Farm Animal Nutrition

ANUT 221

2006
Study Guide Internal students

Physiology and Animal Science, School of Rural Science and Agriculture

Table of Contents

Welcome from your lecturers About ANUT 221 Resource material Lecture and practical timetable Assessment Problem Solving Session Anatomy and Digestion Practical Report Salivary, Gastric and Intestinal Digestion Digestive Tract Anatomy Technique to measure glucose absorption (Demonstration) Gas Formation by rumen microorganisms Feed formulation practical Poultry experiment procedure and assessment Basic knowledge questions Learning assistance (tutorial) questions Major text resources Example exam questions

3 5 6 7 8 9 13 13 17 20 23 24 27 34 38 43 44

Animal Metabolism, Digestion and Nutrition

ANUT 221

Welcome from your lecturers !

Professor John Nolan E-mail: jnolan@une.edu.au Phone: 02 6773 2605

Professor John Nolan has expertise in ruminant and monogastric animal nutrition and feeding behaviour. He held research contracts for the Australian Meat and Wool Research Corporations for a number of years after gaining his PhD (studies of ruminant nutrition and metabolism). Since 1986 he has lectured to undergraduates in biochemistry, animal nutrition and animal production units and been supervisor of many post-graduate students. His current research projects are in ruminant, poultry and pig nutrition and in feeding behaviour of farm animals.

Dr Ian Godwin Phone: (02) 67 73 2488 e-mail: igodwin@une.edu.au Dr. Ian Godwin is Senior Lecturer in the Division of Physiology. His training as an animal nutritionist, closely linked with expertise in physiology provides the impetus to drive research programs in digestive physiology. His interests include nutritional physiology of production animals, humans and animals as diverse as yabbies and the black rhinoceros! 3

Dr Roger Hegarty Phone: 02-6770 1806 Email: roger.hegarty@dpi.nsw.gov.au

Dr. Roger Hegartys major research areas include ruminal metabolism (rumen protozoa and methane production in ruminants) and nutritional modification of fat and lean deposition in lambs. He developed much of this Unit in 1995 while working for UNE. He is presently employed as a Research Officer in the NSW Agriculture Beef Centre and can be contacted on (02) 67 70 1806 e-mail: roger.hegarty@agric.nsw.gov.au

Course Coordinator: Dr. Darryl Savage Phone (02) 6773 3623 E-mail: darryl.savage@une.edu.au

Darryl Savage has experience in education and research management in tropical animal nutrition. Previously, he managed on-farm research programs for commercial cooperators, including the worlds largest beef producing companies. He holds research contracts with many commercial organizations and industry bodies such as Meat and Livestock Australia. He has worked in both the intensive and extensive segments of the Australian beef industry and operates a family beef, wool and sheep meat production enterprise. He has involvement in the live export trade with a focus on improving the welfare of sheep on arrival in the Middle East region.

About ANUT221
ANUT221 is offered jointly by Physiology and Animal Science staff in the School of Rural Science and Agriculture and NSW Agriculture.

This unit introduces basic concepts in digestion and metabolism and their integration through neural and endocrine function. There are sections on foods (or feeds) and principles of food analysis; the anatomy and physiology of the digestive tract; the energy and protein requirements of ruminants and non-ruminants; nutritional roles of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids; and minerals and vitamins. Diet formulation and the relationships between nutrition and animal production are also covered, and the practical work is mainly focussed on experimentation that elucidates principles of physiology or is directly related to animal production.

General Outcomes from the Unit

After completing this course you should have a clear working knowledge of the basic food ingredients that you (and simple-stomached animals, including pigs and poultry) need to meet requirements over a lifetime. You should understand how energy, protein, minerals, vitamins, water and atmospheric oxygen contribute to health, growth and (re)production. You should also understand the factors that determine an animals nutritional requirements that change as its physiological status changes during its lifetime and whether the animal will eat feeds that meet its requirements. You should have learned how to formulate diets to meet an animals current needs.

You will also learn about the fermentation processes in the forestomachs of ruminants that enable them to utilise the worlds vast resources of cellulosic foods (grazed forages, browse, agricultural by-products etc) They can eat these feeds that have little direct nutritional value for human beings or other animals with simple stomachs) and, in conjunction with simple nitrogen sources such as urea, turn them into valuable commodities such as milk, meat, wool and draught power from which humans benefit enormously.

What is nutrition?
Nutrition is not, strictly speaking, a core discipline - it is an amalgamation of other disciplines. ANUT221 depends on, and assumes, a basic knowledge of biochemistry, physiology and aspects of earlier course work, and builds on these to provide an understanding of how animals obtain nutrients, and then process (digest and metabolise) them to form animal products. It also provides the basis for developing feeding management strategies that ensure farm animals are fed correctly and economically for their health and optimum production, whilst avoiding toxicity.

Ingestion, digestion and metabolism

Nutrition - the supplying of energy substrates and nutrients to an animals body - ultimately is determined by the animals physiology and behaviour. Feeding behaviour is important because, after all, a perfectly balanced diet is of no use to an animal unless it eats it, and animals may simply not recognize that the food or supplement we are offering is food, or they may avoid eating it because they do not recognize it, or they have learnt that it was toxic when they ate some of it on a previous occasion! Aspects of physiology, on the other hand, impinge directly on the level of food intake and its digestion, and on the flow of nutrients into various areas of an animals body (providing the building units for synthesis of meat, wool, milk). Particular aspects covered in detail are the anatomy and functions of the digestive tract and certain parts of the endocrine system that regulate the animals biochemical pathways and physiology. The delivery of nutrients to tissues depends on many factors, such as how well those nutrients are digested and absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and how efficiently they are used by the tissues the latter depending on the balance of the nutrients supplied and endocrine and other factors. Feeding behaviour is dependent on the animals previous dietary history and experience of different feeds, whether the animal is hungry or satiated and the animals physiological state

(pregnancy, lactation etc). Even the environment (both physical and mental) in which the animal lives may have profound effects on intake and the flow of nutrients into the body. Although we teach in modules such as gut physiology, energy, protein, minerals and vitamins, diet formulation, you should not lose sight of the inter-relationships between these topics. For example, when we supplement an animal with a protein-rich concentrate, the animal is provided not only with protein, but also with energy, amino acids (that may be glucogenic), minerals, vitamins and water. Do you remember from BCHM210 the basic biochemical structures of amino acids and the metabolism of carbohydrates, and the requirements of animals for vitamins? You will certainly need this information, and it is your responsibility to revisit it if you need to.

Why study nutrition?

All of us need to have a working knowledge of nutrition for our own well-being, and to be able to respond knowledgeably when people ask us for nutritional advice. For farmers and their advisers, an understanding of nutrition is crucial. We hope that you will not only gain a basic understanding of nutrition but also enjoy the practical components and exercises in the course that are designed to instill some of this expertise. Enjoy your discovery of physiology, nutrition and feeding behaviour and best wishes for your studies!!

Resource material This Study Guide provides information on how you should approach the problem of gaining an understanding of basic nutrition during this semester. The guide aims to assist you in the learning process and provide you with details of how your progress will be assessed during the term and at the end-ofsemester exam. Exercises and likely exam questions are included. It also contains information relating to the Practical Experiments and Practical Reports to be covered in the course -- and a justification of why we have structured the course in the way we have. In addition to this Unit Guide, we have prepared lecture notes that contain the information you will need for your studies in this Unit. The book contains 39 lectures, presented by the three lecturers, grouped into 7 major modules as follows: 1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Digestive physiology and anatomy Feed composition and feeding systems Carbohydrate utilisation Lipid utilisation Protein utilisation Minerals and Other Nutrients Issues in Animal Nutrition and Production

Inevitably there will probably be more information in the book than you will need for a basic understanding of nutrition. However, we hope you will find all the information both interesting and helpful. We suggest you use this resource as a textbook during your study and as a source of relevant information to assist with your assignments. Additional resource material and questions are provided below, and in the practical notes. Lectures and practical sessions All lectures and practical sessions are held on Tuesday, starting at 9am in the Wright Lecture Theatre. As the entire day is dedicated to this unit, the program for each Tuesday may be flexible to accommodate lecture, tutorial and practical needs. Tuesday is nutrition day!

