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--
A GUIDE TO THE CONSTELLATIONS,
SUN, MOON, PLANETS,
AND OTHER FEATURES OF THE HEAVENS
HERBERT S. ZIM, Ph . D. , Sc. D.
and
ROBERT H. BAKER, Ph. D. , D. Sc.
Illustrated by
JAMES GORDON I RVING

LU1N k1bb

N1 YLkY
Western Publ i shi ng Company, I nc.
Raci ne, Wi sconsi n
FOREWORD
A seri es of books on nature should i ncl ude one on t he
stars and pl anets. All ot her as pects of nature-bi rds,
flowers, rocks, and trees-are details i n t he great system
that encompasses the heavens. Nothi ng else i n nature
can arouse the feeli ngs of wonder that ar e provoked by
an ecli pse, a meteor shower, or even a close look at our
nearest nei ghbor, t he moon.
The artist, James Gordon I rvi ng, worked wi t h skill and
i magi nati on . Hi s wife, Grace Crowe Irvi ng, assi sted i n re
search. Davi d H. Heeschen of the Harvard Observatory
and I van Ki ng of the Universi ty of Ill i noi s Observatory
'
hel ped wi th data and tables. Paul lehr, of the Nati onal
nd Atmospheri c Admi ni strati on, checked text
i nvolvi ng meteorology. Hugh Ri ce of the Hayden Plane
tarium gave helpful advi ce, and our seasonal constella
ti on charts owe much to hi s proj ecti ons . Dorothy Bennett,
for many years a member of the Hayden Planetari um' s
staff, contri buted greatly t o our editori al pl anni ng. I s aac
Asi mov, Joe and Si mone Gosner are t o be credited for
the latest revi si ons.
Acknowl edgment i s due the lowell, Hal e (Mt. Wi lson
and Mt. Pal omar) , li ck, and Yerkes observatori es and to
NASA for the use of photographs.
R. H. B.
H. S.Z.
Copyright 1975, 1956, 1951 by Western Publishing Company, Inc.
All rights reserved, including rights of reproduction and use in any
form or by any means, including the making of copies by any photo
process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written
or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any
knowledge retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is
obtained from the copyright proprietor. Produced in the U.S.A. by
Western Publishing Company, Inc. Published by Golden Press, New
York, N.Y. Library of Congress Catalog Cord Number, 75-314330
LLM1LM1b
Thi s is a book for t he novi ce, the amateur, or any
one who wants to enj oy the wonders of the heavens. It is
a field gui de, with i nformati on to help you understand
mor e fully what you see. Use thi s book when you are
watchi ng t he stars, constellati ons, and planets. Thumb
t hrough it at odd moments to become fami li ar wi th si ghts
you may see; carry it along on tri ps or vacati ons.
OBSERVING THE SKY.. ........................................ 4
Act i vi ti es for the Amateur . .......................................... 7
The Un i verse and the Solar System.. . ........................ 12
The Sun and Sunli ght 16
Telescopes . ..................................... 28
STARS . . .................................. 31
Classifi cati on . 36
Star Types ...... . . ... ... . .. .... .... ..... . .... .. .. . 38
Galaxi es ...
CONSTELLATIONS
42
50
North Ci rcu mpolar Constellations ............... ................. . 52
Constellati ons of Spri ng . . ........ . .... .... .. . ... . .. . .. . .. ... .... . . ... . . . ... . .. .. 62
Constellati ons of Summer .... . ... .. . . ....... .. .. .. .. . ... .. .... .. . .... .. . . .... .... 70
Constellati ons of Autumn . .. . . ...................................... 80
Constellati ons of Wi nter 88
South Ci r cumpolar Constellati ons . .. ..... ... . . . . . . ... .. .. . .. . . . . . . . .... . .... 98
THE SOLAR SYSTEM ........................ ................ ............................ 102
The Planets .. .... . ..... .. ............................. .. ............. 1 04
locat i ng the Vi sible Planets ..... . . . . . ...... .. . .. . .. . . . ..... ... ... . . . ........ .. 124
Comets .................... .. .......................................... 126
Meteors . .. ..................... 129
Haw to Observe Meteors ....... . .. ............... 132
The Moan............ .. ... . .. ..... .. . .... .. ............................ 136
Ecl i pses ...... . . . .. . .... .... .. ... .. ... .. .. .. ..... . ......... . .. .. ..... ...... . . . . .... .. . .. . . 150
APPENDIX (ti nted pages) . . . . ...... ... . . ... . . ... . ... . .... . .. ... .. ....... .. .. ... . . . . 156
li st of Constellati ons .. .. . . .. ... ..... ... . ... .... ... . ... . . . . . . . .... . ... .. . ..... ...... 156
Objects for Observation . . . ... .. .. .. . . .. ................... ..... .. ... 158
INDEX .............. .. ......................... ........... ............................. 159
3
Egyptian Pyramids
LJb1kN N
1H1 bYY
Stars and pl anets have attracted man' s attenti on si nce
earl i est ti mes. Anci ent tabl ets and carvi ngs show that
movements of pl anets were understood before 3000 B. C.
legend says two Chi nese astronomers who fai l ed t o pre
di ct an ecl i pse correctl y i n 2 1 36 B. C. were put to death.
The Egypti ans pl aced thei r pyrami ds wi th reference to
the stars . The ci rcl es of stone at Stonehenge may have
been used to keep track of l unar ecl i pses. Astronomy i s
i ndeed the ol dest sci ence, yet its i mportance i ncreases
as sci enti sts turn to the stars to study probl ems of physics
whi ch they cannot tackl e di rectly i n the l aboratory.
As far back as hi story records, t here were professi onal
astronomers-long before there were professi onal zoolo
gists and botani sts . The Egypti ans, Chi nese, and Euro
peans had court astronomers. Thei r work often i nvol ved
t ryi ng to predict future events, but t hei r system, though
consi dered unsci enti fi c today, i nvol ved observati on and
recordi ng of facts about stars and pl anets . These earl y
astronomers, as wel l as those of today, made remark
abl e di scoveri es that changed man' s outlook on the
worl d and hi mself.
There has always been, too, an army of amateurs
studyi ng and enj oyi ng the stars. Some make practi cal
use of thei r knowl edge-sailors, pi l ots, surveyors, but
most study the heavens out of sheer i nterest and uri osi ty.
4
WHY LOOK?

The stars can tel l you ti me
,
di recti on,
and posi ti on. These are about thei r only practi cal use to
an amateur. More important i s the sati sfacti on one fi nds
i n recogni zi ng the bri ghtest stars and pl anets. To see
and to recogni ze leo i n the eastern sky i s aki n to seei ng
the fi rst robi n. And, as you l earn more about t he stars
and the vari ety of other celesti al obj ects, the more the
wonder of t he heavens grows .
WHERE TO LOOK

Star-gazi ng has no geographi c
l imi ts. Some stars can even be seen from bri ghtl y l i t,
smoky city streets, but the l ess i nterference from l i ghts
or haze the better. AI i deal l ocati on i s an open fi el d, hi ll,
or housetop where the hori zon is not obscured by trees or
bui l di ngs. However, bui l di ngs or a hi l l may al so be used
to screen off i nterferi ng l i ghts, and although you may see
l ess of the sky thi s way, you will be abl e to see that part
of it better.
WHEN TO LOOK Onl y the bri ghter stars and pl an
et s are vi si bl e i n ful l moonl i ght or soon after sunset. At
these ti mes t he begi nner can spot them and l earn the
maj or constel l ati ons, wi thout bei ng confused by myri ads
of fai nter stars. On darker ni ghts, wi thout moonl i ght,
one may observe mi nor constel lati ons, fai nter stars,
nebulae, and pl anets. Stars and pl anets vi si bl e at any
given hour depen
d
on t i me of ni ght and season of the
year. As the earth ro
tates, new stars come
i nto vi ew i n t he eastern
sky as the eveni ng pro
gresses. late at ni ght
one can see stars not vi s
i bl e i n the eveni ng sky
until several months later. The seasonal star charts (pp.
64-65, 72-73, 82-83, 90-9 1 ) and planet tables (pp.
1 24- 1 25) show the location of major celestial objects at
various times of the year. See check list, p. 1 58.
HOW TO LOOK

First, be comfortable. looking at stars

high above the horizon may cause a stif neck and an ach
ing back; so use a reclining chair, a couch, or a blanket
spread on the ground. Remember-ground and air may
be unexpectedly cold at night; warm clothing, even in
summer, may be needed. How to look also involves a
method of looking. The section on constellations (pages
50- 1 01 ) gives suggestions. After you have become fa
miliar with the more common stars, constellations, and
planets, a systematic study may be in order-perhaps with
field glasses. By that time your interest may lead you to
some of the activities suggeste
d
on the following pages.
EOUlPMENT You need no equipment, except your
eyes, to see thousands of stars. This book wi l l point the
way to hours of interesting obserxation with your eyes
alone. later you will fnd your enjoyment greatly en
hanced by the use of feld glasses (6- to 8-power) such as
those used in bird study. With these you can see vastly
more-details on the moon, moons of Jupiter, many thou
sands of stars, star clusters, double stars, and nebulae.
larger field glasses ( 1 2-, 15-, or
1 8-power) will reveal- fner lunar
detail s and more hundreds of ex
citing stellar objects. Some day
you may buy or make your own
telescope.
ACTI VI TI ES FOR
THE AMATEUR
ENJOYING THE STARS It is
worth repeating that night-by
night oserving studying, and
enjoyin the stars is the activity
that ca mean the most to most
people. No equipment and littl e
preparation are needed. This book
(see p. 1 58) and sources of infor
mation suggested (p. 1 1 ) will help.
Zeiss/
Projecti on
Planetari um
IDENTI FI CATION

The enjoyment of stars i nvolves

some practi ce i n i denti fi cati on. Knowi ng two dozen con
stellati ons and a dozen of the bri ghtest stars i s often
enough . A systemati c study of stars, the i dentifi cati on
of lesser constellati ons, and the locati on and study of
clusters and nebulae demand more i ntensi ve efforts . A
seri ous amateur wi ll benefit by knowi ng nearly all t he
constellati ons and bri ght stars before goi ng deeper i nto
any phase of astronomy.
FOLLOWING THE PLANETS

The planets, moving

al ong in their orbits, are constantly changing their posi
tions. Even the beginner can become familiar with the
movements of planets-can recognize them, and predict
which way they will travel. Knowing the planets is as im
portant and as enjoyable as knowing the stars.
MUSEUMS Many museums have astronomical exhibits
worth seeing. These may include meteorites, photographs
of stars and planets, and sometimes working models of
7
the solar system.
Museums may be
found at universi
ties, observatories,
planetariums , or
governmental in
stitutions. I nquire
Hayden
locally or when
traveling concerning museums in the area that may ofer
astronomical exhibits.
OBSERVATORIES These are the sites of the great tele
scopes and the places where professional astronomers
work. When work is going on, astronomers cannot be dis
turbed. But most observatories are open to the public at
specifed hours. Some ofer a schedule of public lectures.
PLANETARI UMS

I n New York, Chi cago, Pittsburgh,

Phi l adel phi a, Chapel Hi ll (N. C. ) , Boston, Los Angel es and
San Franci sco are l ocated the l arge proj ectors that s how
i mages of stars and planets on a darkened dome. Hun
dreds of peopl e can watch these arti fi ci al stars whi l e a
l ecturer poi nts them out and descri bes other features of
the heavens . Many other pl anetariums are equi pped
wi th s mal l er but very effective proj ectors.
CLUBS AND ASSOCIATIONS Amateur astronomers
often band together to share their experience and their
interests. Clubs are found in most
large cities and in many smaller ones.
At meetings, a lecture or discussion is
usually followed by a period of ob
serving through tel escopes. Some
clubs work on co-operative projects
in which the members share in some
sci entifc i nvesti gation. Vi sitors ar e
usually welcome, and membershi p i s
commonly open to anyone who i s
i nterested.
Any person i nterested i n the stars
will enjoy the activities descri bed
above. The thrill of knowi ng the
planets or vi si ti ng a planetari um can
be shared by young and ol d ali ke.
Through such acti vi ti es you may be
come a serious amateur. The seri ous
amateur may be anyone from a
youth in hi gh school to a busi ness
man. Such amateurs spend much of
Gri ndi ng a Mi rror
their time worki ng on an astronomi cal
hobby. They often become experts; some have made i m
portant di scoveri es. Professi onal astronomers ar e glad t o
have the help of trai ned amateurs, and several felds of
astronomi cal research are manned largely by them. Ama
teur activities that demand greater skill and experi ence
ofer greater rewards i n the satisfaction they provi de to
serious amateurs. Here are some:
TELESCOPE MAKING Maki ng a telescope requires
time and patience. But i n the end you have an i nstrument
costing onl y a small fracti on of its worth, plus t he fun of
havi ng made it. The telescopes made by amateurs are usu
al l y of the refecting type, with a concave mi rror i nstead
of a l ens for gatheri ng light. Telescope- maki ng ki ts, in
cludi ng a roughly fnished gl ass "blank" for the mi rror,
other telescope parts, and complete i nstructions, are
available from some opti cal-supply frms. The fi nal testi ng
and fnishing of t he mi rror require special skil l and often
the hel p of someone with experience.
9
OBSERVI NG METEORS

