RESERVOIR SIMULATION

Dr. Keka Ojha

Department of Petroleum Engineering
Indian School of Mines University-Dhanbad
What is Simulation
Literal Meaning: mere appearance of , without reality
It may be defined as the art of designing an artificial system close to a
real system- Experimentation of modeling is simulation.
Reservoir simulation is a tool that allows the petroleum engineer to
gain greater insight into the mechanism of petroleum recovery that is
otherwise possible. It can, if properly used, be one of the most valuable
tool.
It is the only means to give better understanding of the operating
characteristics and engineering aspects of the oil and gas productions
from a reservoir.


Reservoir Simulation- Why?
Need/ Benefit of Simulation
An engineer can have only a single opportunity to produce the
reservoir; any mistake made in the process will be around
forever. But, the simulation study can be made several times
and alternatively examined. As an e.g. experimentation on
aeroplane can be done without passengers but not with any
passenger.
Many complex systems were previously impossible to handle in
reality, modern simulation process can solve without undue
difficulty.
The mechanics of simulation have compiled all the data of
reservoir into one compact data base.
Presence of common ground between companies and regulatory
bodies and other agencies which deal with petroleum resources.

Applications
Reservoir simulation is used to satisfy the corporate needs.
It can be used to forecast economy of the project (as the
production rate changes with time, it must be evaluated
annually) to get revenue and cash flow.

Evaluation of effectiveness of the development options: there
are a number of ways by which we can develop the reservoir.
A reservoir may be containing a single well, a group of
wells, or several wells interacting as a complex system.
In case of multi-zone reservoirs, the productivity and oil
in place of a given horizon or zone may be needed.

Modeling of the reservoir as a series of zone can produce
this information and allow the engineers to schedule
production and completion operations for these zones
more effectively.
Applications
Reservoir management: interpretation of reservoir
behavior. Simulators can also be used to study the
mechanics of fluid flow in porous media.
The original oil-in-place is an important and
necessary objective in any study; this is usually
required as a reservoir in total.
Optimization of field development plans: Out of
different possibilities, the most profitable options to
be chosen.
Estimation of primary recovery.
Mode of pressure maintenance, EOR methods.
Effective rate of recovery.

Objectives of Simulation


Original oil in place
Gas storage
Single well study
Economical parameter
Optimization of petroleum system
Fluid movement in reservoir

In developing each flow, the basic data required include income
generated, expenses, and capital investments over the planning
horizons.
Income generating parameters are the oil and gas production that are
essential output of the simulator. These are available in a pre-well
basis by lease or by reservoir total.
Objectives include determination of
Problem definition
Data review
Data acquisition
Selection of approach
Reservoir description and model design
Programming support
History Matching
Prediction
Editing and analysis
Reporting
Interaction of Simulation Engineer with
simulator and Reservoir Description
Mechanics of Reservoir Simulation
Input to simulation
Petrophysical properties
Fluid properties
Details of surface facility (discharge of wells, separator
pressure etc
Economic parameters
Geological model
Seismic interpretation
Well patterns (vertical, horizontal, multilateral, five spot,
seven spot etc.)

Output: Production data (rate, pressure)
Porosity-packing system
Relative permeability Vs.
Saturation
3- Relative permeability
2- relative permeability
Capillary pressure
Petrophysical Properties
n
w
o
t
CS
R
R
I

= =
m
F

=|
2 2
3
) 1 ( |
|

=
M
C k
o
Carmem Kozeny Equation relating permeability with porosity
2
3
2
) 1 ( |
|

= d C k
Alternate Form: M, specific area, where area is divided by volume (length)-1