Timing Week 23 Week 24 Week 25 Week 26

Dates 25th July Free week 8th August 15th August

Lecturer Dr Ian Godwin

Assessable practical Topics 1. Physiology of the gastro tract 2. The digestive tract 3. The stomach 4. Pancreatic and biliary secretion 5. The small intestine 6. The large intestine 7. Physiology of the ruminant 8. Forestomach function and development 10. Digestive tract of the chicken 12. Pancreas and metabolic regulation 1 13. Pancreas and metabolic regulation 2 Assessable practical (value = 10% Due date: 8th August) Problem solving session Assessable practical (value = 10% Due date: 15th August) Anatomy and Digestion

Week 27

22nd August

Dr Roger Hegarty

Topics 14. Feed analysis systems 15. Energy systems 1 16. Energy systems 2 17. Factors affecting feed digestibility Topics 9. Rumen digestion 11. Comparative digestion strategies 18. Plant carbohydrates 19. Carbohydrate digestion by monogastrics Basic knowledge quiz first attempt (3pm, 29th August, Wright Lecture Theatre, value = 10%)

Week 28

29th August

Prof John Nolan

Week 29 Week 30

5th September 12th September Prof John Nolan

3rd year tour Topics 20. Rumen microorganisms 21. Rumen metabolism 22. When fermentation goes wrong 23. Utilisation of products of carbohydrate digestion

Week 31 and Week 32 Week 33 Week 34 3 October 10th October

rd

Mid-semester break
Prof John Nolan Topics 26. Protein 27. Proteins in animal production 28. Mammalian protein metabolism 29. Feed protein evaluation 30. Nitrogen dynamics ruminant 31. Managing protein nutrition Assessable practical (value = 15% Due date: 10th October) Poultry feeding experiment

Week 35 Week 36 Week 37

17th October 24th October 31st October

Dr Darryl Savage

Topics 24. Introduction to lipids 25. Mammalian lipid metabolism 32. Macro-minerals 33. Trace minerals 34. Vitamins 35. Water and feed additives 36. Regulation of feed intake 37. Feeding behaviour: nutrient intake 38. Efficiency of production 39. Feeding standards for pigs, poultry and ruminants Basic knowledge quiz second attempt (if required) (3pm 10th Oct, Wright Lecture Theatre, value = 10%) Assessable practical (value = 15% Due date: 31st October) Formulation of a feedlot ration for cattle

Week 38

Exam period begins

Assessment
Assessment item Basic knowledge quiz End-semester exam Practical reports and seminar TOTAL Value 10% 40% 50% 100%

Overall marks of 50%, 65%, 75% and 85% in both theory and practical assessments are expected for grades of pass, credit, distinction and high distinction, respectively. A student must perform satisfactorily in all components of the unit to pass the unit: for all grades, a higher mark in certain assessments may not necessarily be deemed to counterbalance a relatively weaker achievement in other assessable tasks.

Basic knowledge questions (value = 10%)

There will be 15 basic knowledge questions relating to animal nutrition you will be required to answer. To achieve the full 10% value for this component of the assessment, you will be required to answer at least 14 of the questions correctly. If only 13 questions or less are answered correctly, a result of zero will be awarded for this component of the units assessment. A list of basic knowledge questions are provided in a later section of this study guide for your information. The 15 questions that will appear in the quiz, will be taken from this list. All students will be offered two attempts at this quiz. If you do not achieve a mark of 14 or better in the first quiz, you can have a second attempt. The 15 questions that appear in the exam are considered essential basic knowledge for any animal nutrition student. The basic knowledge quiz (first attempt) will be held on Tuesday 29th August at 3pm in the Wright Lecture Theatre. The second attempt (for those students that did not achieve 14 marks or better in the first attempt) at the Basic Knowledge Quiz will be held on Tuesday 10th October at 3pm in the Wright Lecture Theatre. The duration of the Basic Knowledge Quiz will be 20 minutes.

End-semester exam (value = 40%)

The end-semester exam will be held during the exam period in November. The exam will be 2 hours in duration and will cover material from all topics and practical sessions. Copies of previous years exams can be found on the UNE website at https://secure.une.edu.au/pls/erez/ELE_GATEWAY?EREZ_Option=EXAM

Practical reports and seminar (value = 50%)

The Practical component of this unit is designed to link closely with and to complement the lecture material and to provide you with hands-on experience of laboratory experiments, feed formulation and practical feeding of farm animals. A description of each practical session is provided below.

Practical Problem solving session Anatomy and digestion practical report Poultry feeding experiment report Feedlot ration formulation seminar

Due date 8th August 15th August 17th October 31st October TOTAL

Value 10% 10% 15% 15% 50%

8

Problem solving session (Value = 10%, Due date: 8th August)

You will be allocated into pairs and will be asked to present your answer to a hypothetical problem. The problems are listed below and you will be allocated one of them. Each group will have 10 minutes to present their solution to the problem to the rest of the class. It is recommended that you use Powerpoint to deliver your presentation. You will be graded on both your research into the solution of the problem and your presentation. Much of the background material for your problem solving can be gained from the course notes. We want you to think laterally with these problems. If you can see a solution with future technology (eg. gene manipulation) let us (the audience) know. Also alert us as to any future research that is needed. The problems to be solved. 1) A new treatment for autism, a psychiatric disorder, has been recently suggested. This treatment involves intravenous infusion of the hormone secretin, with a view to counteracting other peptide hormones in the brain. As the local gastrointestinal physiologist, you are asked to comment on the following, prior to the commencement of some animal trials. 1. Can we simplify the treatment by giving the hormone orally? 2. What side effects are likely to result from the use of this treatment? 2) High blood cholesterol levels are known to be linked with a high incidence of cardiovascular disease in humans. As a feedmilling nutritionist for Uncle Bill's pet foods, you are asked to make suitable rations for geriatric cats, dogs, pigs, sheep, turkey's etc. The major thrust, say the marketing wing of the company, is to sell the concept of lowering your pet's cholesterol in old age, so they live long and fulfilling lives. We'll make zillions with this concept, how can we do it?" What dietary factors are important for controlling cholesterol levels in the blood and what are your comments to the board of directors about the proposal? 3) Cimetidine is an antihistamine (H2-blocker), widely used to treat gastric ulcers in humans. The drug has been tested on pigs and has also been shown to prevent the formation of ulcers in this species. As part of a trial to treat the high incidence of gastric ulcers in housed sows, sows were given food containing cimetidine, throughout pregnancy and lactation. After farrowing it was noted that as the pigs approached weaning age many were found to be anaemic (a megaloblastic anaemia) and showed polyneuropathological symptoms. After weaning the problem appeared to correct itself. What is a likely cause of the disorder in the piglets and how could it be treated? 4) Whilst eating her lunch, Ingrid notices that her lower jaw begins to swell rapidly on one side. It is not particularly painful, but is obviously rather disconcerting. The swelling dissipates over the next hour or so. Later on that afternoon she accepts some chewing gum from a friend and her friend exclaims, "What is wrong with your jaw it is all swollen up"? Again the swelling subsides, but later that night when she is hungry and is waiting for her dinner to cook, her friends eat a beautifully rich smelling pizza in her presence. Again her under jaw area swells and she finally consults a doctor. What do you think the diagnosis may be and how would you explain the symptoms to her? 5) A gastroenterologist wants to examine the colon of patients using a new colonoscopic technique. Unfortunately this cannot be done whilst faecal material remains in the large intestine, because the view is blocked. The colon needs to be completely empty of opaque material and ideally filled with clear fluid? "Patients object to being given enemas, so how can this be achieved", asks the gastroenterologist. What is your advice? 6) A new nematode parasite has been discovered in the New England area. It appears to live within the abomasum of the sheep and cattle and the stomach of pigs. Virtually nothing is known about this worm (its appearance has coincided with the landing of something from outerspace into the Guyra 9

reservoir), but some cytochemistry reveals that large quantities of gastrin granules appear to be released into the blood stream when the worm feeds from the gastric mucosa. You are asked to speculate on the effects this may have on the host, the conditions that the worm may prefer and why the worm may release this substance at feeding. 7) After years of eating an unhealthy diet Ingrid has decided to do something about it. She is going to undergo a whole lifestyle change and believes a good start would be to undergo a colon hydrotherapy session to rid her body of the accumulated wastes. She is a little concerned about the cost $80 per session (totals of 10 sessions). She asks your opinion and gives you the attached material supplied by http://www.shanti.com.au/colonic/colonic1.htm. 8) The attached material (http://chetday.com/fcprins.html ) was obtained from the internet by a parent of a child who has had chronic diarrhoea for some time. They think this may be the answer to their childs problems and seek your opinion of Dr Sheltons dietary suggestions. 9) A farmer (Harry) wishes to mix his own pig ration from home grown constituents. He bases his ration on wheat and soybeans with appropriate mineral/vitamin mixes to provide a balanced diet using the same amounts of ingredients exactly as his local feedmill. The farmer simply mixes his ingredients, hammermills and feeds his pigs. His pigs grow exceptionally poorly. The following data is provided from the local abattoir where his pigs were killed. The abattoir is monitoring pancreatic enzyme activities with a view to commercial sale. What is happening and what is your advice to the farmer? Pancreatic Enzyme Activities (units/mg protein)

Normal
Trypsin Chymotrypsin Amylase *Note each value is considered significantly lower. 12 10 39

Harry's Hogs*
7 6 12

10) Bart, steals an endoscope from the physiology building and decides to examine his own colon. He notes that he has many out-pouchings from his large intestine. He reads in the lecture notes that he borrowed from his friend who actually attends lectures that this condition is called diverticulitis. He immediately changes his diet to reduce the roughage component and blends all his food in a blender to give his colon the least work possible. Is Bart an idiot or not? 11) You are working for Care-Australia in a remote refugee camp in central Africa. The water supply has been contaminated with faecal effluent and cholera has broken out among the population. The diarrhoea is extremely severe and people are dieing by the dozen. You are concerned about potentially thousands of deaths. How are you going to treat these people? 12) You are working for Care-Australia in central Africa and notice that many of the children have Kwashiorkor with swollen bellies. You decide to give them a protein supplement. A quick read through your nutrition notes shows that the best quality protein is casein, the protein found in milk. You order large quantities of milk powder as this has good keeping qualities and should provide the much needed protein for the kids. What is a likely scenario and how could you prevent it? 13) A milk replacer diet for early weaned dairy calves is being developed. Meat meal can no longer be used since the Mad Cow Disease problem, Fish meal is unprocurable because new methods of catching fish means far less wastage and hence less fishmeal and soybean meal has become too expensive. A protein source being trialled is saltbush protein (Atriplex spp). The protein specifications look ideal, but the extract contains high levels of oxalate. You are asked to comment on what problems are likely to occur because of this oxalate and how they may be overcome.