Met eo r s o r shoot i n g
s t a r s (pp. 1 29-
1 33) often occur
i n we l l - d ef i n e d
s h ower s . Ca r eful
obs er vat i on a n d
pl ott i n g o f t h e
paths of meteors
yi eld i nformati on
of sci enti fi c val ue.
A n u mb e r o f
Armillary Sphere Once Used to
Demonstrate Celestial Motions
g r ou ps of ama
teurs are engaged in observi ng meteors, and any i nter
ested amateur or group of amateurs can j oi n. Contact
the Ameri can Meteor Soci ety, 5 2 1 N. Wynnewood Ave. ,
Narberth, Pennsylvani a 1 9072.
OBSERVING VARIABLE STARS

Amateurs with tele
scopes have done unusual work i n thi s advanced fi eld.
Studi es of these stars are co-ordi nated by the Ameri can
Associ ati on of Vari abl e Star Observers, 4 Brattl e St. ,
Cambri dge, Massachusetts 02 1 00. The di rector of the
Associ ati on will be glad to furni sh qualifi ed amateurs
wi th detai l s about thi s wor k.
STELLAR PHOTOGRAPHY Photographing the stars
and other heavenly bodies is not difficult. Excellent pi c
tures have been taken with box cameras set firmly on a
tabl e. But pictures of faint objects must be taken with a
telescope or with a special camera adjusted to compen
sate for the earth's motion. Photography is an important
tool of astronomers-one which the amateur can use to
good advantage.
1 0
MORE INFORMATION

Thi s book is a pri mer to t he
sky and can only i ntroduce a story whi ch i s more fully
told in many texts and popul ar books on astronomy.
BOOKS:
Baker, Robert H., Astronomy, D. Van Nost rand Ca., New York, 1964.
This col l ege text is far the seri ous .tudent who wants detai l ed
loch and modern theori es.
Baker, Robert H., When the Stars Come Out, 1954, and Introducing
the Constellations, 1957. Vi ki ng Preu, New York. This pair of
books serves to i ntroduce the stars, meet i ng the needs of persons
without sci enti fi c background. They are wel l i l l ustrated.
Bernhard, Ben nett, and Ri ce, New Handbook of the Heavens, Whi t
tl esey House, New York, 1954. A f i ne book, bridgi ng the gap
between papul ar vol umes and texh. It stresses thi ngs to do and
see. Also i n a pocket edi ti on by Si gnet Books.
Mayal l , Mayal l and Wyckoff, The Sky Observer's Guide, A Golden
Handbook, Gol den Preu, New York, 1965. An introductory book
for the l ayman with detai l ed maps of the heavens.
Ol cott, Mayal l , and Mayal l , Field Book of the Skies, G. P. Putnam's
Sons, New York, 1954. The revised edi ti on of a popul ar and
practi cal gu ide for the amateur observer.
PERIODICALS:
Sky and Telescope. This is the outstandi ng magazi ne for the amateur.
Sky Publ ishing Corp. , 49-50-51 Bay Stale Road, Cambridge, Mau.
02138.
1 1
OUR UNIVERSE is so vast that i ts l i mi ts are un known.
Through it are scattered mi l l i ons of gal axi es of vari ous
si zes and shapes. In a gal axy l i ke one shown here (3) ,
our sun and the earth are l ocated (see p. 42) . Gal axi es
contai n hundreds of mi l l i ons, even hundreds of bi l l i ons,
of stars of many types ( 1 ) , rangi ng from r ed supergi ants
1 2
l ess dense t han the earth' s atmosphere to white dwarfs
hundreds of ti mes denser than l ead. Stars on the average
are spaced several l i ght years apart; but there are some
clusters (2) , more closel y packed toward the center that
contai n perhaps hal f a mi l l i on stars i n al l . Pl anets may
revolve around many of the stars.
1 3
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM is l ocated hal fway from the cen
ter of our gal axy - the Mi l ky Way. Around the sun
revol ve the ni ne planets wi th thei r 32 satel l i tes; al so
hundreds of asteroi ds and swarms of meteors. Here we
see the pl anets ( 1 | i n t hei r orbi ts around t he sun ( see pp.
1 4
1 02- 1 05) and (2) in the order of thei r si ze. The asteroi d
Ceres i s compared ( 3) to Texas for si ze, and the moon
i s compared ( 4) t o the Uni ted States. A comet' s orbi t
( 51 appears i n red. Our sol ar system may be onl y one of
bi l l i ons i n the uni verse.
1 5

Solar Prominences compared to Size of Earth
THE SUN is the nearest star. Compared to other stars it
is of just average size; yet if it were hol low, over a mil l ion
earths woul d easil y ft inside. The sun's diameter is 860,000
mil es. It rotates on its axis about once a month. The sun is
gaseous; parts of the surface move at diferent speeds.
The sun's density is a l itt le under 1 Y2 times that of water.
The sun is a mass of incondescent gas: a gigantic
nuclear furnace where hydrogen is bui l t into hel ium at a
temperature of mi l l ions of degrees. Four mi l l ion tons of
the sun's matter is changed into energy every second. This
process has been going on for bi l l ions of years, and wi l l
continue for bi l l ions more.
T
h
e sun's dazzl ing surface, the photosphere, is speckled
with bright patches and with dark sunspots (pp. 22-23) .
Rising through and beyond the chromosphere, great
prominences or streamers of gl owing gases shoot out or
rain down. The corona, which is the outermost envelope
of gases, forms a fl my hal o around the sun.
It is unsafe to observe the sun directl y with the naked
eye or
b
inoculars. Use a special fl ter, a dark gl ass, or a
fl m negative to protect your eyes. When a tel escope is
used, project the sun's image on a sheet of paper.
1 6
. .
...
Sunspots
Photosphere
Chromosphere
Corona
How a Prism Breaks Up a Beam of Sunlight into Its Component Colors
SUNLIGHT

Every square yard of the sun's surface is

constantly sending out energy equal to the power of 700
automobiles. About one two-billionth of this, in the form
of sunlight, reaches us. Sunlight is a mixture of colors.
When it passes through a glass prism, some of the light is
bent or refracted more than other portions. Light leaving
the prism spreads out into a continuous band of col ors
called a spectrum. Colors grade from red, which is bent
least, through orange, yellow, green, and blue to violet.
which is bent most.
The spectrum i crossed by thousands of sharp dark
lines. These indicate that some light was absorbed as it
Frounhofer l i nes
I nvisible Ultraviolet G F E
passed through the cooler gases above the sun's surface.
These gases absorb that part of the sunl ight which they
would produce if they were glowing at a high enough
temperature. Thus a study of the dark lines in the solar
spectrum (called Fraunhofer lines, after their discoverer)
gives a clue to the materials of which the sun is made.
Of the 92 "natural" el ements on the earth, 61 have been
found on the sun. The rest are probably present also.
From the shifting of spectral lines, astronomers can meas
ure the rotation of the sun and the motions of stars.
They can detect magnetic felds from spectral lines and
can determine a star's temperature and its physical state.
D c B I nvisible I nfrared
RAINBOWS are sol ar spectra formed as sunl i ght passes
t hrough drops of water. Rai nbows may be seen when a
hose is adj usted to a fi ne spray. The drops act l i ke pri sms,
refracti ng sunl i ght to produce the spectrum.
A si ngl e, or primary, rai nbow h as red on the outsi de,
vi ol et i nsi de. The cent er of the arc, 40 degrees i n radi us, i s
always on a l i ne wi th the observer and the s un. When you
see a bow, the sun i s behi nd you. Sometimes a secondary
rai nbow forms outsi de the primary. It is fai nter, wi th col ors
reversed-red i nsi de, vi ol et outsi de. The secondary bow
20
forms from l i ght refected twice withi n drops. li ght may be
refected more than twice, so occasional l y up to fve bows
are seen.
Another type of
bow-red, or
r ed and green
-may appear
wi t h pr i mar y
an d secondary
bows.
SUNSPOTS often appear on the sun' s photosphere
appeari ng as dark, sculptured "hol es" i n contrast to the
bri ght white surface. These sunspots ore someti mes so
large they can be seen with the unai ded eye ( through a
dark glass for protecti on, of course) , and are most easily
observed when t he sun i s low on the hori zon . The use
of fi eld gl asses or a small telescope helps, but the safest
method of observation i s to study photographs. The dark
center, or umbra, of a sunspot vari es from a few hun
dred to over 50, 000 mi les across. Thi s i s surrounded by
a less dar k area, a penumbra, t hat often doubl es the
si ze of the sunspot. As the sun rotates, new sunspots
come i nto vi ew. Most persist for a week or so, but the
maxi mum durati on i s from t hree to four months.
The number of sunspots vari es i n cycles of about 1 1
years; fi rst i ncreasi ng steadily until hundreds of groups
are seen annual l y, t hen gradually decreasi ng to a mi ni
mum of about 50 groups . At the begi nni ng of a cycle
the sunspots appear about 30 nort h and south of the
sun' s equator. As the cycl e progresses, t hey develop
closer to the equator and the zone of acti vi ty extends
from 1 0 to 20 degrees on ei t her si de of i t. The 1 1 -year
Relative size of earth
cycle is really an average value. Mysteri ously waxi ng
and wani ng, t he exact length of t he cycle can be as short
as ni ne years or as long as sixteen. Some astronomers
have poi nted out that the 1 1 -year cycle seems to be part
of a larger 22-year cycle in whi ch the enti re magneti c
fi eld of t he sun may reverse itself.
Sunspots seem to be gi ant magneti c stor ms on the
sun' s surface, whi ch may be caused by deeper, peri odi c
changes. They occur i n groups whi ch grow rapidly and
then sl owly decli ne. The gases i n t he sunspot ( about
8000F) are cool er t han the rest of the sun' s surface
( about 1 1 , 000F) ; hence they appear darker. Actual l y,
if a large sunspot could be i solated i n another part of
the s ky, it would appear as bri ght as a hundred full
moons. Sunspots have strong magneti c fi el ds . Radi ati on
from "solar flares" near t hem i nteracts wi th t he upper
levels of t he eart h' s atmosphere and i nterrupts short
wave radi o transmi ssi on; it is also li kel y to cause an
i ncrease i n auroras ( pp. 24- 25. )
23
AURORAS OR NORTHERN LI GHTS The shi fti ng,
gl owi ng, di fuse l i ght of an aurora is hard to descri be.
Yel low, pi nk, and green l i ghts come and go; arcs of l i ght
start at the hori zon and spread upward; streamers and
rays extend toward the zeni th. Auroras last for hours, and
often al l throu

h the ni ght. They are seen i n the north

and mi ddl e northern l ati tudes and i n the arctic. A si mi
l ar di spl ay i s seen i n the southern l ati tudes. Auroras occur
from about 60 to 600 mi l es up i n the ai r. At these hei ghts,
so l ittl e air remai ns that space is al most empty l i ke a
24
vacuum, or the inside of a neon light. The shifting gl ow of
the aurora is essential l y el ectrical and somewhat similar
to the l ight from the neon signs al ong Main Street.
The sun's radiation on the rare gases of the upper
atmosphere is what causes auroras. Auroras may be due
to charged particles that come from sol ar fares near
sunspots. The fact that auroras seem to center around the
earth's magnetic poles emphasizes their el ectrical char
acter. A few days after' a large new sunspot group de
velops, an auroral display is likel y to occur.
25
THE SKY FROM SUNRISE TO SUNSET