Parameter Co or C depends on lithology, packing, tortuosity
Allows independent assessment of k knowing f and M
Both f and M are affected by lithology cementation, consolidation etc. k is also
influenced by these factors. As cementation increases, M decreases (As decreases,
Vs increases). However f also decreases, compensating effects
Rocks with identical k may have different f and vice-versa
Fine grain rocks may be high (good sorting), however K may be very low (since
M is very high)
Archies formula
Difference between Homogeneity
and Isotropy
Proper representation of Dimension
Equation of states (EOS) for fluid
Oil properties
Interfacial tension
References
Modern Reservoir Engineering - A
Simulation Approach : H. B. Crichlow
Petroleum Reservoir Simulation: Khalid
Aziz and A Settari
Fundamentals of numerical reservoir
simulation: D W Peaceman
SPE Monograph Series on Reservoir
Simulation
Dimensionality
and
grid geometry
Rectangular system
1-D flow
2-D
3-D
Radial flow
3-D radial-cylindrical flow
1-D radial flow
Elliptical-cylindrical flow geometry
Example of applications: (i) Near a well, if a strong contrast exists between two principal directions in
lateral plane (ii) When a vertical well is intercepted by a vertical, high conductive fracture
Spherical flow geometry
Applications: (i) Partial penetration into a thick formation by a production well
(ii) Flow near the perforation
Curvilinear Flow Geometry
5-spot injection production system
Size and Number of grid block
Size and number of grid block depends
on the factors:
Availability of data
Level of information desired
Quality of information desired
Flow characteristics
Complexity of the reservoir
Number of wells
Body-centered grid
Modeling Concept and
Simulation




Schematic Diagram of Simulation Approach
Types of Model
Physical model :Small replica of real system
Analytical Model: Logically similar to the
actual system. eg.: Electical analog.
Mathematical Model: It is developed using the
basic principles of science and engineering. In
reservoir simulation, model will be developed
using the principles of fluid flow, equations of
states for fluid, conservation of mass,
momentum and energy etc.
Contents
Boundary Conditions
Discretization of Flow Equation
Questions
Solutions of Equations
Flow Equations
Initial Condition
Discretization
Taylor series approximations
Approximation of the second
order space derivative
Approximation of the time
derivative
Explicit difference equation
Introduction
Pressure BC
Flow rate BC
Introduction
Explicit formulation
Implicit formulation
Discussion of the
formulations
Flow Equations
Linear flow
We will consider a simple horizontal slab of porous material, where
initially the pressure everywhere is P
0
, and then at time zero, the left
side pressure (at x=0 ) is raised to P
L
while the right side pressure (at
x=L ) is kept at P
R
=P
0
fluid
x
Introduction
We will first review the simplest one-dimensional flow equations for
horizontal flow of one fluid, and look at analytical and numerical
solutions of pressure as function of position and time and then go
for 3-D multiphase flow equation.
Continue
Flow Equations
Partial differential equation (PDE)
The linear, one dimensional, horizontal, one phase, partial differential
flow equation for a liquid, assuming constant permeability, viscosity
and compressibility for transient or time dependent flow:
t
P
k
c
x
P
2
2
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
If the flow reaches a state where it is no longer time dependent,
we denote the flow as steady state. The equation then simplifies
to:
0 =
c
c
2
2
x
P
More
The Above equation is called Diffusivity Equation
Flow Equations
Transient and steady state pressure distributions are illustrated
graphically in the figure below for a system where initial and
right hand pressures are equal:
P
x
pressure vs. x
Transient
solution
Steady
state
solution
Initial and
right side
pressure
Left side
pressure
Flow Equations
Radial flow (well test equation)
An alternative form of the simple one dimensional, horizontal flow
equation for a liquid, is the radial equation that frequently is used for
well test interpretation. In this case the flow area is proportional to r
2
,
as shown in the following figure:
r
Flow Equations
The one-dimensional (radial) flow equation in this coordinate
system becomes:
t
P
k
c
r
P
r
r r c
c
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c 1
For steady state flow equation simplifies to:
0
1
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
r
P
r
r r
By integration twice for following boundary conditions: P(r=r
w
)=P
w

and
P(r=r
e
)=P
e
, the steady state solution becomes:
( )
( )
( )
w
w
e
r
r
r
r
w e
w
P P
P P ln
ln

+ =
More
More
Multiphase flow equations
The equation derived for single phase flow can be converted to
multiphase flow (multi-component) with incorporation of
saturation and concentration terms of individual components
and phases.
The phases present in petroleum reservoir are nothing but oil(o),
water (w) and gas (g). To develop the equation, let us consider
the flow of a single component (ith component) present in all
three phase within the reservoir.
Let, v
o
, v
w
and v
g
are the velocity of oil, water and gas
respectively; C
io
, C
iw
, and C
ig
are the concentration of ith
component in respective phases.
Thus

