Logic v suy din Gii thiu

Logic l ngn ng hnh thc cho php (gip) biu din thng tin di dng cc kt lun c th c a ra( Logic = Syntax + Semantics ) C php (syntax): xc nh cc mnh (sentences) trong mt ngn ng Ng ngha (semantics): xc nh ngha" ca cc mnh trong mt ngn ng. Tc l, xc nh s ng n ca mt mnh V d: Trong ngn ng ca ton hc (x+2 y) l m t mnh ; ( x+y > {} ) khng phi l mt mnh (x+2 y) l ng nu v ch nu gi tr (x+2) khng nh hn gi tr y (x+2 y) l ng khi x = 7, y = 1 (x+2 y) l sai khi x = 0 , y = 6 C php ca mt logic C php = Ngn ng + L thuyt chng minh Ngn ng (Language) : Cc k hiu (symbols), biu thc (expressions), thut ng (terms), cng thc (formulas) hp l. E.g., one plus one equal two L thuyt chng minh (Proof theory) : Tp hp cc lut suy din cho php chng minh (suy lun ra) cc biu thc. V d: Lut suy din any plus zero any Mt nh l (theorem) l mt mnh logic cn chng minh. Vic chng minh mt nh l khng cn phi xc nh ng ngha (interpretation) ca cc k hiu! Ng ngha ca mt logic Ng ngha = ngha (din gii) ca cc k hiu. V d I(one) ngha l 1 ( N) I(two) ngha l 2 ( N) I(plus) ngha l php cng + : N x N N I(equal) ngha l php so snh bng = : N x N {true, false} I(one plus one equal two) ngha l true

Nu din gii ca mt biu thc l ng (true), chng ta ni rng php din gii ny l mt m hnh (model) ca biu thc. Mt biu thc ng i vi bt k php din gii no th c gi l mt biu thc ng n (valid). V d: A OR NOT A Tnh bao hm Tnh bao hm c ngha l mt ci g tun theo (b hm cha ngha bi) mt ci g khc: KB Mt c s tri thc KB bao hm (hm cha) mnh nu v ch nu l ng trong mi m hnh (th gii) m trong KB l ng Tc l: nu KB ng, th cng phi ng V d: Nu mt c s tri thc KB cha cc mnh i bng A thng v i bng B thng, th KB bao hm mnh i bng A hoc i bng B thng V d: Mnh (x+y = 4) bao hm mnh (4 = x+y) Tnh bao hm l mi quan h gia cc mnh da trn ng ngha Cc m hnh Cc nh logic hc thng hay xem xt cc s vic theo cc m hnh (models) Cc m hnh l cc khng gian (th gii) c cu trc, m trong cc khng gian tnh ng n (ca cc s vic) c th nh gi c nh ngha: m l mt m hnh ca mnh nu l ng trong m M() l tp hp tt c cc m hnh ca KB nu v ch nu M(KB) M() V d: KB = i bng A thng v i bng B thng, = i bng A thng Suy din logic KB i

Mnh c suy ra t KB bng cch p dng th tc (suy din) i. (Ni cch khc) Th tc i suy ra mnh t KB Tnh ng n (soundness) Mt th tc suy din i c gi l ng n (sound), nu th tc i suy ra ch cc mnh c bao hm (entailed sentences) Th tc i l ng n, nu bt c khi no KB i , th cng ng i vi KB Nu th tc i suy ra mnh , m khng c bao hm trong KB, th th tc i l khng ng n (unsound)Fd Tnh hon chnh (completeness) Mt th tc suy din i c gi l hon chnh (complete), nu th tc i c th suy ra mi mnh c bao hm (entailed sentences) Th tc i l hon chnh, nu bt c khi no KB , th cng ng i vi KB i Logic v t bc 1 (first-order logic) : C kh nng biu din (din t) hu ht cc pht biu logic. Tn ti mt th tc suy din ng n v hon chnh Logic l mt cch biu din hnh thc v suy din t ng Vic suy din (reasoning) c th c thc hin mc c php (bng cc chng minh): suy din din dch (deductive reasoning) Vic suy din c th c thc hin mc ng ngha (bng cc m hnh): suy din da trn m hnh (model-based reasoning) Suy din ng ngha mc ca mt php din gii (m hnh): Suy din ng ngha mc ca tt c cc php din gii c th: kim tra tnh ng n (validity checking) Logics that are sound (correct) and complete: provability corresponds to validity Logic nh C php Logic nh (propositional logic) l loi logic n gin nht: Biu thc nh (propositional formula) Mt k hiu nh (S1, S2, ) l mt biu thc (nh ) Cc gi tr hng logic ng (true) v sai (false) l cc biu thc