As the sun' s
rays pass t hrough the earth' s atmosphere, some are scat
tered, and a pl ay of col ors resul ts. Bl ue rays are scattered
most, and therefore a cl ear sky i s typi cal l y bl ue. Yel l ow
rays are scattered l ess than bl ue; t hus the s un itsel f, so
l ong as i t i s wel l above the hori zen, l ooks yel l ow. But j ust
after sunri se and j ust before sunset the sun i s reddi sh. At
these times the sharpl y sl anti ng sun's rays must travel a
l onger path t hrough the atmosphere, and more of t he
bl ue and yel l ow rays are scattered. The r ed rays, whi ch
are scattered l east, come through i n the l argest numbers,
Sunlight Pa11es Through a Thicker layer of Ai r at Sunrise and Sunset
giving the sun its reddi sh hue. If there are cl ouds and
dust in the ai r, many of the red rays whi ch flter down
i nto the l ower atmosphere are refected, and l arge areas
of the sky may be reddened.
Because of the bendi ng or refraction of light, whi ch is
greater when the sun is near the horizon, you can actual l y
see the sun for a few mi nutes before it rises and after it
sets. Dayl i ght i s a bit l onger for thi s reason. The closer to
the horizon, the greater the refracti on at sunrise or sun
set. Hence, as refracti on el evates the sun' s disc, the lower
edge i s raised more than the upper. This distorts the sun,
just as it is ri si ng or setting, gi vi ng i t an oval or mel on
shaped appearance.
Twi l i ght is sunl i ght difused by the ai r onto a region of
the earth' s surface where the sun has al ready set or has
not risen. It i s general ly defned as the period between
sunset and the time when the sun has sunk !8 degrees
bel ow the horizon-that is, a l ittl e over an hour.
27
THE TELESCOPE was frst put to practical use by Gal i l eo
in 1609. Si nce then, it has extended man's hori zons farther
and has chal l enged hi s thi nki ng more than any other
sci enti fc devi ce. The tel escope used by Gal i l eo, the best
known ki nd, is the refracti ng tel escope, consi sti ng of a
series of l enses in a tube. I n a si mpl e refractor, two l enses
are used, but commonl y others are added to correct for
the bendi ng of l i ght that produces a col ored hal o around
the i mage. The l argest refracti ng tel escopes are one with
a 40-i nch l ens at the Yerkes Observatory i n Wisconsi n,
and a 36-i nch one at li ck Observatory i n Cal ifornia.
The si mpl e refecti ng
tel escope has a curved
mi rror at the bottom of
the tube. This refects
the l i ght in convergi ng
rays to a pri sm or di ag
onal l y pl aced mirror,
whi ch sends the l i ght to
the eyepiece or to a
camera mounted at the
si de of the tube. Si nce
mi rrors can be made
l arger than l enses, the
l argest astronomi cal tel
escopes are refectors
(see page 30). Refec
tors with mirrors up to 8
i nches in di ameter are made by
amateurs as t he best si mple, low
cost telescope. A speci al type of
reflector, the Scmi dt, permits
rapi d photographi ng of the sky and has become one of
the maj or astronomi cal tools. Also of growi ng i mportance
are the radi o telescopes - gi ant, saucer- shaped i nstru
ments whi ch recei ve radi o waves from outer space.
Clouds of opti cally i nvi si ble neutral hydrogen, abundant
i n t he spi ral arms of our galaxy, can be traced by t hei r
radi o emi ssi ons. Radi o astronomy i s a young sci ence.
29
THE LARGEST TELESCOPE of the refector type is on
Pal omar Mountai n, near San Di ego, Cal if. Its 200-i nch
(16. 6-foot) mi rror is a marvel of sci enti fc and engi neeri ng
ski l l . The great di sc of pyrex glass was cast wi th support
i ng ri bs to bear its wei ght. It is 27 i nches thick and wei ghs
14J tons. Yet because of i ts desi gn, every part i s withi n
two i nches of the ai r-permitti ng the mi rror to expand and
contract uniforml y wi th changes i n temperature. The great
piece of gl ass has been poli shed to withi n a few mi l l ionths
of an inch of its calculated curve. Despi te its great wei ght
it can be tilted and turned precisel y wi thout saggi ng as
much as the thi ckness of a hai r. The mirror gathers about
640,000 ti mes as much li ght as the human eye. Wi th it,
astronomers photograph stars six mill i on times fai nter than
the fai ntest stars you can see, and gal axies over two bi l
l i on l i ght years away.
bPkb
Stars are suns: heavenl y bodies shi ni ng by thei r own
light and general l y so far away from us that, though mov
i ng rapi dly, they seem fxed i n thei r positions.
NUM8Ek5 OF 5IAk5 On the cl earest ni ght you are
not l i kel y to see more than 2,000 stars. With changi ng
seasons, new stars appear, bringi ng the total visible dur
i ng the year to about 6,000. A tel escope reveal s multi
tudes more. The total i n our gal axy runs into bi l l i ons, but
even so, space i s al most empty. Were the sun the size of
the dot over an "i," the nearest star woul d be a dot 10
miles away, and other stars woul d be microscopic to
di me-size dots hundreds and thousands of mi les distant.
DISTANCES OF STARS The nearest star, our sun, is a
mere 93 mi l l i on mi l es away. The next nearest star is 26
mi l l i on mi l l ion mi l es-nearl y 300,000 ti mes farther than
the sun. For these great distances, mi les are not a good
me. asure. I nstead, the light year i s often used. Thi s i s the
distance that l i ght travel s i n one year, moving at 186,000
mi les per second: nearl y 6 mi l l ion mi l l ion mi l es. On this
scal e the nearest star (excl udi ng the sun) is 4. 3 l ight years
away. Siri us, the bri ghtest star, is 8.8 l i ght years of. Other
stars are hundreds, thousands, and even mi l l ions of l ight
years away.
3 1
5TARLGHT Al l star s
shine by thei r own l i ght.
This l i ght may be produced
by nuclear reactions simi
l ar to those of the hydro
g en b o mb. Wh en t h e
el ement hydrogen i s trans
formed into hel i um, whi ch
ha ppens on most stars,
about 1 per cent of its mass
(weight) is changed i nto
Antares Is Larger Than Mars' Orbit
energy. This energy keeps
the temper at ur e i n t he
star's i nterior at mi l l i ons of degrees. At the surface the
temperature varies from about 5,500 degrees F. to over
55,000 degrees, dependi ng on the ki nd of star. One
pound o. f hydrogen changi ng to hel ium l i berates energy
equal to about 10,000 tons of coal . I n a si ngl e star the
energy rel eased in this way requires the transformation of
mi l l i ons of tons of matter per second.
STAR BRIGHTNESS The sun i s about average i n s i ze
and bri ghtness. Some stars are up to 600, 000 ti mes as
bri ght as the sun; others are only 1 /550, 000; most are
between 1 0, 000 and 1 /1 0, 000 ti mes as bri ght as the sun.
The bri ghtness of a star you see depends on its di stance
and on its real or absolute bri ghtness. See pp. 34- 35.
STAR SIZE Most stars are so di stant that t hei r si ze
can only be measured i ndi rectl y. Certai n gi ant red stars
are the largest. Antares has a di ameter 390 ti mes that
of the sun, others even l arger. Among the s mal l stars are
white dwarfs, no larger than pl anets . The s mallest are
neutron stars that may be no more than ten mi l es across.
32
DENSI TY OF STARS The densi ti es or relative wei ghts
of stars vary consi derably. Actually all stars are masses
of gas-but gas under very di fferent condi ti ons from
those we usually see. Gi ant stars such as Antares have a
densi ty as l ow as 1 /2000 of the density of ai r. The more
usual stars have a densi ty fai rly cl ose to t hat of t he sun.
Whi te dwarfs are so dense t hat a pi nt of t hei r materi al
would wei gh 1 5 tons or more on eart h. The compani on to
Si ri us i s 25, 000 t i mes more dense than the sun . Neutron
stars are bi l l i ons of ti mes denser.
MOTI ONS OF STARS Our sun i s movi ng about 1 2
miles per second toward the constellati on Hercules. Other
stars are movi ng too, at speeds up to 30 miles per second
or faster. Arcturus travels at 84 mi l es per second. Many
stars are movi ng as pcrts of systems or clusters . One such
system, i ncludi ng stars i n Taurus, i s movi ng away at about
30 mi l es per second. Some stars consi st of two or more
components ( see p. 38) whi ch revolve around a common
center as t hey move together through space. The stars i n
a constell ati on do not necessari l y bel ong together; they
may be of wi dely di fferi ng di stances from the earth and
may be movi ng in di fferent di recti ons at di fferent speeds.
COLOR OF STARS vari es from brill i ant blue-whi te to
dull reddi sh, i ndi cat i ng star temperat ure ( pp. 36- 37) -a
factor i n star classi fi cati on . Close observati on i s needed
to see the range of colors in t he ni ght sky.
Brightness of Some Major Stars (above) and the Visible Planets (below)
STAR MAGNITUDES Bri ghtness of stars is measured
i n ter ms of "magnitude. " A 2nd- magni tude star i s 2. 5
ti mes as bri ght as a 3r d, and so on throughout t he scal e,
so that a 1 st-magni tude star is 1 00 ti mes as br i ght as a
6th. Stars bri ghter than 1 st magnitude have zero or minus
magnitude. On thi s scal e the magni tude of the pl anet
Venus is -4; i t is 1 0,000 ti mes as bri ght as a 6th- magni
tude star, whi ch is the fai ntest that the unai ded eye can
see. The sun's magni tude is -27.
The bri ghtness of a star as we see i t depends on two
factors: its actual , or absol ute, bri ghtness and its di stance
from us. If one factor i s known, the other can be com
puted. Thi s rel ati onship makes i t possibl e to measure the
di st ance of remote gal axi es ( p. 39).
34
THE BRIGHTEST STARS
Disance
Magnitude (light Absolute
Name Constellation as seen years) magnitude
Si ri us Cani s Maj or -1.4d 9 +1 .5
*Canopus Cari na -0.8 540 -5.0
*Al pha Centauri Centaur -.3 d 4 +4.1
Arcturus BoOtes 0.0 32 +0.2
Vega Lyra 0. 1 26 +0.6
Copel l o Auri ga 0.1 45 -<.5
Ri gel Ori on 0.1 d 650 -6.5
Procyon Cani s Minor 0.4 d 1 1 +2.7
*Achernar Ri ver Eri danus 0.6 140
-2.6
*Beta Centauri Centaur 0.7 1 40 -2.5
Betel geuse Ori on 0.7 270 -4.1
Al tai r Aqui l a 0.8 16 +2.4
*Al pha Cruci s Southern Cross 0.8 d 160 -2.7
Al debaran Taurus 0.9 d 68 -<.6
Spi ca Vi rgo 1.0 230 -3. 3
Antares Scorpi us 1.0 d 410 -4.0
Pol l ux Gemi ni 1.1 34 + 1 .0
Fomal haut Southern Fi sh 1 .2 23 +2.0
Deneb Cygnus 1.2 1 500 -7.0
Regul us Leo 1.3 d 86 +1 .0
*Beta Cruci s Southern Cross 1 .3 470 -4.5
* Not vi si bl e at 40 N. l ati tude. d Doubl e stars: combi ned magni tude gi ven.
35
CLASSIFICATION OF STARS Most of the stars you
see can be cl assifed i nto seven groups accordi ng to the
stars' spectra. These, i n turn, depend mai nl y on the tem
perature of the stel l ar atmosphere. The spectra of l ow
temperature stars show that some si mpl e chemi cal com
pounds are present. As the temperatures of stars increase,
the spectra reveal that fewer mol ecul es occur, and that
the atoms making up the el ements that are present be
come excited and ioni zed. I oni zed atoms are those whi ch
have l ost one or more el ectrons. On the basi s of studi es
of thousands of spectra, stars are ar ranged in seven
cl asses: 0, B, A, F, G, K, and M. For more detai l ed study,
astronomers di vi de each cl ass into ten sub-cl asses, as AO,
B3, or G5. Over 99 per cent of the stars ft into this cl assif
cati on. Four other cl asses (W, R, N, S) are used for stars
not ftti ng the seven mai n groups.
36
STAR CLASSIFICATION
--
Star Approx. Temp. Spectral
class (degrees F.) Color character Examples
0 over 55,000 Bl ue- whi te Gases strongl y I ota Ori oni s
i oni zed ( i n sword)
B 36,000 Bl ue-whi te Strong neutral Rigel
hel i um Spi ca
A 20,000 Whi te Hydrogen Si ri us
predomi nant Vega
13,500 Yel l owi sh Hydrogen de- Canopus
wh ite creasi ng; metal s Procyon
increasi ng
G 11,000 Yel l ow Metal s promi nent Sun
Capel l a
K 7,500 Orange Metal s surpass Arcturus
hydrogen Al debaran
M 5,500 Red Ti tani um oxi de Betel geuse
present-vi ol et Antares
l i ght weak
37
STAR TYPES
DOUBLE STARS