Saturation of the phases:
0 . 1 = = =
ig iw io
C C C
0 . 1 = + +
g w o
S S S
Multiphase flow-
Compositional Model
Multiphase flow-
Compositional Model
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
u
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
V V V

= =
3
1
3
1 p
p p ip p ip
p
p p
p
rp ip ip
S C
t
q C D g P
kk C

|
|
.
|

\
|
u
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
V

= =
3
1
3
1 p
p p ip p ip
p
p ip ip
S C
t
q C v C
| |u + +
g g ig w w iw o o io
S C S C S C
Total mass of component i accumulated in unit volume
Now, the continuity equation of the component i in three phases
can be given by
Where q
p
is the production or injection rate (in mass) of the individual phase.
Incorporating the Darcys equation in the continuity equation, we will get the
compositional model as follows:
Number of Equations & variables
Saturation equation=1
Composition correlation=3.
Now, we have (N+4) number of correlation .
But, the number of variables in the equations are 3N+15.

Variable Number
Composition (Cip) 3N
Density (p) 3
Pressure (Pp) 3
Viscosity (p) 3
Relative permeability (krp) 3
Saturation (Sp) 3
Total number of variables to be determined = 3N+15
Remaining Correlations
Equilibrium constants for Gas-Oil and Oil Water (2N)
K
igo
= f(P
o
, P
g
, T, C
ig
, C
io
) No. of Eqn=N

igo
io
ig
K
C
C
=
igw
iw
ig
K
C
C
= K
igw
= f(P
w
, P
g
, T, C
ig
, C
iw
) No. of Eqn=N
Equations of states (3) :
p
= f(Pp, T, C
ip
) No. of Eqn=3
Viscosity (3):
p
= f(P
p
, T, C
ip
) No. of Eqn=3
Capillary pressure (2): Pcow = f(Sw) = Po-Pw
P
cog
= f(Sg) = P
g
-P
o
No. of Eqn=2
Relative permeability k
rg
= f(S
g
); k
rw
= f (S
w
)
k
ro
= f (S
w
, S
g
) No. of Eqn=3
Now, the total number of equations are =3N+15
So, compositional model has a unique solution
Black Oil Model
Black oil model assumes the presence of three
pseudo-components only, oil, gas and water.
It is further simplified that, there is only one way
phase transfer of gas into or out of oil phase.
Mass transfer between water-oil, water-gas and oil
to gas is assumed to be nil.
Incorporating the assumptions mentioned above
and equations of states into the compositional
model, the Black Oil model is obtained as follows:
Water:

Oil


Gas
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
u
c
c
=
(

V V V
w
w
ws w w
w w
rw
B
S
t
q D g P
B
kk

( )
|
|
.
|

\
| u
c
c
=
(

V V V
o
o
os o o
o o
ro
B
S
t
q D g P
B
kk

( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
u
+
u
c
c
=
(
(

V V V +
(

V V V
o
s o
g
g
gs g g
g g
rg
o o
o w
s ro
B
R S
B
S
t
q D g P
B
kk
D g P
B
R kk

Black Oil Model

The above equations can be incorporated into a single equation
using the capillary pressure and saturation relationships.
The driving force for flow arises from the BC's. Basically, we have
two types of BC's :
Boundary Conditions
Pressure condition
(Dirichlet condition)
Flow rate condition
(Neumann condition)
Block centered grid is used mainly for Neumann type boundary condition and
Corner point is used for Dirichlet type boundary conditions.
Boundary Conditions
Pressure BC
When pressure boundaries are to be specified, we normally, specify the
pressure at the end faces of the system in question. Applied to the
simple linear system described above, we may have the following two
BC's:
Using the index system
R
t
N
L
t
i
P P
P P
=
=
>
+
>
=
0
0
2
1
2
1
The reason we here use indices i=1/2 and N+1/2 is that the BC's are
applied to the ends of the first and the last blocks, respectively.
( )
( )
R
L
P t L x P
P t x P
= > =
= > =
0 ,
0 , 0
Flow rate BC
Alternatively, we would specify the flow rate, Q, into or out of
an end face of the system in question, for instance into the left
end of the system above. Making use of the fact that the flow
rate may be expressed by Darcy's law, as follows:

