A Review

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

by Sanjeev Varshney, Fellow Scholar at Management Development Institute, Gurgaon and Anita Goyal, Assistant Professor Marketing at Management Development, Gurgaon Abstract Movement of people from one retail trade area to another in search of better options and deals has been studied across the world owing to its large impact on trade flow. Studies have been done in various rural and urban settings. However, almost all except one fails to provide a comprehensive model of outshopping which has its own limitations with regard to its applicabilitys across cultures and in various settings. Nonetheless findings from the literature provides necessary inputs to start studies in various other cultures and settings. Results are presented in form of various definitions, various types, methodologies used, factors identified (individual characteristics, market characteristics, product related variables and accessibility factors) and patterns across continents. Attempts have also been made to explain their applicability to Indian conditions along with various limitations and gaps. Introduction Movement of people from one retail trade area to another in search of better options and deals has been an area of study across the continents for quite some time now. Studies in the area were picked up in the west primarily in America. In early years, studies were related to the movement of people from smaller urban settlement to adjoining, larger urban retail establishment in search of better deals. They gained prominence as trade outflow owing to such movements resulted in fall of revenue for local retailers and had other snowballing effects. Studies were aimed to understand the reasons behind this kind of trade flow and emphasis was on studying the consumer behaviour behind this kind of movement (Herrmann and Beik 1968; Thompson 1971; Darden and Perrault 1976; Samli and Uhr 1974; Papadopoulous 1980 etc). However, in later years studies were also done to study the movement of people from down town centres to regional shopping malls which came up as result of overcrowding in down centre retail areas. In these initial years studies were limited to find out the strategies to attract customers to these shopping areas, which though were large and convenient but were far off from the cities. Studies tried to identify the ways and means to attract more and more city customers to these regional shopping malls. As a result, concept of discount stores, recreational shopping etc were introduced to attract
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Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics
more and more customers to these centres (Bellenger, et. al. 1977; Bellenger and Korgaonkar 1980 etc.). Development of these centres was also able to prevent the outflow of trade to other urban centres. However, growth of these shopping malls led to the decline in business at down town centres and henceforth studies thereafter were targeted towards identifying the ways and means to prevent outshopping to these centres and other urban centres. Studies in outshopping from rural America have been only a recent phenomenon (Miller and Kean 1995; Miller and Kean 1997 etc.) Studies on outshopping in Europe were picked up a little later than in America and most of them were on rural outshopping (Marjanen 1995; Francisco 1998; Marjanen 2000; Broadbridge and Calderwood 2002). However, in addition there were studies related to development of regional shopping malls and thereafter studies to design strategies so as to prevent decline of town centres (Bearden 1977). However, the number of such studies has been very limited and mostly restricted to the U.K. Most of the Scandinavian and other European countries were mostly reporting on rural outshopping. Since the search for literature was limited only to data banks in English, literature published in other languages from other European countries was not reviewed. Australian studies on outshopping range from that of one town to another city and that on rural outshopping (Jarrat and Polonsky 1993; Jarrat, 2000). Studies on outshopping to regional shopping mall were not found. Most of the studies of Jarratt were in establishing relationships between variables and theories of outshopping. Jarrat, 2000 presents a model for outshopping but it fails to present a universally applicable model of outshopping as it can be seen that many variables which were found true in other earlier works such as age, education etc. were found out to be nonsignificant in her study, explanations for which are missing. Also this article takes two urban areas as a setting for the purpose of study and thus fails to provide a model for rural outshopping etc. nonetheless the article seems to be a seminal work in the sense that this and her earlier article with Polonsky in 1993 are the only two articles establishing relationship, mentioning inter-relationships and stating whether the impact on outshopping is direct, indirect or both and if yes, explains variance. Western marketers seem to have studied the phenomenon extensively and thereon have given strategies to counter trade loss occurring as a result of outshopping. However, there appears to be a dearth of literature in the Asian and African context. Few studies were found in the context, studying trends of movement of people from cities to regional shopping malls (Ibrahim 2002; Ibrahim and Chye Wee Ng 2002, Blois, Mandhachitara and Smith 2001). Primary reason behind them seems to be the recent spurt of shopping malls in newly developed cities of Asian countries like Singapore, Bangkok, Hong Kong etc. Studies have been carried out to study the consumer behaviour of shoppers in oriental countries and therefore design strat-
Volume 17 Number 4 2005
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egies to attract more number of customers to these centres. These limited numbers of studies in a narrow field does not cover the entire gambit of outshopping taking place in other forms in these countries. Over and above there are other countries like India where studies on this phenomenon have been altogether neglected even in the above mentioned context. Outshopping seems to be highly prevalent in India, as retail centres of most of the urban and the rural areas are not developed and there is an absence of departmental stores in these areas. Thereby, people from smaller rural and urban retail centres travel to far of distances in search of more and more options. This outflow has a snowballing effect, loses for local retailers demotivates them from keeping large variety of merchandise. As a further consequence of this shoppers move out more in search of better variety causing further loss to business. Thereby further decline to the retail profile of these smaller centres. Moreover, any attempt to explain outshopping in the Indian context with ideas taken from western literature might not give desirable results. Few reasons for this can be the difference in cultural and social background, absence of structured city planning where there is no clear cut demarcated area for retail activities within cities, absence of proper infrastructural facilities in terms of road, travel etc. These differences make it imperative to study outshopping in India with regard to local settings. However, since the phenomenon to an extent is the same, inputs from the western literature can certainly become the starting point of these studies. But while designing such studies, differences within various settings within India should be kept in mind, particularly differences in level of development, rural and urban, differences within societies and within political boundaries owing to differences in cultural backgrounds. Relevance of studies on outshopping behaviour in India is important as there has been recent growth of shopping malls in metros and certain large Indian cities. This has resulted into trade flow from traditional markets of these cities to these malls leading to decrease in the business of these traditional retail centres. Thus they need to design strategies which can attract the customers back to retail centres of these smaller towns and cities. In order to understand Indian outshopping this paper is an attempt to review the literature on outshopping so that the relevant inputs for designing studies can be obtained. For the purpose of study, articles have been searched from various electronic databases such as EBSCO, ABI INFORM, ELSEIVER and Science Direct. Almost all the popular journals have been covered under these databanks. For the purpose of search, words and phrases like outshopping, outshopping behaviour, rural outshopping, inshopping, down centre versus shopping centre, etc. were used. In all 137 articles have been reviewed for the purpose. However, after first reading only 34 articles were found dealing with the issue directly and