10

14) Following a major earthquake epicentred on Guyra, much of the local potato crop was ruined. However, many potatoes near harvest were lifted from the ground by the earthquake and the tubers exposed to the sun for several weeks. Many of these were harvested and although noticeably green in colour, were fed to the population at the Guyra Lamb and Potato Festival barbecue. You have also heard that the lamb was lotfed and that poultry manure was included in the sheep ration. Many of the people who ate at the BBQ suffered severe diarrhoea, excessive salivation and muscle tremor shortly after eating at the BBQ. As an agronomist/nutritionist, you are asked to comment about a letter written to the editor of the Armidale Distress. The letter states "that the feeding of poultry manure to sheep is disgustingly gross, cruel and unethical and that many people at the festival needlessly suffered as a result of this inhumane practice. The lotfeeders should be sued!" 15) As part of their research, Air Antarctica are testing the effects of high altitude without pressure compensation, on the human body in the event that the cabin pressure of an aircraft suddenly drops in mid flight. To do this research a pilot trial (pun intended) using sheep in a decompression chamber is set up. The air is removed from the chamber, but the partial pressure of oxygen is maintained, to such an extent that it simulates flying unpressurized at 9000m, while breathing in an oxygen mask. The air in the chamber is constantly exchanged, monitored and analysed and it is noted that at the commencement (control period) of the experiment that considerable methane and CO2 are present in the chamber air. With the drop in pressure the levels of methane and CO2 drop dramatically and the animals appear to go into circulatory shock and collapse, several die. In an earlier study, QANTAS used captured hijackers for their research in a similar protocol with no untoward effects. The researchers ask your opinion as to what is going on! 16) A computer model has been developed to simulate the movements of phosphate in a farming ecosystem in a very environmentally sensitive area in the Snowy Mountains. The model follows P movement from soil to plant to animal and back to soil with all the appropriate inputs. It is designed to allow for the kinetics of phosphate transfer between the different P pools. It assumes that P in faeces is slowly released into the soil as the faecal pellet must first degrade. This assumes effects of climatic variables etc. P in urine is assumed to enter the soluble soil pool very rapidly. The model works beautifully for sheep in a grazing system. During one very severe drought the farmer is forced to supplementary feed his animals with wheat grain. The computer model is given the same data inputs for the animal and the soil, but the food phosphate intake is simply adjusted to allow for the slight increase in P intake. Some time later after it has rained, major problems with blue-green algae contamination of waterways emerge. You are asked to comment in the land and environment court on the possible shortcomings of the computer model. 17) Your friend in the Animal Psychology department has developed a chewing gum for cattle. The animals appear to enjoy chewing away at this inert substance and it appears to prevent boredom and some stereotypic behaviours. She asks you whether it may be of use in bored feedlot cattle. 18) Following a dairy deregulation protest, an irate protestor has managed to contaminate 1000 tonnes of dried milk powder with some feedlot effluent at the Tamworth Acme plant. Analysis confirms the contamination and the E. coli count is deemed too high for the milk to be used for human consumption. However it is deemed quite OK for animal consumption. You are approached by Acme Dairy Products about the possibility of using this material for animal consumption. The Tamworth area is quite diverse in animal species that are fed high protein supplements. Pigs, poultry and beef lotfeeding together with dairying are the major industries. Which industry would you recommend the milk powder be used with, and how could any possible problems be overcome?

11

Anatomy and digestion practical report (Value = 10%, Due date: 15th August)
SALIVARY, GASTRIC AND INTESTINAL DIGESTION AIM: This practical class is designed to give you some understanding of the chemistry associated with enzymatic digestion, buffers and emulsification of fats. NOTE: This practical must be handed to the demonstrator at the end of the practical session.

INTRODUCTION: Digestion of food begins in the mouth. Simple physical breakdown of food into smaller particles occurs because of mastication and further down the tract by the movements of the various organs. The chemical digestion of food results from the action of the many enzymes secreted into the gastrointestinal tract. The determination of the buffering power of whey (from milk). a) b) Pipette 10mL of whey into a small beaker and measure its pH using the pH meter. Pipette 0.5mL of 0.1N HCl into the beaker containing the whey, gently stir and measure the pH again. Repeat steps b), until the pH approximates 4 (the pH of chyme entering the duodenum). Repeat steps a), b) and c) using water instead of whey. Complete the following table pH of Whey pH of Water

c)

d) e)

Cumulative Acid Added (mL) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

Did the whey show any buffering against the acid? __________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 12

Why are patients with peptic ulcers or dyspepsia advised to eat regularly, preferably many small meals, rather than fewer big meals? __________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ The emulsification of fat by bile. a) b) c) d) e) Set up two tubes in a test tube rack. Pipette 5mL of water into the first tube and 5mL of diluted bile into the other tube. Add 1 drop of vegetable oil to each tube. Shake vigorously and let stand. Interpret the result.

__________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ The action of pepsin on congo red fibrin (stained protein). a) b) Set up 4 test tubes in a rack (A, B, C and D). Add the following to these tubes: ABCDc) d) e) 3mL of pepsin solution, 3mL of 0.1N HCl, mix. 3mL of pepsin solution, 3mL of water, mix. 3mL of water, 3mL of 0.1N HCl, mix. 3mL of pepsin solution, boil under a bunsen flame, 3mL of 0.1N HCl, mix.

Place a small piece of fibrin in each tube. Incubate in a water bath at 37C for 15 minutes, shaking occasionally. The release of dye from the stained fibrin indicates enzymatic digestion of the protein.

Results: Tube A_____________________________________________________________________ Tube B_____________________________________________________________________ Tube C_____________________________________________________________________ Tube D_____________________________________________________________________ What does boiling do to the pepsin? __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________ Is HCl necessary for the action of pepsin? __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________ 13

The effect of pH on trypsin activity. a) b) c) d) e) f) Set up two tubes in a rack. Pipette 2mL of pH 4 buffer in Tube A and 2mL of pH 8 buffer into Tube B. Add a small piece of Congo red fibrin to each tube. Add 0.5mL of trypsin to each tube. Incubate in a water bath at 37oC for 15 minutes, shaking occasionally. Observe for digestion of fibrin.

At what pH was the trypsin more active? How does this pH correspond to the pH of the small intestine? __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________ What neutralises the acid secreted into the stomach further down the gastrointestinal tract? __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ The clotting of milk by rennin. a) A B C D Set up four test tubes in a rack (A, B, C and D). 5mL of fresh milk. 5mL of fresh milk + 2mL of rennin solution. 5mL of fresh milk + 2mL of boiled rennin solution. (Boil the rennin under a Bunsen in a separate tube and then add to the milk). 5mL of fresh milk + 10 drops of saturated ammonium oxalate solution + 2mL of rennin solution; in that order.

b) Incubate the tubes at 37C and test every 5 minutes for coagulation by tilting the tubes (not shaking). What does ammonium oxalate do to render rennin ineffective? __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ What is the importance of milk coagulation to the neonate? __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ Mixed saliva of humans 1) 2) 3) Take 40 mL of 0.25% starch solution in a 100 mL conical flask. Incubate at 37C. Leave in incubator until required. Set up six 10 mL test tubes containing 5 mL of Benedict's solution. Labelled A-F Set up six 10mL test tubes; add 2ml of iodine solution to each tube. Labelled A-F 14

4)

Add 1 mL 0.25% starch solution to the first Benedict tube (A) and also to the first iodine tube (A) only. The iodine solution gives a blue/black colour indicating presence of starch. Place the Benedict's tube in a boiling water bath and leave there for at least twenty minutes. Cool in air and inspect for precipitate which appears as a fine reddish suspension and/or a pale green emulsion. A precipitate indicates the presence of a reducing sugar. This should not be present in your tube A. Expectorate into your flask containing 0.25% starch. Place the flask in the water bath at 37oC and pipette off a 1 mL sample every 2 minutes and test for starch (iodine tubes) and reducing sugar (Benedict's tubes), using the procedure outlined in 4) above except use tubes labelled B at 2 minutes, C at 4 minutes etc. Finish the experiment when the iodine tubes show no colouration. Record this time. What does this mean? _____________________________________________________________________ Record also the time of appearance of erythrodextrin (reddish purple with the iodine solution). (This may not occur). Record the time of first appearance of reducing sugar in the Benedict's tubes.

5) 6)

7)

8)

9)

i) What is meant by mixed saliva? __________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ii) What is the action of ptyalin (amylase)? __________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________

15

Digestive Tract Anatomy

You will be shown a video of a dissection of a sheep digestive tract. You will also have demonstrated a dissection of the gastrointestinal tract of a chicken and a rat.

The digestive system of the sheep.

Describe the epithelial surface of the rumen ____________________________________________ reticulum__________________________________________ omasum___________________________________________ abomasum_________________________________________

What are rumen pillars? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ What is the function of the oesophageal groove? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ What is the consistency of the digesta in the rumen, omasum and abomasum? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ Why is the oesophagus a different colour to rest of the tract? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ Describe the musculature of the chicken gizzard. ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ What is Meckels diverticulum? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________

16

Draw a table of the digestive processes occurring in each of the major segments of the GI tract of the sheep, chicken and the rat. Explain what happens to cellulose and to protein in each of these segments.

17

Rat
Oesophagus (Rattus norvegicus) Diet - Omnivorous Small Intestine largely grain Stomach

Caecum

Colon

Oesophagus Small Intestine Reticulo-rumen Omasum Sheep (Ovis aries) Diet - Herbivorous Caecum Abomasum Colon

Crop

Chicken (Gallus gallus)

Liver

Proventriculus

Diet - Omnivorous
Isthmus Gall Bladder Gizzard Pancreas

Pyloric Sphincter

Caeca Small Intestine Large Intestine Cloaca

18

Demonstration of a technique to measure glucose absorption

Aim: To show that glucose is absorbed in from the small intestine of a rat as a representative mammal.

Introduction
The small intestine is the major site of absorption of nutrients in virtually all mammals. In the nonruminant it absorbs sugars, peptides, amino acids, fats, vitamins and minerals. The ruminant is somewhat different as much of the energy substrates are absorbed prior to the small intestine as volatile fatty acids. However, the small intestine is still the major site for absorption of peptides, amino acids, fats and vitamins and minerals. Glucose and amino acids are transported against a concentration gradient, indicating the presence of an active transport mechanism. They are dependent on the concomitant absorption of sodium. For glucose the transporter is the sodium-dependent hexose transporter, known more formally as SGLT-1.

(Johnson LR, ed. Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract. Raven Press, NY, 1994. pp. 1751-1772)

Many methods, both in vitro and in vivo, have been used to study simple sugar absorption, eg. in vitro perfusion, everted sacs, rings of intestine and isolated mucosal cells in vivo perfusion using multiple lumen tubes or circulating pumps, and ligated, washed out loops in anaesthetized animals. We shall be using the last method. The disappearance of the substance under study (it need not necessarily be glucose) is taken as an index of absorption.

Procedure
1. Weigh the rat (adult fasted for 24 hours). 2. Anaesthetise the rat with sodium pentabarbitone at the rate of 5mg/100g body weight by intraperitoneal injection. Maintain surgical anaesthesia throughout the experiment.

Intraperitoneal Injection of a Rat (http://www.urmc.rochester.edu/ucar/images/2fig8.gif)

3. Make a mid-line incision in the abdominal wall about 2cm long from the pelvic region cranially. Do not make the incision too cranially as you may cut the diaphragm. 4. Locate the caecum. Follow the small intestine cranially from the caecum for at least 30cm and ligate with cotton. Do not tie off any mesenteric blood vessels.

19

Segment of rat small intestine showing the mesentery and blood vessels

5. Using a 26G needle inject saline at 39oC into the lumen of the intestine caudal to the ligation to wash the loop. Carefully force the saline along towards the caecum and ligate the intestine forming about a 10 cm loop. 6. Form a second loop in the same way starting about 1cm from the previous one. 7. Fill one 2 ml syringe with about 1.5mL of warm Krebs-Ringer-Bicarbonate without glucose (A). Fill a second syringe with 1.5mL of glucose solution (B) (6g/L glucose in Krebs-RingerBicarbonate). 8. Inject the most cranial loop from syringe A until the loop is just turgid. 9. Inject the most caudal loop from syringe B until the loop is just turgid. a) Note the time loop B is half filled and b) note the exact amount of glucose solution (B) injected. 10. Close the laparotomy with 3 pairs of Allis forceps. 11. After 10 mins, remove the loops from the body as quickly as possible and place them in beakers after wiping off any blood with surgical gauze. 12. Give the rat an overdose of anaesthetic and cut the diaphragm. 13. Wash out the loop contents with 9g/L saline into small measuring cylinders and make up to 3 mL with saline. 14. Filter the loop contents and determine the glucose concentration. 15. Remove the rest of the small intestine and note the relative location of the removed loops and the overall length of the small intestine. 16. Calculate the glucose absorbed per cm of small intestine per hour. i. calculate apparent glucose absorbed from loop B. ie. (volume injected x conc. injected) ( volume recovered x conc. recovered) adjust to give value in mg/cm/hr ii. calculate residual glucose + glucose secreted into loop A. ie. (volume recovered x conc. recovered) mg/cm/hr iii. True absorption = step i) step ii) in mg/cm/hr. Data Volume injected into loop A __________________________________________ Volume injected into loop B __________________________________________ Glucose concentration injected into loop A_______________________________ Glucose concentration injected into loop B_______________________________ Length of loop A___________________________________________________ Length of loop B___________________________________________________ Volume recovered from loop A________________________________________ Volume recovered from loop B________________________________________ Glucose concentration recovered from loop A ____________________________ Glucose concentration recovered from loop B____________________________ Absorption time ___________________________________________________

Questions
What would you need to control for in order to obtain repeatable results with this technique? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ 20

____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ What are some of the limitations of this technique? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ How else could you measure glucose absorption from the small intestine? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ How are each of the following carbohydrates absorbed from the small intestine? Glucose_____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ Fructose_____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ Galactose____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ Sucrose_____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ Lactose_____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ Maltose_____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ Starch_______________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ Cellulose____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ What is the fate of carbohydrate that is not absorbed from the small intestine? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________

21

Gas Formation by Rumen Microorganisms Introduction The main gases found in the forestomach of sheep are carbon dioxide and methane. The rumen is highly anaerobic ie. low in oxygen and it is kept this way by the gases produced from the fermentation of food by the rumen microorganisms. The volumes of gas produced vary remarkably with diet and can be quite large. A cow consuming 8 kg of lucerne in 4 hours produces about 125 litres. The gases come mostly from the fermentation of sugars and other carbohydrates in the feed. The volume and rates of gas production are important in the aetiology of bloat, but they are NOT the only factors. A manometer and water bath at 38oC filled with coloured water is provided. Rumen contents are removed from the fistula of the sheep and 20 mL is added to the main body of the reaction flask. Half of the class will add 2 mL of glucose solution to their rumen fluid flask before measuring the gas production. Attach the stopper and manometer tube to the flask. Take a zero time reading from the manometer and a further reading at 5 minutes. Calculate the rate of gas production for your rumen fluid/hour and for that of the whole sheep over 24 hours.

Methods

Calculations
For the rumen fluid the rate of gas production in mL/mL/hour equals: Manometer reading (in mLs) x 12 (5mins x 12=1 hour) 20 (Volume of flask in mLs) For the sheep over 24 hours multiply the above value by 24 (hours in a day) and by 4000 (number of mLs in sheep rumen). What is the fate of this gas?

How does methane production relate to ruminant nutrition?

Methane is a flammable gas. Design a simple methane generator that could be used to run a Bunsen burner. http://www.wioa.org.au/conf_papers/05/paper14.htm

22

Poultry feeding experiment report (Value = 15%, Due date: 10th October)
Background Information on Diet Formulation for Australian Broilers
In Australia, the Poultry Industry has available a wide variety of feeds from which to formulate wellbalanced, economic diets. These feeds are produced under widely different conditions, and are fed to birds in a range of different environments. The large broiler producers in Australia mix their own feeds. Some smaller operators buy in feed from stockfeed companies. The large producers and the Stockfeed companies use specialist nutritionists and computer-based diet formulations to meet requirements as outlined in the Practical notes. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS Energy requirements for poultry birds vary depending on the type of bird, its stage of production, and environmental factors. Requirements are largely met from a range of cereal grains that normally comprise 50-70% of the diet. The choice of grain depends on apparent ME (AME), amino acid content and price. These grains and typical ME values (MJ/kg) include: Sorghum Maize Triticale Wheat Barley Oats 14.0 14.0 13.0 13.0 (range 11-15) 12.0 11.6

Provided the sorghum is a low-tannin variety, there is no limit to its inclusion in poultry diets. Maize can also be used in any quantity for layers but, because it produces yellow fat colour, should not exceed 30% of the grain fraction of broiler diets. Wheat is widely used, with no limitation on the level of dietary inclusion; energy and amino acid content can however, vary widely! Barley has a lower energy content because it contains poorly digested -glucans (fibre); it should not be more than 20% of the grain component of diets for young birds. Triticale (wheat/rye cross) can also be used at up to 40% of the grain component, but contains several anti-nutritional substances. Oats contains high levels of fibre but when ground it can be included in poultry diets. By-products such as rice pollard (high oil content), wheat bran and pollard (millrun) and molasses (max. 5%, because of high minerals, especially K) can also be used. PROTEIN Meat meals are used in all States, but are variable products. Their high Ca and P contents normally limit their inclusion in diets as a source of protein. Blood meal (especially ring-dried) is an excellent source of essential amino acids but is rather unpalatable and should not exceed 5% of the diet. Soyabean meal is an excellent source of the essential amino acids (but beware trypsin-inhibitor in some varieties, and in legumes in general).. 23

Lupins (sweet varieties) and peas are used in South Australia and Western Australia but are relatively high in fibre and low in sulphur amino acids (bitter varieties contain alkaloids that adversely affect performance of growing birds). Fishmeal, poultry offal meal, blood meal, peanut meal, sunflower meal, copra meal, lucerne meal (because of saponins, max.5%) and cottonseed meal (because of gossypol, max. 10%) are also used occasionally. Protein sources are blended to achieve a balance in the supply of essential amino acids. It is unusual for any protein concentrate to exceed 20% of the diet. A mix of sources is more likely to give a balanced amino acid profile. Birds are normally given a starter formulation for the first 21 days, and then changed to a grower diet . The protein content, especially of the starter diet may affect carcass composition at slaughter (even of birds of the same slaughter weight). Imported synthetic amino acids, especially DL-methionine and L-lysine monohydrochloride are used to overcome amino acid imbalances. These are normally racemic mixtures of D- and L-isomers, but except for DL-methionine, the L-isomer only has nutritional value for the bird. One study showed that, on an equi-molar basis, methionine hydroxy analogue had 70% of the potency of DL-methionine. LIPIDS Ingredients such as tallow, maize oil, sunflower oil and safflower oil are useful for increasing energy density of the diet and as sources of essential fatty acids including linoleic acid. They increase palatability and ME, and reduce dustiness and wear in pelleting machinery. Up to 10% lipid can be included in diets. Canola (Rape) and sunflower seed are sources of omega-3 fatty acids which may be incorporated into meat and are thought to be beneficial to human health. Rancid fats and oils should not be used in diets. CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS Limestone, shell grit and marble are used to increase Ca concentration. These are available as pulverized powder and can be mixed with other ingredients before pelletting. Phosphorus is often obtained from meat and bone meals, or from dicalcium phosphate or rock phosphates. Phytate phosphorus (of plant origin) is only about 30% available, but availability can be increased by the inclusion of phytase and/or vitamin D3 in the diet. Calcium and P requirements increase as the dietary concentration of vitamin D3 decreases. There is an interaction between these three nutrients and an inappropriate dietary ratio may lead to tibial dyschondroplasia (weak leg bones) which has become a serious problem in modern broiler production. MINERALS Na, Mn and Zn are the minerals usually most likely to need special attention when formulating diets. Broilers show signs of toxicity with more than 100 ppm of chlorine in the water supply.

VITAMINS These are usually imported and are made into vitamin mixes. Vitamins are generally assumed to be absent from normal feed ingredients, although green feeds can be useful sources of vitamins. Dietary recommendations are currently in need of updating. Vitamins and minerals are usually mixed together to make a premix. ANTIBIOTICS/GROWTH PROMOTANTS These are prohibited except on veterinary prescription. Nicarbazin is used to prevent coccidiosis. Flavomycin, Roxalin and Zinc Bacitracin are classified as growth promotants and are used by some producers and do not pose hazards for the consumer.

24

FEED INTAKE AND DIET FORMULATION Although diet formulations are often expressed in terms of nutrient/kg or % of nutrient, the actual intake of any nutrient will depend on the quantity of feed consumed. The amount of energy and nutrients consumed each day is the important issue. Birds tend to consume more feed as energy density in the diet decreases. They also eat more in cool weather, and less in hot weather - probably largely in response to varying energy requirements. In these situations, the requirements for protein, calcium and other nutrients remain largely unchanged and therefore the concentration of nutrients in the feed mix should be altered to take account of the changing intake. In other words, it is important to think of energy:nutrient ratios. Some producers use different feed formulations in hot and cool weather. Feed restriction in early life has been tried as a means of reducing abdominal fat. CHOICE FEEDING Another approach to the problem of feeding birds when environmental conditions are subject to daily fluctuations is to allow the birds to choice feed. Birds can be given a choice of whole grain, a concentrate containing protein, minerals and vitamins, and allowed to choose a balance suitable for their individual needs. Finally, it is worth noting that feed formulations that give best biological performance are not necessarily the most profitable.

25

Poultry experiment procedure and assessment

AIM. The aim of the study is to test the nutritional value of each of 6 diets when given to broiler chickens in the first 4 weeks of life (the experimental period will be 3 weeks). MATERIALS and METHODS. Two hundred and fifty birds will be raised from day-old in brooders to 7 days of age. The largest and smallest birds will be identified by weighing and removed from the experiment. This is to remove runts in particular, as these can bias the results by abnormal growth or untimely death (to leave these in would necessitate using about 10 times the number of birds to minimise unbalancing effects on the experiment). The remaining birds (216) will be stratified into weight classes and allocated at random to 6 dietary treatment groups (6 birds * 6 treatments* 6 replicates = 216 birds): Nutritional treatments 1. Commercial diet. This diet will be a commercial layer mash manufactured by Ridley Agri-products in Tamworth and bought off the shelf. It will provide a commercial yardstick against which the diets we formulate here at UNE can be judged. This mash will be pelleted at UNE to closely resemble the other diets we will formulate and pellet here at UNE. 2. 'Simple' diet. This diet will be formulated to meet as closely as possible, according to current industry practice, all the nutritional requirements of the birds for optimal growth and general welfare, using a minimum of ingredients to provide ME, crude protein, mineral and vitamin, but will be relatively inadequate in available phosphate. This will mimic a smallholder or homemade diet. 'Augmented simple' diet (Dicalcium phosphate). This diet will also have the same theoretical specifications as the simple diet. However, one additional ingredient, food grade dicalcium phosphate, will be added. 'Augmented simple' diet (phytase). This diet will also have the same theoretical specifications as the simple diet but an additional ingredient, phytase enzyme (Alltech Associates), will be added. This is current world best practice both to make bound phosphate available to the birds and to minimise environmental phosphate which promotes algal blooms in runoff. Supreme diet. This diet Diluted diet. This diet will have the same specifications as Diet 4, except that it will be diluted by the addition of a non-digestible material (celite). Birds will theoretically need to eat more of this diet than of Diet 4 to obtain the same intake of digestible energy and nutrients.

3.

4.

5. 6.

The birds will be fed the test diets for 3-4 weeks. The birds will be monitored daily by Mr Thomson. Weight gain and total feed intake will be recorded by the students. The experimental results will be processed and reported as a scientific paper by the class. The important measurements for birds on each of the 6 dietary treatments over the experimental period will be: total feed intake (g/bird per day) total live-weight gain (g/bird per day) feed conversion ratio.

26

Daily tasks for internal students.

1. Check for dead or sick birds in each cage. Make a note of what you have seen (e.g. all healthy; one bird in cage 18 looks poorly; one bird dead in cage 3 weight of dead bird was 300 g; combined weight of remaining 5 birds was 1545g). Remove any dead birds. 2. Weigh back the feed containers from the left (b) and right (a) side of each cage. Tare the balance to zero with nothing on the pan, then record the weight of the container plus feed. Top up (dont overfill !!) the container with the appropriate feed and re-weigh the feed+container. The cage and diet details are on the recording sheet and the diet details correspond with the labeling on the bags of feed. 3. Clean watering containers if necessary and top up water

4. On designated days, Wednesdays and Saturday, weigh the birds in each cage as a group. Tare
the container empty, and record the combined net weight of all birds in the group. Handle the birds gently during the catching and weighing process.

The Scientific Report of the Feeding Trial

Writing a scientific report Scientific reports of research experiments are usually written up using the following headings:1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods (incl. Statistical Methods) Results Discussion References

Following is a brief description of the individual sections.

(1) Abstract
This should provide a concise overview of the report (usually about 5% of the full report). It should briefly describe the experiment and its aims, and then explain what was discovered and the relevance of the findings.

(2) Introduction
Give a brief history of what is already known from other research of relevance the topic. Develop a thesis. State briefly and specifically what you wish to determine and the importance of this information.

(3) Materials and Methods

Describe what was done and how, e.g. the experiment design, experimental materials used, what was measured and the methods used, and details of the methods of statistical assessment of the results. The detail should be sufficient to enable another scientist to repeat the experiment and duplicate the experimental conditions. 27

(4) Results
Summarise all data arising from the experiment and highlight the important (usually statistically significant) findings. Use summary tables or figures that summarise the data and their statistical significance, dont present the raw data. (The fewer and simpler the Tables and Figures the better: avoid presenting the same data in both Tables and Figures). Use SD when describing observations, SE when the objective is estimation or when testing a hypothesis. Often the use of a CV at a specified level of significance is more informative than a single P value. Ensure the reader has sufficient information to verify the main conclusions. It often seems difficult to avoid discussing results in the Results section, but many journals are strict on this point - avoid discussion of the results in the Results section - restrict yourself to simply highlighting the important differences in your data summary. For assistance conducting a statistical analysis of the data, we recommend using the tools available on the following website:
http://faculty.vassar.edu/lowry/VassarStats.html

(5) Discussion
Discuss the implications of your results in relation to current knowledge of the subject (from previous similar studies). It is important also to relate the results to the objective of your experiment was the aim achieved satisfactorily? If not, explain why. Discuss any aberrant results (and your reasons not including them in averages if you excluded any data). Highlight the main findings. Discuss practical implications of the study and suggest how knowledge of the topic might be further advanced by further research.

(6) References
NB. Any statement that you make, that is not your own idea, should be followed by a cited reference, or other acknowledgement. You must indicate how the reader can gain access to the source of information you have referred to. Citations in a scientific report should be acknowledged in an accepted (and consistent) manner, e.g. Scott, M.L., Nesheim, M.C. and Young, R.J. (1976). Nutrition of the Chicken, 2nd edition, M.L. Scott and Associates, Ithaca, New York. NRC (1977). Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals. No. 1. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 7th revised edition. The National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, USA. Wyatt, R.D. Tung, H.T., Donaldson, W.E. and Hamilton, P.B. (1973). A new description of riboflavin deficiency syndrome in chickens. Poultry Science, 52, 237-242. RIRDC (1999). Five year plan. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation http://www.rirdc.gov.au/pub/chick5yr.htm (web site accessed July, 2001). Some General Reference Sources AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (1975). The Nutrient Requirements of Farm Livestock. No. 1 Poultry. London, Agricultural Research Council. LIENER, I.E. (1980). (Ed.). Toxic Constituents of Plant Foodstuffs. 2nd Ed. New York. Academic Press. McDONALD, P., EDWARDS, R.A. and GREENHALGH, J.F.D. Animal Nutrition. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (1966). Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. 5th Washington, National Academy of Science - National Research Council. SCA (Standing Committee on Agriculture) (1989). The Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. 28

SCOTT, M.L., NESHEIM, M.C. and YOUNG, R.J. (1976). Nutrition of the Chicken. 2nd Ed. Ithaca, New York. M.L. Scott and Associates. UNDERWOOD, E.J. (1971). Trace Elements in Human and Animal Nutrition. 3rd Ed. New York. Academic Press. Some JOURNALS British Poultry Science, Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews, Poultry Abstracts, Poultry Science, Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Foundation

A final piece of advice

Before you attempt to write your report, please read some scientific articles (e.g., in British Poultry Science or Poultry Science) to get a feel for the style that is required. It does no harm to copy the style of a report; it is plagiarism only if you copy its content.

29

Feedlot ration formulation seminar (Value = 15%, Due date: 31st October)
The aim of this practical exercise is to develop a feedlot ration and feeding program for Tullimba feedlot and present your proposed program and its justification in a seminar.

It is most important that your seminar addresses the key issues in developing a feedlot feeding program. It is even more important that your recommendations for the feeding program are justified by using published research data that demonstrates the specific production benefits of your suggested strategies. The assessment criteria for this exercise are describe at the bottom of this section.

Description of Tullimba feedlot Tullimba is a 740 hectare property, 50 kilometers west of Armidale, owned by The University of New England. It was developed specifically to provide a valuable feedlot site for the Beef CRC research programs. The property is 720 to 780 metres above sea level with summer-dominated annual rainfall of 800 mm. Its main feature is a 1200 megalitre water reservoir constructed in 1982, with an irrigation licence for 450 hectares. The feedlot is situated 100 km from the reliable grain growing regions of Inverell and Warialda and 150 km from the large hay producing areas around Tamworth. The feedlot experiences mean monthly maximum temperatures of up to 28C in January and mean monthly minimum temperatures below 0C in July. The area receives an average of 15 frosts per month during July and August with average monthly wind speeds of 8.5 km/h in late spring and early summer. The feedlot facility has a 2000 head capacity. There are 40 pens constructed to hold 15 animals per pen, with the remaining capacity comprising pens with 50 to 100 head capacity. The feedmilling capacity at Tullimba is provided by a roller mill for grain processing and a tub grinder for roughage preparation. The feedmill shed is designed in a cafeteria style to allow a range of feedstuffs to be easily stored and accessed for feeding. Grain storage capacity is through four 113tonne grain silos. Protein meal storage capacity is through two 40-tonne silos and a 22,500 litre tank for liquid supplement (eg. Molafos) is situated adjacent to the feedmill shed. Feed ingredients are mixed in a tractor-drawn four-tonne RMH mixer wagon capable of accurately weighing one kilogram increments. The cattle you are required to develop a feeding program for will be lot-fed for 80 days and sold for slaughter to the domestic market Woolworths supermarket specifications.

Description of cattle and market destination For the purposes of this practical exercise, the description of the cattle your feeding program will be designed for is: Bos indicus cross Bos taurus steers Average entry liveweight = 360kg Average exit liveweight = 470 kg Feeding period: 70 to 90 days Target market: domestic (Woolworths) supermarket trade All animals have been treated with HGP on arrival at feedlot

30

Preparation for the practical session To prepare you for the practical session, you will visit Tullimba feedlot and conduct an inspection of the facilities. This will provide you with an understanding of the constraints limiting to feeding management. You feeding management program should reflect these constraints. You will also have the opportunity to use two ration formulation software packages available through UNE, Grazfeed and GrassGro. You will be provided some training and instruction on the use of these packages. There are many software packages available for ration formulation. For those that choose to use a software package for developing their rations, this training will be most beneficial preparation. Tasks You are required to design a feedlot feeding program for the cattle described above at Tullimba feedlot. As a suggestion, some suitable steps in undertaking this exercise would be: 1. Identify suitable feedstuffs and additives 2. Determine the availability of these feedstuffs and additives 3. Formulate three least-cost rations*: a) Starter ration b) Grower ration c) Finisher ration 4. Design the feeding program for each of these rations. This task could include: a) Describing the duration each ration is fed for across the 70 to 90 day period b) Describing how much feed is delivered daily (kg/head/day) and what the split between morning and afternoon feeding would be. 5. Justification for the feeding program. This is the most important component of the exercise. This component is your opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of the nutritional principles underpinning your feeding program. You are encouraged to use published research data to support your

* For designing least-cost rations, you are encouraged to use a software package to assist. While this is not compulsory, almost all commercial feedlots and commercial feedlot nutritionists rely on software support when developing rations. There are many commercially produced least-cost ration software packages available all around the world. There are also many ration formulation software packages available at no cost on the internet. As an enrolled student at UNE, you have free access to some software packages including Grazfeed and GrassGro. These packages can be very useful for designing your rations. The packages available through UNE can be found at the following website:

http://www.ed-serve.une.edu.au/

You will need your UNE username and password to access the software packages through this webpage.

31

Assessment Every seminar will be assessed according to the assessment sheet displayed below. This sheet demonstrates the relative importance of various aspects of your seminar in terms of assessment. Once marks have been compiled, you will receive the assessment sheet from each examiner. This will provide you with useful feedback on the strengths of your seminar and identify areas with opportunity for improvement. Assessment item Comments Clarity and use of visual aids (Were the main points of the seminar logically presented and discussed? Was the presentation well organized and professional?) Applicability of recommendations (Are the recommendations appropriate for application at Tullimba?) Identification and discussion of key feeding management issues. (Were all of the key issues raised and discussed in a manner that demonstrates understanding?) Appraisal of ration design (Do the rations satisfy nutrient/production requirements?) Justification for the feeding program design (Is there use of published research data to demonstrate the production and financial benefits of the recommended program? Was the data appropriately cited and from a reliable source?) Answers to questions (Do the answers demonstrate a depth of understanding rather than surface knowledge?) Total Value 10% Mark

10%

20%

15%

30%

15%

100%

32

Basic knowledge questions (The 15 questions that will appear in the Basic Knowledge Quiz will be drawn from this list of questions)

1. What atoms make up carbohydrates? 2. How many grams in 2 kilograms? 3. How many milligrams in 0.5 grams?
4.

Define mole.

5. What is a hexose? 6. What is cytoplasm?

7.

What does ATP stand for?

8. Give a common word that means lysis.

9. 10.

What is a neuron? What is the principal characteristic of all oxidizing agents? (Hint: electron).

11. What differs between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?

12.

What is an endergonic chemical reaction?

13. Name a hormone involved in the maintenance of normal blood glucose concentrations in mammals. 14.
15.

What are the two components of the autonomic nervous system? (i) (ii) Give one example of an exocrine gland. Give one example of an endocrine gland.

16.

What does gastric mean?

17. What is a neurotransmitter? Give an example. 18. Give an example of a steroid hormone. 19. What is meant by a second messenger (in endocrinology)? 20. Name two organs in the thoracic cavity. 21. Bile is secreted by which organ? 22. Gastric juices are found in which organ? 23. Where would you find your soft palate? 24. What is an afferent nerve? 25. What is an efferent nerve?

33

26. The pH of the gastric stomach is high or low? 27. A peptide consists of multiples of which chemical unit bonded by peptide bonds 28. Name one fat-soluble and one water-soluble vitamin. 29. What is a villus?
30.

What is a simple (every-day) name for a triglyceride (triacylglycerol)?

31. Write the chemical formula for a ferric ion. 32. What is a common name for the reticulum?
33. 34. 35. 36.

Name two gases produced during rumen fermentation. Give an example of a rumen volatile fatty acid. What is meant by the biological half life of a compound in the body? Where would you find the cloaca of a chicken?

37. What is coprophagy? 38. Where would you find your parotid glands.
39.

What, in chemistry, is meant by a buffer?

40. What separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities? 41. Name one thing required for active transport of a substance across a membrane. 42. What is one main difference between smooth muscle and skeletal muscle? 43. What are the ultimate end-products in living cells when glucose is completely oxidized? 44. On the diagram below, circle the amino group.
COOH H C R
45.

NH2

What do the prefixes, mono and poly mean?

46. What is a polysaccharide chain?

47.

What are the primary building units (monomers) of plant starch?

48. What class of compounds would a nutritionist expect to find in an ether extract of plant material?
49.

What does the ash component in a feedstuff mean to nutritionists?

50. What is the role of lipase?

34

51. Label the diagram below with the terms anterior, posterior, dorsal, ventral

52. Label the diagram below putting terms at the end of each bar, cf. Diaphragm.

53.

Why do small animals usually have a basal heat production (expressed as kilojoules/kg live weight) that is higher than that of larger animals? What is the difference between lactose and lactate?

54.

55. What are the simple building units (monomers) used in formation of cellulose?
56. 57. 58. 59.

What is meant by lipogenesis? What is meant by lipolysis? What is meant by gluconeogenesis? How is crude protein concentration in a feed ingredient calculated from knowledge of its total nitrogen concentration? What is an essential amino acid?

60.

61. Give the names of two essential amino acids.

35

62. Name a trace mineral. 63. Name a ruminally produced volatile fatty acid (VFA) that is glucogenic in liver tissue.
64.

Name three different classes of microorganisms found in the rumen.

65. Name two products arising when urea is degraded. 66. For protein synthesis, in addition to C, H, O and N, what other substance is required? 67. What is a redox reaction? 68. What are the units used to describe the energy concentration in feed ingredients? 69. Name one major role of calcium in farm animals. 70. Name one major role of iron in mammals. 71. What is neophobia?
72.

What do in vitro and in vivo refer to?

73. What is ketosis? 74. What is homeostasis?

75. 76.

What is meant by denaturation of proteins? What is the process by which carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is converted to plant carbohydrates? What is the major source of amino acids that are absorbed from the small intestine of ruminants?

77.

36

Learning assistance Lectures 1-13 (Dr Ian Godwin)

We recommend that you prepare brief written answers for each of the questions given below as an adjunct to your on-going study (many only require a line or two) and bring them along to your tutorials where they will be discussed. Work through these questions as the material is covered in lectures. (Don't leave it until just before the exams, because that simply defeats their purpose and will win no help from the staff involved! If you still have difficulty after consulting textbooks etc., don't hesitate to contact the lecturers concerned.) TEXTBOOKS Much of the material on monogastric physiology is covered quite well in your Physiology 210 text, i.e. Silverthorh D.V. 2004 Human Physiology, 3rd ed. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey. (Chapter 20 covers Digestive Physiology and Chapter 21 covers the Pancreas and Metabolic Regulation.) GENERAL GASTROINTESTINAL PHYSIOLOGY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Draw and label a diagram of a typical transverse section of the digestive tract. Why is secretion into the digestive tract considered to be exocrine? What is the peritoneum and what are its functions? What is the fatty apron? Why does the peritoneal cavity contain large numbers of macrophages and lymphatic tissue? Describe the role of the hypothalamus in the control of food intake.

SALIVA 1. Describe the location of the salivary glands. 2. Describe the composition of saliva. 3. What is the function of saliva? 4. Describe the control of salivary secretion. DEGLUTITION, THE OESOPHAGUS AND VOMITING 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Discuss the events associated with deglutition. Describe the muscle layers in the oesophagus. What is hiatus hernia? What secretions are produced by the oesophagus? Describe the process of vomiting.

THE STOMACH 1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Draw a diagram of the stomach and label with greater and lesser curvature, fundus, antrum, pylorus, cardia and body. Name four types of cell in the gastric mucosa and their secretory products. What are rugae? Why doesn't the stomach digest itself? What is the function of intrinsic factor? What is required to make pepsin active? Describe the chemical events associated with the secretion of HCl. List the stimulatory and inhibitory factors involved in regulating gastric secretion.

THE SMALL INTESTINE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. List the divisions of the small intestine in proximal to distal order. What neutralises gastric acid in the small intestine? How is the surface area of the small intestine greatly enhanced? Describe the structure of a villus. Describe the processes of rhythmic segmentation and peristalsis List the enzymes of the intestinal brush border. What would happen if a patient with lactase deficiency had a large drink of milk? Describe the mechanisms of monosaccharide absorption. Discuss the digestion and absorption of lipids. Describe the absorption of amino acids. 2+ 2+ Describe the absorption of Ca and Fe .

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THE PANCREATIC AND BILIARY SECRETIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Draw a labelled diagram of the different conduits involved in biliary and pancreatic secretions. Describe the composition of bile. What is the function of bile salts? What is the purpose of bilirubin? Describe the arterial and venous connections to the liver. What are the roles of secretin and cholecystokinin in biliary secretion? What is the function of the gall bladder? What is the entero-hepatic recirculation of bile salt? Describe the composition of the exocrine pancreatic secretion. Tabulate the pancreatic enzymes, their substrates and products. Why are most enzymes secreted in an inactive form? What activates trypsinogen? Describe the control of pancreatic secretion.

THE LARGE INTESTINE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What separates the small intestine from the large intestine? Draw a diagram of the large intestine, labelling the major sections. What is the role of the taenia coli? Describe haustral churning. What gives faeces its characteristic colour and odour? Why does the ingestion of oligosaccharides such as in baked beans cause flatulence? Describe the events associated with defaecation. What is mass movement? Two excellent references on reticulo-rumen motility are as follows. Constable, P.D., Hoffsis, G.F. and Rings, D.M. (1990) The reticulorumen: Normal and abnormal motor function. Part 1 The Compendium 12, 1008-1014. Part 2 The Compendium 12, 1169-1174 Copies of these articles will be available for short-term loan from the School of Rural Science and Natural Resources Administrative Assistant (Woolshed) or from the Special Shelf in Dixson Library. RUMINANT DIGESTION 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. What feature characterises a ruminant? Describe the development of the ruminant forestomachs. Discuss the function and the physiology of the oesophageal groove. Describe the mixing movements of the reticulo-rumen. Describe the mechanisms involved in the eructation of gas. What is rumination? Describe the mechanisms involved. Contrast the functions of saliva in ruminants and non-ruminants. What is the function of the omasum? Why are there differences in the rates of passage of particles and fluids from the reticulo-rumen? How would you measure these differences? Discuss the fate of dietary nitrogen in the ruminant. Discuss the fate of dietary carbohydrate in the ruminant. Why is the sudden introduction of grain to pasture fed ruminants likely to result in catastrophic losses? How would you determine the intake of crude protein by an animal freely grazing at pasture with some degree of accuracy?

DIGESTION IN THE CHICKEN 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 9. Draw a simple labelled diagram of the digestive tract of a chicken. Why does a chicken have to raise its head when drinking? What is the function of the crop? What is the function of the proventriculus? Describe the structure and function of the gizzard? What is the major difference in the absorption of lipids between birds and mammals? Discuss the role of the caeca in water and electrolyte homeostasis. Why is fowl urine semi-solid?

COMPARATIVE DIGESTIVE PHYSIOLOGY 1. 2. Discuss the value and mechanisms of coprophagy in the various species which exhibit this attribute. Contrast the different digestive strategies found in marsupials.

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3. 4.

Why does the administration of oral antibiotics to most species often result in gastrointestinal disturbances? What are the major diffences found between the digestive tracts of carnivores, omnivores and herbivores?

PANCREAS AND METABOLIC REGULATION 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Distinguish between glucose, glycogen, glycogenesis, glycolysis, glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Name three hormones secreted by the pancreas. Briefly describe lipolysis, lipogenesis and ketogenesis. What is meant by absorptive state and postabsorptive state? Describe the metabolic actions of insulin. Describe the control of insulin secretion. Compare Type I and Type II diabetes mellitus. Contrast the metabolic effects of glucagon and insulin. Discuss the role of glucocorticoids, adrenalin and growth hormone on metabolic regulation. How is blood glucose controlled upon ingestion of a high protein meal?

Lectures 14-19
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

(Dr Roger Hegarty and Professor John Nolan)

List important groups of nutrients found in feeds. List feed fractions that are included in a proximate analysis of a feed. In the Van Soest system of feed analysis, what feed components would you expect to be present in the Neutral Detergent solubles, and in the NDF? Use a simple diagram to show the relationship between Gross Energy and Metabolisable Energy concentration of a feed. What is the relationship between the TDN and ME concentration of a feed? Define maintenance energy requirement (MEm) of an animal and give a simple equation that will predict MEm across a range of large and small animals. Why is straw a useful feed for ruminants but not humans? Give an approx. value for the ME concentrations of wheat grain when fed to (a) sheep or (b) pigs. Does rate of intake affect the digestibility of a feed for ruminants? What is the effect of particle size? How does plant digestibility change as plants mature? What causes these changes? How might the digestibility of straw to be fed to ruminants be increased? What are the chemical differences between starch and cellulose? What are the implications of these chemical differences for digestibility of starchy or cellulosic feeds for pigs? What are NSPs? What are the implications of NSPs in diets for chickens, pigs and cattle?

Lectures 20 24 (Professor John Nolan)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. What characteristics of the rumen make it an ideal environment for the growth of anaerobic microbes? Give one basis on which different types of rumen bacteria can be classified. What is one major difference between protozoa and bacteria? Why are anaerobic fungi thought to be important in the process of straw digestion? Fermentation could be defined as ?? What do rumen microorganisms achieve by degrading organic matter in the rumen? How does a ruminant animal itself benefit from the presence of anaerobic microbes in the rumen? What are VFAs and why are they so named? When ATP is converted to ADP in rumen bacteria, how is the ATP-energy dissipated? Why is rumen propionate often considered separately from acetate and butyrate? Why is the microbial biomass produced in the rumen of benefit to the ruminant itself? How is the efficiency of growth by rumen microbes often described? What are the major contributing causes of the problem of lactic acidosis? How can lactic acidosis be minimised or prevented? What is the physiological reason for the onset of bloat? Name one close intermediate of the central biochemical pathways formed by metabolism of (a) acetate, (b) propionate (c) butyrate (d) lactate (e) glucose (see BCHM210) Why is acetate considered to be non-glucogenic and propionate glucogenic? How are butyrate and ketone bodies related? What is meant by ketonaemia? What is the difference between lactate and lactose?

Lectures 24-25 (Dr. Darryl Savage)

1. Why are lipids so classified? (Give a definition of lipid)

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2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

List several roles of lipids in individual cells, and in the body in general. Define essential fatty acid. Are lipids degraded by rumen micro-organisms? Describe the roles of micelles and chylomicrons and lymph in the transfer of lipids from the gut to tissues. Why is margarine easier to spread on bread than butter? Could ruminants produce margarine? What do you consider upper limits for lipid inclusion in diets for chickens and ruminants? What are the major precursors of lipid synthesis in (a) ruminants (b) chickens? Indicate some sources of, and the significance of, omega polyunsaturated fatty acids?

Lectures 26-31 (Dr Darryl Savage)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Give a short definition of protein. How is crude protein determined, and what are two limitations of this description of the protein content of a food? List some of the forms in which proteins are found in the bodies of animals. Why do nutritionists often use dietary nitrogen and dietary protein almost interchangeably? What is the quantitative relationship between total N and protein and what is the origin of this relationship? What are the limitations of a protein analysis of a feed expressed as crude protein? How is this analysis done? Draw a chemical diagram showing the characteristic structure of an amino acid. Define essential amino acid and name 3 of the essential acids of nutritional importance. How do ruminants obtain essential amino acids? What determines the quality of protein in a feed? How can protein quality be assessed? In tissue cells of the body, what determines which of the thousands of possible proteins will be formed at any time? What happens to the amino acids released when unwanted tissue proteins are degraded within cells? What happens to excess amino acids circulating in the blood? What feeds contain high concentrations of true protein? In plants, how does protein content change with age? What is the significance of NPN? What diets contain NPN? Is urea a protein supplement? Explain your response. Define biological value of a protein source and indicate how BV can be determined using the animal that is to be fed this protein source. In addition to knowing the protein content of a potential protein concentrate, what other information would you like to have when assessing the economic value of that food. What is meant by tissue protein turnover? How are protein turnover, protein synthesis and protein deposition related? How can an estimate of the minimum protein requirement of an animal be determined? What additional information is required to estimate the minimum dietary requirement? In the rumen, what are the steps involved in protein degradation that give rise to ammonia? What is the nutritional significance of ammonia in rumen fluid? What determines rumen ammonia concentration in the rumen throughout the day? What factors affect the rate of ammonia absorption across the rumen wall? What is the fate of absorbed ammonia after it crosses the gut wall and enters the bloodstream? Explain the term urea recycling. Could dairy cows give birth to calves and produce milk on a diet which contained absolutely no protein or amino acids? What are the special protein requirements associated with wool growth? Would you expect the Protein:Energy (P:E) requirements of animals to remain constant throughout their lifetime? Give reasons for you answer. How might the optimal requirements for dietary methionine be determined experimentally for meat-producing chickens?

Lectures 32-34 (Dr. Darryl Savage)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. List 3 roles that minerals fulfill in cells. Give two reasons for animals not having sufficient minerals in cells to meet essential purposes. List 3 macro-minerals and 3 trace minerals of concern to nutritionists when formulating diets. In what forms of animal production do you consider calcium requires special consideration? What conditions are commonly associated with iodine deficiency and selenium deficiency? Define vitamin, and indicate some roles of vitamins in cells. Why are vitamins considered to be essential components of the diet? Give 3 examples of where vitamins are necessary co-factors for biochemical reactions to take place. Which are the fat-soluble and which are the water-soluble vitamins? Is vitamin A ever likely to be deficient in ruminants, and if so, under what conditions? With what minerals do you associate vitamin D and Vitamin B12? Why?

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Lecture 35 (Dr. Darryl Savage)

1. 2. 3. 4. What determines the total amount of water available to animal? What are the major routes of loss of water from animals? Define obligated urinary water and free water. Water intake, feed quality and feed intake are sometimes related. How?

Lectures 36 and 37 (Dr. Darryl Savage)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Contrast actual intake and potential intake and indicate what factors determine each. List animal/physiological factors that affect requirements for energy and nutrients. List environmental factors that affect energy requirements, and show with a diagram the nature of the change in requirements with changing ambient temperature. What dietary factors are most likely to limit intake of pigs and chickens? What are the dietary factors most likely to limit feed intake of grazing ruminants ? What factors affect rumen emptying? How do animals distinguish between food and non-food? Do animals distinguish between different foods when there is choice? Do grazing animals exhibit a preference for some foods when they have choices, or is selection a random process? Why do ruminants often avoid supplements that we know are likely to be of nutritional benefit to them? Conversely, why do they sometimes chew bones, lick soil and old batteries that we consider to be inappropriate as foods? What is conditioned aversion? What senses do animals use to identify feeds? How might you train animals to avoid eating orange trees in an orchard?

11. 12. 13.

Lectures 38 and 39 (Dr. Darryl Savage)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. List some management strategies that may lead to higher rumen efficiency Define feed conversion efficiency (FCE) and feed conversion ratio (FCR). What are the limitations associated with these indices of efficiency? Whole flock/herd efficiency may be expressed as the ratio of saleable product to feed intake, or whole farm feed supply. Have these expressions any practical uses? What is the potential for controlling or eliminating protozoa in the rumen as a means of increasing ruminant production? What is Standard Reference Weight and how is it used? What is meant by potential feed intake and relative (actual feed intake)? What is the supplement substitution effect? What is compensatory growth? What factors are included in the maintenance energy requirement used in GrazFeed and GrassGro? Why does GrazFeed request information about the slope of the land? Why is the prediction of rumen microbial yield prediction in GrazFeed dependent on latitude and season? Why does GrazFeed need information on the fraction of legume in the pasture? Is selective grazing taken into account in GrazFeed? How?

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Major text resources

The Lecture Book, prepared for use by ANUT221 External students, provides most of the information you are likely to need to meet the learning objectives of this unit. There are a number of other excellent text-books that you might also find useful. These include: Animal Nutrition (McDonald, Edwards, Greenhaugh and Morgan) 5th edition. Longman (1995).

Nutritional Ecology of the Ruminant. (P. Van Soest). O & B Books, Inc.,New York. Basic Animal Nutrition and Feeding (W.G. Pond, D.C. Church and K.R. Pond). 4th Edition. Dixson library: 636.0852 P798b (1995). Trace Animals in Human and Animal Nutrition. 3rd edition. (E.J Underwood). Academic Press, New York (1971). Applied Animal Nutrition, Feeds and Feeding,

4th Ed. Cheeke, P. and Shapiro, L.S. 4th Ed. (2001). Prentice hall, New York.

Human Physiology. 3rd Ed. Silverthorn, D.V. 2004. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.

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End-of-Semester Exam (Example exam Questions) Different types of questions might ask you to: tick correct answers in a list of possible answers to a question, list important points, write brief notes on, use a simple diagram to show (a concept), describe in detail, or write an essay on . Some questions will test your understanding of basic nutritional or physiological information, others will test your ability to use this information to integrate, synthesise and answer more applied questions. You may be offered a choice within a question. The number of minutes (in brackets) provides an indication of the amount of time you should allocate to each question. Some examples are given below. Tick the correct answer(s) (2 min allowed)
Salivary secretion is

a) stimulated by parasympathetic discharge

b) stimulated by sympathetic discharge c) controlled mostly by the actions of the salivary hormones d) greatest during the gastric and intestinal phases of digestion e) both a) and c) of the above

(5min) Write short notes on the oesophageal groove reflex Write notes on 5 only of the following 7 topics with respect to their roles in animal nutrition and metabolism:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Regulation of voluntary feed intake in sheep Requirements in the rumen for efficient microbial growth Limestone Water One of the B vitamins, indicating its role in metabolism Lipid digestion, transport and deposition in tissues Crude fibre

QUESTION (20 marks)

Write notes on 5 only of the following 7 topics with respect to their roles in animal nutrition and metaboism:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Regulation of voluntary feed intake in sheep Requirements in the rumen for efficient microbial growth Limestone Water Name one of one of the B vitamins and indicate its role in metabolism Lipid digestion, transport and deposition in tissues Crude fibre

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QUESTION (20 marks)

a) In a six-week growth study, broiler growth was compared on two diets formulated to the same specifications from different ingredients (using dietary information from standard feeding tables). Analyse the results given in the Table (treatment means) and suggest reasons for the differences in bird performance.

Diet A Liveweight (g) Start Week 2 Week 4 Week 6 47 450 1125 2175 Cumulative FCR (g feed/g gain) 1.41 1.65 1.82 Liveweight (g) 51 475 1150 1902

Diet B Cumulative FCR (g feed/g gain) 1.37 1.70 1.93

b) If the live weight at 6 weeks of age had been very similar in both groups, what factors might explain significant differences in FCR?

QUESTION (20 marks)

Explain digestible energy intake and metabolizable energy intake. Indicate how these could be estimated in:a) pigs b) sheep.

QUESTION (20 marks) a)

What are the major substrates oxidised to provide energy in tissues of:i) ruminants and ii) pigs. What effect does the type of substrate oxidised have on the efficiency of feed utilization by an animal? Explain why a ruminant eating a dry, mature, low protein roughage may have low digestible energy intake. What adjustments to a diet formulation, designed for animals housed in a thermo-neutral environment, are likely to be needed for the same animals housed under very cold conditions.

b) c) d)

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