0 =
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
x
L
x
P kA
Q

Boundary Conditions
In a real reservoir case, flow rate conditions would normally represent
production or injection rates for wells. A special case is the no-flow
boundary, where Q=0. This condition is specified at all outer limits of the
reservoir, between non-communicating layers, and across sealing faults in
the reservoir.
Multiphase Flow
Boundary conditions of multiphase systems
The pressure and rate BC's discussed above apply to multiphase
systems. However, for a production well in a reservoir, we
normally specify either an oil production rate at the surface, or a
total liquid rate at the surface. Thus, the rate(s) must be
computed from Darcy's equation. The production is subjected to
maximum allowed GOR or WC, or both.

Initial conditions of multiphase systems
In addition to specification of initial pressures, we also need to
specify initial saturations in a multiphase system. This requires
knowledge of water-oil contact (WOC) and gas-oil contact
(GOC). Assuming that the reservoir is in equilibrium, we may
compute initial phase pressures based on contact levels and
densities. Then, equilibrium saturations may be interpolated
from the capillary pressure curves. Alternatively, the initial
saturations are based on measured logging data.
Initial Condition
Initial condition (IC)

The initial condition (initial pressures) for our horizontal system may be
specified as:
0
0
P P
t
i
=
=
N i ,..., 1 =
For non-horizontal systems, hydrostatic pressures are normally
computed based on a reference pressure and fluid densities
Discretization of Flow Equation
Numerical solution
Analytical solutions to reservoir flow equations are only obtainable after
making simplifying assumptions in regard to geometry, properties and
boundary conditions that severely restrict the applicability of the solution. For
most real reservoir fluid flow problems, such simplifications are not valid.
Hence, there is need to solve the equations numerically.
Discretization
We will solve, as a simple example, the linear flow equation numerically by
using standard finite difference approximations for the two derivative terms:
t
P
k
c
x
P
2
2
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
Derivative
terms
Continue
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
X
Y
BAC
K
Z
1
2
3
Grid Pattern
Block Centered (BC) Grid: These are specified by the dimension and
depth of the top. All faces are vertical to each other. There is no point at the boundary.
The total length (L) is divided N number of grid , then grid size (x) will be L/N.
Corner Point (CP) Grid: Corner points are specified and faces are not
perpendicular to each other. The total length (L) is divided N number of grid , then
grid size (x) will be L/(N-1). Grid size is larger than CP geometry.

BC & CP both are used in ECLIPSE simulator. If structure is horizontal, then either may
be used. But for slopping structure and change in slope or if there be any fault, BC
cant be used.
Cell description in BC is easier and radial model easy to construct. But, irregular grid is
difficult to construct using BC. It gives incorrect cell construction across the fault;
pinch out and erosion surfaces are difficult to model fruitfully. All these cases corner
point geometry is used preferably. However, as the cell description is complex in CP
geometry compared to BC, the later is preferable wherever possible.
Block Centered or Point distributed
grid
Corner Point or Lattice Grid
Time Step size selection
Time step size depends on the reporting interval. Truncation
error is in the order of time step size. Smaller the t, less the
truncation error, but number of calculation is more.
Discontinuity in saturation creates the problem in
convergence. Generally, calculation should be started with small
t and consecutively increased in t and accuracy to be
checked. If accuracy remain almost at the same range, larger
step should be chosen.
t should be chosen such that there is less than 10-20% change
in fluid saturation in a block containing the well. For irregular
cell model of varying dimension,
t
max
=min [0.1 x
i
y
i
hS
o
/(q
t
x5.615)]
i=1, N