Nu S1 l mt biu thc, th (S1) cng l mt biu thc (Php ph nh) Biu thc nh (propositional formula) Nu S1 v S2 l cc biu thc, th (S1 S2) cng l mt biu thc (Php kt hp / v) Nu S1 v S2 l cc biu thc, th (S1 S2) cng l mt biu thc (Php tuyn / hoc) Nu S1 v S2 l cc biu thc, th (S1 S2) cng l mt biu thc (Php suy ra / ko theo) Nu S1 v S2 l cc biu thc, th (S1 S2) cng l mt biu thc (Php tng ng) Khng g khc (cc dng trn) l mt biu thc Th t u tin ca cc ton t logic Th t u tin ca cc ton t logic (t cao xung thp) , , , , S dng cp k t () xc nh mc u tin Cc v d p q r tng ng (p q) r ch khng phi p (q r) p q tng ng (p) q ch khng phi (p q) p q r tng ng (p (q)) r ((q) r) Logic nh Ng ngha Vi mt m hnh (model) c th, n s xc nh gi tr ng/sai cho mi k hiu nh V d: Vi 3 k hiu S1, S2 v S3, th c th ly v d mt m hnh m1 xc nh nh sau: m1 (S1=sai, S2=ng, S3=sai) Vi 3 k hiu nh nh v d trn, c th ch ra 8 m hnh c th Ng ngha ca mt m hnh m = Cc quy tc nh gi gi tr chn l (ng / sai) ca cc mnh trong m hnh m S1 S1 S2 S1 S2 l ng, khi v ch khi S1 l sai l ng, khi v ch khi S1 l ng v S2 l ng l ng, khi v ch khi S1 l ng hoc S2 l ng ch khng phi p ((q r)) hoc p

S1 S2 S1 S2

l ng, khi v ch khi S1 l sai hoc S2 l ng l sai, khi v ch khi S1 l ng v S2 l sai l ng, khi v ch khi S1S2 l ng v S2S1 l ng

V d: Vi m hnh m1 nh trong v d trn, th gi tr ca biu thc logic nh sau s l: S1 (S2 S3) = ng (ng sai) = ng ng = ng Bng chn l i vi cc ton t logic

Tng ng logic

Mu thun v Tautolog Mt biu thc logic nh lun c gi tr sai (false) trong mi php din gii (mi m hnh) th c gi l mt mu thun (contradiction). V d: (p p) Mt biu thc logic nh lun c gi tr ng (true) trong mi php din gii (mi m hnh) th c gi l mt tautology. V d: (p p) (p q) (p q) (p q) (p q)

Tnh tha mn c v Tnh ng n

Mt biu thc logic nh l tha mn c (satisfiable), no nu biu thc ng trong mt m mnhV d: A B, A B Mt biu thc l khng th tha mn c (unsatisfiable), nu khng tn ti bt k m hnh no m trong biu thc l ng. V d: A A Mt biu thc l ng n (valid), nu biu thc ng trong mi m hnh V d: ng; A A; A A; (A (A B)) B

Gii quyt bi ton chng minh logic Mc ch: tr li cu hi KB ? C 3 phng php (chng minh) ph bin: -S dng bng chn l (Truth-table) -p dng cc lut suy din (Inference rules) -Chuyn v bi ton chng minh tha mn (SAT). Phng php chng minh bng phn chng (Resolution/Refutation)

Suy din logic v Tm kim chng minh nh l l ng i vi tp gi thit KB, cn p dng mt chui cc lut suy din ng n Vn : bc suy din tip theo, c nhiu lut c th p dng c. y l vn ca bi ton tm kim (search)

