Motivation

:Definition
Motivation can be defined as the process of arousing, directing and maintaining behavior. It is concerned with the question: why do ?people do that? And why they keep doing that A motive is an inner state of the individual which disposes him towards certain modes of behavior for seeking certain goals. Motives .are not the source of energy but they utilize energy
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Classification of motivation
:Generally they are classified into innate motives and learned motives

I. Innate motivation:
:Several criteria should be present to consider a motive as innate one .Universality: present in all people. A B. Presence since birth: good positive criterion but a poor negative .one i.e. the absence of a motive at birth does not mean that it is not innate. The sex motive for example appears in its known form only at ,puberty C. Permanency: not amenable to distinction. :Innate Motives are classified into two major categories Motives serving the internal needs: .1 :These may be organic needs or psychological needs ,a. Organic motives are hunger, thirst, respiration, sex and rest b. Psychological motives are to love, to be loved and for .belongingness

Motives for dealing with the environment: .2 :These could be objective or emergency (situational( needs a. Objective needs are for exploration, manipulation, and like and .dislike of objects b. Emergency needs which appear in specific situations. These :include i( Escape motive: associated with fear in dangerous situations ii( Combat motive: which appears in a battle and is associated with anger iii( Mastery motive : which appears also in a battle and is associated .with determination iv( Submission motive: which appears in overwhelming dangerous situation .v( Chase motive: this appears in combating with a weak enemy

:II. Learned motives

These are the new motives that emerge from the individual's dealing :with the environment. They are classified into Attitude: -1 An attitude is a set or disposition to act towards an object, an idea or a situation according to its characteristics and aroused to activity by suitable stimuli, e.g. love, patriotism, ambition.... Etc. Our sentiment .towards an object may be the echo of other people's opinion about it For example we may hate a person though we do not know the .rational reasons for such hatred :Interest -2 An interest is a position attitude. It makes attention to an object easy. Some authors consider that all interests derived from the primitive motives by condition. Others believe that an interest springs from the individual's ability to deal effectively with some phase of the .environment example as to be musician, writer, etc

Effect of learning on innate motives

A new motor responses: The little child fights with his teeth, nails -1 and feet but the adult is more apt to use his tongue. Although both are angry they use different weapons. The child engaging in sucking .his bottle is different from adult using his knife and fork .Both of them are directed by hunger motives

New response for the old motives: A child, through -2 conditioned fears, may be afraid of something of which he was .not afraid before or dislike Combination of motives: A little child tends to be all-or-none in his -3 reactions. At one time he loves his father tremendously and at another time he hates him severely. As he grows up, he becomes more balanced and a new motive arises out of the combination of his previous diverse motives, resulting in respect for his father which .signifies both love and awe

Concepts or Theories of Motives :The concept of instincts-1

Instincts are unlearned patterns of behavior that occur in the presence of certain stimuli. Nest-building is an instinct present in .birds William McDougall's suggested that the human behavior where .(motivated by 18 basic instincts (propensities :McDougall's propensities :Propensities mean instincts (innate motives) these are .Food seeking propensity .1 .Disgust propensity: to avoid noxious substances .2 .Fear propensity: to flee .3 .Anger propensity: to flight .4 .Appeal propensity: to cry for assistance .5 .Submissive propensity: to submit .6 .Sex propensity .7 .Parental propensity .8 .Gregarious propensity: seeking for company .9 .Constructive propensity: to construct shelters .10 .Comfort propensity: to remove discomfortable stimuli .11 .Sleep propensity .12 .Laughter propensity: to laugh at the defects of others .13 .Self assertive propensity: to dominate and to assert oneself .14 .Curiosity propensity: to explore strange objects .15 .Migratory propensity: to wonder to new scenes .16 .Acquisitive propensity: to acquire and posses .17 Very simple propensities serving bodily needs such as coughing, .18 .sneezing, breathing, evacuation

:The concept of needs and drives -2

A need: is a shortage or lack of some biological essential required for survival, needs arise from deprivation. When an organism is kept from food, it develops a need for food. A need then gives rise to a drive. A drive: is state of tension, arousal or activation (hunger drive(. .When an organism is in a drive state, it is motivated It is aroused and directed to do something to reduce the drive by .satisfying the underlined needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs: is predetermined in order of

importance. It is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of seven levels: the first lower level is being associated with Physiological needs, while the top levels are termed growth needs associated with psychological needs. Deficiency needs must be met first. Once these are met, seeking to satisfy growth needs drives personal growth. The higher needs in this hierarchy only come into focus when the lower needs in the pyramid are met. Once an individual has moved upwards to the next level, needs in the lower level will no longer be prioritized. If a lower set of needs is no longer being met, the individual will temporarily re-prioritize those needs by focusing attention on the unfulfilled needs, but will not permanently regress to the lower level. For instance, a businessman at the esteem level who is diagnosed with cancer will spend a great deal of time concentrating on his health (physiological needs(, but will continue to value his work performance (esteem needs( and will likely return to work during periods of remission.

:The concept of incentives -3

Incentives are external stimuli serve as motivating agents or goals for our behavior. Thus behaviors are explained In terms of their goals and outcomes than on their internal driving forces. It is like operant .conditioning

:The concept of equilibrium -4

The basic idea here is that we are motivated or driven to maintain a state of balance or a state of equilibrium or optimum level of functioning. Sometimes balance involves physiological processes that need to be maintained at some level of activity. Sometimes balance involves our overall level of arousal, our thoughts or cognitions or .our emotional reactions :Homeostasis Many survival motives operate according to the principle of homeostasis, which is the body's tendency to maintain a constant internal environment in the face of a changing external environment, such as body temperature and body water. Such interval constancies .are essential for survival

:Psychoanalytic concepts of motivation -5

Freud believed that behaviors stemmed from two opposite groups of :Instinct .a. The life instinct "Eros" that enhances life and growth .b. The death instinct "Thantos" that pushes towards destruction The energy of the life instinct is "Libido" which involves mainly sex and related activities. The death instinct can be directed inward in the form of suicide or self-destructive behavior, or outward in the form of aggression towards others. To Freud the two basic human .motives are sex and aggression Freud stressed the importance of unconscious motives in human behavior, which are expressed in dreams, slips of speech and .symptoms of mental illness

:Social learning theory of motivation -6

Social learning theory focuses not on instinctual drives, but on the .behavior the individual learns in coping with the environment The emphasis is on the reciprocal interactions between behavior and .environment .(It stresses on vicarious learning (learning by observation -1 It stresses the importance of cognitive process. Because we can -2 think and represent situations symbolically, we are able to foresee the probable consequences of our actions and behaviors, our actions are .governed to a large extent by anticipated consequences Emphasis of social learning theory is the importance d self- -3 regulatory process. A specific behavior produces an external outcome but it also produces a self-evaluative reaction. Thus reinforcement has two sources, external and self-evaluating. : Indeed, self-reproach has an important influence in motivating people to adhere to .accepted standards of conduct External reinforcement is most effective when it is consistent with self-reinforcement- when society approves actions that the individual .value highly