Benefits of Food Irradiation Treating foods with ionizing energy offers many benefits to consumers, retailers, and food

manufacturers. The benefits depend on the treatment used. Certainly the most important benefit is improved microbiological quality of food. Additional benefits include the replacement of chemical treatments and extended shelf life (9,11,12,19). The following benefits are specified: Most spices and herbs are fumigated with ethylene oxide to improve microbiological quality. Irradiation replaces this chemical, which is being phased out for environmental and worker safety reasons. Because pathogens in raw poultry or meat can be reduced by 99.9% or more by a low "pasteurization" treatment (14), irradiation can help reduce the potential for crosscontamination in homes and foodservice kitchens (eg, schools, industry, groceries, hospitals, restaurants). Irradiation also provides an additional level of safety if food is not fully cooked. Transport of some fruits and vegetables is restricted or prohibited to prevent the spread of harmful insects such as the Mediterranean fruit fly. Current insect quarantine procedures require harvest and heat treatment of fruit that is not fully ripe. Irradiation is an approved quarantine treatment that results in a higher-quality fruit because it can be used on ripe fruit, does not cause hard spots, and does not increase susceptibility to mold. Additionally, irradiation can be used on fruits that do not tolerate heat treatments. Use of this quarantine method will increase availability of a wider variety and higher quality of tropical and semitropical fruits. Irradiation can replace chemical fumigants used to protect rice and grain from insect infestation. Irradiation retards the natural decay of fruit and vegetables, thus extending shelf life. Irradiation contributes to keeping down food costs as a result of less wastage and extended shelf life. Because irradiated food is virtually indistinguishable from fresh items (9,13), food can be prepared in the traditional manner. The process can be considered a "win-win" situation for consumers, retailers, and food manufacturers. Effect of Irradiation on Nutritive Value of Food Irradiation has been compared to pasteurization because it destroys harmful bacteria. Since irradiation does not substantially raise the temperature of the food being processed, nutrient losses are small and often substantially less than other methods of preservation such as canning, drying, and heat pasteurization and sterilization (8,9,11,12,19). The relative sensitivity of the different vitamins to irradiation depends on the food source, and the combination of irradiation and cooking is not considered to produce losses of notable concern (9). Proteins, fats, and carbohydrates are not notably altered by irradiation (8,9,13,19). In general, nutrients most sensitive to heat treatment, such as the B vitamins and ascorbic acid, are sensitive to irradiation. Diehl (9) and Thorne (13) compared nutrient retention losses from irradiation with those associated with other traditional methods of preparation. Vitamin losses from pure solutions are larger than losses when the vitamin is in a food material (9). Nutrient losses can be further minimized by irradiating food in an oxygen-free environment or a cold

or frozen state (9,13). Fox and coworkers (20) derived a formula to calculate predicted losses in cooked pork and chicken on the basis of data--derived from the second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey--on quantities of these items in the US diet and irradiation doses allowed by the FDA. Predicted losses of riboflavin and niacin in pork, and of thiamin in both pork and chicken, ranged from 0.01% to 1.5%. Fresh pork, as reported in a study based on the USDA's 1989-1991 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (21), provides approximately 4% of the thiamin in a typical US diet, whereas poultry provides approximately 1%. Grain products, by comparison, contribute 46.8% of thiamin in the US diet. Before approving irradiation of meat, the FDA evaluated an "extreme case" in which all meat, poultry, and fish were irradiated at the maximum permissible dose under conditions that led to maximum destruction of thiamin (22). Even in these extreme and unlikely circumstances, the average thiamin intake would still be above the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) (23) and now the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) (24). Thus, the FDA concluded there would be no deleterious effect on the total dietary intake of thiamin as a result of irradiating foods. Another study by Fox et al (25) compared radiation reductions in B-vitamin levels in beef, lamb, pork, and turkey. The researchers reported losses of riboflavin that were virtually undetectable in all the tested meats at doses up to 3 kGy. Thiamin losses were detectable, and the losses varied among the meats tested, but the range was narrow, from a low of 8% loss to a high of 16% loss. Earlier reports regarding losses of ascorbic acid in potatoes--as