Cc dng chun Dng chun kt hp (Conjunctive normal form CNF) L kt hp (lin kt V) ca cc mnh (clauses) Mi mnh (clause) l mt lin kt HOC ca cc k hiu nh n V d: (p q) (q r s) Dng chun tuyn (Disjunctive normal form DNF)

L lin kt HOC ca cc mnh (clauses) Mi mnh (clause) l mt lin kt V ca cc k hiu nh n V d: (p q) ( p r) (r s)

Chuyn i v dng chun CNF V d Chuyn i v dng chun CNF: (pq) (rp) 1. Loi b cc lin kt , (p q) (r p) 2. S dng cc php bin i tng ng (vd: lut DeMorgan v php ph nh 2 ln) (p q) (r p) 3. S dng cc lut kt hp (associative rules) v phn b (distributive rules) (p r p) (q r p) (p r) (q r p)

Lut suy din hp gii Lut suy din hp gii (Resolution)

Lut suy din hp gii p dng c i vi cc biu thc logic dng chun CNF Lut suy din hp gii c tnh ng n (sound), nhng khng c tnh hon chnh (incomplete) Chuyn bi ton chng minh logic v bi ton SAT Phng php chng minh bng phn chng Vic chng minh s mu thun ca: (KB ) Tng ng vic chng minh s bao hm: KB Lut suy din hp gii (Resolution rule) Nu cc biu thc trong tp KB v biu thc (cn chng minh) u dng CNF, th p dng lut suy din hp gii s xc nh tnh (khng) tha mn c ca (KB ) Gii thut hp gii

Chuyn i tt c cc biu thc trong KB v dng chun CNF p dng lin tip lut suy din hp gii (Resolution rule) bt u t: (KB ) KB l kt hp ca cc biu thc dng chun CNF Do , (KB ) cng l mt biu thc dng chun CNF! Qu trnh p dng lut suy din hp gii dng li khi: C mu thun xy ra. Sau khi hp gii, thu c (suy ra) biu thc rng (mu thun) . Khng c biu thc mi no c sinh ra na Chng minh bng hp gii V d Gi s c tp gi thit KB : p q ; p r ; (q r) s Cn cminh nh l s Bc 1. Chuyn i KB v dng chun CNF (p r) c chuyn thnh (p r)

((q r) s) c chuyn thnh (q r s) Bc 2. Ph nh biu thc cn chng minh s Bc 3. p dng lin tip lut hp gii i vi (KB ): {p, q, p r, q r s, s} Dng chun Horn Mt biu thc logic dng chun Horn nu: Biu thc l mt lin kt V ca cc mnh Mi mnh l mt lin kt HOC cc k hiu (literals), v c ti a l1 (c th khng c!) k hiu khng nh (positive literal) V d: (p q) (p r s) Khng phi mi biu thc logic nh u c th c chuyn v dng chun Horn! Biu din tp gi thit KB dng chun Horn -Cc lut (Rules) (p1 p2 pn q) Tng ng vi lut: -Cc s kin (Facts) p1, q (p1 p2 pn q)

-Cc rng buc ton vn (Integrity constraints) (p1 p2 pn) Tng ng vi lut: (p1 p2 pn sai)

Lut suy din Modus Ponens tng qut

Lut suy din Modus Ponens c tnh ng n (sound) v hon chnh (complete), i vi cc k hiu nh v i vi tp cc biu thc KB dng chun Horn Lut suy din Modus Ponens c th c s dng vi c 2 chin lc suy din (suy din tin v suy din li) Suy din tin (forward chaining) Vi mt tp cc mnh gi thit (c s tri thc) KB, cn suy ra mnh kt lun Q tng: Lp li 2 bc sau cho n khi suy ra c kt lun p dng cc lut c mnh gi thit c tha mn trong KB B sung kt lun ca cc lut vo KB

Suy din li (backward chaining) tng: Qu trnh suy din bt u t mnh kt lun Q chng minh Q bng tp mnh (c s tri thc) KB -Kim tra xem Q c chng minh (trong KB) cha, -Nu cha, tip tc chng minh tt c cc mnh gi thit ca mt lut no (trong KB) c mnh kt lun l Q Trnh cc vng lp : Kim tra xem cc mnh mi c trong danh sch cc mnh cn chng minh cha? Nu ri, thi khng b sung (li) na!