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hence were dealt in detail for identifying the variables, methodology and settings under which the research in each of them has been carried out. This article presents an overview of different types of outshopping dealt in the literature, various means adopted to define outshopping i.e. what does outshopping stands for, antecedents of outshopping and their relationship as discussed in the literature and finally, classification of Outshoppers as attempted by various authors in their respective studies. In addition to this, attempts have been made to review various strategies suggested in the literature to attract or to prevent shoppers from outshopping. Review of methodologies used and future trends has been discussed to present possible future directions. While dealing in all these subsections emphasis will be on finding there relevance under Indian conditions. Outshopping Behaviour Defined Outshopping involves travelling beyond ones own local market to purchase goods (Dawson and Garland 1983). Marketing Glossary dictionary of the American Marketing Association defines Outshopping as A practice whereby residents of smaller communities travel to larger communities to shop when prices become too high or assortments are not available in the smaller communities. A situation in which customers are shopping in other areas because their needs are not being met locally. It can be seen that in whatever way outshopping is defined it involves the travel of people from retail centre nearer to their place to a retail centre which is far off from their place. Also it can only be explained if similar goods are available at both the places. Outshopping has been studied in many ways. Initial studies used frequency of outshopping trips (Herrmann and Beik 1968; Thompson 1971; Hopper and Lipscomb 1991; Reynolds and Darden 1972; Samli et al. 1983; Hawes and Lumpkin 1984; Wee et al. 1988 and Hopper and Budden 1989). However, within this method of evaluation there were differences among the researchers. Thompson (1971) defined outshoppers as those who made out-of-town purchases within the past six months. Herrmann and Beik (1968) considered outshoppers as those who have made at least one out-of-town shopping trip per year, while Reynolds and Darden (1972) defined them as one who make at least 12 out-of-town shopping trips per year. Later researches classified outshopper on the basis of proportion of total out-of-town purchases (Samli and Uhr 1974; Papadopoulos 1980). This was done as researchers identified consumers who were making many outside trips but were purchasing nothing, on the contrary there were people who though made few trips but spend a greater proportion of their disposable incomes outside. On the basis of proportion of expenditure, outshoppers have been classified as heavy out shoppers, who buy 75% or more out of town; outshoppers, who make 51-75% of their purchases out of A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context
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town; inshoppers, those who make 51-75% of their urchases in town; and finally, loyal inshoppers who buy 76-100% of their purchases in town (Papadopoulos 1980). Yet another means of studying outshopping has been on the basis of distance one travels for making purchases. However, this is difficult to capture as for certain categories of goods travelling 1 kilometer might lead to outshopping where as for yet another category of goods traveling 100 kilometers might lead to outshopping. Literature discusses this but largely rejects this as criteria for studying outshopping. Almost all the researchers consider moving from nearest retail centre to another as outshopping. This particularly holds true in the western context where most of the settlements have only one retail centre. However, this can not hold true for Indian conditions where there are more than one retail centres within a settlement particularly in urban centres each one of them selling almost similar merchandise. Thus administratively identified settlement boundaries does not hold good. Also relevance of distance will have to be brought in, in case of larger cities or metropolitan towns or in case of megalopolis, which comprise more than one urban settlement and many markets (retail centres). Thus outshopping stands for shopping at retail centre other than one which is nearest to ones place of residence, this will differ from product to product but for the sake of convenience municipal boundaries in the case of smaller towns and cities and in the case of larger cities and metros, localities with fully developed markets can be considered as boundaries for studying outshopping. Different types of Outshopping Outshopping takes place under various circumstances and in varied settings. Literature includes studies on almost all of them however the degree of investigations varies. Most important form of outshopping highly reviewed by past investigators have been that from a smaller urban establishment to that of a larger urban establishments, expected to have larger retail facilities and thus greater number of options. Most of the earlier studies in American literature studied outshopping under this kind of setting (Herrmann and Beik 1968; Thompson 1971; Samli and Uhr 1974; Darden and Perreault 1976). Other forms of outshopping highly reviewed in the literature is rural outshopping. This can take two forms, one rural-to-rural outshopping and the other rural-to-urban outshopping. The first takes place when retail establishment in one rural area is larger in size than the other. This also holds true when people from one village go for shopping in weekly markets regularly held in other larger village. Other kinds of rural outshopping, rural-to-urban is most prevalent and leads to huge traffic and trade flow. Literature studies these two forms of outshopping as one (Broadbridge and Calderwood 2002; Marjanen 2000; Polonsky and Jarratt 1992; Jarratt and Polonsky 1993). Taking larger retail establishment as one entity whether it is rural or urban.
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However, no evidence of any study on outshopping to weekly markets was found in the literature. One reason for this might be that most of the examples will be available from Asian countries and that too particularly in India where they are called haats in northern India and have different names in other parts of the country. Study of this kind of outshopping gain prominence under Indian setting as 67% of Indians live in villages and with increasing purchasing capacity there is huge scope for in-situ retail development and thereby prevent large trade outflow in the form of outshopping. Existing literature also provides studies from downtown or city centre to regional shopping malls. There are two streams of studies in this area, one identifying the strategies to attract shoppers from down town to newly developed regional or out of town shopping centres. Others identify strategies to prevent outflow of shoppers to regional malls and provides ways to revitalise down town retail centres (Bearden 1977). This kind of outshopping has also been studied in the context of recently developed Asian countries (Ibrahim 2002; Ibrahim and Chye Wee Ng 2002; Blois, Mandhachitara and Smith 2001), particularly in the form of shopping centre patronage behaviour. Investigation of this kind of outshopping gains prominence under the Indian setting where development of shopping malls though a recent phenomenon has seen a spurt is recent times. With regard to the same there are talks of whether such malls will be successful, keeping in mind the already developed traditional retail centres in large cities, where most of these malls are coming up and if yes what will be there impact on traditional retail centres and what should be the strategies to counter such kind of downfall. One other form of outshopping within cities is that from nearby stores or markets to particular markets within city limits most of which have got their present status out of agglomeration effect (Blois, Mandhachitara and Smith 2001). As a result of which more and more retailers selling almost similar goods tend to come closer to each other thereby attracting more and more numbers of shoppers who expect to get better deals in anticipation of prevailing competition and larger variety at one place. This kind of phenomenon has led to the growth of specialised trade centres such as cloth market, Saraffa or jewellers market, Food Street etc. many examples of which can be seen in older cities of India which have well established trade centres. Various other forms of outshopping found in the literature are those of online and catalogue outshopping and international outshopping. Former means that shopper tends to get goods from outside by using catalogues or by visiting various online stores, however since this does not involve physical movement of shoppers, it has not been considered for the purpose of study and moreover forms an altogether new field of study called online shopping. Later, that is international outshopping is bounded by political boundaries but is gaining prominence since countries like Malaysia. Dubai, etc. have started floating them as retail destinations attracting shoppers from
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far of distances (Piron 2002). Since the consideration in this are different, the paper does not study this. A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context Outshopping has been studied as a generalised phenomenon without taking into consideration the setting and the context. Studies take two destinations in consideration one smaller and the other larger be it rural or urban or down town versus regional shopping mall etc. However, this mode of study fails to appreciate the fact that the behaviour of people from rural and urban settings tend to differ owing to difference in upbringing and exposure. This particularly becomes true under the Indian situation where value system for the people from these different backgrounds have been found out to be different owing to difference in social and cultural backgrounds. Antecedents of Outshopping and their Relationships Initial studies in the store choice behaviour considered economic motivations, time and/or cost of travel as the key factor of study. Huff (1964) gave a gravitational model of site selection; the utility of a store is inversely proportional to a nonlinear specification of the distance between the store site and the household. He focused his study on the fixed costs of shopping and assumes that shoppers are influenced by store location and the associated travel costs. Later on variable costs such as prices, discounts on bulk purchases, coupons etc. were also studied (Mulhern and Leone 1990; Kahn and Schmittlein 1992, Kalwani et.al.1990; Kalyanaram and Iner 1995). Certain analytical models of store choice were also developed on the basis of consumer use of price knowledge (Lal and Matutes 1994; Lal and Rao 1997). Limitations of economic motivators and analytical models was identified from the very beginning by various researchers studying outshopping behaviour, therefore many of them started studying certain demographic, psychographic and store related variables. Pioneering work in this direction has been done by Thompson (1971), Herrmann and Beik (1968), Darden and Perreault (1976) etc. Each one of them has carried out studies in selected urban locations and tried to identify the variables having an impact on outshopping behaviour. However, stark differences between works carried out by them in terms of area, methodology, approach etc has given varied results.
Table 1: Summary of different settings in which outshopping can take place S. No. 1. Type of Outshopping setting Rural to urban outshopping Trends of research Mostly in Europe and Australia, however of late has also been studied in USA. Very few references most of which are by Jarratt and Polonsky from Australia.
2.
Rural to rural out shopping (larger rural markets or weekly markets haats)
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3.
Outshopping from small town to a city (Urban to urban)
Major area of research and the first to be studied, references from America, few from Europe and all the Asian Studies. A later development, most of the references from America, few from Europe and all Asian Studies. Very few references, one each from Singapore and Gulf Countries. Recently developed and well researched area, primarily America and Europe. Recent references from America.
4.
Outshopping from downtown to regional shopping mall in suburbs/satellite towns
5.
International outshopping
6.
Online/Catalogue shopping
7.
Outshopping for specialised services (Health Services)
Thus as a result, though many factors have been identified but each one of them is not without contradictions. At the same time many variables are the result of single study and have not been validated by others, in absence of which generalisations can not be drawn. In addition to these, variables from other related literature such as that of store choice behaviour, shopping mall choice behaviour etc have also been considered to supplement better understanding of outshopping behaviour. Factors identified and their interrelationship with outshopping behaviour and that with other factors have been classified under following heads: Demographic Variables Demographic factors have been studied by many (Herrmann and Beik 1968; Thompson 1971; Reynolds and Darden 1972; Lillis and Hawkins 1974; Samli and Uhr 1974; Darden and Perreault 1976, Papadopoulos 1980; Dawson and Garland 1983; Hawes and Lumpkin 1984; Wee et al. 1988; Hopper and Budden 1989; Tansuhaj et al. 1989). However, there seems to be a lack of consensus among the researchers with regard to what demographic factors are good descriptors of the average outshopper. In general higher income, young age, male, race comes out as common factors in many of these studies. There are studies, which present contradiction to them but in general most of them accept them as variables influencing outshopping behaviour. Some studies show outshopping to be positively associated with education (Reynolds and Darden 1972; Papadopoulos 1980; Dawson and Garland 1983; Hawes and Lumpkin 1984). For instance, male outshoppers tend to be formally educated longer than male inshoppers (Reynolds and Darden
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1972; Hawes and Lumpkin 1984) while the wife in heavy outshopper groups tends to be less educated than wives of other groups (Samli and Uhr 1974). In contrast to these studies Darden and Perreault (1976) found no such differences among outshoppers. However, while studying rural customers Lumpkin and Hawes (1986) found people with higher education to outshop more. Thus it can be assumed that H1a: education will be positively associated with outshopping Talking of gender, males seems to outshop more often than females (Samli and Uhr 1974; Hawes and Lumpkin 1984). However, Hopper and Budden (1989) found gender to be insignificant but Hopper in his other paper with Lipscomb (1991) found females to enjoy outshopping more than males whom they found to be more satisfied with in-town stores as they are more concerned about costs of petrol and time. Bellenger and Korgaonkar (1980) found mostly women to be recreational shoppers, who are looking for a pleasant atmosphere with a large variety of high quality merchandise and thus outshoppers. Thus it appears that gender does seem to play a role in explaining outshopping, thus: H1b: outshopping tend to vary with gender With regard to age, outshopping behaviour may be negatively related to age. Younger people tend to outshop more often (Thompson 1971; Lillis and Hawkins 1974; Reynolds and Darden 1972; Samli and Uhr 1974; Papadopoulos 1980; Tansuhaj et al. 1989; Hopper and Budden 1989; Guy 1990, Sullivan and Savitt 1997; Broadbridge and Calderwood 2002). As per Reynolds and Darden (1972) people from the age group 25-54 outshop more. However, Lilli and Hawkins (1974) found most of them to belong to age group 20-34 and less between 35-49. In contrast to these studies Darden and Perreault (l976) did not find outshoppers to be essentially younger, rather they found outshoppers to be young with regard to specific product. Similarly, Jarrat (2000) found no linkage between age and outshopping. This can be due to specific local factors, but the paper seems to be silent on this. In all, from the studies reviewed it emerges that outshopping behaviour should vary with age as people in the lower age group are more mobile and tend to purchase different for which they need to outshop as it has been generally seen that larger establishments tend to give more options, thus more avenues for outshopping. Hence there should be a linkage between age and outshopping: H1c: age will be negatively associated with outshopping No significant relationships between outshopping behaviour and family size were found by (Thompson 1971; Reynolds and Darden 1972; Papadopoulos 1980; Hawes and Lumpkin 1984; Samli and Uhr 1974).
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However, Herrmann and Beik (1968), Lillis and Hawkins (1974) and Tanushaj et al. (1989) found that outshoppers tend to live in smaller households. Herrmann and Beik (1968) found that families with fewer than three young children are less prone to outshopping. Similarly, Marjanen (1993) and Schiffman, et. al. (1977) found that the household size has an influence on store choice behaviour much in contrast to that explained in the literature on outshopping (Reynolds and Darden (1972); Hermann and Beik 1968). Darden and Perreault (1976) found out that big ticket Outshoppers tend to be in the early stage of life cycle. Since no pattern emerges therefore relationship needs to be tested further, thus: H1d: family life cycle stage will be negatively associated with outshopping H1e: smaller family size will be positively associated with outshopping Similarly with regard to the number of older and younger children Reynolds and Darden, (1972) did not find any relation with outshopping whereas Herrmann and Beik (1968) found that people with young and a large number of children outshop less. This second study appears logically sound as people with a large number of children will cost more to outshop and so it will be the case with people having younger children owing to discomfort. However, in the absence of consensus much cannot be said about relevance of this factor in determining outshopping behaviour and thus needs to be tested further. Thus H1f: age of children is negatively associated with outshopping H1g: number of children is negatively associated with outshopping People with higher income tend to indicate outshopping proneness (Herrmann and Beik 1968; Darden and Perrault 1976, Dawson and Garland 1983: Papadopoulos 1980; Reynolds and Darden 1972; Thompson 1971). Hawes and Lumpkin (1984) further say that frequent outshoppers have higher income than occasional outshoppers and inshoppers. However, Samli and Uhr (1974) found that heavy outshoppers total family income was relatively less than the outshopper, inshopper and loyal inshopper groups. In contrast to these studies, Hopper and Budden (1989) and Lumpkin and Hawes (1986) found income as an insignificant factor in determining the outshopping behaviour. Jarratt (2000) using Structural Equation Modelling in her study found a direct linkage between income and outshopping, and indirect effects of income through financial optimism and shopping enjoyment on outshopping. With regard to rural customers it has been found that higher income people outshop more than low income people (Sullivan and Savitt 1997; Broadbridge and Calderwood 2002; Jones 1999). Thus taking this
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H1h: income will be positively associated with outshopping A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context One other factor, which finds further support and finds mention in the outshopping literature is car ownership. Broadbridge and Calderwood (2002) found that people with less access to a car, shop locally. Similarly, Marjanen (1993) and Schiffmann et. al. (1977) found that people with their own car shop outside more than others. Most of the outshoppers were owners of cars (Alzubaidi et.al. 1997; Guy 1990; Marjanen 1997). Thus: H1i: Ownership of a car will be positively associated with outshopping Thompson (1971) found that Caucasians outshop more frequently thus hinting at racial and cultural factors influence on outshopping. However, race and cultural factors have not been studied by others particularly in European and oriental part of the world. Since no pattern emerges this needs to be tested further thus: H1j: cultural backgrounds define variance in outshopping behaviour For tenure in community Samli and Uhr (1974); Hopper and Budden (1989) and Guy (1990) found that outshopping is negatively associated with tenure in the community. Samli and Uhr (1974) showed that tenure of the family unit in the community decreases while moving across the spectrum from loyal inshoppers to heavy outshoppers. Thus it can be interpreted that: H1k: tenure in the community will he negatively associated with outshopping In all the literature reviewed gives, place of residence, income, young age, out-of-town charge accounts and year of residence in the community as the factors having influence on outshopping behaviour. Whereas factors such as education, occupation, household size, number of older or younger children, gender, marital status, city of employment could not be established as relevant factors in determining the outshopping behaviour either owing to lots of contradictions appearing within the literature or due to the absence of substantive researches in the field. Nonetheless they become an area of study to find their relevance under Indian conditions. The table 2 overleaf summarises hypotheses discussed above. Psychographic variables Herrmann and Beik (1968) while studying outshopping behaviour of residents of a small Pennsylvania city identified a set of demographic variables having an impact on the outshopping behaviour. However, they completely missed out on the relevance of psychographic factors. People might have different socio-economic and psychological dimensions which need to be captured in order to provide a better understanding of outshopping behaviour. These factors for the first time were studied by Reynolds and Darden (1972) and were found out to be relevant in defining outshopping behav-
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iour. Reynolds and Darden (1972) found that higher urban orientation in people leads to higher outshopping behaviour. Similarly, they found that outshoppers are less loyal to a particular store; rather they often seek different stores for purchasing goods. They also found that outshoppers were low on time consciousness. However, the relevance of these factors has not been validated by other studies but since the statistical significance of psychological factors was high there relevance in predicting outshopping behaviour can be accepted. Thus: H2a: urban orientation will be positively associated with outshopping H2b: time consciousness will be negatively associated with outshopping H2c: loyalty attitude in shopping will be negatively associated with outshopping
Table 2: Summary of Hypotheses related to Demographic variables Hypotheses H1a H1b H1e H1d H1e H1f H1g H1h H1i H1j H1k education will be positively associated with outshopping outshopping tend to vary with gender age will be negatively associated with outshopping family life cycle stage will be negatively associated with outshopping smaller family size will be positively associated with outshopping age of children will be negatively associated with outshopping number of children will be negatively associated with outshopping income will be positively associated with outshopping ownership of car will be positively associated with outshopping culture define variance in outshopping behaviour tenure in community will be negatively associated with outshopping Impact Outshopping (+) vary (-) (-) (+) (-) (-) (+) (+) Vary (-)
Life style as a factor has been studied by (Reynolds and Darden 1972; Lumpkin and Hawes 1986). They have found outshoppers to be gregarious, active and flexible. Further Darden and Perreault (1976) found that Out shoppers are more mobile, fashion conscious and self confident, they dem-
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onstrate greater innovative behaviour, are more optimistic about their financial future and are more conscious. A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context H2d: financial optimism will be positively associated with outshopping H2e: level of confidence will be positively associated with outshopping H2f: shopping innovation will be positively associated with outshopping H2g: selfconsciousness is positively associated with outshopping H2h: outshopping tends to vary with personality dimensions Similar to this, a study by Michael (1999) found proneness to Outshopping as a factor influencing outshopping behaviour. Proneness to outshopping in turn is affected by higher dissatisfaction with city retail services. Thus once residents get dissatisfied with city retail activities they become more prone towards outshopping behaviour. Similar view points were also put forward by Lillis and Hawkins (1974) who found that outshoppers have a perception that local prices are higher, there is limited selection and quality is not good in the local market. Outshoppers express an overall dissatisfaction with local shopping conditions (Reynolds and Darden 1972; Dawson and Garland 1983). Thus: H2i: dissatisfaction towards local retail conditions lead to proneness towards outshopping H2j: proneness towards outshopping is positively associated with outshopping Similarly, Blakney and Sekely (1994) confirmed that shopping enjoyment/entertainment in conjunction with cognitive factors (price, quality, selection) influence shopping mode choice. Thus H2k: shopping enjoyment will be positively associated with outshopping It was found that frequent outshoppers tend to be more fashion-conscious than infrequent outshoppers (Hermann and Beik 1968; Thompson 1971; Darden and Perreault 1976; Hawes and Lumpkin 1984). Thus it can be assumed that: H21: fashion consciousness is positively associated with outshopping With regard to price sensitivity, Herrmann and Beik (1968) found outshoppers to be less price sensitive. This might be a behavioural expression of outshoppers higher incomes. However, Thompson (1971) found that outshopping was most common where price reductions were the greatest. This apparent contradiction may be due to the different travelling costs incurred by the respondents in the two studies or by price differences not
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large enough to compensate for the travelling costs in the earlier study. Since no pattern emerges this variable needs to be further tested, thus: H2m: level of price sensitivity is positively associated with outshopping Jarratt and Polonsky (1993); McGrath and Otnes (1995); Jones (1999); Ibrahim and Wee Ng (2002) identified an association between socialisation and outshopping. Similar to this, Broadbridge and Calderwood (1969) found that local retail shops from the rural area were seen to provide a vital community function which out-of-town retail shops does not seem to perform. Customers expressing these view points were found out by the researchers to be inshoppers. This view has been further subscribed by Jones (1999). Thus H2n: social orientation will be negatively associated with outshopping One unique factor mentioned in the literature is Need for uniqueness which has been defined as the need of an individual to express his/her uniqueness from other individuals - to be different and not just another face in the crowd (Snyder and Fromkin 1980; Fromkin 1972). This factor was found significant by Burns and Warren (1995) in determining the choice of suburban regional shopping mall. Thus H2o: need for uniqueness will be positively associated with outshopping One consideration in peoples orientation toward shopping is their view of alternative uses and expenditure of time (Jacoby, et. al. 1976). It has been seen that for some people, shopping may be a very enjoyable use of time irrespective of the kind of goods and services. Tauber (1972) in an exploratory study found that people shop for many reasons other than the need for products or services. He suggested a series of personal and social motives for shopping that go well beyond the purchase motive. One such personal and social motive which is mentioned in the literature is recreational shopping or shopping for entertainment (Bellenger and Korgaonkar 1980; Babin, et. al 1994). These have been defined as fun and pleasurable shopping experiences and are characterised by intrinsic satisfaction, perceived freedom and involvement (Ounter and Ounter 1980; Hirschmenhttt; Unger and Kernan 1983; Bloch et. al. 1986). These shopping experiences reflect experiential benefits of shopping and provide intrinsic or hedonic value to shoppers (Holbrook ad Hirschman 1982; Babin et. al. 1994). Jones (1998) identified this as tendencies of all shoppers to have entertaining experiences. Thus a relationship between recreational shopping and outshopping can be drawn from the fact that both try to talk above economic rational and considers the hedonic and other purchase desires in mind. Thus H2p: shopping orientation will lead to variance in outshopping behaviour A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context
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Thus in all a psychographic profile of outshoppers emerges: typical outshoppers are fashion conscious, less price and time sensitive, innovators and confident cosmopolitans with no loyalties to particular stores. Exposed to more information, the outshopper is a retailing information source and influential opinion leader. All the hypotheses assumed above have been placed in the table below in the order of increasing personality core value and thereby a column of serial number has been introduced, otherwise the statement and notation for each of them remains same. Shopping area attributes Shopping area attributes with regard to outshopping have been studied from two perspectives, one as attributes of the local retail facilities and environment which forces people outshopping and the other as the attributes of the out-of-town market, which attracts customers for outshopping.
Table 3: Summary of Hypotheses related to Psychographic variables S.No H2a H2b H2c H2d H2e H2f H2g H2h H2i H2j H2k Hypotheses urban orientation will be positively associated with outshopping time consciousness will be negatively associated with outshopping loyalty attitude in shopping will be negatively associated with outshopping financial optimism will be positively associated with outshopping level of self confidence will be positively associated with outshopping shopping innovation will be positively associated with outshopping self consciousness is positively associated with outshopping outshopping tend to vary with personality dimensions dissatisfaction towards local retail conditions lead to proneness towards outshopping proneness towards outshopping is positively associated with outshopping shopping enjoyment will be positively associated with outshopping Impact on Outshopping (+) (-) (-) (+) (+) (+) (+) vary (+) (+) (+)
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H2l H2m H2n H2o H2p
fashion consciousness is positively associated with outshopping level of price sensitivity is positively associated with outshopping social orientation is positively associated with outshopping need for uniqueness will be positively associated with outshopping shopping orientation will lead to variance in outshopping behaviour
(+) (+) (-) (+) vary
Herrmann and Beik (1968) found concern over local prices to be insignificant in determining outshopping behaviour. However, prices were found to influence outshopping behaviour by Blakeney and Sekely (1994). On similar lines non-availability of product variety in the local market leads to greater outshopping (Hopper and Lippscomb 1991) and availability of product variety in out-of-town market, presence of various alternatives of similar product acts as a factor leading to greater outshopping (Reynolds and Darden 1972; Herrmann and Beik 1968). Thus it can be assumed that: H3a: prices in the local market will be negatively associated with outshopping H3b: product variety in the local market will be negatively associated with outshopping One other factor mentioned in the literature is sales assistance, it was found to have an influence on store and retail centre choice behaviour (La Forge et. al. 1984; Bearden 1977). In contrast to this local merchants friendliness and convenience was found not to affect the purchase decision except for grocery items (Lillis and Hawkins 1974). Alzubaidi (1997) found that town centre seems to outperform out-of-town location on social functions being performed. This might have a negative influence on outshopping but relevance will have to be investigated further. Bearden (1977) found that the overall store atmosphere influences the decision to outshop. H3c: quality of service at a local shop is negatively related to outshopping Hawes and Lumpkin (1984) found that the presence of specific retail facilities, such as beauty salons/barbershops, convenient location and ease of access increased outshopping. Thus in all, negative attitude towards local retail and positive image towards out-of-town market leads to more outshopping. Marjanen (2000) and Francisco (1999) found that the overall retail environment (determined by location, retail structure, positioning and image) was also influencing outshopping behaviour. Over all city image and basic facilities and other basic facilities were also identified as influenc-
45
ing store choice behaviour (Warnaby and Barry 1997; Gentry and Burns 1977). Warnaby and Barry (1997) found that interaction of retailing with other land uses in the city such as infrastructure etc will be a factor in determining the consumers perception of both the image of the city as a whole and the perception of the quality of the retail provision. They also found overall socio-cultural factors of the city people had an influence on the consumer perception. Marjanen (1993) and McCarthy (1995) also found overall positive image perception important in influencing the outshopping behaviour. Thus H3d: local market environment will be negatively associated with outshopping H3e: overall city image of out-of-town market will be positively associated with outshopping Consumers dissatisfaction with local shopping conditions may motivate people for outshopping (Thompson 1971; Samli and Uhr 1974, Reynolds and Darden 1972, Lumpkin and Hawes 1986; Michael 1999). However, in contrast to this Hopper and Lipscomb (1991) found a low relationship of outshopping with attitudes towards local retailers. Thus H3f: dissatisfaction with local retailing will lead to proneness towards outshopping One other important factor identified by Lillis and Hawkins (1974) is perception about prices, quality and variety of goods being provided by local retailers. They found that outshoppers have a perception that local prices are high, there is limited selection and quality is not good. Further they found that with regard to larger communities residents from small communities have a perception that in retail centres of larger communitys prices are lower. H3g: Negative perception about value being offered by local retailers is positively associated with outshopping Most of the outshopping studies already described were done with respect to consumers from small urban communities. Studies by Papadopoulos (1980) and Marjanen (1993) and Marjanen (1997) found that residents from smaller communities were more prone towards outshopping as compared to residents from large community which generally have more established trade facilities. Whereas Michael (1999) during his study found that city dwellers are more prone to outshopping as compared to suburban residents. This study seems to be in contradiction to the others but maintains its relevance from the fact that the settings for both of them are different. Both of them point towards one commonality i.e. shoppers tend to shop in places which offer more options, which in the earlier case were larger establishments and in latter case were suburbs with regional shopping malls. Thus:
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H3h: multiplicity of options in larger establishments is positively associated with outshopping. Accepting the relevance of these factors, various other factors have been identified as having an influence on outshopping behaviour. One such factor is price reductions being offered by the stores of out-of-town market (Thompson 1971; Papadopoulos 1980, Hopper and Lipscomb 1991). It was identified that the more the price reductions the more will be outshopping. This factor also has a large psychological connotation, as it reduces the overall cost of outshopping thereby attracting more people. Thus H3i: price reduction by out-of-town retailers will be positively associated with outshopping Lastly, it was found that the presence of a car in itself will not suffice for outshopping, in fact people will prefer destinations with adequate parking facilities (Marjanen 1997; Bearden 1977). In the context of outshopping it can be understood from the fact that more the congestion in down town or the Central Business District the more people will prefer outshopping where parking facilities are large. Thus H3j: parking facilities at the out of town market will be positively associated with outshopping. Thus with regard to market characteristics both the characteristics the local market along with the attractiveness of the out-of-town market seems to play a role in determining outshopping. All the hypotheses explained above have been placed in order of understanding and relationships without changing the statements and the notations. Product Related Factors Many product specific factors have been identified as having an impact on outshopping behaviour. Initial researchers (Thompson 1971; Herrmann and Beik 1968; Papadopoulos 1980) found that most of the goods purchased by outshoppers have a fashion element in them. Most of the shopping were for ladies coats, ladies fancy dress, gents suits, handloom, home furnishings, carpets and rugs etc. Outshopping was least for groceries (Hopper and Lipscomb 1991). Papadopoulos (1980) found that out of town purchases are mostly for semi-durable goods that are less bulky, easy to carry and did not involve monetary outlays. Further it was found that outshopping is less for products with greater customer service requirements (Thompson 1971; Papaodopoulos 1980; Blakney and Sekely 1994). However, in contrast to all these studies, Reynolds and Darden (1972) found that outshopping is not related to any specific product. But since most of the studies point towards A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context
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outshopping of a particular kind of product it can be easily assumed that more the price reduction more will be outshopping. A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context
Table 4: Summary of Hypotheses related to Shopping area attributes S. No. H3a H3b H3c H3d H3f Hypotheses prices in local market will be positively associated with outshopping product variety in local market will be negatively associated with outshopping quality of service at local shop is negatively related to outshopping local market environment will be negatively associated with outshopping dissatisfaction with local retailing will be positively associated with proneness towards outshopping negative perception about value being offered by local retailers is positively associated with outshopping multiplicity of options positively associated with outshopping price reduction by out-of-town retailers will be positively associated with outshopping parking facilities at out-of-town market will be positively associated with outshopping overall city image positively associated with outshopping Impact on Outshopping (+) (-) (-) (-) (+)
H3g
(+)
H3h H3i H3j H3e
(+) (+) (+) (+)
Table 5: Summary of Hypothesis related to Product related factors S.No. H4a Hypothesis life style products will be positively associated with outshopping Impact on Outshopping (+)
H4a: Life style products will be positively associated with outshopping Accessibility Factors These factors have not been adequately addressed in the literature of outshopping behaviour. Most of the studies have been done identifying the costs of travel. In this field, pioneering work was done by (Reilly 1931) who gave laws of retail gravitation and which were later on refined by (Converse 1949; Huff 1964). Lots of studies in accessibility factors have been done in the context of store choice behaviour. Distance travelled and conve-
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nience associated with it has been found significant in determining the store choice behaviour and with regard to outshopping by rural customers (Sinha and Banerjee 2002; Francisco 1999; Marjanen 1993; Schiffman 1977; McCarthy1995; Kahn and Schmittlein 1989). Relevance of these factors can be explained with logic of rationality as with increased distance, cost of shopping would go up and thus overall utility will go down. Kahn and Schmittlein (1989) found that store choice is dependent upon the time of shopping trip as consumers may go to a local shop for short fill-in trips and may go to a more distant store for regular shopping trips. With regard to distance Blakney and Sekely (1994) found that distance between the cities is detrimental in outshopping behaviour. Thus H5a: distance will he negatively associated with outshopping Explaining further (Ibrahim 2002; McCarthy 1995) found that effort, tension and comfort influences store choice behaviour. On similar lines it was found that less travel time and cost influences store choice behaviour positively (Ibrahim 2002; Sinha and Banerjee 2002; Jones 1999). One another factor similar to them is the presence of logistical infrastructure to support the venue. Positive correlation was found between the two by Warnaby and Davies (1997). H5b: convenience in travel will be positively associated with outshopping Thus it appears that a customer will like to travel to a limited distance for the purpose of outshopping and will also evaluate the level of comfort and effort before going on for any kind of outshopping.
Table 6: Summary of Hypotheses related to Accessibility variables S.No. H5a H5b Hypotheses distance will be negatively associated with outshopping convenience in travel will be positively associated with outshopping
Impact on Outshopping (-) (+)
Discussion Thus the literature provides a set of antecedents and their probable impact on outshopping, however these relationships are not without contradictions and the hypotheses given above are only probable propositions to be tested under Indian conditions. However, it is also true that many of the variables defined above might be dropped in the process of testing and similarly many other might get clubbed together having their genesis from the same factor. In addition to this there would be interrelationship between many of them and similarly many of them might have direct as well as indirect effect over outshopping behaviour. To test all this, a model for outshopping has to be proposed under Indian conditions and tested thereon for its validity. This paper does not cover the same and only aims to present the various view-
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points and findings from the literature which are supposed to form a basis for future studies and model building. A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context Classification of Outshoppers Classification of consumers becomes necessary in order to understand if there are any variations with regard to a particular behaviour. This helps in understanding the profile of various segments so that strategies can be designed accordingly to attract the customers of that segment. Behaviour of customers within a particular segment tends to show a common pattern and therefore commonalities in strategies for handling them. These commonalities in behaviour can be in terms of observed behaviour, motivation and benefits sought, thereby introducing variety of options for marketers in terms of strategy. Studies have been conducted to classify the shoppers in general. Stone (1954) classified shoppers on the basis of shopping orientations and classified them as economic shoppers, personalising shoppers, ethical shoppers and apathetic shoppers. Stephenson and Willers (1969) classified them, on the basis of retail patronage where as Bellenger and Kargaonkar (1980) divided them into two categories on the basis of extent of shopping enjoyment as economic and recreational shopper. There have been many other similar classifications in past (Chicago Tribune 1955; Darden and Reynold 1971; Darden and Ashton 1975; Moschis 1976; Williams, Painter and Nichols 1978). A major review of all such attempts was done by Westbrook and Black (1985) who classified shoppers into four groups as the shopping process involved, choice optimising, apathetic and economic shoppers. Their classification was based on seven major dimensions of shopping motivation viz, anticipated utility, role, enactment, negotiation, choice optimisation, affiliation, power and authority and stimulation. Shopping motivation was also proposed by Dawson et. al. (1990). The key motivational theories underpinning non-product related motivation in shopping behaviour are theories of stimulation (environmental attributes), affiliation (social interaction) and cognition (learning about new trends and innovations). Based on these developments and accepting the contribution of motivation to understanding shopping behaviour Jarratt (1996) identified six shopper categories based on the importance of aspects of the shopping offer, service, and environmental to individuals. These were have to shoppers, moderate shoppers, service shoppers, experiential shoppers, practical shoppers, and product-focused shoppers. This segmentation was used by her in drawing outshopping behaviour models (Jarratt 2000) for different segments of shoppers and stark differences were found in antecedents with regard to the same. In addition to this non-product-related motivation in shopping behaviour and segmentation based on them, the literature on outshopping also tends to classify shoppers on the basis of products purchased by them in
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out-of-town market considering the fact that number of trips and amount of expenditure in all is unable to explain outshopping behaviour of various people. Hozier and Stem (1985) found that products purchased by various shoppers in out-of-town market varied both between and within class. Darden and Perreault (1976) have classified them as Inshoppers, Big-ticket Outshoppers, Furniture Outshoppers, Appearance Outshoppers and Home Entertainment Outshoppers. However, the literature failed to provide any shopper segmentation of Indian customers. Thus to carry out any further study on Indian outshoppers and to observe patterns, it becomes important to classify the Indian shoppers. In order to carry out such studies under Indian conditions, inputs from western literature can be used, however this should be used with caution as factors from the literature might only define a proportion of behavioural differences and there can be variables specific to Indian conditions important to define patterns. But it also becomes important to note that since motivational theories hold true across cultures inputs can be extended to the Indian case for developing Indian shopper segments. Consequences of Outshopping Outshopping has been found to have major consequences on the health of retail settlements. In order to evaluate and predict level of outshopping, attempts have been made to develop scales and methods to evaluation. Hozier and Stem (1985) used a regression model incorporating loyalty to retailers and an attribute scale to predict inshopping behaviour. Lillis and Hawkins (1974) used an outflow valuation model to examine the proportion of income which flows out for specific products versus total proportion of income spent on these products. There were certain other studies like that of LaForge, Reese and Stanton (1988) who developed a Net Trade Flow Index (NTFI) to examine retail trade flows. Mangold and Brockway (1988) used a variation of NTFI and called it a sales conversion index which also took care of individuals non earned income. Making modification to it and enhancing it further for contiguous areas Polonsky and Jarratt (1992) developed the index for residual net trade flow, which took care of the fact that a retail area not only faces trade outflow but also some sort of trade inflow. They calculated these figures for the Bathurst and Orange region of Australia and were able to find out whether the area attracted net outshopping or inshopping. Similar types of indexes have also been attempted in various other regional settings of America. Efforts have been to identify the actual impact of outshopping so that the need to develop strategies to counter the phenomenon can be estimated. Based on estimates the importance can be established, as well as a study conducted thereon can also help to identify the profile of people who go for maximum outshopping. This helps the local retailers to identify and develop strategies to target these customers. Similarly, any such study can
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also detect the area of maximum leakage that is the product for which maximum outshopping occurs. Thereon attempts can be made to counter this trade, as it has been seen that as and when individuals go for buying this product out-of-town, they also tend to purchase other products increasing loss to the retail community on the whole. However, it should be understood that outshopping cannot be stopped fully but certainly strategies can be designed to minimise the same but needs to be addressed with priority as out shopping has a snow-balling effect and leads to a vicious cycle causing major loss for the area. Studies on outshopping are also used as an input by out-of-town market retailers to find out the profile of individuals who come for outshopping, so that they can accordingly develop the retail environment and start keeping merchandise as per the needs and demands of the outshoppers from another market. Based on the understanding they can also develop strategies to attract more outshoppers from other markets. Lastly but not least, learning from studies on outshopping can also be used for the purpose of town planning. Keeping in mind the profile of people, alternative centres of retail and entertainment can be developed so as to decongest down town centres or traditional retail centres. This was used extensively in the west, resulting in the form of large number of regional shopping malls which have come up all over the west. But since this strategy had a major impact on the overall health of down centre, policies were criticised and now efforts are on to revive such centers. Studies can also be used to identify location and features for new retail complex/mall/centres for newly developed urban settlements so as to attract customers. They can also be used by mall developers to estimate potential for their malls. The importance of these consequences goes up in the case of India, as India at present is seeing a fast urban growth most of which is haphazard and unorganised. This can boomerang if proper strategies for retail and traffic flow based on retail now are not made at the right time. Thus the need for such studies under various Indian settings, both rural-urban as well as urban to urban. Current Trends in Research: Future Prospects Research in the field of outshopping has been carried out across the world for a long time, primarily in America and Scandinavian countries. Jarratt carried out research in this field in Australia since the early years of the last decade of the 20th century. Research in Asian countries as already explained has been miniscule and that too primarily in the field of outshopping to shopping malls and all the more studies have been confined to the field of identifying shopping mall choice criteria of various customer segments.
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However, no study with regard to rural markets or inter-market sales leakage was found in the Asian context. The above trends stand true in the Indian context also. No study with regard to outshopping was found in the Indian context. However, there has been a study on store choice behaviour (Sinha, Banerjee and Uniyal 2002) which was conducted in the urban setting of Ahmedabad. Keeping in mind the absence of Indian evidence and high urban growth it becomes important to carry out studies on outshopping under Indian conditions. Such studies will help marketers and planners to identify better strategies to either counter outshopping or to attract customers to out-of-town market. In order to do this Indian researchers need to identify the profile of Indian outshoppers under various settings so that strategies can be designed accordingly. While trying to identify the methodologies being used in studying outshopping behaviour across the world it was observed that almost all the papers starting from Herrmann and Beik 1968 to Jarratt 2000 and thereon has used an analytical approach. All of them have collected data through primary survey and have used analytical techniques varying from simple mean (Thompson 1971) to multiple regression analysis (Jarratt and Polonsky 1993). The article by Jarratt published in the July 2000 edition of The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research has used Structure Equation modelling for the purpose of model building. Here she has given a generalised model for outshopping, taking antecedents and relationships from her earlier work and that of others. In addition to this, she has also attempted separate models for different shopper groups which were identified by her, in her earlier paper on shopper taxonomy for retail strategy published in 1996. Most of the surveys used were one time surveys, however there have been a few longitudinal studies as well in the field of outshopping, trying to capture changes in behaviour with change in retail profile of the places concerned (Alzubaidi et. al 1997; Broadbridge and Calderwood 2002). There has been no attempt to study outshopping using the interpretive paradigm or a technique other than analytical. Thus in all it can be seen that though the studies in the field of outshopping covers a very long period of study and has been able to give large number of antecedents under various heads: demographics, psychographies, environmental factors, product related factors etc but somewhere fail to provide a comprehensive model of outshopping applicable under a particular setting. Moreover, it can be seen that there are stark differences among the researchers with regard to acceptance of various variables. However, this can be appreciated along with fact that results tend to vary with settings which have their own backgrounds. Present studies also fail to address the issue of applicability of various models or patterns across cultures and societies. In the absence of which it becomes all the more imperative to test the present models and patterns in the Indian setting and if found non-applicable need arises to develop models with respect to Indian settings and that too with varying differences in the cultural background of different parts of the country. A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context
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Conclusion A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context This paper tries to present a comprehensive view of the literature published on outshopping to date. It has been observed that outshopping which stands for movements of individuals from nearest retail area to another in search of better deals and options has been studied across the world. However, most of the studies were carried out in the west particularly in America and Australia. Other than these countries certain studies have also been conducted in Scandinavian and recently developed Asian countries, but the number of such studies in these countries is very small and is a recent phenomenon. With regard to settings under which various studies were conducted, it was seen that the literature talks of studies in almost all the categories. However, it was observed that most of the American studies were with regard to urban to urban setting, whereby a shopper either leaves his small town market for a larger adjoining market or down town centre for a regional shopping mall. Out of these, initial studies were in the first setting and later studies in the later area. However, in later studies it was observed that most of them tried to identify the strategies which retailers from smaller centres should adopt to prevent outshopping. However, studies in European and Australian countries were a mixed bag with the majority in rural-urban setting where as all the Asian studies were with regard to shopping mall choice behaviour. The literature on outshopping covers large numbers of antecedents varying from demographics, psychographies, environmental etc. and gives their impact on outshopping under various settings. However, except a few all others fail to provide the amount of impact and that whether the relationship is direct or through a mediating variable. In all the literature fails to provide models for outshopping except for that provided by Jarratt (2000) which too seems to be applicable under a particular setting. Over and above there appears huge contradiction among researchers with regard to the relationship a variable holds with outshopping under a particular setting. One another major observation made is that there are differences among researchers with regard to the way outshopping is defined and measured, however of late a kind of consensus seem to emerge among the researchers with regard to percentage of income and various indexes have been developed to measure it. In all however, the definition of outshopping still remains an area with difference of opinions and needs to be further investigated and established. The literature provides various means of segmenting outshoppers and the paper by Jarratt provides different models for different groups of outshoppers. However, once again there does not seem to emerge a pattern with regard to segmentation. In addition to this it was seen that all the studies to date have worked in the positivistic paradigm with an analytical approach using various analytical techniques. However, of late it has been
54
observed that the trend is towards is towards development of models of outshopping under various setting and to measure the impact of outshopping on a particular retail area. In all it becomes clear that though outshopping as a phenomenon has been studied across countries but incidence of such studies in Asian countries has been low and with almost no reference from India. Thus need emerges for studies in this area keeping in mind the fact that high rate of urban growth and development of varied forms of retailing necessitates better planning and implementation for adequate all round development and in order to do this it becomes important to study the behavior of outshoppers.
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A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Outshopping from small town to a city (Urban to urban)

Outshopping from downtown to regional shopping mall in suburbs/satellite towns

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Outshopping for specialised services (Health Services)

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

H2l H2m H2n H2o H2p

(+) (+) (-) (+) vary

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

H3h H3i H3j H3e

(+) (+) (+) (+)

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Impact on Outshopping (-) (+)

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Volume 17 Number 4 2005

A Review and Extension of the Outshopping Paradigm to the Indian Context

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

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