a result of a shift to dehydroascorbic acid--are no longer considered valid because the researchers failed to consider that dehydroascorbic acid also has vitamin activity (9). In a study of the ascorbic acid content of oranges, Nagai and Moy (26) found no significant differences between irradiated and control fruit at dose levels up to 1 kGy throughout a 6-week storage period. Sensory qualities such as appearance and flavor have been evaluated in the laboratory (9,18,26,27) as well as in market studies with consumers (16,27). Consumers consistently rated irradiated fruit as equal to or better than nonirradiated fruits in appearance, freshness, and taste (16,27,28). However, irradiation may affect the color and odor of meat, depending on the irradiation dose, dose rate, temperature, packaging, and atmosphere during irradiation (29). Irradiated beef becomes a deeper red and pork and poultry become more pink. These changes are more pronounced at higher levels of ionizing energy. When meat is irradiated at low doses under specific conditions--such as low oxygen or no oxygen--with specific packaging such as vacuum sealed or in the frozen state, there is no notable development of off-odors or flavors. Studies have found that flavor in vacuum-packed raw or cured pork is not negatively affected by irradiation and that cooked pork ranks equally with nonirradiated samples for meatiness, freshness, tenderness, juiciness, and overall acceptance (30-32). Irradiation of chicken breast and thigh up to 10 kGy had little effect on sensory acceptability of appearance, odor, texture, and taste (33). Food Safety Food safety encompasses enhanced safety as a result of destruction of pathogenic microorganisms, as well as chemical and toxicological safety of foods that have been irradiated. The scientific literature clearly demonstrates that irradiation destroys common enteric pathogens including Campylobacter jejuni, E coli, Listeria monocytogenes, various Salmonella spp, and Staphylococcus aureus associated with meat, poultry, and fresh produce

(29,34,35). An irradiation dose of 0.4 kGy destroys Toxoplasma gondi and Cyclospora, the latter of which has been associated with gastroenteritis linked to the ingestion of fresh raspberries, lettuce, and herbs (36). Vibrio infections associated with the consumption of raw molluscans shellfish can be prevented with irradiation pasteurization, but Norwalk-like viruses associated with raw shellfish and hepatitis A virus require higher doses than are approved for meat and poultry pasteurization (37). Irradiation does not protect against bovine spongiform encephalopathy. Some people are concerned that irradiated food will not show signs of spoilage and people will inadvertently consume a harmful product. As with any food, proper handling and preparation--not taste or smell--ensures food safety. Some people have also inquired about the safety of irradiated food if postirradiation contamination were to occur. Meat or poultry contaminated after irradiation does not spoil more rapidly than a nonirradiated product (38,39). Irradiated and nonirradiated meats challenged with postirradiation application of pathogenic bacteria exhibited spoilage at virtually the same time when held at refrigerator temperatures or temperatures that would normally allow for bacterial growth (40,41). Some people have inquired about the viability of microorganisms that may survive low-dose or medium-dose treatment. The bacteria that survive irradiation are destroyed at a lower cooking temperature than the bacteria that have not been irradiated (42). When evaluating the safety of irradiation, the FDA did not consider possible benefits to consumers or food processors (22). The agency must identify various effects that can result from irradiating food and assess whether these may pose a human health risk. The FDA review addresses potential toxicity, nutritional adequacy, and potential microbiological risks. Irradiation does cause chemical changes in food, all of which have been found to be benign. More than 40 years of multispecies, multigenerational animal studies have shown no toxic effects from eating irradiated foods (22,43). Additionally, human volunteers consuming up to 100% of their diets as irradiated food have shown no ill effect (9). Irradiation produces such a minimal chemical change in food that it is difficult to design a test to determine whether a food has been irradiated (44). A small number of new compounds are formed when food is irradiated, just as new compounds are formed when food is exposed to heat in other processing or cooking methods. Early research described these new compounds as "unique radiolytic products" because they were identified after food was irradiated (9). Subsequent investigations have determined that free radicals and other compounds produced during irradiation are identical to those formed during cooking, steaming, roasting, pasteurization, freezing, canning, and other forms of food preparation (9,11,13,22,29). Free radicals are even produced during the natural ripening