Over a
thi rd of al l known stars are
double, or "bi nary. " The
components of a few can
be seen with the unaided
eye; thousands can be
"separated" with a tel e
scope; thousands more are
detected by the spectro
scope. Some stars have
three or more components;
Pai r af Double Stars: Castor
Castor has six -three dou-
bles. The mai n, mutual l y
revol vi ng pai r was cl osest together i n 1 968-about 55
ti mes the di stance of the earth from the sun.
Mi zar, at t he cure of t he Bi g Di pper's handl e, has a
fai nt compani on. Mizar itself is a telescopic doubl e and the
bri ghtest component is a spectroscopic doubl e star. When
the two stars are in l i ne, the spectra coi nci de. When, as
they revolve, one approaches us as the other moves away,
the spectrum l i nes are doubl ed. Capel l a and Spica are
al so spectral doubl e stars
.
As doubl e stars revol ve, one
may ecl i pse the other, causi ng re
duced bri ghtness. Best-known of
ecl i psi ng doubl e stars is Al gol , i n
Perseus. It waxes and wanes at
interval s of about three days. The
ecl i psi ng stars are 1 3 mi l l ion
mi l es apart. Thei r combi ned mag
ni tude vari es from 2. 3 to 3. 4.
Triple Star System
VARIABLE STARS are those that
fl uctuate i n bri ghtness. Most dra
matic ore the expl odi ng stars, or
novae. These dense, white stars
rapi dl y grow in bri l l i ance, up to
1 00, 000 ti mes or more, then fade
away. Other vari abl es change l ess
drasti cal l y regul arl y or i rregul ar l y.
Some red gi ants and supergi ants
Nova of 1572 in Cassiopeia
vary from 4 to 1 0 magni tudes over a few months to two
years. Mi ra, in Cetus the Whol e, is a famous l ong-peri od
vari abl e that shows extreme changes of bri ght ness.
The vari abl es known as cl assi cal Cephei ds vary i n
bri ghtness over peri ods of one day to several weeks. The
di stance of any of these Cephei ds con be readi l y esti
mated because of the defi ni te rel ati onshi p between its
vari ati on peri od and its absol ute magni tude. By measur
i ng the peri od, the absol ute magni tude con be deter
mi ned
,
and by compari ng the absol ute magni t ude wi th
the apparent magnitude, the distance con be esti mated.
These Cephei ds are i mportant in the cal cul ati on of dis
tances of star cl usters and gal axi es ( pp. 40-43) . I n recent
years, earl y i nformati on about cl assi cal Cephei ds has
i ndi cated t hat esti mates of the distances of gal axi es
beyond our own shoul d be at l east tri pl ed.
Eclips1ng Binary, Algol, with Magnitude Changes
STAR CLUSTERS are groups of stars rel ativel y cl ose to
one another and movi ng together as a stel l ar system.
Cl usters are of two types-open and gl obul ar. Some 300
open cl usters occur in our galaxy ( p. 42). Some are fine
objects to observe with bi nocul ars ( p. 158) . One cl ose
wmovi ng cl uster" i ncl udes most of the stars in the Big Di p
per. Another open cl uster i ncl udes approxi matel y 150
stars in and around Taurus, the Bul l . Some open cl usters
are easier to recognize, as the Praesepe cl uster in Cancer,
the Coma Berenices cl uster, and the doubl e cl uster of
Perseus. Most open cl usters are i n or near the Mi l ky Way.
40
Gl obul ar cl usters are much more compact, often more
di stant. The bri ghtest appear as di m, hazy spots; few can
be seen with the unaided eye. About !00 have been found
i n cur gal axy, and many more i n others. The great Her
cul es cl uster M !3 (i t was No. !3 i n the astronomi cal cata
l ogue of Messier) is stri ki ng in l arge telescope. It has hal f
a mi l l ion stars, at a distance of 34,000 l ight years. I ts di
ameter i s about ! 00 l i ght years, but most of the stars are
i n i ts "core," some 30 l ight years wi de. There are !0,000
times as many stars in thi s cl uster as in any equal space
elsewhere i n the sky.
4 1
OUkGALY AND OIHEk5

The sun, all t he vi si ble

stars, and bi ll i ons of stars seen only thr.ough a telescope
form a huge, flat spi ral system known as our galaxy. Thi s
great star system i s believed to be about 1 00, 000 li ght
years i n di ameter, but l ess than 7, 000 l i ght years t hi ck
at our l ocation. Our sun i s close to the equatori al (long)
plane of t he galaxy, but wel l off to one si de. The gal ac
ti c center or nucleus appears to be 26, 000 li ght years
away, toward Sagittari us (p. 77). Withi n the gal axy ar e
many star clusters and great clouds of cosmi c dust.
42
Our gal axy is rotati ng l ike a bi g whi rl pool, and the
myri ads of stars move around i ts center somewhat as the
pl anets rotate around our sun. Stars near the center rotate
faster than those farther out. The two Magel l anic Cl ouds
i n the southern hemi sphere sky, about 150,000 l i ght years
away, are the nearest galaxies. They are satel l ites of our
system. Our gal axy resembl es the great spi ral nebul a M31
i n Andromeda-a galaxy some 2 mi l l i on l i ght years away
and tice the si ze of our gal axy. Mi l l ions of other gal axies
have been reveal ed by tel escopes.
43
THE MILKY WAY forms a huge, irregular circle of stars
tilted about 60 degrees to the celestial equator. Even
before the structure of our galaxy was known, the great
astronomer Herschel proposed that this concentration of
stars was due to the gal axy extendi ng farther in space
in some directions than in others. It is now clear that in
looking at the Milky Way you are looking down the long
direction of our galaxy. As you look through a deeper
layer of stars, the stars appear more numerous. The Milky
Way has both thin and congested spots. In Sagittarius it
is at its brightest, but all of it is a wonder to behold.
NEBULAE is a term (latin for
"cl ouds") appl ied to di stant hazy
spots in the sky revealed by tele
scopes. Many are remote gal axies
more or l ess like ours; others are
cl ouds of dust or gas withi n our gal
axy. Of these cl oser nebul ae, the
brightest i s the Great Nebul a i n the
sword of Orion-di ameter 26 l i ght
years, distance 1,625 l ight years.
The entire regi on of Orion has the
fai nt gl ow of nebul ae, but here the
gl ow i s strongest. Al l such nebul ae
are faint; onl y l ong-exposure photo
graphs bri ng out detai l s of most.
Luminous nebul ae are found cl ose
to bri ght stars. Short-wave l i ght from these stars sti mul ates
the nebulae to glow l i ke fuorescent l amps. The brightest
nebulae are associated with the hottest stars. Low-tem
perature stars do not cause nebulae
to fuoresce, but starl i ght scattered
by the nebulae provides some i l l u
mination.
Some nebulae, having no stars
nearby, are dark. They may obscure
bright parts of the Mi l ky Way and
be vi sible as si l houettes. A series of
such dark nebulae divides the Milky ;.
Way from Cygnus to Scorpius into
two parallel bands. Most spectacu
lar of dark nebulae (often called
"coal sacks") i s the Horse-head
Nebula in Orion. Another is in Cyg
nus near the star Deneb.
Quite odd-looking are the planetary nebulae, so named
because they form loose "smoke rings" around stars. The
rings look something like the ex
panding rings around novae, but
the latter expand rapidly and dis
appear relativel y soon. Most
planetary nebulae are very faint,
even as seen through a tel escope,
but the Ring Nebula in Lyra, the
Owl Nebula in Ursa Major, and
others are spectacul ar as they
appear in ti me-exposure photos
such as those here.
Dust and gas
,
in the spi ral arms of our gal axy, make
i t hard t o deter mi ne col ors, bri ghtness, and di stances
of many stars. Dust makes stars
behi nd it l ook redder, or may
obscure them enti rel y. Bri ght gas
cl ouds have hel ped astronomers
to trace the spi ral arms of our
gal axy. I ncreasi ngl y effecti ve i n
thi s work has been the use of
radi o tel escopes, whi ch recei ve
"cl ues" i n the form of radi o si g
nal s that hel p to i dentify chemi
cal compounds i n the cl ouds.
THE ORIGIN OF STARS is a mystery, but the rel ati on
.
between spectral cl ass and absol ute brightness of stars,
as shown above, ofers some cl ues. Stars evol ve out of
cosmi c gas. As they shri nk and grow hotter, they may fol
l ow the mai n sequence, as does our sun. Then, some as
tronomers thi nk, the stars begi n to expand. Hotter ones
expand most rapi dl y; some may shift over i nto the cl asses
of the gi ants. Fi nal l y, as thei r substance i s exhausted by
radi ati on, stars may fash up i n great expl osi ons, becom-
48
>eclral Classes with Absalute Bri ghtness
i ng novae, and col l apse. They may then become white
dwarfs or neutron stars and eventual l y cease to s hi ne.
Astronomers are perpl exed al so by evi dence suggest
i ng that the enti re uni verse i s expandi ng rapi dl y. The
more di stant cl usters and gal axi es seem to be recedi ng
at tremendous speeds. At di stances of over a bi l l i on
l i ght years are "quasars, " obj ects much s mal l er, yet
much bri ghter, t han gal axi es. Astronomers are not cl ear
as to t hei r exact nature.
49
1HL LLMb1L1 LNb
Stars can be wei ghed and measured, and thei r br ight
ness, col or, and moti ons have meani ng. Constel l ati ons are
diferent. They are but fgments of man's i magi nati on
handy i nventi ons to hel p map the sky. Some of these
apparent patterns were known and used by our fore
fathers for thousands of years. Other mi nor constel l ati ons
were i nvented by 1 7th-century astronomers. Peopl e i n
di ferent parts of the worl d i magi ne the stars represent
diferent shapes and thi ngs. Most of the characters and
objects of t he constel l ati ons we use come fr om the myths
of the Greeks and Romans.
Al though they seem unchanged for a l ifeti me, even a
cntury, the constel l ati ons are changi ng; the stars i n them
are gradual l y shifti ng thei r positi ons. I n any constel l ati on
some stars may be farther away thqn others and unre
l ated to them. They may difer in di r

ton of movement
as wel l as col or or spectral cl ass. Becau
s
e of precession
( p. 53), di ferent stars have been and wi l l become the
North Star. Many constel l ati ons have been recogni zed
since anci ent ti mes. Thei r boundaries were i rregul ar and
often vague unt i l astronomers fnal l y establ ished them
defnitel y by i nternati onal agreement.
Amateurs neverthel ess l earn stars most easi l y by usi ng
constel l ations. Use the charts i n thi s secti on. Constel l ati ons
near the north pol e are charted on pp. 54-55, and south
ci rcumpol ar constel l ati ons on pp. 98-99. For mi ddl e- l ati
tude constel l ations, you wi l l fnd a map for each of the
four seasons, showi ng maj or constel l ati ons visi bl e duri ng
that season i n the north temperate zone.
The dome of the heavens i s hard to represent on a fat
map. The seasonal maps are desi gned to show most ac
curatel y constel l ati ons i n mi dd
i
e north l ati tudes. Di stortion
50
Bi g Di pper in 20th Century, with Stars Movi ng in Di rection of Arrows.
is greatest near the hori zons and in the south. Constel la
ti on shapes are truer i n the 28 i ndi vi dual constel l ati on pic
tures i n this secti on. Here they are upri ght. (For thei r
posi ti ons rel ati ve to each other, see the seasonal maps. )
Pol aris i s always at about the north cel esti al pol e; where
i t is not shown, an arrow frequentl y poi nts toward it.
For a compl ete l i st of constel l ati ons, see pp. 1 56- 1 57.
Bright stars have names, often Arabi c, and are l abel ed
usual l y i n order of bri ghtness by Greek l etters and constel
l ati on name, as Al pha Scorpi i , bri ghtest star i n Scorpi us,
and Beta Cygni , second bri ghtest i n Cygnus. Symbol s are
used i n charts i n thi s book as fol l ows:
* Stars: 1 st magnitude (bri ghter than 1 .5)

2d magni tude ( 1 . 5 to 2.5)