Trnh vic chng minh lp li i vi 1 mnh - c chng minh (trc ) l ng - c chng minh (trc ) l khng th tha mn c (sai) trong KB

Logic nh - u v nhc im

(+) Logic nh cho php d dng pht biu (biu din) c s tri thc bng tp cc mnh (+) Logic nh cho php lm vic vi cc thng tin dng ph nh, dng tuyn (disjunctive) (+) Logic nh c tnh cu to (kt cu) : Ng ngha ca mnh (S1 S2) c suy ra t ng ngha ca S1 v ng ngha ca S2 (+) Ng ngha trong logic nh khng ph thuc ng cnh (context-independent) Khng nh trong ngn ng t nhin (ng ngha ph thuc vo ng cnh ca cc cu ni) (-) Kh nng din t (biu din) ca logic nh l rt hn ch -Logic nh khng th din t c (nh trong ngn ng t nhin): Nu X l cha ca Y, th Y l con ca X -Logic nh phi lit k (xt) mi kh nng gn gi tr chn l (ng/sai) cho X v Y FOL Ngn ng

4 kiu k hiu (symbols) Hng (Constants): Cc tn ca cc i tng trong mt lnh vc bi ton c th (v d: Tuan) Bin (Variables): Cc k hiu m gi tr thay i i vi cc i tng khc nhau (v d: x) K hiu hm (Function symbols): Cc k hiu biu din nh x (quan h hm) t cc i tng ca min (domain) ny sang cc i tng ca min khc (v d: plus) Cc v t (Predicates): Cc quan h m gi tr logic l ng hoc sai (v d: HUT_Student and Studies_Algebra) Mi k hiu hm hoc v t u c mt tp cc tham s V d: HUT_Student v Studies_Algebra l cc v t c 1 tham s V d: plus l mt k hiu hm c 2 tham s Mt phn t (term) c nh ngha (truy hi) nh sau Mt hng s l mt phn t

Mt bin l mt phn t Nu t1, t2,,tn l cc thnh phn v f l mt k hiu hm c n tham s, th f(t1,t2,,tn) l mt phn t Khng cn g khc l mt phn t Cc nguyn t (Atoms) Nu t1,t2,,tn l cc thnh phn (terms) v p l mt v t c n tham s, th P(t1,t2,,tn) l mt nguyn t (atom) V d: HUT_Studies(Tuan), HUT_Studies(x), Studies_Algebra(Tuan), Studies(x) Cc biu thc (Formulas) c nh ngha nh sau Mt nguyn t (atom) l mt biu thc Nu v l cc biu thc, th v l cc biu thc

Nu l mt biu thc v x l mt bin, th x: l mt biu thc Khng cn g khc l mt biu thc Lu : x: c nh ngha bng x: FOL Ng ngha

Mt php din gii (interpretation) ca mt biu thc c biu din bng cp <D,I> Min gi tr (Domain) D l mt tp khc rng Hm din gii (Interpretation function) I l mt php gn gi tr i vi mi hng, k hiu hm, v k hiu v t sao cho: i vi hng c: I(c) D

i vi k hiu hm (c n tham s) f: I(f): Dn D i vi k hiu v t (c n tham s) P: I(P): Dn {true, false} Din gii i vi mt biu thc logic v t. Gi s , v l cc biu thc v t Nu l , th I()=sai nu I()=ng, v I()=ng nu I()=sai Nu l (), th I()=sai nu I() hoc I() l sai, v I()=true nu c I() v I() l ng

Gi s x:(x) l mt biu thc, th I(x:(x))=ng nu I()(d)=ng vi mi gi tr d D Mt biu thc l tha mn c (satisfiable) nu v ch nu tn ti mt php din

gii <D, I> sao cho I() Chng ta k hiu l: I Nu I , th chng ta ni rng I l mt m hnh (model) ca . Ni cch khc, I tha mn (satisfies) Mt biu thc l khng th tha mn c (unsatisfiable) din gii no nu v ch nu khng tn ti bt k php din gii no Mt biu thc l ng (valid) nu v ch nu mi php din gii I u tha mn Chng ta k hiu l: