PORCELAIN ENAMELING, CERAMIC COATING, AND ORGANIC COATINGS

Metals can be coated with a variety of glassy (vitreous) coatings to provide corrosion and electrical resistance, and to provide protection at elevated temperatures. These coatings are usually classified as porcelain enamels, and generally include enamels and ceramics. (The word enamel is also used for glossy paints, indicating a smooth, hard coating.)

Enamels

Porcelain enamels are glassy inorganic coatings that consist of various metal oxides. Enameling, which was a fully developed art by the Middle Ages, involves fusing the coating material to the substrate by heating them both to 425 C-1000 C to liquefy the oxides. The coating may be applied by dipping, spraying, or electrodeposition and thicknesses are usually 0.05 mm-0.6 mm. Depending on their composition, enamels have varying resistances to alkali, acids, detergents, cleansers, and water: they are also available in various colors. Typical applications for porcelain enameling are for household appliances, plumbing fixtures, chemical processing equipment, signs, cookware, and jewelry. Porcelain enamels are also used as protective coatings on jet engine components. Metals coated are typically steels, cast iron, and aluminum. Glasses are used as a lining, for chemical resistance, and the thickness is much greater than that of enameling. Glazing is the application of glassy coatings on ceramic wares to give them decorative finishes and to make them impervious to moisture.

Glazing Glazing, which derives from the Middle English for glass, is a part of a wall or window, made of glass. Glazing also describes the work done by a professional "glazier". Glazing is also (less commonly) used to describe the insertion of ophthalmic lenses into an eyeglass frame. Common types of glazing that are used in architectural applications include clear and tinted float glass, tempered glass, and laminated glass as well as a variety of coated glasses, all of

which can be glazed singly or as double, or even triple, glazing units. Ordinary clear glass has a slight green tinge but special clear glasses are offered by several manufacturers. Glazing can be mounted into a window sash or door stile, usually made of wood, aluminium or PVC. The glass is fixed into a rabbet (rebate) in the frame in a number of ways including triangular glazing points, putty, etc. Toughened and laminated glass can be glazed by bolting panes directly to a metal framework by bolts passing through drilled holes. Glazing is commonly used in low temperature solar thermal collectors because it helps retain the collected heat.

Ceramic Coatings

Ceramic coatings, such as aluminum oxide or zirconium oxide, are applied at room temperature using binders, to the substrate. Such coatings act as thermal barriers, and have been applied (usually by thermal spraying techniques) to hot extrusion dies, turbine blades, and dieselengine components, to extend life of these parts.

Organic Coatings

Metal surfaces can be coated or precoated with a variety of organic coatings, films, and laminates to improve appearance, eye appeal, and corrosion resistance. Coatings are applied to the coil stock on continuous lines, with thicknesses generally of 0.0025 mm-0.2 mm. Such coatings have a wide range of properties: flexibility, durability, hardness, resistance to abrasion and chemicals, color, texture, and gloss. Coated sheet metal is subsequently formed into various products, such as TV cabinets, appliance housings, paneling, shelving, residential building siding, gutters, and metal furniture. More critical applications involve, for example, naval aircraft, which are subjected to high humidity, rain, sea water, pollutants (such as from ship exhaust stacks), aviation fuel, deicing fluids, and battery acid, and which are also impacted by particles such as dust, gravel, stones, and deicing salts. For aluminum structures, organic coatings consist typically of an epoxy primer and a polyurethane topcoat, with a lifetime of four to six years. Primer performance is an

important factor in the durability of the coating; consequently, a lot of research is being conducted to develop improved coating materials.