3d magnitude (2. 6 to 3. 5)
4th and 5th magni tude (fai nter than 3. 5)
Star cl usters and nebul ae
Bi g Di pper in 100,000 A.D.
CI RCUMPOLAR
CONSTELLATI ONS
The term ci rcum
polar constellations
implies that the ob
server is somewhere between the equator and the pole.
Each 24 hours, as the earth turns on its axis, the sky seems
to wheel overhead. To an observer in the north temperate
zone, stars near the pole remain in view as they swing
around; stars near the equator rise and set.
At the pole, all constellations are circumpol ar; at the
equator, none. For places between, the latitude is impor
tant, for if a star or constellation is nearer to the pole
than the pol e is to the horizon, it becomes circumpolar
and does not set. The bowl of the Big Dipper does not set
at latitude 40 degrees north, but in Florida, at latitude
30 degrees, it does set and so is no longer circumpolar.
When the sun is north of the equator during the summer,
it becomes a circumpolar star north of the arctic circle.
The circumpolar constellations are easy to learn, and you
will fnd them the best place in which to begin your iden
tification of the stars. Once you know the Big Dipper,
the rest fall into line. The
Littl e Di pper, Cass i o
peia, Cepheus, Draco,
and Perseus will guide
you to the other con
stellations shown on the
seasonal charts later in
this book.
Besi des rotati ng and revol v
i ng, the earth has an osci l l at
i n g mot i on l i k e t hat of a
spi nni ng top due chi efl y to t he
pul l of the moon on Eart h' s
equatori al bul ge. Each osci l
l at i on t akes a bout 26, 000
years. Thus
,
the North Pol e
t r aces a ci rcl e on t he sky,
poi nti ng to different stars' as
i t moves i n i ts ci rcui t. Thus
3, 000 years ago Al pha Draconi s was the Pol e Star. I n
1 4, 000 A. D. Vega i n Lyra wi l l be the Pol e Star a n d the
other constel l ati ons wi l l shift accordi ngl y. The Southern
Cross wi l l then be vi si bl e i n t he northern hemi sphere.
53
NORTH
CI RCUMPOLAR
CONSTELLATI ONS
At about 40 degrees north
l ati tude the fol l owi ng are con
si dered ci rcumpol ar constel l a
t i ons: Bi g Di pper ( Ursa Maj or);
L i t t l e Di pper ( Ur sa Mi nor ) ;
Cassi opei a, the Queen; Ceph
eus, the Ki ng; Draco, the Drag
on. To l ocate these constel l a
ti ons, use the accompanyi ng
chart. Faci ng north, hol d the
opened book i n front of you
so that the current month is l
.
toward the top. The constel l a .
ti ons are now about as you
wi l l see them duri ng the cur
rent month at 9 p. m. To see
how they wi l l appear earl i er,
turn the chart cl ockwise; for a
l ater ti me, countercl ockwise.
A quarter of a turn wi l l show
how much the positi ons of the
stars wi l l change duri ng a si x
hour peri od.
54
URSA MAJOR, THE GREAT BEAR (BIG DIPPER)
The fami l i ar Di pper is onl y part of the Great Bear. The
Di pper's seven stars are easy to fnd if you face north
on any cl ear ni ght. The two outer stars of the bowl point
to the North Star, Pol aris, whi ch i s about 30 degrees
away. The distance between the poi nters i s 5 degrees.
Both measurements are useful i n fndi ng your way around
the sky. The mi ddl e star of the handl e (Mizar) i s a doubl e
star. I ts 4th-magni tude compani on is fai ntl y vi si bl e, i f
you l ook careful l y. The rest of the Great Bear spreads
as a curve ahead of the poi nters and i n another curve
bel ow the bowl .
56
URSA MI NOR, THE LITTLE BEAR ( LITTLE DI PPER)
Pol ari s, the Pol e Star, is the tai l star of the li ttl e Di pper
a di pper whi ch has a reversed curve to the handl e. Pol ari s
i s a sun, qui te l i ke our own, but bri ghter. I ts di stance i s
about 50 l i ght years. Pol ari s i s not exactl y at the pol e
but i s l ess than a degree away; no other 2nd- magnitude
star is near it. It is commonl y used by navi gators to deter
mi ne l ati tude. Pol ari s is a Cephei d vari abl e whi ch changes
i n magnitude very sl i ghtl y every four days. The four stars
in the bowl of the Littl e Di pper are of 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and
5t h magnitude, maki ng a good scal e f or j udgi ng the
bri ghtness of near-by stars.
57
0kACO, TH 0kAGON begi ns, il frst, about 1 0 de
grees from the Bi g Di pper' s poi nters,
the two di ppers. Then i t swi ngs aroun e Li ttl e Di pper,
doubl es back, and ends i n a group of four stars, formi ng
the Dragon's head. These are about 1 5 degrees from
Vega i n Lyra. Thuban, i n Draco, once the North Star, was
the star by whi ch the Egypti ans ori ented their famous
pyrami ds. Though Draco i s ci rcumpol ar, i t i s best seen
i n l ate spri ng and earl y summer, when it is hi ghest above
the northern hori zon. A pl anetary nebul a in Draco can
be seen wi th a smal l tel escope.
58
CASSIOPEIA and near-by Cepheus are i nvol ved in the
myth of Perseus and Andromeda ( pp. 80-81 ) . Start at the
Bi g Di pper, at the star where the handl e and bowl meet,
and si ght a l i ne through the Pole Star on to Cassi opei a.
Cassi opei a has the shape of ei ther a W, an M, or a chai r,
dependi ng on how you l ook at i t. Near the s pot marked
on the map appeared the famous nova of 1 572. When
thi s temporary or expl osive star appeared, i t rapi dl y i n
creased i n magnitude ti l l it was as bri ght as Venus and
coul d be seen i n dayl i ght. Withi n two years i t faded
from view.
59
CEPHEUS is cl oser to the Pol e than Cassi opei a. The star,
shown above near Cepheus' knee, is about 1 2 degrees from
Pol ari s on a l ine with the star formi ng the end of the W of
Cassi opei a. Cepheus is a fve-sided fgure, l i ke a crude,
peaked house. Because of precession, the stars on the west
si de of Cepheus wi l l successivel y become the North Star
duri ng the next 2,500 to 5,500 years. J ust south of the
base of Cepheus i s a garnet-col ored star worth spotti ng
with bi nocul ars. Cephei d vari abl e stars, used i n measuri ng
distances of gal axi es, are named from Del ta Cephei i n this
constel l ati on (see p
. 39).
60
Ci rcumpol ar Stars as a Guide to Key Constel l ati ons
A KEY TO CONSTELLATIONS Use the stars of the
Bi g Di pper and other ci rcumpol ar stars to l ocate one or
two i mportant constel l ati ons for each season. Fol l ow the
curve of the Di pper' s handl e to Arcturus, or a l i ne through
the bottom stars of the Di pper t o Gemi ni . Trace from the
end of the handl e through the bottom of the bowl to leo.
Wi th these key constel l ati ons i n mi nd, you can l ocate the
others more easi l y. Be sure the constel l ati on you are try-
ing to l ocate i s above the hori zon at the season and hour
you are l ooki ng.
6 1
CONSTELLATI ONS
OF SPRI NG
The stars of spri ng, summer,
fal l , and wi nter were sel ected
as those easiest to observe at
about 9: 00 p. m. on the frst of
Apri l , J ul y, October, and Janu
ar y. The seasons actual l y begi n
a week or so ear l i er.
Each ni ght at the same hour,
a star appears s l i ghtl y to the
west of i ts former positi on.
Hence stars seen i n the east at
9: 00 p. m. appear hi gher and
hi gher i n t he sky at t hat hour
as the season advances. Before
Apri l 1 , spri ng constel l ati ons
are farther to the east, and far
ther west after that date.
lati tude, as wel l as season
and ti me of ni ght, determi nes
star positi ons. The Pol e Star' s
hei ght above the hori zon, for exampl e, is the same as
your l atitude. The seasonal maps are for about 40 degrees
north l atitude.
I n earl y spri ng, el even 1 sf- magnitude stars are i n the
sky at once. No other season ofers so many. I n additi on
to the constel l ati ons on pp. 66-69, l ook for a number of
smal l er ones. Between Gemi ni and leo l ies Cancer, the
Crab, a constel l ati on of 4th- and 5th- magni tude stars. At
the center of Cancer, note the fuzzy spot. Fi el d gl asses or
a smal l tel escope bri ngs out detai l s of thi s open cl uster of
some 300 stars; it is Praesepe, one of the near-by cl usters
62
i n our gal axy. Another l arger cl uster is Coma Bereni ces,
Berenice' s Hai r. Thi s is on a l i ne between the tai l star of
leo and the end of the Bi g Di pper' s handl e. Use fel d
gl asses.
In the southern sky are the fainter Corvus, the Crow;
Crater, the Cup; and Hydra, the Sea-serpent. Hydra
sprawl s bel ow leo and Vi rgo, the Vi rgi n. I t has one 2nd
magnitude star, the reddi sh Al phard. Corvus, a l op-si ded
square of 3rd-magni tude stars, i s cl ose to Spi ca i n Vi rgo
(see p. 73). Crater is near by, south of leo. I t has one 3rd
magni tude star . South of Corvus i s the Southern Cross.
63
CONSTELLATI ONS
OF SPRI NG
About 9 p. m. i n
mi ddl e north
l atitudes
:
0

4
Face north.
Hol d open book
overhead with top
of page toward north.
65
GEMI NI, THE TWI NS are often consi dered wi nter stars,
though they are sti l l hi gh in the western sky at the frst
si gns of spri ng. The bri ght stars Castor ( 2nd magnitude,
white) and Pol l ux ( l st magnitude, yel l ow), mark the
Twi ns' heads. They are a scant 5 degrees apart, maki ng
good measuri ng poi nts. Castor is a tri pl
e
star, and each
of i ts three components is a doubl e star ( si x i n al l ! ). The
bottom stars i n the Bi g Di pper' s bowl poi nt i n the di rec
tion of Castor. A l i ne through Ri gel and Betel geuse i n
Ori on poi nts to Pol l ux. The cl uster M35 i n Gemi ni i s worth
l ocati ng wi th gl asses.
66
LEO, THE LI ON is the best known and most conspi cuous
Of t he Zodi an constel l ati ons ( pp. 1 00- 1 01 ) . The Si ckl e,
whi ch cl earl y forms the li on' s head, i s found by fol l owi ng
a l i ne through the back stars of the Di pper' s bowl south
ward. Regul us, a bl ue-whi te 1 st- magni t ude star, 86 l i ght
years away, marks the base of the Si ckl e. The poi nters of
the Bi g Di pper poi nt in one di recti on to the North Star; i n
t he ot her di recti on, t o the tri angl e t hat makes up t he rear
of leo. The leoni d meteqrs, a once-spectacul ar group of
"s hooti ng stars, " radi ate from thi s part of t he sky in mi d
November.
67
BOOTES, THE HERDSMAN is found by fol l owi ng the
curve of the handl e of the Bi g Di pper 30 degrees to bri ght,
orange Arcturus. The other stars in Bootes are of 3rd and
4th magnitude. Most of t hem form a kite-shaped fgure
extendi ng cl ose to the Di pper' s handl e. Arcturus {mag
nitude 0.0), one of the few stars menti oned by name i n
the Bi bl e, is a gi ant, about
.
24 times the sun' s di ameter,
32 l i ght years away. Bootes is chasi ng the Bears wi th a
pai r of Hunti ng Dogs, whi !h make a smal l constel lati on
between Arcturus and the Di pper' s bowl .
68
VIRGO, THE VIRGI N begi ns as a Y-shaped l i ne of stars
of 3rd and 4th magnitude extendi ng toward Denebol a,
tai l star of leo. Spi ca ends thi s group; i t is a bl ue-white,
1 st-magnitude star 230 l i ght years away. The rest of
Virgo is a l i ne of three stars extendi ng on from Spi ca, and
a paral l el l i ne of three stars t o t he north. I n Vi rgo is a
cl uster of several hundred gal axies about 1 4 mi l l ion l i ght
years away. A few of the bri ghter spi ral nebul ae can be
seen wi th a smal l tel escope. Fol l ow the curve of the Di p
per's handl e through Arcturus to Spi ca.
69
CONSTELLATI ONS OF SUMMER
As Leo sinks i nto the west, a number of new constel l a
tions and bri ght stars move up i n the east. Summer i s
fne for watchi ng them. The weather is l i kel y to be favor
able and you may have more l eisure. The summer sky
is not so bri l l i ant as the earl y spri ng sky. You are not
l i kel y to see more than six 1st-magnitude stars. However,
there are constel l ations apl enty, and the Mi l ky Way is
most i mpressive i n summer.
Bootes, the Herdsman, a l ate spri ng constel l ation, i s
visi bl e most of the summer, and Arcturus, found by fol
lowi ng the curve of the Di pper's handle, is a good pl ace
to start expl ori ng the summer sky. Ri si ng j ust east of
Bootes is the Northern Crown, Corona Boreal is. Then to
the south comes Li bra, the Scales, a fai nt Zodi ac con
stel l ati on. Farther south and east of Li bra is Scorpi us, the
Scorpion, marked by the red, 1 sf- magnitude star Antares.
Movi ng north agai n you can trace out the thin l i ne of
Serpens, the Serpent, and Ophi uchus, the Serpent-bearer.
1 he two constel l ations merge. A 2nd-magnitude star
marks the head of Ophi uchus, but the remai nder of both
constel l ations are 3rd-, 4th-, and 5th-magnitude stars.
This doubl e star group has a mi dway position-midway
between the pol e and the equator and mi dway between
the points where the sun appears on the frst day of
spri ng and fal l . Sti l l farther north is Hercul es, about due
east of the Crown.
East of Hercules is a l arge tri angl e of 1 st-magnitude
stars set on the Mi l ky Way. These are l andmarks for the
late summer sky, when they are nearly overhead. The three
70
stars are Deneb in Cygnus, the North
ern Cross; Vega i n lyra, the lyre;
and Al tai r i n Aqui l a, the Eagl e. De
neb i s about 20 degrees east from
Vega, and Al tai r is about 30 degrees
from a l i ne between them. South of
Al tai r i s Sagittari us, the Archer. Part
of i t forms a Mi l k Di pper. Near the
triangl e are smal l but bri ght Del
phi nus, the Dol phi n, and Sagitta, the
Arrow. The southern summer sky i n
the regi on of Sagi ttari us i s ri ch i n star cl usters and attrac
tive faint stars.
locati ng stars i s easi er if you esti mate di stances i n
degrees. A ci rcl e contai ns 360 degrees; the di stance from
the eastern to the western hori zon through the zeni th
(overhead poi nt) i s 1 80 degrees. From hori zon to zeni th
i s 90 degrees. The poi nters of the Bi g Di pper are about 5
degrees apart. From Denebol a, at the tai l of leo, to the
star at the top of the tri angl e i s 1 0 degrees. From Ri gel to
Betel geuse i n Ori on i s 20 degrees. To avoi d confusi on as
to which di recti on i n the sky i s north, which i s east, and so
on, refer to the pol e star. Thus, to fnd Star A, 1 6 degrees
"south" of Star B, draw an i magi nary l i ne from the pol e
s
t
ar through Star B; then extend it 1 6 degrees. East and
west ar e at r i ght angl es t o thi s l i ne. West i s al ways the
di rection of a star' s apparent moti on as the eveni ng
progresses.
Any star can be exactly located on the cel esti al sphere
by usi ng the astronomical equi val ent of l ati tude (decl i na
ti on) and l ongitude (ri ght ascensi on) . Star atl ases are
made on thi s basi s. large tel escopes can be qui ckl y
di rected toward a star whose posi ti on i s known.
71
CONSTELLA li ONS
OF SUMMER
About 9 p. m. i n
mi ddl e north
l ati tudes
72
Face north.
Hol d open book
overhead, with top
of page toward north.
73
HERCULES l i es, upsi de down, j ust south of the head ot
Draco. A l i ne from Arcturus to Deneb in the Norther 1
Cross passes just north of it. A keystone of four 3rd- an .
4th-magni tude stars marks the center of Hercul es. Al ong
i ts western edge i s the famous cl uster M 1 3, 30,000 l i ght
years away, wi th half a mi l l ion stars. Through a tel escope
the cl uster i s a rare si ght. The sol ar system is moving to
ward Hercul es at 1 2 mi l es per second. However, because
of the rotati on of our gal axy, the net movement of the
sol ar system is toward Cygnus.
74
YRA, THE LYRE is a smal l constel l ati on marked by the
l endor of Vega, i ts bri ghtest star. Bl ue-white Vega, mag
tude 0. 1 , 26 l i ght years away, is the bri ghtest summer
.r. Between the pai r of 3rd-magnitude stars at the end
)f t he di amond-shaped constel l ati on i s t he famed Ri ng
\ebul a, 5,400 l i ght years away (pp. 45-47). A l arge tel e
; cope i s needed to see i ts detai l s. One of the 3rd-magni
ude stars i n lyra i s a bi nary star. The two stars ecl i pse
very 1 3 days, the magnitude droppi ng from 3.4 to 4. 3,
hen ri si ng agai n.
75
SCORPIUS, THE SCORPION The fshhook shape of
Scorpi us in the southern sky is easy to i dentify. Antares,
the red, 1 sf- magnitude star i n the heart of the Scorpi on,
i s a supergi ant of a type that gi ves out much more l i ght
than other stars i n the same spectral cl ass. Antares'
di ameter i s 390 ti mes that of the sun, but its thi n gases
have a density of less than one-mi l l i onth of the sun's.
I t i s 41 0 l ight years away and has a fai nt green com
pani on. Near Antares and between the tai l of Scorpi us
and Sagi ttarius are several barel y vi si bl e star cl usters.
76
SAGITTARIUS, THE ARCHER l ies j ust east of Scor pi us
and fol l ows i t across the sky. I ts central part, cal l ed the
Mi l k Di pper, is a smal l , upsi de-down di pper. Near the
stars of the Archer' s bow are several dark nebu l ae. The
general regi on is ri ch i n star cl usters and nebul ae. The
Mi l ky Way i s bri ghtest here. A l ook at it wi th gl asses or
a tel escope i s exci ti ng. Accordi ng to myth, Sagittari us i s
shooti ng the Scorpi on whi ch bit Ori on, the Hunter, caus
i ng hi s death. So Ori on cannot be seen when Scorpi us
and Sagittari us are i n the sky.
77
CYGNUS, THE SWAN is commonl y cal l ed the Northern
Cross and actual l y l ooks l ike a cross. Deneb, at the head
of the Cross, is i n the bright tri angl e of summer stars.
Al bi reo, a 3rd-magnitude doubl e star, at the head of _
Cygnus, is al most on a l i ne between Vega and Altai r.
The Mi l ky Way spl its here into paral l el streams. The
region is rich in vari col ored stars-doubl es and cl usters.
It is a regi on worth expl oring. A 5th-magnitude star in
Cygnus was the frst star measured for distance. I t is one
of the nearest-1 0.6 l i ght years away. Wi th Vega and
Al tai r, Deneb i n Cygnus makes a conspicuous triangle.
78
THE EAGLE, THE ARROW, ond THE DOLPHIN are
three nei ghbori ng constel l ati ons l yi ng j ust south of the
Cross and the lyre. Aqui l a, the Eagl e, i s a l arge constel
l ati on. Most conspi cuous i n i t i s t he br i ght star Al tai r
( magnitude 0.8, di stance 1 6 l i ght years) wi th a star on
either si de. The rest of the constel l ati on makes a l oose
tri angl e poi nted at Sagi ttari us. Sagi tta, the Arrow, an
obvi ous constel l ati on, l ies between t he Eagl e and t he
Cross. Farther east and formi ng a tri angl e wi th Aqui l a
and Sagitta i s Del phi nus, the Dol phi n, or Job' s Cofn, a
s mal l di amond of 4th- magnitude stars.
79
CONSTELLATI ONS OF AUTUMN
Some of t he aut umn constel l ati ons fol l ow so cl osel y
upon those l abel ed "summer" that they can be seen wel l
before there i s an autumn chi l l i n the ai r. Th e autumn
constel l ati ons are not qui te equal to the bri l l i ant ski es of
spri ng and summer. The constel l ati on patterns over l ap
and hence are not so cl ear. The n umber of bri ght stars is
l i mited. But cl usters, nebu l ae, and some unusual stars wi l l
enti ce t he observer.
Four of the autumn constel l ati ons and two from the
ci rcumpol ar group ( p. 52) are drawn together by a
famous Greek l egend. No other l egend is so wel l i l l us
trated in constel l ati ons as that of the hero Perseus, the
wi nged horse Pegasus, the ki ng and queen of Ethi opi a,
and thei r fai r daughter Andromeda. Ki ng Cepheus and
hi s queen, Cassi opei a (both ci rcumpol ar constel l ati ons),
l i ved happi l y ti l l the queen ofended the sea nymphs, who
sent a sea monster (Cetus) to ravage
t
he coast. The mon
ster woul d depart onl y when the royal pri ncess Androme
da was sacri fced. Andromeda was chai ned to a rock by
the sea to awai t her doom. But j ust as the sea monster
appeared, so did Perseus, the son of J upiter, fyi ng with
winged sandal s. Perseus was returni ng home from
'
a peri l
ous missi on. He had j ust succeded i n ki l l i ng the dreaded
Medusa, a creature wi th such a terrifyi ng face that mor
tal s who gazed on her turned to stone. ( From the bl ood
of Medusa, Pegasus, the wi nged horse, had sprung. ) After
bargai ni ng with the ki ng, who promised hi s daughter to
the hero if he saved her, Perseus sl ew the sea monster .
Though the weddi ng feast was i nterrupted by a j eal ous
sui tor, the pai r l ived happi l y thereafter.
Al l the mai n characters of the Perseus l egend are en
shri ned as constel l ati ons. Cetus, the sea monster, i s a
80
s preadi ng constel l ati on of di m stars.
The fve stars formi ng the head of
Cetus l i e i n a rough ci rcl e southwest
of the Pl ei ades and south of An
dromeda. The constel l ati on, extend
i ng south and west, has onl y one 2nd
magnitude star, but al so i ncl udes a
famous vari abl e star, Mi ra.
Mi ra i s a l ong- peri od vari abl e star
( p. 39) ; it was di scovered in 1 596.
li ke many ot her l ong- peri od vari abl es, Mi ra i s a red star
wi th a spectru m that fits i nto Cl ass M. When at its di mmest,
Mi ra i s an 8th- to 1 Oth- magni tude star wi t h a temperature
of about 3, 400 degrees F. Sl owl y, over a peri od of
around 1 20 days, its bri ghtness and temperature i ncrease
ti l l i t i s between 2nd and 5th magni tude, and about
4, 700 degrees F. Then i t sl owl y di ms and cool s.
Other mi nor constel l ati ons of autumn i ncl ude Tri angu
l um, the Tri angl e, a smal l group j ust south of Andromeda
between Pegasus and Perseus. About 7 or 8 degrees south
west of the Tri angl e i s Ari es, the Ram. look for a 2nd-, a
3rd-, and a 4th-magnitude star in a 5-degree curve. Pisces,
the Fishes, a V-shaped group, fts around the southeast
corner of the Square of Pegasus. The Northern Fish i s a
l i ne of ei ght 4th- and 5th- magnitude stars. The Western
Fi sh ends i n a smal l ci rcl e of 5th- and 6th- magnitude stars
j ust bel ow the Square of Pegasus. Using the two western
stars on the Square of Pegasus as poi nters, extend a l i ne
south nearl y 40 degrees and you may see a bri ght star
( magni tude 1 .2) cl ose to the southern hori zon. Thi s i s
Fomal haut, i n the constel l ati on of the Southern Fi sh. The
rest of the constel l ati on extends westward as a di amond
shaped group of 4th- and 5th- magnitude stars.
8 1
CONSTELLATI ONS
OF AUTUMN
About 9 p. m. i n
mi ddl e north
l ati tudes
82
Face north.
Hol d open book
overhead with top
of page toward north.
83
PEGASUS, THE WINGED HORSE is found by extend
i ng a l i ne from the Pol e Star through the west end of
Cassi opei a. Thi s l i ne hits the eastern si de of the great
square-a rather i mperfect square about 1 5 degrees on
each si de. West of the square the constel l ati on extends
toward Cygnus and Del phi nus. Pegasus i s upsi de down,
wi th i ts head toward the equator. The 2nd- magnitude star
Al pheratz, or Al pha Andromedae, i s at the point where
the constel l ati ons joi n. Pegasus was recorded as a con
stel l ati on i n anci ent ti mes.
84
ANDROMEDA in chai ns extends eastward from Pega
sus as two l ong, spreadi ng l i nes of stars whi ch meet at
Al pheratz, a tri pl e star (2. 3, 5. 4, and 6. 6 magnitude).
The northern l i ne of stars extends toward Cassi opei a, the
southern to Perseus. I n Andromeda is Messi er 31 , the
bri ghtest and l argest of the spi ral nebul ae ( pp. 42-43),
vi si bl e to the naked eye (magnitude 5.0) . It is about 2
mi l l ion l i ght years away and has a di ameter of about
! 50,000 l i ght years. Si mi l ar to our own gal axy i n many
ways, t he Messier 3! i s about twi ce as l arge.
85
PERSEUS l i es cl ose to Cassiopei a. A curved l i ne of star!
formi ng part of Perseus extends toward Auri ga. Othe1
stars i n Perseus comp. l ete i ts rough, K-shaped fgure. The
downward si de of the K poi nts to the Pl ei ades. The up
ward ar m ends wi th Al gol , best known of the vari abl e
stars-the "Demon Star," or head of Medusa. I t i s ar
ecl i psi ng bi nary. The bri ghter star i s t hree ti mes the
di ameter of our sun; the di mmer, even l arger. As the:
revol ve, about 1 3 mi l l i on mi l es apart, the dim star ecl i pse
the bri ght star once every three days, causi ng a dro1
from 2. 3 magni tude to 3. 4.
86
AURIGA, THE CHARIOTEER is the l ast of the aut umn
constel l ati ons, heral di ng the comi ng wi nter. Auri ga l i es
to the east of Perseus. A l i ne drawn from the top stars
of the Big Di pper' s bowl poi nts cl ose to Capel l a, a bri ght
tri pl e star ( magnitude
0.
1 ), farthest north of the 1 sf
magni tude stars. Capel l a i s someti mes known as The
Goat; a near-by tri angl e of stars are the ki ds. Several
open cl usters (M37 and M38 especi al l y) are found i n
Auri ga. Each contai ns about 1 00 stars and i s about 2,700
l i ght years away. The mai n part of Auri ga i s a fve-si ded
fgure of 1 st-, 2nd-, and 3rd- magnitude stars.
87
CONSTELLATI ONS OF WI NTER
The sky i s never cl earer than on col d, sparkl ing winter
nights. It is at those times that the fainter stars are seen
in great profusion. Then the careful observer can pick
out dim borderline stars and nebulae that cannot be seen
when the air is less cl ear. The winter constel lations in
cl ude some of the brightest and easiest to recognize.
Eight 1 st-magnitude stars are visibl e on January evenings,
and you may see up to 1 1 by earl y spring.
For the watcher of these faint stars the period of accom
modation, or getting used to the dark, i s important. You
wi l l need at least 5 or 1 0 minutes after looking at a bright
l ight before your eyes wil l once again see the faintest
stars. Use your star map frst and then do your observa
tion. If you use a flash l ight whil e observing, cover the l ens
with red cel lophane or with a sheet of thin paper to cut
down the i ntensity of the light. Another good trick in view
ing faint stars is to look a bit to one side and not direct l y
at them. This side vision is actual l y more sensitive than
direct vision.
The winter constel l ations center about Orion, the Great
Hunter, who according to the Greek myths boasted that
no animal coul d overcome him. Jupiter sent a scorpion
which bit Orion in the heel , ki l l ing him. When Orion was
pl aced in the sky, with his two hunting dogs and the hare
he was chasing, the scorpion that bit him was pl aced
there too, but on the opposite side of the heavens.
The winter skies al so include Taurus, the Bul l , of which
the Pl eiades are a part, and some minor star groups.
Use Orion, so clear and easy to fnd in the winter sky,
as a key to other near-by constel l ations. The belt of Orion
acts as a pointer in two directions. To the northwest, it
points toward Al debaran in Taurus, the Bul l , and on,
88
past Al debaran, toward the Pl ei ades.
In the opposite di recti on, the belt of
Orion poi nts toward Sirius, the Dog
Star. Si ri us, Procyon (the Li ttl e Dog),
and Betel geuse i n Orion form a tri
angl e with equal si des about 25 de
grees l ong. South of Orion, about 1 0
degrees, i s lepus, the Hare; and an
other 1 5 degrees south is Col umba
the Dove (p. 96). A l i ne from Ri gel
through Betel geuse poi nts roughl y i n the di rection of
Gemi ni , the Twi ns.
With such stars as Betel geuse, Al debaran, and Ri gel
i n the wi nter sky, it is worth recal l i ng that these represent
an Arabi an contri bution to astronomy from the 8th to the
1 2th century. Arabi an star names are common. The
Greeks, Romans, and thei r western European descendants
gave names to the constel l ati ons, most of which represent
characters from Greek and Roman myths. Some of the
star names are from the lati n, too. Many of the i deas
devel oped by the earl y astronomers have been discarded,
as the l i mited observati ons of those days l ed to i ncom
pl ete or wrong i nterpretati ons. But the names given to
stars and constel l ati ons have often remai ned unchanged
for centuries and are as useful now as they were long ago.
Because wi nter ni ghts are l ong, and often cl ear, they
ofer an excel l ent opportunity for photographi ng stars
and pl anets. The books l i sted on p. 1 1 wi l l tel l you more
about thi s i nteresti ng hobby. Star trai l s and photos show
i ng the movement of the moon or other pl anets can be
. node wi th no equi pment other than a camera. For other
.inds of photographs of heavenl y bodies, a pol ar axis,
motor-driven wi th a cl ock, i s needed to keep the camera
accuratel y fol l owi ng the star or pl anet.
89
CONSTELLA li ONS
OF WI NTER
About 9 p. m. i n
mi ddl e north
l atitudes
90
Face north.
Hol d open book
overhead wi th top
of page toward north.
91
ORI ON, THE HUNTER is conspi cuous and easi l y remem
bered. A l i ne drawn from Pol ari s through Capel l a i n
Auri ga wi l l bri ng you to Ori on. So wi l l a l i ne from the
stars formi ng the ends of the horns of Taurus, the Bul l .
jhe rectangl e formi ng the Hunter's torso i s bounded by
bri ght stars. Betel geuse i s a red vari abl e supergi ant
( magni tude 0. 7) . Ri gel , di agonal l y opposite but bl ue
white, is a supergi ant doubl e ( magnitude 0. 1 ) . From
Ori on' s bel t, 3 degrees l ong, hangs the fai nt sword, con
tai ni ng the great nebul a M42, a mass of gl owi ng gas 26
l i ght years i n di ameter and 1 ,625 l i ght years away.
92
TAURUS, THE BULL represents the form J upi ter took to
carry of Europa, a young pri ncess. ( Onl y the forepart
of the Bul l got i nto the sky. ) Most conspi cuous stars i n
Taurus are the Hyades, whi ch form i ts face. Thi s cl ear,
V-shaped star group has Al debaran, a red 1 sf- magnitude
star, at one end. Al debaran i s a doubl e star 68 l i ght years
away. The Hyades, actual l y a l oose cl uster of about 1 50
stars, are about 1 20 l i ght years away. From them extend
t he horns of Taurus. The 2nd- magnitude star Nath, form
i ng the ti p of the Northern Horn, is al so part of Auri ga
and can serve as a gui de to Taurus.
93
Pl ei ades as Seen wi th Unaided Eye ( upper left) and as Seen wi th
Bi noculars or Small Telescope
THE PLEIADES are a part of Taurus, representi ng a spot
on the Bul l 's shoul der. They are an open cl uster of many
stars-at l east several hundred-wrapped in a fai nt nebu
l osity. Seven stars are vi si bl e to the unai ded eye. To count
them is a test of good eyesi ght. Fi el d gl asses show many
more. :hi s cl uster and the Hyades are two open cl usters
in whi ch the stars can be seen wi thout ai d. Accordi ng to
the myths, thi s group of stars represents the seven daugh
ters of Atl as, the gi ant who supported the worl d on his
shoul ders.
94
CANIS MAJOR AND MINOR are two constel l ati ons,
each of whi ch has a maj or star. I n Cani s Maj or (the Bi g
Dog) Si ri us, bri ghtest of al l stars, domi nates. Wi th a mag
nitude of -1 .43 it i s over 300 ti mes bri ghter than the
fai ntest vi si bl e stars. Si ri us, the Dog Star, i s onl y 8. 8
l i ght years away. The rest of Canis Maj or i ncl udes doubl e
and tri pl e stars and several cl usters. Cani s Mi nor, the
li ttl e Dog, i s smal l er and has onl y one vi si bl e star besi des
Procyon ( magnitude 0. 4). The bel t of Orion poi nts east
ward and a l ittl e south to Si ri us. An eastward l i ne from
Betel geuse i n Ori on takes you to Procyon.
95
LEPUS, THE HARE ond COLUMBA, THE DOVE are
smal l constel l ati ons near Ori on. lepus i s south of Ori on
and due west of Cani s Maj or. The mai n port of the con
stel l ati on i s a four-si ded fgure of 3rd- and 4th-magnitude
stars. Most of the other stars are between thi s group and
Ori on. The Dove, which commemorates t he dove whi ch
few out from Noah's Ark, is an even smal l er constel l ati on
south of lepus and, i n most ports of the United States,
cl ose to the southern horizon. The four stars form a cl ose
group about 5 degrees l ong.
96
SOUTHERN
HEMI SPHERE
CONSTELLATI ONS
The farther south you
go, the more southern
stars you can see. At
40 degrees N. l atitude
about hal f the southern
stars are vi si bl e. I n south
ern Fl ori da and Texas
the Southern Cross is
seen. Southern constel
l ati ons not t hus far de
scri bed are i n a ci rcl e
(next page) wi thi n 40
degrees from the South
Pol e. They were de
scri bed frst by Magel l an
and other earl y observ
ers. Most famous is the
Southern Cross, 6 de
grees l ong, poi nti ng to
the South Pol e. The Cen
taur, near by, has two
1 sf-magnitude stars. A
companion to one of
them i s the nearest star
to the eart h. The Magel
l ani c Cl ouds ( p. 43) are
cl ose compani ons of our
gal axy.
Ri ght: Strip of Sky fro"
North Pole to South Pole
SOUTH CI RCUMPOLAR
CONSTELLATI ONS
At about 40 degrees
south l ati tude the fol l ow
ing are the chief ci rcum
pol ar constel l ations: Crux
(Southern Cross), Cari na
(the Keel , of the shi p Argo),
Vol ens (Fl yi ng Fi sh), Dor
ado {Gol dfsh or Sword
fsh), Hydrus (Sea Serpent),
Tucana (Toucan), Octans
(Octant), Pavo (Peacock),
Ara (Al tar) , Tri angul um
(Southern Tri angl e), and
Centaurus (Centaur).
At about the equator you
can locate these constel l a
ti ons wi th the accompany
i ng chart. Faci ng south, hol d
the open book in front of
you so that the current
month i s toward the top.
The constel l ati ons are now
about as you wi l l see them
duri ng the current month at
9 p. m. To see how they wi l l
appear earl i er, turn the
chart countercl ockwise; for
a l ater time, cl ockwise. A
quarter of a turn wi l l show
how much the positi ons of
the stars wi l l change dur
i ng a si x-hour peri od.
THE ZODIAC is a bel t of 1 2 constel l ati ons: Aries, Taurus,
Gemi ni , Cancer, leo, Virgo, libra, Scorpi us, Sagittari us,
Capri cornus, Aquari us, Pi sces. These star groups ci rcl e
the sky cl ose to the ecl i ptic, whi ch i s the great ci rcl e of the
earth' s orbi t around the sun. The sun, moon, and pl anets
l ook as though they move agai nst the background of these
constel l ati ons and seem to be "in" them. Easiest to observe
i s the moon' s path. The j ourneys of the pl anets take l onger,
dependi ng on thei r distance from the sun.
The sun itself seems to move through the Zodi ac con
stel l ati ons each year. The change of constel l ati ons seen
j ust before sunrise or after sunset confrms this movement.
1 00
Note, in the di agram, the earth ci rcl i ng the sun. From the
earth, the sun seems to be i n the constel l ati on Li bra. As
the earth revol ves, the sun wi l l seem to move through
Scorpi us and Sagittari us, ti l l fnal l y it i s back i n li bra
agai n.
Babyl oni ans and other ancient astronomers recogni zed
this apparent moti on of the sun, moon, and pl anets. Thi s
knowl edge hel ped them predi ct the seasons. Nowadays
the Zodi ac is often l i nked to astrol ogy, whi ch cl ai ms to
interpret the i nfuence of stars on peopl e and worl dl y
events. Astronomers are convi nced t hat astrol ogy has no
scientifc foundation.
1 0 1
1H1
bLk bYb11N
There are al together in the sun' s
fami l y 9 pl anets, 32 moons or satel
l ites, thousands of mi nor pl anets or aster
oi ds, scores of comets, and untol d mi l l i ons of
meteors. Central star of the sol ar system, the sun
makes up over 99 per cent of i ts mass (wei ght).
The pl anets range from ti ny Mercury, whi ch i s some
36 mi l l i on mi l es from the sun, to farthest Pl uto. Mercury
goes round the sun i n three earth-months. Pl uto takes
al most 250 earth-years to ci rcl e the sun once.
Around some of the pl anets revol ve moons. Al thoug
Mercury, Venus, and Pl uto have none, the other pl anets
have one to 1 2. Jupiter, the l argest pl anet, has 1 2. Of
these, 4 can be seen with fel d gl asses or a smal l tel escope.
The ri ngs of Saturn, made of mi l l i ons of tiny frag
ments
,
can be seen i n a s mal l tel escope as a pl atel i ke
bel t ar ound the pl anet.
Most asteroids revol ve i n paths between Mars and
Jupiter. The bri ghter ones can be found by amateurs with
tel escopes if their positions are known.
Comets, ci rcl i ng the sun i n el ongated orbits, cruise i nto
view and out agai n in periods rangi ng from a few years
to several hundred years and much l onger.
Meteors, whi ch appear as bri ght streaks or fl ashes i n
the sky,
burn because of fricti on wi th the earth' s atmos
phere. Meteors that stri ke the earth provi de materi al
from outer space that one can study at fi rst hand.
1 02
Onl y on the
e a r t h i s l i f e
defi ni tel y known
t o exist. Tempera
tures on the other
pl anets except Mars
are probabl y too ex
treme to permi t pl ant or
ani mal l ife as we know i t.
Mars, as observed by Mari
ner 9 space-probe i n 1 972,
possesses vol canoes, canyons
and j ust possi bl y may be i nhabi ted
by very si mpl e l ife forms. Pl anets out
si de our sol ar system may exi st.
THE PLANETS
Mercury Venus Earth
Average di stance from sun (in mi l l i ons
of mi l es) 36 67 93
Di stance from sun {compared to earth) 0. 39 0. 72 1 . 00
Di ameter at equator ( i n mi l es) 3,100 7,600 7,913
Mass or wei ght (compared to earth} 0.05 0. 81 1 . 00
Vol ume ( compared to eart) 0. 06 0. 92 1 .00
Number of moons 0 0
Length of day ( i n hours) 1 , 4 1 6 5, 834 24
Lengt h of year (compared to earth) 0. 24 0 62
1 .0
I ncl i nati on of equator to orbi t
( i n degrees) 28 8 8 23. 5
Weight of an obj ect wei ghi ng 100 l bs.
on earth (in pounds) 25 85 1 00
Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto
142 483 886 1 ,782 2,793 3,670
1 .52 5. 20 9. 54 1 9.19 30.07 39.46
4,140 86,800 71,50 29,400 27,000 3,60 (?)
0.11 318. 4 95.3 1 4. 5 1 7. 2 0. 2
0.15 1 ,318 736 64 60 0. 1
2 12 1 0 5 2
0
24. 5 10 10 10. 7 1 5. 7
154
1 .9 1 2 29 84 1 65 248
24 3. 1 26. 8 98 29
(?)
36 264 1 1 7 92 1 1 2
30
( ?)
Laplace Theory of Origin of Solar System
ORI GI N OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The earl iest and

