fresnel Zone are in phase Vector Diagram Of Energy Contents In Fresnel Zones 1 ZONE
st

2nd ZONE 3rd ZONE 4th ZONE

Thus we see that the energies are getting diminished with the higher Fresnel Zones. The transmitted MW will have maximum energy if only the 1st Fresnel Zone is cleared. The strength of the MW signal reaching B will depend upon the no. of Fresnel Zone cleared. (More Fresnel Zone, less strength of signal). signal Practically, it is not possible to make an antenna receive only the 1st Fresnel Zone. So, we limit the the height of TX and RX antenna so that the 2nd Fresnel Zone is obstructed on the lower side at a certain lower value of K.

If full 1st Fresnel Zone is available for K=4/3, at least 2/3rd of 1st Fresnel Zone should be cleared for K=1. Radius of the 1st Fresnel Zone is calculated as F1= 17.3 (d1d2/FGHzDKm)1/2 where, F1= Radius of 1st Fresnel Zone d1 & d2= Distances in Km of the towers at the point where radius is to be calculated.

Radius of nth Fresnel zone Fn = F1 (n)1/2 where, n is the no. of Fresnel Zone for which radius is to be calculated. While clearing the 1st Fresnel Zone, some tolerance should be given for future obstructions. This tolerance depends upon the K-Factor For K=4/3, full 1st Fresnel Zone+ 10m extra clearance For K=1, 2/3rd of 1st Fresnel Zone+ 10m extra clearance For K=2/3, grazing clearance of 2/3rd of 1st Fresnel Zone only

Fading
It is the change in signal strength at the receiver. Causes of Signal Loss can be classified into 2 categories 4. Atmospheric conditions related causes 5. Radio path related causes

Atmospheric condition related causes

Attenuation due to rain When wavelength is close to rain drop size 15 G Hz and above , 1 to 10 db per km as per precipitation rate of rain fall Below 15 G Hz, attenuation is less than 1 db Attenuation due to cloud & fog Drop sizes are smaller than rain drop Attenuation is more for 15 G HZ and above Attenuation due to hail & snow Similar to the case of rain

Radio path related causes

Insufficient path clearances Rays getting obstructed by high-rise objects / geographic features Multi-path propagation Destructive interference of rays reaching on different paths through atmosphere Fading due to ground reflection Ground reflected signal of significant strength causes fading due to interference with normal path signals

CLASSIFICATION OF FADING Rapid Fluctuation Due to multipath interference. Occurs for a few seconds.

Short Term Fluctuation Due to variation in characteristics of propagating medium. Occur for a few hours. Long Term Fluctuation Due to seasonal variations in propagating medium. Occur for a few days. Fade out (Total Fading) occurs during sudden ionospheric disturbances, sun spot cycles, etc.

TYPES OF FADING Frequency - Selective Fading: -

Alternate points of maximum (reinforcement) and minimum(cancellation) signal strength are encountered during space wave propagation from Tx to RX. This phenomenon is called selective fading. All terrestrial MW radio systems can suffer from multi-path propagation, where the Rx antenna receives not only the direct signal but also secondary signal which is slightly delayed relative to the direct beams, and bends due to the varying refractive index of the air. The degree of multi-path fading is heavily dependent on the Hop length, weather condition and water path.

Flat fading As its name implies is a non frequency dependent attenuation of the input signal at the receiver and typically occurs during periods of heavy rain particularly at higher MW frequency

Difficult to control short term and long term fluctuations. But fading due to rapid fluctuations can be reduced by different Diversity Techniques. i. Frequency Diversity ii. Space Diversity iii. Polarity Diversity iv. Time Diversity

f1

f2

TX1

TX2

RX1

RX2

BB IN

BB OUT FREQUENCY DIVERSITY

FREQUENCY DIVERSITY ADVANTAGES 5. Reliability is more 6. Equivalent to 100% hot stand by, hence no need of providing stand by TX or RX. DISADVANTAGES 10.Two frequencies are needed 11.Improvement by diversity is not much, since 5% separation of frequency is rarely achieved.

f1

f1

TX

RX1

RX2

BB IN BB OUT SPACE DIVERSITY

SPACE DIVERSITY
ADVANTAGES 5. One frequency is used. 6. Propagation reliability is improved. 7. For more vertical separation of antennas, improvement factor can be more. DISADVANTAGES The two antennas are kept on the same tower.The lower antenna should be in Line of Sight with the TX antenna. Hence length of tower may increase beyond 100m. SPACE

DIVERSITY
Costly Good tower foundation necessary, since wind pressure will be large.

FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS

Indian Railways have been allotted a frequency band of 7125 MHz to 7425 MHz (4.21 cms - 4.04 cms wavelengths) in the Xc band. (The band of frequency from 7250 - 7300 MHz is restricted in view of satellite to earth allotment). The spot frequencies permitted in the band for operation of a transmitter (and Receiver) are governed by CCIR Recommendation 385 - 1 which inter - alia stipulates as follows:fo = Centre frequency = 7275 MHz fn = Channel frequency in MHz in lower half of the band f1n = Channel frequency in MHz in Upper half of the band.

then the frequencies (MHz) of the individual channels are expressed by the following relationships:Lower half of band fn = fo - 154 + 7n Upper half of band fn = fo + 7 + 7n where n = 1, 2, 3, etc., 1 .........upto 20. e.g., f1 = 7128 MHz & f1 = 7289 MHz f2 =7135 MHz & f2 =7296 MHz and so on.