DIAMOND COATING

The properties of diamond that are relevant to manufacturing engineering are described as cutting-tool material, as a single crystal or in poly crystal line form. Then, abrasive in grinding wheels, for grinding hard materials and dressing of grinding wheels (i.e., sharpening of the abrasive grains). Besides, dies for drawing wire less than 0.06 mm in diameter; and coatings for cutting tools and dies. Important advances have been made in the diamond coating of metals, glass, ceramics, and plastics, using various techniques, such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma-assisted vapor deposition, and ion-beam-enhanced deposition. Examples of diamond-coated products are scratchproof windows (such as those used in aircraft and missile sensors for protection against sandstorms), sunglasses, and cutting tools (such as inserts, drills, and end mills), wear faces of micrometers and calipers, surgical knives, razors, electronic and infrared heat seekers and sensors, light-emitting diodes, diamond-coated speakers for stereo systems, turbine blades, and fuel-injection nozzles. Techniques have also been developed to produce free-standing diamond films on the order of 1 mm thick and up to 125 mm in diameter; these include smooth, optically clear diamond film, unlike the hazy gray diamond film formerly produced. The film is then laser cut to desired shapes and brazed onto, for example, cutting tools. The development of these techniques, combined with the important properties of diamond (hardness, wear resistance, high thermal conductivity, and transparency to ultraviolet light and microwave frequencies), have enabled the production of various aerospace and electronic parts and components. Studies are also continuing into the growth of diamond films on crystalline copper substrate by the implantation of carbon ions. An important application is in making computer chips. Diamond can be doped to form n- and p-type ends on semiconductors to make transistors, and its high thermal conductivity allows closer packing of chips than would be possible with silicon or gallium-arsenide chips, significantly increasing the speed of computers.

Diamond-Like Carbon

A more recent development is diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings, a few nanometers in thickness, which use a low-temperature, ion-beam-assisted deposition process. Less expensive than diamond films but with similar properties (such as low friction, high hardness, and chemical inertness, as well as a smooth surface), DLC has applications in such areas as engine components, tools and dies, gears, bearings, micro-electromechanical systems, and microscale probes.

SURFACE TEXTURING

Each manufacturing process ( such as casting, forging, powder metallurgy, injection molding, machining, grinding, polishing, electrical-discharge machining, grit blasting, and wire brushing) produces a certain surface texture and appearance. Obviously, some of these processes can be used to modify the surface produced by a previous process. For example, grinding the surface of a cast part. However, manufactured surfaces (casting, grinding, polishing etc) can be further modified by secondary operations for technical, functional, optical or aesthetic reasons. Surface texturing consists of techniques such as etching which is using chemicals or sputtering techniques, electric arcs, lasers which is using excimer lasers with pulsed beams. The applications include molds for permanent-mold casting, rolls for temper mills, golf club heads and computer hard disks. Finally, atomic oxygen which is process reacting with surface to produce a fine, cone-like surface texture.

A New Technology for Producing Textured Surfaces using Ink - Jet Texturing by Intexia Lid

Overcoming the limitations of previous technologies, ink-jet texturing is a new process developed by Intexia Lid, capable of producing non-random (deterministic) textures on both flat and cylindrical metallic parts, irrespective of the hardness of the metal. Furthermore, there is no heat-affected zone or displaced material, making it suitable for a large number of applications, including directly textured bearings and seals, automotive steel and aluminum sheet, basic embossing rollers, and basic injection mould dies. Surface Texturing is used because defined as the modification of the functional properties of the surface of an object, surface engineering is typically undertaken to change the physical or visual properties of a surface. These properties, and the reasons for wanting to change them, are many and varied. There may be a requirement to reduce (or even increase) the friction between mating parts, to improve the formability of a metal sheet, to increase the surface area of a substrate (perhaps to improve the adhesion of a coating), or to enhance its decorative appeal and reduce its sensitivity to surface scratches. Surface engineering is frequently taken to mean the application of chemical processes such as coating, nitriding or ion implantation. Yet all of the above benefits, and more, can also be achieved by surface texturing - modifying the topography of the surface instead of its chemistry.

The Ink-Jet Texturing Process

Ink-jet texturing is a remarkably straightforward process. A controlled mask is printed on the surface of the part, followed by a chemical or electro-chemical machining process to etch away those parts of the surface that remain exposed. The standard embodiment of ink-jet texturing, in which the surface is etched to a single depth, is termed 2D texturing. The texture pattern could be of a regular geometry for functional purposes (such as sheet steel) or a decorative pattern for embossing. Essentially it could be any image generated in the software and downloaded to the ink-jet printhead.

Application Ink - Jet Texturing: I. Ink-Jet Texturing in Engine Components Intexias high-resolution system offers a wealth of potential applications for ink-jet texturing in engine components. The surfaces of many of these parts have to be textured to retain sufficient friction, or to achieve the desired level of lubrication for the parts to function efficiently. Some companies in the automotive industry are currently investigating potential new technologies to enable this application of surface textures. Ink-jet texturing could have significant advantages compared to laser etching, including surface smoothness and pattern design. Furthermore, laser etching uses high temperatures to displace the unwanted metal, which can decrease the quality of the object being created. With ink-jet texturing, the unwanted metal is dissolved into solution, therefore eliminating any formation of heat-affected zones. II. Ink-Jet Texturing for Permanent Traceability Another area of potential application is component marking for permanent traceability. Conventional ink-jet codes may wear off, break down at high temperatures or be attacked by chemical contact. Thermal and mechanical processes may distort thin parts or leave material tens of microns proud of the marked face, which is potentially catastrophic if a good thermal contact is critical. An inkjet textured code would be permanently recessed into the surface, yet retain the flexibility of ink-jet and laser for incremental serialising. This type of texturing can also be used in mechatronics.

PAINTING Paint has been widely used as a surface coating. The engineering applications of painting range from appliances and machine tools to automobile bodies and aircraft fuselages. Paint generally classified as: Enamels produce a smooth coat with a glossy or semi-glossy appearance. Lacquers: Form a film by evaporation of a solvent. Water-based paints: applied easily, but have a porous surface and absorb water, making them more difficult to clean than the first two types. Paints are available with good resistance to abrasion, temperature extremes, and fading; are easy to apply; and dry quickly. The selection of a particular paint depends on specified requirements. Common methods of applying paint are dipping, brushing, rolling, and spraying (in figure 34.22).

FIGURE 34.12

Methods of paint application: (a) dip coating, (b) flow coating, and (c)

electrostatic spraying (used particularly for automotive bodies).

Electrostatic Spray In electrocoating or electrostatic spraying, paint particles are charged electrostatically and are attracted to surfaces to be painted, producing a uniformly adherent coating. Electrostatic spraying is better compare to conventional spraying, because the loss can be as little as 10 of the paint. However, deep recesses and corners can be difficult to coat with this method. Use the robotic control to guide the spray nozzle. Advantages and Disadvantages of Electrostatic Spray Advantages I. saves in material costs and labor I. Disadvantages Has guns that tend to be bulky and delicate II. Has high transfer efficiency- can lead to less paint waste III. IV. Has good edge cover Has uniform film thickness III. IV. Requires all parts to be conductive Has high equipment and maintenance cost II. Requires extra cleanliness

Electrostatic Spray by OTSON Technologies Corporation In using the liquid electrostatic spray gun , the high compress air tends to throw the paint away when the paint passes through the special nozzle, the droplets pick up the charge from an electrically charged electrode at the tip of the gun by charged electrode. The charged particles are given their initial momentum from the fluid pressure/air pressure In this case, the expelling effect appears between the paint carrying electrostatic and the live particles as to cause further atomization of paint and thus, forming much finer thin fog. Due to the occlusion of electrostatic, the lost paints are sucked back to the workplace in generating a kind of surrounding electrostatic effect and the over spraying phenomenon is thus minimized. In this way, the machine has achieved the purpose of electrostatic coating.