First, the x-coordinate must be subdivided into a number of discrete grid
blocks, and the time coordinate must be divided into discrete time steps.
Then, the pressure in each block can be solved numerically for each time
step. For our simple one dimensional, horizontal porous slab, we thus
define the following grid block system with N grid blocks, each of length
x:
This is called a block-centered grid, and the grid blocks are assigned
indices, i, referring to the mid-point of each block, representing the average
property of the block.
1 N i-1 i i+1
Ax
Continue
Discretization (cont)
Notations to be used throughout the discussion
Finite Difference Approximation
Forward Difference Approximation Backward Difference Approximation
Finite Difference Approximation
Central Difference Approximation
Discretization of Flow Equation
Approximation of the time derivative
At constant position, x, the pressure function may be expanded in forward
direction in regard to time:
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ... , ' ' '
! 3
, ' '
! 2
, '
! 1
, ,
3 2
+
A
+
A
+
A
+ = A + t x P
t
t x P
t
t x P
t
t x P t t x P
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ... , ' ' '
! 3
, ' '
! 2
, '
! 1
, ,
3 2
+ A +
A
+ A +
A
+ A +
A
+ A + = t t x P
t
t t x P
t
t t x P
t
t t x P t x P
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ... , ' '
2
, ,
, ' +
A
+
A
A +
= t x P
t
t
t x P t t x P
t x P
By solving for the first derivative, we get the following approximation:
( ) t O
t
P P
t
P
t
i
t t
i
t
i
A +
A

=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
A +
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ... , ' '
2
, ,
, ' +
A
+
A
A +
= t x P
t
t
t x P t t x P
t x P
( ) t O
t
P P
t
P
t
i
t t
i
t t
i
A +
A

=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
A +
A +
The pressure function may be also expanded in backward direction in regard
to time:
Click for solution
Continue
This expression is identical to
the expression above.
Solution Techniques
Simplification of complex equations of one dependent parameter
(P) calculating other dependent parameters (S, P
c
explicitly) by
IMPES equation.
Conversion of PDE into simple linear algebraic equation using
finite difference method.
Check of stability criteria for correct step size selection using
von Neumann analysis or matrix method.
Conversion of 2-D, 3-D equations using ADIP, LSOR
techniques-check the stability criteria for iterative process.
For large variation of saturation SIP technique is used without
simplification.
Solution of simplified matrix using different solution methods
like Gauss elimination, Gauss Seidel, Jecobi (direct or iterative
process) etc.
Data Preparation
Important step of simulation study.
Necessity:
GIGO-garbage input-garbage outputQuality of the out put of
the simulator depend on the quality of input.
Data available for Simulation from various sources which may
not be directly accessible to simulator engineer.
Data not in the form to be directly used in simulation
May not be available in directly, required matching with similar
field by regression analysis


Data Preparation
Types of data required in simulation
Fluid data
Rock data
Production data
Flow rate data
Mechanical and operational data
Economic data
Miscellaneous data
Fluid data
Formation volume factor
gas, oil and water
Sources: laboratory study
Input form to simulator-generally polynomial
Fluid viscosity- gas, oil and water
Sources: laboratory study, literature
Input form to simulator-polynomial, look up table (in array form)

Solution gas oil ratio: Sources: laboratory study, literature
Input form to simulator-polynomial
Rock Data
Required data
Permeability
Porosity
Formation thickness
Formation elevation
Compressibility
Relative permeability
Formation fluid saturation
Capillary pressure

Various rock parameters are needed to define the physical extent of the
reservoir and to evaluate the transmissibility during simulation run. The
data must be in some input form.
Sources of permeability data
Well test analysis (build up an fall of test) using Muskat
method, Miller Dyes Hitchinson method, Horner method
or type curve analysis
Initial potential test
Regression analysis (Case history approach)
Laboratory measurement
Interference test
Logging data (sonic or acoustic log)
Laboratory measurement
Published correlation
Sources of porosity data
Sources:
Gross or Net isopach maps
Structural data (top structure-bottom
structural contour)
Application
Gross isopah maps give the correct evaluation
of fluid flow characteristics to the simulator
Net Isopach helps in determination of OOIP
Reservoir thickness data
Input form of rock data
Reservoir rock data are generally available in
discrete form. However, they are required at each
and every point of the reservoir as the reservoir are
divided into a number of grids.
Singular or combined contour maps of the data are
prepared first by interpretative or mechanical
contouring method.
Digitization of the contour maps before input to
simulator.

