Aluminium alloys

Light: 2700 kgm-3. Modulus low: E = 71 GPa, but specific modulus normal Crystal structure is fcc, so ductile at all temperatures (less so for pptn-hardened alloys) Alloying:
up to 1.25% Mn or 3.5% Mg for solid solution strengthening, up to 4.5% Cu, 7% Zn or (3% Mg + 1% Si) for precipitation hardening, up to 0.5% Cr for grain refinement, up to 17% Si, 7% Cu, 10% Mg for casting alloys.

Good machining properties Alloys are weldable (inert gas). Fatigue strength low, especially in pptn hardened alloys Corrosion resistance excellent thin strong oxide coating. Can anodise. Pptn- hardened alloys can suffer stress-corrosion cracking (ppt-free zones near grain boundaries) Good electrical and heat conductor.
S.G. Roberts 3: 1

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

Al alloys & treatment classification system

xxx is code for specific composition main alloying addition H cold-worked 1: Cold-worked only 2: Cold-worked & partially annealed 3: Cold-worked & fully annealed

1xxx 2xxx 3xxx 4xxx 5xxx 6xxx 7xxx 8xxx

99%+ Al Cu Mn Si Mg Mg+Si Zn Li (etc.)

O annealed (wrought only)

F as fabricated

2: hard 4: hard 6: hard 8: Hard 9: Extra hard 1: Partial solution & natural ageing 2: Annealed cast products 3: Solution & cold-work 4: Solution & natural ageing 5: Artificial ageing only 6: Solution & artificial ageing 7: Solution & stabilising 8: Solution & cold-work & artificial ageing 9: Solution & artificial ageing & cold-work This is the basic system: see Polmear pp68-72 for the trimmings.

Changes denote distinct alloys Changes denote minor variants [except 1xxx: xxx denotes purity level]

T heat-treated

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 2

Aluminium alloys - classes

Alloy series 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 Composition pure Al. ~4.5%Cu (+Mn,Si,Mg) age-hardened ~1%Mn, Mg. cold-worked 12%Si, (+ Mg,Ni,Cu) forgeable, age-hardened ~5%Mg (+Cr, Mn). cold-worked up to 1%Mg-Si. age-hardened up to 8%Zn (+Mg,Cu,Cr). age-hardened Other, e.g. up to 2.5%Li near Al-13%Si eutectic + 0.01%Na up to 200 up to 300 2-5 y
(MPa)

UTS
(MPa)

F
(%)

Notes Foil, decoration, electrical conductors General purpose forgings and extrusions, esp. airframes. Ductile sheet for cladding trucks, trailers. Food containers. Drink cans. IC engine pistons. (aka LM13, A332) Good formability & weldability. Excellent corrosion resistance. Structural applications, esp. marine. Hot extrusions. Window frames, etc. Highest strength alloys. Aircraft structures. Novel and specialist alloys Automotive castings. Can age-harden if Cu and Mg added.
3: 3

30 100 up to 480 up to 215 ~295 up to 350 ~275 500

100 135 up to 520 up to 290 ~325 up to 415 ~310 575

up to

50 5 20 5 0.5 15

6000 7000 8000 Cast

12 11

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

Al Mg Alloys 5000 series

700 1 - Hold at ~550C till all Mg is in solution 600 +L Temperature (C) 500 400 + 300 200 100 0 0 Al 1.8%
2

Liquid 2 Quench to room temperature. Mg is now in supersaturated solution Solid solution strengthening Y (MPa) (annealed) 160 120 80 40 0 10 20 Weight% Mg 30 40 (Mg5Al8) 0 1 2 3 4 wt% Mg 5 6
1

3 (possibly) Work-harden

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 4

5000 series alloys and applications

Y MPa) 5456 5 Mg, 0.25 Zn, 0.4 Fe, 0.25 Si 0.2 Cu,Ti,Cr 0.5-1.0 Mg, 0.25 Zn, 0.7 Fe, 0.3 Si, 0.2 Cu, 0.1 Cr 160 (O) 280 (H18) 40 (O) 190 (H24) UTS (MP a) 310 370 125 200 F (%) 24 12 30 4 Sheet, plate, extrusions, marine hulls, dump truck bodies, cryogenic tanks [many similar compositions] Sheet, high strength foil, electrical conductor wire [many similar compositions]

5005

Portsmouth Cherbourg fast ferry Launched 1998, 91m length, 5900 tonnes gross wt., 41 knots Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts

(5005 is now old tech for this similar low Mg, Fe, Cu alloys with higher conductivity now used) 3: 5

Al Cu alloys 2000 series

700 Liquid 600 500 400 + 300 200 100 0 0 Al (CuAl2) +L

Temperature (C)

10

20

30

40

50

60

Weight% Cu

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 6

Al Cu alloys 2000 series

700 Liquid 600 Temperature (C) 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 Al
2 1

1 - Hold at ~550C till all Cu is in solution 2 Quench to room temperature. Cu is now in supersaturated solution 3 Age at 180 200C. Cu comes out of solution to form precipitates

+L

+
3

[ If we just cooled directly to the ageing temperature, precipitates would form , but mostly on grain boundaries. No good for strengthening. ] 5 6

3 Weight% Cu

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 7

Heat treatment of Aluminium alloy

1 - Cu is in solution. Solid solution strengthening 2 - Cu forms clusters of atoms (G-P zones). Each zone surrounded by strong strain & stress field Coherency stress strengthening 3 - Cu reacts with Al to form fine, closely spaced, precipitates. (``). Precipitates have complicated intermetallic crystal structure Precipitate hardening 4
Precipitates are cut by dislocations bigger is harder.

0.05 m 500 Yield Stress (MPa) 400 300 200 100 1

0.5 m

2 m

10 m

3 2

Peak Aged Underaged Overaged 1000

4 Further reaction to form ` and finally (CuAl2) precipitates. Precipitates have very complicated crystal structures Precipitate hardening
Precipitates are bypassed by dislocations bigger is more widely spaced weaker. 3: 8

0 1 10 100 Ageing time (hr)

S.G. Roberts

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

Precipitate-free zones

Grain boundary precipitates can reduce nearby concentration of solute atoms. Results: weak grain boundaries chemically different grain boundaries

The quench and age heat treatments are designed to minimise this. (Slow cooling would give nearly 100% g.b. precipitates) 250nm

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 9

2000 series alloys and applications

Y MPa) Duralumin 2014 3.5 Cu 0.5 Mg, 0.5 Mn 4.4 Cu 0.5 Mg, 0.5 Mn 0.9 Si 6.3 Cu 0.3 Mn, 0.2 Si 0.1 Ti,Zn,V,Zr 275 320 UTS (MPa) 425 425 F (%) 22 13 The original age hardening alloy. Now used for rivets, etc (2017). The standard Al-Cu alloy. Aircraft structures, automotive, etc. Good creep strength: high temperature applications. Good cryogenic strength (liquid gas tanks for spacecraft)

2219

290 390

415 475

10

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 10

Al Zn alloys 7000 series

All 7000 series alloys are prone to stress corrosion cracking (so are most Al alloys!): This is alleviated by Zn:Mg ratio of 3:1 addition of Mg and Cu (etc.), control of Si, Fe and other impurities complex, multi-stage heat treatments 100 m

Y MPa) 7075 Zn 5.6 Mg 2.5 Cu 1.6 Cr 0.2 500

UTS (MPa) 570

F (%) 11 High strength alloy: aerospace structural parts. Various choices of heat treatments to emphasise weldability, SCC resistance, machinability. Typical (T73 temper): quench, age at: 120C (form G.P. zones), then 170C (form ` - MgZn2 ppts.) (7475 is high purity variant better SCC)

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 11

7000 series alloys

Manufactured for the Military Aircraft Division of Northrop Grumman Corporation. Machined from 7075-T7351 aluminum plate. Die-forged 7075-T73 Stabiliser and engine support for Douglas DC10 (4 in each aircraft!) Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts

Supercross started producing the "StrongArm" cranksets back in 1989. The first ones were made out of tubular 4130 cro-mo. The current models use the same 6 spline spindle assembly but are made out of aircraft grade 7075 T-6 billet aluminum.

EXPE Anti-Shock Trekking Poles 7075-T6 Aircraft aluminum

3: 12

Al Li alloys 8000 series

T(C) Rationale: 600 Li is light density 540 kg m-3 Reduces alloy density by 1% for each 1% Li Li dissolves up to 14% in Al at high T 400 Solubility drops at lower temps Can harden via the metastable ` phase Al3Li though this only has low strains around it. 200 Li has big size difference: good solid soln. strengthener 0 Li raises E of alloy: 10%Li gives 20% boost in E 0 Problems ? Li oxidises rapidly needs careful handling Severe gravity segregation during casting Na, K, present as impurities form low m.p. phases grain boundary failures Simple Al-Li binary alloys have poor properties cutting of ` ppts planar slip low ductility Overaging gives precipitation of phase at grain boundaries High cost about 2-3x conventional alloys
Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts

Liq. + Al3Li + `

10(w) 30(at)

20(w) 50(at)

Al-Li-Zr
3: 13

Al Li alloys development
Al-Li Al-Li-Cu Al-Li-Mg Al-Li-Mg-Cu Al-Li-Mg-Cu-Zr ` only. Planar slip: low toughness and ductility. `+ `. Good strength and creep properties, but still too low toughness. `+ Al2LiMg. Al2LiMg tends to plate out of g.b.s low toughness. `+ Al2CuMg (S-phase). 2.6:1 Cu:Mg favours formation of S phase. S-phase not easily sheared, slip homogenised toughness improved. As above, but + fine ZrAl3 stabilises grain structure, further homogenises slip. Further strength and toughness improvement.

Typical alloy: 8090: Yield strength: UTS: F: KIc: density: E:

2.5%Li, 1.3%Cu, 1.0%Mg, 0.1%Zr. 350-240 MPa 420-450 MPa 10-12% 35-65 ~2500 kg m-3 ~80 GPa
(560) (590) (12) (~2700) (~70)

Struts E/ 7475 26 F/ 220

Beams E1/2/ 3.1 F1/2/ 9.0

Panels E1/3/ 1.5 F1/3/ 3.1

(number in brackets are for competitor alloy 7475)

8090
Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts

32

180

3.6

8.5
3: 14

1.7

3.1

Al Li alloy in use
The aluminium industry has spent about $1bn developing these alloys to compete with carbonfibre composites for airframe construction.
1989 Prediction: The purchase price of the lithium-containing alloys is expected to be two to three times that of the existing high-strength aluminium alloys. However, the value of weight savings in a large passenger aircraft can be as high as $400 / kg and lithium-containing alloys have been specified for many civil and military aircraft currently under development. It is expected that Al-Li alloys will make up 7% and 10% of the structural weights of civil and military aircraft in 1990 rising to approximately 35% and 25% by 1995. These changes will be at the expense of the existing aluminium alloys. In 1986, demonstration components made from alloy 8090 were introduced into prototype models of military aircraft being test flown in the United States, Britain and France. 1996: Al-Li alloys removed at last minute from specification for Boeing 777 problems with microcracking around holes. 1998: Space shutttle fuel tanks made in Al-1%Li alloy: payload up 16%. Extra cost - $5m per shuttle (1km of welds!) 1999: EH101 in pre production Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts
Carbon fibre / metal honeycombe

Carbon / Kevlar foam Aluminium / Lithium alloy

Kevlar

Westland / Agusta EH101 Merlin

3: 15

Magnesium Alloys

Very Light: 1738 kgm-3. Modulus low: E = 44.7 GPa, but specific modulus normal Crystal structure is hcp, so slip only on basal plane at RT. Get slip on other planes above 200C, so can work (extrude) above 250-300 C. Alloying is for precipitation hardening and (wrought alloys) grain refinement. Two main classes of alloys: Type wrought cast Alloy content 2-7% 5 12 % Yield Stress 100 200 MPa 80 150 MPa UTS 200 300 MPa 150 250 MPa Fracture Strain 8 - 10 % 28%

Excellent machining properties Alloys are weldable (inert gas) Impact strengths low High damping capacity (useful in machine casings) Corrosion resistance very poor. Can coat chromate, anodise, epoxy resin.

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 16

Alloying additions

Al, Zn, Th Produce precipitation hardening very complex series of metastable ppts, depending on alloy compn. (Th very stable ppts, good for creep resistance) balance of Al, Zn and Th will influence / depend on solution treating T Mn corrosion resistance (ties up Fe and other impurities) Zr strong grain refinement (mechanism not well understood) reacts with Al and Mn, Mg-Zr alloys must be Al, Mn free.
Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 17

Cast Mg Alloys
The most important class of Mg alloys: Strongest ones are heat treated after casting to give precipitation hardening y
(MPa)

Al
(%)

Mn
(%)

Zn
(%)

Zr
(%)

Th
(%)

RE$
(%)

State
As-cast

UTS
(MPa)

F
(%)

Notes
Good general purpose sand and die casting alloy. Use as cast, or pptn harden with no soln. treatment. Sand castings. Good strength and duticlity. Improved castability.

95 80 120 150 90 130 85

135 230 230 260 170 215 170

2 4 10 7 5 4 5

9.5

0.3

0.5
Heat-treated* As-cast

4.5

0.7

Heat-treated* As-cast

4.2

0.7

1.2

Heat-treated* Heat-treated*

3.5

0.7

3.2

Retain strength up to ~200 C. High T heat treament soln at 565C, age at 205C. Creep resistant to 350C

0.7

3.2

Heat-treated

100

210

*Typical heat treatment: Soln. treat: 380 - 410C / 16hr. Quench, pptn harden 180 200 C / 10hr.
$Ce,

La, Nd, Pr Misch metal

Extrusion alloys have similar compositions but with slightly lower alloy additions (esp. Zn)
Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 18

Microstructures and Macrostructures

20m

Optical micrograph: Mg-Zn-Zr-(RE) alloy, cast and aged (no soln treatment). Note coarse gb ppts. Mg-Zr-Zn-(RE) helicopter gearbox casing

Electron micrograph: Mg-Nd-Zr alloy, cast, soln treated and aged to peak hardness. (Note PFZ at gbs) Bicycle frame (alloy unspecified ! 6% additives)
Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 19

Titanium Alloys
Light: 4507 kgm-3. Modulus lowish: E = 116 GPa, but specific modulus normal Crystal structure at low temperatures () is hcp with squat unit cell, slip on prismatic and pyramidal planes enough for moderate ductility. Pure metal transforms to bcc form () at 882C. Alloying is usually for modifying phase stability and for solution hardening. Some rare pttn hardening alloys (e.g. Ti-Cu based) Four main classes of alloys: Type CP -Ti near alloys y
(MPa)

UTS
(MPa)

F
(%)

Notes 99%+ pure Ti, with interstitial O. Creep resistant. Traces of (Fe impurity stabilised) act as grain refiner. Good welding, acceptable forging properties. Best all-round at low and moderate temperatures (up to ~400C). Can easily vary grain structure by thermomechanical treatments. Can heat-treat to ppt. on ageing. Best formability (before ageing). http://www.titanium.org/background.htm

200 500 850 1000 900 1200 1100 1300

250 550 950 1100 1000 1300 1250 1400

15 - 25 12 15 10 15 6 10

/ alloys

alloys

http://www.timet.com/index.html
Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts

3: 20

Ti alloys phase stability

Temperature +

+
+ 2 % Solute 2 + % Solute MS % Solute

+ MS Neutral Zr, Sn

Expanded field: Al, Ga, O, N, C dashed lines for Ti Al

Expanded field: Mo, W, V, Ta dashed line is martensite start

Intermetallic phase () with eutectoid; ( phase partly stabilised): Cu, Mn, Fe, Ni, Co, H dashed line is martensite start dotted lines may be relevant to normal cooling rates as eutectoid reaction can be very sluggish.

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 21

 - Ti

100m CP: effectively Ti O alloys. Hot work in phase field, anneal at 675C, produce fine equiaxed grain structure. Strength from oxygen interstitials and Hall-Petch: (e.g.) y = 230 + 10.5/d MPa

100m Can also slow-cool from phase: produces plates of growing into original (large) grains. Not as strong or ductile as equiaxed alloys, but tougher and with high fatigue resistance (complex crack paths)

Other - Ti alloys: Ti 5%Al 2.5%Sn: (IMI 317) used in low interstitial form (ELI) for cryogenic tanks space vehicles. Ti 2.5%Cu: (IMI 230) Age hardening. CP + 0.5%Pd: IMI260 High corrosion resistance

CP Ti is about 20% of current usage: applications as aerospace sheet and panels, chemical plant components.
Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 22

Architectural CP - Ti

Guggenheim museum, Bilbao 34000 m2 0.4mm sheet

MTRC Central Station, Hong Kong 70000 m2 0.6mm sheet

http://www.timet.com/architecture/index.html
Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 23

near Ti alloys
High in Al and neutral additives (Zr, Sn), relatively low in -stabilisers. Strength from grain refinement and solute hardening. These alloys have the best creep resistance of all Ti alloys. Now being used on compressor stages of jet engines up to 600C. 10m
IMI 679

Heat-treated in + phase region, air-cooled: White phase is remnant , dark areas plates of with between. Good creep properties, poor fatigue properties

Heat-treated in phase region, air-cooled or quenched: basket-weave structure of plates of with between. 100m
IMI 685

Good fatigue properties, not-sogood creep properties

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 24

Some near Ti alloys

Alloy 8-1-1 IMI 679 Composition 8%Al, 1%Mo, 1%V 2.25%Al, 11%Sn, 5%Zr, 1%Mo, 0.25%Si 6%Al, 5%Zr, 0.5%Mo, 0.25%Si 5.8%Al, 4.5%Sn, 4%Zr, 0.7%Nb, 0.5%Mo, 0.4%Si, 0.06%C y
(MPa)

UTS
(MPa)

F
(%)

Notes + heat-treated (780C). Can embrittle due to 2 formation. Substituting Sn for Al to cut down on 2 embrittlement. Extra solute strengtheners added. heat-treated. (1050C). Quenched to RT and aged at 550C to give basket weave of with some ppts.
20C

980 990

1060 1100

15 15

IMI 685

900

1020

12

IMI 834

910 480

1030 585

15 20

600C

Like 685, but Nb for extra corrosion resistance, and can tailor -structure more easily for good compromise on creep and fatigue strengths

IMI 834 is the current state-of-the-art for creep-resistant Ti alloys.

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 25

 alloys
Temperature Working at various temperatures w.r.t. the phase regions, and then cooling or quenching and re-heating gives huge scope for producing specific microstructures. General principles: + MS Work alloy in either + or field: then either MF slow cool (anneal) to produce plates of in the grains. Can produce basket weave structure. or quench to produce a martensitic form of from the . This can then be aged to give fine microstructure of and .

Yield Strength

Quenched from and aged Annealed

Quenched from % Solute

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

Most alloys are used in the annealed condition. Lower strength, but more stable at high T and better fatigue resistance.

S.G. Roberts

3: 26

 alloys: microstructures

20m Slow-cooled from field (IMI 318)

20m Slow-cooled from + field (IMI 318) 2m

2m Quenched from field (Ti 12V)

Convoluted fatigue crack growth in basket-weave IMI 318

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 27

 alloys: IMI 318

IMI 318, Ti 6%Al 4%V is the classic Ti alloy. Fully above 1005C Fully below 600C ( for Ti is 885C) Accounts for about 70% of current Ti alloy usage. Difficult to machine (like all Ti alloys). Not very weldable, or very formable at RT. Can fairly readily be formed in phase field can heat-treat and forge in one process. Can be superplastically formed in field, and can be diffusion bonded (SPF-DB) IMI 318 typical properties Air cooled from + 940 980 16 52 490 Air cooled from 910 990 12 79 740

Yield Stress (MPa) UTS (MPa) Strain to fracture (%) Fracture toughness (MPam1/2) Fatigue limit at 107 cycles (MPa)

SPFDB Ti-6-4 airframe part -one piece

Conventional version - 104 bits!

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 28

IMI 318 - Applications

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

3: 29

 Ti alloys
High in V, Mo, Cr (little or no Al): equilibrium compostion at RT is with a few % . Highest strength Ti alloys, especially after heat treatment. (Combination of fine grain size, solid solution hardening and age hardening) e.g. Ti 8%Mo, 8%V, 2%Fe, 3%Al (Ti 8823) Ti 11.5%Mo, 6%Zr, 4.5%Zn (beta III) forge, solution treat at 750-800C, quench and then age at 450-500C (24hr) to precipitate fine phase particles. Typical properties: yield stress 1250 MPa, UTS 1350 MPa, F 8%. Expensive alloys, and need very careful process control to get best properties. Difficult to weld. Poor notch toughness. Current applications limited low T, high strength items.
I Didn't Believe Them Magneto And Titanium Man . . . But When The Crimson Dynamo Finally Assured Me, Well, I Knew

Engineering C High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000

S.G. Roberts

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