SURFACE CLEANING A) Cleaning and Removal Processes: Cleaning consists of the removal of contaminating or otherwise unwanted liquid, solid, or semi-solid material from the surfaces of the component. Most surface treatment operations require a clean and prepared surface, therefore, cleaning of the surface is the first process that precedes almost any other surface treatment or coating process. The type or method of cleaning to be used depends upon -- the type of contaminant to be removed -- the degree of cleanliness required -- the cost of cleaning -- the design of the part

B) Mechanical Cleaning: Wire or Fiber Brushinguse of wire wheel or brush to scrape off rust and loose surface material. Bonded Abrasive--sand paper used to loosen and remove material Abrasive Blastingstriking of surface with stream of solid material to impact and abrade surface contaminants and protrusions Tumbling use of rotating barrel filled with grit or abrasive material which cleans and smoothes surface as parts are tumbled. Steam Jets use of high pressure steam to melt and dislodge oil, grease, and dirt off surface. Ultrasonic Cleaning use of high frequency vibration to cause cavitations near the surface of a part and dislodge dirt and loose material. C) Chemical cleaning: Solution or Solvent Cleaning dissolves oils and greasy contaminants in a liquid cleaning solution base of hydrocarbons Saponification -- chemically converts organic oils into soap solution. Emulsification dipping or spraying solvent and emulsifying solution which reacts with contaminant allowing dirt and grease to take on a form that becomes suspended in the solution. This is a good method to remove caked or clumped materials.

Dispersion--active elements cause physical movement to move contaminants away from surface. Aggregation--agents collect and concentrate oil and dirt for easier removal

D) Cleaning Fluids: Alkaline Cleaning soaking or spraying a part with a solution of alkali salts and detergents. Very good for removing oil, grease, dirt, and machining compounds.

Requires a water rinse. Immersion Cleaning -- dipping or submerging a part in a pool of solvent to dissolve and remove oil, grease, and oil-borne dirt. Vapor Degreasing a part is passed through a container with solvent in a vapor state. The vapor condenses on the cool part and drips off. Part is warmed and removed. Acid Cleaning soaking or spraying a part with solution of acidic salts, wetting agent, and detergents in water. Very good for removing rust, tarnish, and scale. Pickling immersion of a part in a strong acidic cleaning solution. Generally used to remove oxides, scale, and dirt from metals. Also be used to pit and roughen up the surface. Salt-Bath Cleaning-- immersion of part in bath of molten salt. Used to remove scale, oxides, carbon, and graphite contaminants. Electrochemical cleaning-- use of electrical charge and current to assist alkali, acid, pickling, or salt-bath cleaning processes. Electrolysis releases oxygen and hydrogen which provides a scrubbing action on the part. E) Design Guidelines for Cleaning Cleaning discrete parts with complex shapes can be difficult. Some design guidelines are as follows: Avoid deep, blind holes. Make several smaller components instead of one large components, which may be difficult to clean. Provide appropriate drain holes in the parts to be cleaned.

The treatment and disposal of cleaning fluids, as well as of various fluids and waste materials from the processes described in surface technology, are among the most important considerations for environmentally safe manufacturing operations.

CONCLUSIONS Surface treatment is an important aspect of all manufacturing processes. It is used to impart specific physical and mechanical properties, such as appearance, corrosion, friction, wear and fatigue resistance. Several techniques are available for modifying surfaces. The processes used include mechanical working and coating of surfaces, heat treatment, deposition, plating, and coatings, such as enamels, non- metallic materials, and paints. Clean surfaces can be important in further processing and use of the product (e.g., coating, painting, or welding). Cleaning can have a significant economic impact on manufacturing operations. Various mechanical and chemical cleaning methods may be utilized. REFERENCES Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R. Schmidt (2001). Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, (4th Edition), state: Prentice Hall. Mikell P. Groover (2002). Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing Materials, Processes, and Systems, (2nd Edition), state: John Wiley & Son, Inc. John A. Schey, (year). Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, (3rd Edition), state: Mc Graw Hill. E. Paul Degarmo, J T. Black, Ronald A. Kohser (2003). Materials and Processes in Manufacturing, (9th Edition), state: John Wiley & Son, Inc. http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1925 http://p2pays.org/ref%5C01/00777/appltech.htm http://www.otson.com/surface_technologies.html