Rock compressibility
Sources: Laboratory measurement
Relative permeability data
Required data
Gas-oil, oil-water, gas-water relative permeability
Sources: Lab measurement, using capillary pressure, Filed
data, published correlation

Saturation data
Sources: core data, log data & capillary pressure
Requirement-estimation of reserve, flow characteristics

Capillary pressure
Sources- laboratory measurement
Requirement- in IMPES equation to quantify
the pressure in each grid.

Production data
Sources: field data
Production data of all the fluids must be
available continuously with time.
Smoothing of flow rate vs time is necessary
before feeding to the simulator.
Input is best in the tabular form
Flow rate
Required by simulator to compute producing capacity
of a well within the system.
Data are based on- Productivity index, Injectivity index,
Optimum flow rate and maximum allowable flow rates.
Correlation of flow rates with BHP, GOR etc. parameters
are generally made within the simulator to compute the
above parameters.
Eg.- FBHP=a
o
+ax+bx
2
+cy+dy
2
+exy,
where x is the production rate and y is GOR
Sources: Log data & Drilling records
Application: flow characteristic, well perforation

Formation elevation data
Pseudo functions
A major challenge in Reservoir Engineering
simulation is to develop the simplest model that
will allow proper decisions to be made regarding
the reservoir development and operations.
One of the approach is to use pseudo-functions in
place of original parameters which will give
much better result.
Pseudo functions-classification
Pseudo
functions
Inter block
Vertical
Equilibrium
Dynamic
Equilibrium
Well
Inter block Pseudo-function
Purpose: Describe flow between grid blocks. Since interblock
flow is controlled by relative permeability functions, which in
turn depend on saturation, generating interblock
pseudofunctions involves averaging the saturations in the block
of interest. There are two basic kinds of interblock
pseudofunctions: Analytical or vertical equilibrium and Dynamic.

Vertical Equilibrium

}
}
=
=

h
h
xy xy
dz x
h
dz z k
h
k
0
0
) (
1
) (
1
| |
o w l
dz z k
dz z k z k
k
h
xy
h
rl xy
rl
, ,
) (
) ( ) (
0
0
= =
}
}

o w l
dz z
dz z S z
S
h
h
l
l
, ,
) (
) ( ) (
0
0
= =
}
}

|
|
Assumptions:
Capillary pressure is small.
Permeability in vertical direction is high
Equilibrium in flow exists always
Dynamic equilibrium
No vertical equilibrium
Flow rate in vertical direction is much low compared to
lateral direction.
Total production or flooding time is divided into
number of time steps as done in simulation. Vertical
equilibrium is assumed at a particular time step for a
block of grids.
Pseudofunctions are determined for that particular time
step.
Correlation is made for different time steps.
Thus, 3D model can be converted to 2D cross sectional
model with almost same accuracy as in 3D.

Well Pseudofunction
Necessity: Because of converging flow pattern
and coning phenomena associated with the
wells, special techniques are required if one
desires to capture these effects in well blocks of
a cartesian simulator.
Methods to derive well Pseudo
functions
Project the effect of vertical flow by he way of
pseudorelative permeability into well blocks.
Semi Analytical method
Transplantation of pseudo functions generated
by a well coning model into a cartesian model.
History Matching
What it is?
Process of modifying the existing model data until a reasonable
comparison is made with the observed data is called history
matching.
Why?
To make any sensible predictions with the simulator because
the same mechanisms operative in the history period of the
reservoir still be operative in the future prediction period.
Simulator must adequately describe the geometrical
configuration, rock properties, fluid properties and flow
characteristics.
Data used in the simulator must be modified until simulator
produced
Objective
Determine reservoir description which will
minimize the difference between the observed
parameters and predicted parameters.
History Matching
History matching parameters
Pressure
Flow Rates
Gas Oil Ratio
Water Oil Ratio
Feedback Control Logic for
History Matching
Process of history matching is characterized by a feed back loop
Mechanics of history matching
There are several parameters which can be varied either singly or collectively to
minimize the differences between observed data and calculated data by the
simulator.
Modifications are made on the parameters given in the following table
Two fundamental Controllable
Processes in History Matching
Quantity of fluid in the system at any time and
its distribution within the reservoir.
Movement of fluid within the system under
existing potential gradient.
Contd
Parameters adjusted in history
matching
Reservoir and aquifer transport capacities, (kh)
res

and (kh)
aq
Reservoir and aquifer storage (|hA)
Relative permeability function
Capillary pressure function
Original saturation function
Modification of these parameters enables to
change the matching parameters e.g. production
data, GOR, pressure, flow rates.
Modifications using rock data
If gradient between the low pressure area and high pressure
area is too high compared to the actual one, predicted
production rate will be much high compared to the field data.
This could be adjusted by
Move the fluid from high pressure to low pressure zone by a change
in rock permeability (increase the value)
Decrease the oil in place in high pressure area either by (i)
decreasing porosity (ii) decreasing thickness (iii) decreasing oil
saturation (iv) all of the above
Increase oil in place in the low pressure area either by (i) increasing
porosity (ii) increasing thickness (iii) increasing oil saturation (iv)
all of the above
Most likely change is the modification of rock permeability.
Observation: Predicted production rate is much higher than actual
Usual error involved in fluid data are caused by faulty input. Misplaced decimal or
incorrect exponent can cause an order of magnitude error in the input, and hence
the out put.

Example (1) : No noticeable draw down in the pressure in the model even after
considerable withdrawal of fluid.
Reason: Rock compressibility is too high by an order of magnitude; causing the
effects of very low or negligible saturation change.
Action: use correct compressible data.

Example (2): Water saturation appears to increase in model without any injection
or influx of water.
Reason: Input rock compressibility is too low, causing free volume to develop in the
free space. This free volume is filled with immobile fluid, i.e. (usually) water.
Action: Correct the rock compressibility.

Modifications using Fluid Data
Example of history matching
Automatic history matching




Purpose :
To remove the drudgery from the history matching process by letting the
computer do most of the work, including analysis.
There are several algorithms presented in the literature that are meant to do
just this.
All automatic history matching algorithms use the principle of nonlinear
optimization to achieve the best match of the observed data. In order to do
this, an objective function is defined based on the history matching parameter.
This objective function is usually a function representing a measure of total
error between predicted and observed data. The strategy is to minimize this
error to yield the best match. Table given in next slide summarizes the basic
equations.


Summary: the basic equations.

Forecasting

The ultimate goal of any modeling effort is forecasting.
The modeling involved in reservoir simulation is no
exception.
It is therefore imperative to ensure that a model has the
necessary predictive capability before using it as a
forecasting tool.
As we have learned, we ensure predictive capability by
formulating an accurate representation of the
reservoir, properly solving the resulting equations,
and proving the validity of the model through history
matching.
Once we have taken these steps, the simulator is ready
for its primary purpose of forecasting.
Prediction Study
Key parameters in prediction
Updating
Rarely do we have available all the information that we
need at the beginning of a simulation study. In fact, a
basic tenet of engineering is using the available
informationas inadequate as it may beto come up
with a "best" solution. This solution is then improved
as more information becomes available. This process
called updating. There are two methods of updating in
reservoir simulation: updating the reservoir model itself,
and revising the simulation approach.
Prepare Report
Any Query?
Questions
What do you mean simulation?
Name some application o reservoir simulation
Name the most frequently used reservoir simulation model.
What are the different parameters of history matching?
Name one or two pseudofunctions.
What are the various boundary conditions used in reservoir simulation?
How do you select the number of grids/cells for simulation?
State one difference between Neumann and Dirichlet boundary conditions.
For a reservoir having sealed fault, which boundary condition will you apply?
For conning, what type of grid (BC or CP) will you apply?
Write two basic differences between compositional model and black oil model.
For volatile oil and gas condensate reservoir what type of model should be used and
why?
Name some history matching parameter.
Name some numerical solution methods
What are the different grid geometry. Name one situation where elliptical grid is used.
Where spherical flow pattern is used?

In compositional model, if number of components be 5, how many equations are to
be solved?
What is necessity of data preparation for simulation?