most note"orthy sci enti fc expl anati on of t he ori gi n of the
sol ar system was devel oped by the French mathemati ci an
Pi erre de Lapl ace i n 1 796. He i magi ned a gl obe of hot,
gl owi ng gases i n space, rotati ng sl owl y. As the gl obe con
tracted, i t rotated faster. The faster rotati on caused the
gl obe to fatten out i nto a di sc, whi ch, as it shrank, l eft
rings of gas around it. These ri ngs gradual l y condensed
i nto pl anets, some wi th satel l ites.
Lapl ace' s theory, cal l ed the nebul ar hypothesis, l eft
many thi ngs unexpl ai ned and was grad
u
al l y abandoned.
Even today no theory gives a whol l y satisfactory expl ana
ti on of al l the observed bodi es and moti ons i n the sol ar
system. Some modern astronomers, notabl y G. P. Kui per,
suggest that as the ori gi nal sol ar nebul a shrank, it may
1 06
have l eft disti nct cl ouds of gas rather t han ri ngs around
i t. These cl ouds, cal l ed "protopl anets, " condensed fur
ther and became the pl anets, wi th thei r atmospheres
and satel l ites. The satel l ites, i t i s bel ieved, coul d have
formed by processes l i ke those that formed the pl anets.
Peopl e often i nqui re about the possi bi l i ti es of other
sol ar systems-of stars wi th pl anets, and pl anets support
i ng l ife. The number of stars is so great t hat t he statisti cal
possi bi l i ty of other sol ar systems does exi st. Whatever the
seri es of events that brought our sol ar system i nto bei ng,
t hey may have been repeated many ti mes wi t hi n t he tre
mendous space of the universe. large pl anets of a few
nearby stars may have been detected, but no system
l i ke ours has yet been discovered. Even wi th the newest
tel escopes the chances of seei ng such a system are sl i m.
A Modern Theory of Ori gi n of Solar System
Artist's Concepti on of a Landscape on Ai rl ess Mercury
MERCURY, the smal l est pl anet and nearest to the sun,
can at ti mes be seen i n t he east j ust before s unri se or i n
the west j ust after sunset. I t has phases l i ke the moon' s
( p. 1 40) . Mercury orbits the sun every 88 days and
rotates on i ts axi s every 58 or 59 days. The di recti on of
rotati on i s from west to east. The same si de of Mercury
does not al ways face the sun, as once bel i eved, and so
its temperature i s fai rl y even rather than extremel y hot
on one si de, col d on the other .
1 08
Venus in Cescent Phase
VENUS, cal l ed the Morni ng or Eveni ng Star dependi ng
on when i t i s vi si bl e, i s the nearest of the pr i nci pal pl an
ets-about 26 mi l l i on mi l es away at its cl osest approach.
Then it appears through the tel escope as a thi n crescent.
I t i s bri ghtest a month l ater-1 5 ti mes bri ghter than
Si ri us, the bri ghtest star. A dense atmosphere conceal s
the pl anet's s urface, but i ts surface temperature i s far
above the boi l i ng poi nt of water. It rotates from east
to west.
1 09
EARTH, the pl anet on whi ch we l ive, gives a basi s
for understandi ng the others . The earth has been accu
ratel y measured. Its di ameter at the equator is 7, 926. 68
mi l es; through t he pol es it i s onl y 7, 899. 98 mi l es, or
26. 7 mi l es l ess. Thi s very sl i ght fl atteni ng at the pol es
l eaves the earth an al most perfect sphere. An atmos
phere of gases surrounds the earth, extendi ng upward
about 500 mi l es. But the atmosphere decreases rapi dl y
wi th al ti tude, becomi ng thi nner and thi nner as one goes
hi gher. Hal f of i t i s found wi thi n 3 mi l es of the surface.
The atmosphere is an essenti al part of such efects as
rai nbows, sunri se and sunset col ors, and auroras.
The earth has a compl ex patern of motions, al l of which
afect our rel ationshi p to the stars and other pl anets. Fi rst,
the earth rotates on its axi s in four mi nutes l ess than 24
hours as measured by your watch. Second, the earth re
vol ves on its 600- mi l l ion-mi l e orbit around the sun once
a year, at a speed of 1 8\ mi l es per second. Thi rd, the
earth's axi s has a motion, cal l ed precessi on (p. 53), mak
i ng one turn in about 26,000 years. Fourth, the North and
South Pol es are not stati onary, but wander i n rough ci rcl es
aout 40 feet in di ameter. Fi nal l y, there is a sol ar motion
of 1 2 mi l es per second, whi l e our part of the gal axy seems
to be whi rl i ng through space at 1 70 mi l es per second.
The wei ght of the earth is written as 66 fol lowed by
20 zeros tons. On the average, it i s 5\ ti mes as heavy
as an equal -sized body of water. However, studi es of
rock, of earthquake waves, and of gravit show that the
earth i s not the same throughout. Near the center of the
earth the material is under a pressure of about 25,000 tons
per square inch. That tremendous pressure creates a very
dense core averagi ng about 1 0 to 1 2 times the wei ght of
water. From the center of the earth to the surface i s about
1 1 0
3,950 mi l es. The frst 2,200 is this dense, heovy core of
compressed rock. The pressure couses thi s core to reoct
li ke o l i qui d to eorthquoke woves.
Surroundi ng the core i s o 1 ,700- mi l e ri gi d Ioyer of
heovy rock whi ch grodes of i nto l i ghter rocks nearer the
surface. Fi nal l y comes the outer rocky crust, up to 25 mi l es
thi ck, where the density of the rock is onl y 2.7 ti mes thot
of woter. On the very surface o thi n ski n o.f rock hos been
al tered i nto soi l by the octi on of woter ond oi r. It i s here
thot l ife i s concentrated.
1 1 1
0AY AN0 NlGHI is due to the earth' s rotati on . The
earth is a dark sphere l i ghted on one si de by the sun. As
the earth rotates on its axi s from west to east every 24
hours, the sun seems t o ri se i n the east, cross t he s ky, and
set i n t he west. The earth's atmosphere bends and
diffuses t he sunl i ght, before t he s un ri ses, t o make
dawn
, and it keeps the sky l i ght for a ti me after the sun
has set. Day and ni ght are always equal at the equator,
but because of the ti l ti ng of the earth' s axi s to the pl ane
of i t s orbit, onl y at the first days of spri ng and fal l are
day and n i ght equal in mi ddl e l atitudes . I n the northern
hemi sphere, l ength of dayl i ght and hei ght of the sun
above the hori zon at noon i ncrease from the fi rst day of
wi nter to the fi rst day of summer, then decrease agai n.
The pol ar regi ons have 24 hour days dur i ng summer .
1 1 2
TIME