of fruits and vegetables (43). All reliable scientific evidence based on animal feeding tests and consumption by human volunteers indicates these products pose no unique risk to human beings. In fact, people requiring the safest food--hospital patients receiving bone marrow transplants--are often served irradiated and/or pasteurized foods. Furthermore, because spices, being of tropical origin, are often microbe-laden, irradiated spices are preferred for routine use in hospital foodservice for patients. As with pasteurization, evidence suggests that food irradiation can make better a quality food supply. AMA's Report of the Council on Scientific Affairs on Food Irradiation (11) agreed with a FAO/WHO policy statement (4,45) released in 1992. Irradiated food produced under

established good manufacturing practices is to be considered safe and nutritionally adequate because: i) the process of irradiation will not introduce changes in the composition of the food which, from a toxicological point of view, would impose an adverse effect on human health; ii) the process of irradiation will not introduce changes in the microflora of the food which would increase the microbiological risk to the consumer; iii) the process of irradiation will not introduce nutrient losses in the composition of the food, which, from a nutritional point of view, would impose an adverse effect on the nutritional status of individuals or populations (11, p 1). In a 1999 report, the WHO and allied organizations concluded on the basis of knowledge derived from over 50 years of research that irradiated foods are safe and wholesome at any radiation dose (46). The limitation at very high doses is palatability, not food safety. Environmental Safety of Food Irradiation Strict regulations govern the transportation and handling of radioactive material. Irradiation facilities using radioactive material are constructed to withstand earthquakes and other natural disasters without endangering the community or workers. Radioactive material is transported in canisters tested to withstand collisions, fires, and pressure. Worker safety is protected by a multifaceted protection system within the plant (12). USDA-proposed regulations mandate that workers be trained in the safe operation of irradiation equipment (47). Establishments choosing to irradiate meat or meat products will be required to comply not only with USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) and FDA requirements regarding the safety of irradiated products, but also with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Environmental Protection Agency, Occupational and Safety Health Administration, Department of Transportation, and state and local government requirements regulating the operation of irradiation facilities. These regulations include maintenance of appropriate environmental, worker safety, and public health protection (47). The 60Co used by US commercial facilities is specifically produced for use in irradiation of medical supplies and other materials. It is not a waste product of any other activity, and it cannot be used to make nuclear weapons. All the spent 60Co to date--in such a small amount-could fit in an office desk (9,10). Disposal of 60Co is carefully arranged by the producer. Electron beam radiators are operated by electricity and use no radioactive isotopes. Regulation of Food Irradiation Congress defined the sources of ionizing energy as food additives and included them in the Food Additives Amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1958 (48,49), thus delegating the main regulatory responsibility to the FDA. Additionally, 2 agencies within the USDA are involved in the process: the FSIS, which develops standards for the safe use of irradiation on meat and poultry products, and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, which monitors programs that are designed to enhance animal and plant health (eg, using irradiation as an insect quarantine treatment in fresh produce) (48). Before December 1999, coordination between USDA and FDA for writing the rules lengthened the time for irradiated meat and meat products to be available in the marketplace. For example, FDA approved red meat in December 1997, but it was not until December 1999 that the joint process of writing the rules was completed (50). In the future, a streamlined approval process for food additives

that does not require separate approval of both FDA and USDA for meat and poultry products will be used (51). This process is expected to pave the way for irradiation of processed meat and poultry products for which the petition was submitted in August 1999 (47). All irradiated foods sold at the retail level in the United States must be labeled with a Radura, an international symbol for irradiation, and the words "treated by irradiation" or "treated with radiation." Products that contain irradiated ingredients, including spices, are not required to be labeled as such. The ADA supports the present labeling rules, including use of the Radura and current wording on irradiated foods. The ADA also supports incentive labeling in which a specific pathogen is listed on the label as being reduced, such as "treated by irradiation to reduce Salmonella and other pathogens" (52). However, the ADA is concerned about statements that imply the irradiated food is free of pathogens, such as "free of Salmonella," because food irradiation does not prevent recontamination of the irradiated food (53). Incentive labeling as specified by USDA regulations stipulates that elimination of a pathogen must be scientifically documented (50). A continuing area of research is identification of scientific detection methods to verify that unlabeled foods have not been irradiated and that foods have received the intended dose (49). An international general standard covering irradiated foods was adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, a joint body of WHO and FAO. The standards are based on the findings of the Joint Expert Committee on Food Irradiation convened by FAO, WHO, and the International Atomic Energy Agency (11). Food categories currently approved for irradiation in the United States are listed in. In 1999, the operating US irradiation facilities process spices, citrus fruits, tropical fruits, strawberries, tomatoes, mushrooms, potatoes, onions, and poultry. Any new application of irradiation must undergo food additive approval. A petition is being developed to permit irradiation of cooked, ready-to-eat meat, with control of Listeria being the principal benefit. FDA response to petitions for shellfish, shell eggs, and a range of additional ready-to-eat foods is expected. The opportunity to control Salmonellae and E coli in bean sprouts is particularly important as these foods, along with many fruits and vegetables, are not usually cooked before consumption. The ADA supports continued expansion of categories to include such products as fish, shellfish, eggs, produce, ready-to-eat products, and mixed foods (53). Consumer/Producer Issues Despite repeated endorsements and regulatory approval, irradiated foods are not widely available in the United States. Although consumers are familiar with food irradiation, many have little knowledge of the process and its advantages (54). When consumers receive science-based information on food irradiation, however, most prefer irradiated to nonirradiated spices, poultry, pork, beef, and seafood (25). Concern about foodborne illness has increased consumer interest in irradiated food. A nationwide survey conducted in March 1998 found that almost 80% of the population sample said they would buy products labeled "irradiated to destroy harmful bacteria" (55). Sixty-seven percent of consumers said it was "appropriate" to irradiate poultry; slightly fewer consumers deemed it "appropriate" to irradiate pork and ground beef. More than 60% thought irradiation was appropriate at a fastfood restaurant, and almost 50% considering it appropriate at the grocery store delicatessen or sit-down restaurant. In another nationwide survey, consumers indicated they would pay a premium for irradiated

ground beef (54). The increase in cost for irradiated foods is estimated at $0.02 to $0.03 cents per pound for fruits and vegetables and $0.03 to $0.08 cents per pound for meat products (16,17,56). Produce has been marketed without a price premium as a result of decreased losses and increased shelf life. Part of the cost for meat and poultry irradiation relates to packaging material. Currently only a limited number of materials are available and special, more expensive meat trays must be used. It has been estimated that the savings from the reduction of foodborne illness are substantially greater than the modest increase in food cost (14,47). Consumer performance in the marketplace supports the results of attitudinal surveys (27). Mangoes labeled as irradiated sold successfully in Florida in 1986. In March 1987, irradiated Hawaiian papayas, available in a 1-day trial in Southern California, outsold the identically priced nonirradiated counterpart by greater than 10 to 1. Irradiated apples marketed in Missouri were also favorably received. Record amounts of irradiated strawberries were sold in Florida in 1992 and irradiated strawberries, grapefruit, juice oranges, and other products continue to outsell their nonirradiated counterparts in a specialty produce store in Chicago, Ill. Irradiated poultry, which is available in select markets, has experienced brisk sales (27). A University of Georgia shopping simulation test (57) showed a significant increase in the proportion of consumers purchasing irradiated ground beef after they participated in an educational program on the benefits of food irradiation. After receiving information, 71% purchased irradiated beef, including 62% of the consumers who originally stated they would not purchase irradiated food. Consumers in Kansas have purchased labeled irradiated poultry in market tests in 1995 and 1996. The irradiated poultry captured 63% of the market share when priced 10% less than store brand, and 47% when priced equally. In 1997, after reading a brief description of irradiation, 80% of consumers selected irradiated poultry when it was priced the same as the nonirradiated house brand (58). According to G. Dietz of Isomedics in Whippany, NJ (oral communication, March 2, 1998), in 1998, more than 20,000 lb irradiated fruits from Hawaii--including papaya, atemoya, rambutan, lychee, and starfruit--have sold in Midwest and California markets. Consumers indicate that information about irradiation should include a discussion of the safety and benefits of the process and the effect on nutritional value (28,55). An endorsement by health professionals is desirable. Consumers prefer to receive information in newspapers and government flyers. The Role of Dietetics and Other Health Professionals ADA and qualified dietetics professionals have the responsibility to educate consumers about food and nutrition issues, including technologies such as food irradiation. As advocates for the public on food and nutrition issues, dietetics professionals are in a unique position to monitor the advancement and further implementation of food irradiation technology. A working knowledge of food technologies is expected of students in entry-level dietetics education programs. Dietetics professionals should be advocates for the availability of irradiated foods in the marketplace, especially for consumers considered at high risk for infectious disease and, thus, particularly susceptible to foodborne pathogens. This includes individuals across the lifespan from the very young (infants and children in day care) to older Americans with stressed immune systems. Pregnant women and their fetuses would benefit from food irradiation because of their specific risk for Listeria monocytogenes. Additionally,

clients of all ages with immune-suppressing diseases (such as human immunodeficiency virus) and those undergoing immune-suppressing therapies (eg, chemotherapy) would benefit from food free of harmful bacteria. Dietetics professionals who manage large-scale foodservice operations can use irradiated foods in the implementation of a Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. A generic model developed by the International Meat and Poultry HACCP Alliance is available from the FSIS (59) or on the World Wide Web from Texas A&M University. At the present time, expanded education for the public and food retailers about food irradiation is needed. Educational programs, in which health professionals work with food industry representatives to present accurate information about irradiation to the public, should be offered. Educational materials about food irradiation are available from a variety of resources including colleges and universities, the FDA, public health agencies, and marketing agencies (19). A current and validated educational packet (28) including a consumer audiovisual is available through the Agricultural Communication Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind. Although the safety and efficacy of irradiation are well established, continued research on the ability of irradiation to destroy new and emerging microbial pathogens is appropriate. With today's demand for high-quality convenience foods, researchers should evaluate the effectiveness of irradiation in combination with other processing methods to enhance the safety of minimally processed foods or extend the quality and shelf life of fresh-cut produce. In an era of increasing concern about food safety, consumers must understand that irradiation is a method to enhance food safety. Health professionals can help allay the fears of consumers and food industry workers through education. APPLICATIONS ADA members and dietetics professionals at the local level can assist the Association in promoting the value of irradiated foods by providing consumer education on this issue. This could be accomplished through writing articles for local newspapers, participating in interviews with the media, or using irradiated foods as a topic for consumer-specific educational or community programs. The position can also be used to respond to debates about the use of food irradiation. Also, consider collaborating with local grocery stores to provide educational materials for consumers that address the various issues of food irradiation and food safety. References 1. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, Griffin PM, Tauxe RV. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerging Infectious Diseases [serial online]. 1999;5(5):607-625. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol5no5/mead.htm. Accessed September 17, 1999. 2. Busby JC, Roberts T. ERS updates US food borne disease costs for seven pathogens. Food Rev. 1996;19(Sept-Dec):20-25. 3. American Gastroenterology Association Consensus conference statement: Escherichia coli 0157:H7 infection--an emerging national health crisis, July 11-13, 1994. Gastroenterology. 1995;108(6):1923-1934. 4. Review of the Safety and Nutritional Adequacy of Irradiated Food. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1993.

5. Mason J. Food irradiation--promising technology for public health. Public Health Rep. 1992;107:489-490. 6. Loaharanu P. Status and prospects of food irradiation. Food Technol. 1994;48(5):124-130. 7. Foodborne pathogens: review of recommendations. Ames, Iowa: Council for Agriculture Science and Technology; 1998. Special publication No. 22. 8. Swallow AJ. Wholesomeness and safety of irradiated foods. In: Friedman M, ed. Nutritional and Toxicological Consequences of Food Processing. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1991:11-31. 9. Diehl JF. Safety of Irradiated Foods. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 1995. 10. Chapple A. Bye, bye bacteria. Nuclear Energy. 1993;3rd quarter:9-12. 11. Irradiation of Food. Chicago, Ill: American Medical Association; 1993. Council on Scientific Affairs Report 4. 12. International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation. Facts About Food Irradiation. Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy Agency; 1991. 13. Thorne S, ed. Food Irradiation. New York, NY: Elsevier Science Publishers; 1991. 14. Morrison RM, Roberts T, Witucki L. Irradiation of US poultry--benefits, costs, and export potential. Food Rev. 1992;15(3):16-21. 15. Food Safety and Inspection Service. Poultry Irradiation and Preventing Foodborne Illness. Washington, DC: US Dept of Agriculture; 1992:1-6. FSIS Backgrounder. 16. Ionizing Energy in Food Processing and Pest Control: II. Applications. Ames, Iowa: Council for Agriculture Science and Technology; 1989:72-76. Task Force Report No. 115. 17. Karel M. The future of irradiation applications on earth and in space. Food Technol. 1989;41(7):95-97. 18. Proceedings of the North American Plant Protection Organization Annual Meeting Colloquium on the Application of Irradiation Technology as a Quarantine Treatment. Neapean, Ontario, Canada: NAPPO; 1995:62-65. NAPPO bulletin No. 13. 19. International Atomic Energy Agency. Facts about food irradiation. Available at: http://www.iaea.or.at/worldatom/inforesource/other/food. Accessed July 8, 1999. 20. Fox JB, Thayer DW, Jenkins RK, Phillips JG, Ackerman SA, Beecher GR, Holden JM, Morrows FD, Quirbach DM. Effect of gamma irradiation on the B vitamins of pork chops and chicken breasts. Int J Radiat Biol. 1989;55:689-703. 21. Subar AF, Krebs-Smith SM, Cook A, Kahle L. Dietary sources of nutrients among US adults, 1989-1991. J Am Diet Assoc. 1998;98:537-547. 22. Food and Drug Administration. Irradiation in the production, processing and handling of food. 62 Federal Register 232 (1997) ( 64107-64121). 23. Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances. 10th ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1989. 24. Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B-6, Folate, Vitamin B-12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1998. 25. Fox JB, Lakritz L, Hampson J, Richardson R, Ward K, Thayer W. Gamma irradiation effects on thiamin and riboflavin in beef, lamb, pork, and turkey. J Food Sci. 1995;60:596598. 26. Nagai NY, Moy JH. Quality of gamma irradiated California valencia oranges. J Food Sci.

1985;50:215-219. 27. Bruhn CM. Consumer attitudes and market responses to irradiated food. J Food Protection. 1995; 58:157-181. 28. Pohlman A, Wood OB, Mason AC. Influence of audiovisuals and food samples on consumer acceptance of food irradiation. Food Technol. 1994; 48(12):46-49. 29. Olson DG. Scientific Status Summary, Irradiation of Food. A Publication of the IFT Expert Panel on Food Safety and Irradiation. Food Technol. 1998:52(1):56-62. 30. Murano P, Murano E, Olson D. Irradiated ground beef: Sensory and quality changes during storage under various packaging conditions. J Food Sci. 1998; 63:548-551. 31. Ahn DU, Olson DG, Lee JI, Jo C, Wu C, Chen X. Packaging and irradiation effects on lipid oxidation and volatiles in pork patties. J Food Sci. 1998;63:15-19. 32. Ahn DU, Olson DG, Jo C, Chen X, Wu C, Lee JI. Effect of muscle type, packaging, and irradiation on lipid oxidation, volatile production, and color in raw pork patties. Meat Sci. 1998;49:27-39. 33. Abu-Tarboush HM, Al-Kahtani HA, Atia M, Abou-Arab AA, Bajaber AS, El-Mojaddidi MA. Sensory and microbial quality of chicken as affected by irradiation and postirradiation storage at 4.0C. J Food Protect. 1997; 60:761-770. 34. Thayer DW. Use of irradiation to kill enteric pathogens on meat and poultry. J Food Safety. 1995;15:181-192. 35. Thayer DW, Josepson ES, Brynjolfsson A, Giddings GG. Radiation Pasteurization of Food. Ames, Iowa: Council for Agricultural Science and Technology; 1996. Issue paper no. 7. 36. Dubey JP, Thayer DW, Speer CA, Shen SK. Effect of gamma irradiation on unsporulated and sporulated Toxoplasma gondii oocycts. Int J Parasitology. 1998;28:1-6. 37. Osterholm MT, Potter ME. Irradiation pasteurization of solid foods: taking food safety to the next level. Emerg Infectious Dis. 1997;3(4):1-3. 38. Grant IR, Patterson MF. Effect of irradiation and modified atmosphere packaging on the microbiological safety of minced pork under temperature abuse conditions. Int J Food Sci Technol. 1991;26:521-533. 39. Lebepe N, Molin RA, Charoen SP, Iv HF, Showronski RP. Changes in microflora and other characteristics of vacuum-packaged pork loins irradiated at 3.0 kGy. J Food Sci. 1990;55:918-924. 40. Firstenberg-Eden R, Rowley DB, Shattuck GE. Factors affecting growth and tonix production by Clostridium botulinum type E on irradiated (0.3 Mrad) chicken skins. J Food Sci. 1982;36:186-197. 41. Szczawiska ME, Thayer DW, Phillips JG. Fate of unirradiated Salmonella in irradiated mechanically deboned chicken meat. Int J Food Microbiol. 1991;14:313-324. 42. Farkas J. Irradiation as a method for decontaminating food, a review. Int J Food Microbiol. 1998;44:189-204. 43. Thayer DW. Wholesomeness of irradiated foods. Food Technol. 1994; 48(5):132-135. 44. Stevenson, MH. Identification of irradiated Foods. Food Technol. 1994; 48(5):141-144. 45. Kaferstein FK. Food Irradiation: The Position of the World Health Organization. Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy Agency; 1992. 46. High-dose Irradiation: Wholesomeness of Food Irradiated with Doses Above 10 kGy.

Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1999. WHO Technical Report Series 890. 47. Irradiation of meat and meat products. 36 Federal Register 64 (1999) ( 9089-9105). 48. Pauli GH. Food Irradiation in the United States. In: Thorne S, ed. Food Irradiation. New York, NY: Elsevier Science Publishers; 1991:235-259. 49. Pauli GH, Tarantino LM. FDA regulatory aspects of food irradiation. J Food Protection. 1995;58:209-212. 50. Irradiation of meat food products; final rule, 9 CFR Parts 381 and 424 (1999). 51. US Dept of Agriculture Web site. USDA approves irradiation of meat to help improve food safety. Press Release No. 0486.99. Available at: http://www.usda.gov/news/releases/1999/12/0486. Accessed December 16, 1999. 52. The American Dietetic Association Web site. USDA/FSIS: ADA's comments on irradiation of meat and meat products, proposed rule. Available at: http://www.eatright.org/gov/comments.html. Accessed on July 15, 1999. 53. The American Dietetic Association Web site. Response to FDA on advance notice of proposed rulemaking for irradiation in the production, processing, and handling of food. Available at: http://www.eatright.org/gov/comments.html. Accessed on July 15, 1999. 54. Consumer Awareness, Knowledge and Acceptance of Food Irradiation. Arlington, Va: Prepared for the American Meat Institute by the Gallup Organization; 1993. 55. Consumers' Views on Food Irradiation. Washington, DC: Food Marketing Institute;1998. 56. Stevens S, Dietz G. Current state of irradiation technologies. Presented at: American Meat Institute Foundation and National Center for Food Safety Technology Seminar on Irradiation "Fact and Fiction"; February 11, 1998; Chicago, Ill. 57. Resurreccion AVA, Galvez FCF, Fletcher SM, Misra SK. Consumer attitudes toward irradiated food, results of a new study. J Food Protection. 1995;58:193-196. 58. Fox JA, Olson D. Market trials of irradiated chicken. Radiat Phys Chem. 1998;52:63-66. 59. International Meat and Poultry Alliance Web site. Generic HACCP Model for Irradiation. Available at: http://ifse.tamu.edu/alliance/haccpmodels.html. Accessed on July 14, 1999. ADA Position adopted by the House of Delegates on October 29, 1995, and reaffirmed on September 28, 1998. This position will be in effect until December 31, 2003. ADA authorizes the republication of the position, in its entirety, provided full and proper credit is given. Requests to use portions of this position must be directed to ADA Headquarters at 800/8771600, ext. 4896, or Recognition is given to the following for their contributions: Authors: Olivia Bennett Wood, MPH, RD (Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind) and Christine M. Bruhn, PhD (University of California-Davis)