2) In section over which the international conduction is arranged all the 'go' channels should be in one half of the band and all the 'return' channels in the other half of the band. 3) When systems with 300 telephone channels are operated in a radio frequency band, channel combination, which result in differences between channel frequencies of less than 14 MHz, should in general be avoided. If sufficient antenna discrimination is available, this precaution may be disregarded.

FREQUENCY PLAN

There are two distinct patterns of frequency plans employed on the Railways. They are the 'Four Frequency' and the 'Two Frequency' plans. Allocation of frequencies in a four frequency plan is as shown in the figure.

ANTENNAS

An antenna is basically a transducer. It converts RF electrical current into an EM Wave of the same frequency. It forms a part of the transmitter as well as the receiver circuit. It is also an impedance matching device. It matches/couples the transmitter and free space or free space and receiver. The sample antenna is called a Half Wave Length Dipole. The shortest length of dipole capable of resonance is an electrical half wave length.

ANTENNAS

Center impedance of a simple dipole ~ 72 ohms (at resonant frequency) It increases as we go away from the center. The antenna impedance is required to be matched with the characteristic impedance of the feeder line so that maximum power transfer may take place.

Isotropic antenna: Radiates equal power in all directions. Actual antenna: Does not radiates power equally in all directions.

Length of Antenna
Practical antennas have length 5% less than theoretical antennas. This is because 1.Theoretical length is true when antennas are in free space. 2.For practical antennas, END EFFECT has to be considered, which is caused by a.Capacitance between pole and antenna b.Capacitance antenna and earth c.Inductive effect in the tightening material of antenna These effects cause the 5% reduction in length. The practical length of a half wave dipole is Lm=(142.5/FMHz) meters

VHF For fixed stations : Dipoles for omni-bus For fixed stations : Yagi for directional For mobile sets UHF For fixed stations : Yagi, Grid For mobile sets (Train radio) : Whip antennas For GSM BTS : Sectorized antenna For GSM Mobile sets : MW Parabolic antenna (Dish antenna) Beam reflectors Passive reflectors : Whip antennas

How to improve gain of dipole

Add parasitic elements (Director,Reflector)

Parasitic elements reduce impedance below 73 Ohms. Hence use either Shunt feed or Folded dipole

Shunt-fed Yagi antenna

Shunt-fed Yagi features Length of dipole : 0.48 l Length of director :0.46l Length of reflector : 0.5 l Separation between dipole & director : 0.1 l Shunt-feed Separation between dipole & reflector : 0.16 l Gain : 6 db

Folded-dipole Yagi antenna

Folded dipole Yagi features Length of dipole : 0.48 l Length of 1st director :0.46l Subsequent directors lengths taper-off for correct phasing of parasitic currents Length of reflector : 0.5 l Yagi-feed Separation between rods : 0.15 to 0.25l Gain : 10 db

Transmitting and receiving antennas for use in the UHF (.3 3GHz) and MW (1- 100GHz) regions tend to be directive.The dimensions of an antenna must generally be several wavelengths in order for it to have high gain. At the high frequencies , antennas need not be physically large to have multiple wavelength dimensions. For UHF and MW frequencies the following antennas are used: 2. The Yagi-Udi Antennas. 3. Grid Pack or Grid Antennas. 4. Normal Parabolic antenna

Reflector / 10 / 10 Director .55 .45 Grid Yagi Driven element

The Yagi(Yagi-Uda) antenna is an array consisting of a driven element and one or more parasitic elements(Director ,Reflector). They are arranged collinearly and close together to increase directivity.

Grid Antenna: - A grid antenna employs welded tube which can be split into section for ease transportation and handling

GRIDPAK ANTENNA

Gain of Parabolic antenna (7 GHz band)

Antenna type
Fiber antenna

Gain of antenna 6 (D/l)2 17 db

(Formula not applicable)

2.4 m dia metal antenna 3 m dia metal antenna 3.3 m dia metal antenna

43 db 45 db 46 db

Front to back ratio of a antenna: Ratio of the front Lobe power to back lobe power. Half power beam width: It is the nominal total angular width of the main beam at the 3dB points. In the fig. the angle represents the beam- width.The beam width is given by = 22/ FB in degree; F = Frequency in GHz and B = Diameter of antenna in meters
00 -450 450

Major front Lobe

900

3dB

-1350 1800

1350

Half power beam width

PARABOLIC ANTENNA BEAMWIDTH

The 3dB bandwidth of main lob in the direction XY. In degree = 70/ D = 70 C / f D = Bandwidth between half power point . = Wavelength. C = 3x108 Meter per second D = Antenna mouth diameter in meters. f = Frequency in Hertz.

PASSIVE REFLECTOR
The simplest and most common reflector system consists of a parabolic, antenna mounted at ground level and directed technically to illuminate a passive reflector at the top of a tower . This reflector , inclined at 45deg. redirects the beam horizontally to a distance site,where a similar Periscope system may be used to reflect the signal back to ground level.

PASSIVE REPEATERS
Sometimes a tower cannot provide clearance over an obstruction . When the line of sight of MW is obstructed by mountains or any other substances the Passive repeaters may be used to merely change the path direction without amplification The Bill Board, a large , flat surface which is simply as a reflector is used as a repeater. Untypical a system, a bill board repeater might be located at a turn in a valley, effectively bending the beam to follow the valley

Ground plane Antenna(GP): GP antenna is used for HF and VHF communication. The basic design is quarter wavelength vertical antenna with four Radials Mounted at the antenna base. The radials may be made of tubes or wire.The Coaxial line from the transmitter of 50 characteristic impedance is connected to the GP antenna. Radiator

GP ANTENNA Radials Co axial line