The earth rotates through 360 degrees in about

24 hours, at the rate of 1 5 degrees per hour. New York
Ci ty and li ma, Peru, have the same sun-ti me, because
they have the same l ongitude. But when it i s noon i n New
York it is sti l l l ate morni ng in Chi cago.
When the sun reaches i ts hi ghest poi nt ( noon) at a
given l ocati on, the ti me at a poi nt 1 5 degrees west of
that l ocati on is onl y 1 1 o' cl ock. local ti me is therefore
di ferent for al l pl aces that are not on the same l ongi tude.
When onl y l ocal ti me was used, New York cl ocks were
1 1 Y2 mi nutes behi nd Boston, and Washi ngton's were 1 2Y2
mi nutes behi nd New York. To avoi d the confusi on result
ing from such smal l diferences, i n 1 883 the nati on was
di vi ded i nto ti me bel ts, each about 15 degrees wi de and
each di feri ng by one hour i n ti me. Si mi l ar belts now
gi rdl e the earth-24 of them.
Position of Sun at Sunrise, Noon, and Sunset in Middle Northern Latitudes
EARTH SEASONS Because of the 23Y-degree tilt of
the earth' s axis, the sun is above the hori zon for di ferent
l engths of ti me at di ferent seasons. The ti l t determi nes
whether the sun's rays stri ke us at a l ow angl e or more
di rectl y. At New York' s l ati tude the more nearl y di rect
rays on June 22 bri ng about three ti mes as much heat
as the more sl anti ng rays of December 22. Heat re
cei ved by any regi on depends on l ength of dayl i ght
and angl e of the sun above the hori zon. Hence the difer
ences in seasons i n di ferent parts of the wor l d.
I n t he regi on wi thi n 23V degrees of the pol es. t he sun
remai ns above the hori zon 24 hours a day dur
ing some part of the summer. The farther north,
the l onger it stays above the horizon. Every
pl ace above the arctic ci rcl e experi ences the
mi dni ght sun. In the area withi n 23V degrees of
the equator, the sun is overhead at noon at
some ti me duri ng summer. For l atitudes i n be
tween, the hi ghest poi nt reached by the sun i n
summer is 90 degrees mi nus the l ati tude, pl us
23V degrees. The l ow poi nt of the noonday
1 1 4
at Begi nni ng of Each Season
sun, i n mi dwi nter, i s 90 degrees mi nus the l ati tude, mi nus
23Y degrees. At Chicago ( l ati tude 42 degrees north) the
hei ght of the noonday sun vari es from 24 degrees i n
wi nter to 71 Y degrees i n summer.
local conditi ons afect seasonal patterns. Mountai n
ranges, ocean currents, al ti tude, prevai l i ng wi nds, and
other factors produce the seasonal cl i mate i n a given
l ocal ity. But the angl e of the sun's rays i s sti l l a most i m
portant factor i n determi ni ng the pl ant, ani mal , and
human l ife i n a regi on.
Positions of Mi dni ght Sun at I S-Minute I ntervals above the Arctic Ci rcl e
MARS ci rcl es our sky i n j ust under
two years as i t revol ves around t he
sun i n s ome 687 days . I t moves i n
an eccentri c orbi t; somet i mes i t i s
35 mi l l i on mi l es fr om us , somet i mes
234 mi l l i on mi l es. The posi ti ons
best for observati on occur every
1 5 or 1 7 years (October 1 973 was
l ast) . Fl ybys of Mars by Mar i ner
probes showed the s urface to be
Shrinkage of a Pol ar Cap (tilted to
ward earth) During a 3-Month Period
:val tabl el and near south pol e of Mars; photographed by Mar i ner 9. I NASA)
covered by craters created by asteroidal impact ranging
from several hundred miles to a thousand feet. The sur
face shows a striking similaritiy to the moon. No canals
were found. The reported canals of the past century's
observations were made up of unrelated dark spots put
together as continuous features by the observer's eye and
mind. The polar caps are real and probably are made up
of a mixture of snow and dry ice. The atmosphere is
l argely carbon dioxide. Temperatures may reach 60 F
in the day time and -l 00 F at night.
1 1 7
JUPITER is the l argest pl anet. Never cl oser than 367
mi l l ion mi l es to earth, i t takes 1 2 of our years to ci rcl e
the Zodi ac. Li ght and dark bel ts paral l el to the equator,

i n the pl anet' s atmosphere, sl owl y change. The great red
spot
,
30, 000 mi l es l ong, seems more nearl y permanent,
though fadi ng.
Four of t he moons, l arge and bri ght, have di ameters of
2,300 to 3,200 mi l es. They revol ve around Jupiter in 2
to 1 7 days and may easi l y be seen with fel d gl asses.
Often one or more are ecl i psed by Jupiter or pass before
1 1 8
it, throwi ng smal l shadows on the cl ouds. The other ei ght
moons are l ess than 1 00 mi l es i n di ameter. One, very cl ose
to Jupiter, revol ves at over 1 ,000 mi l es a mi nute.
Jupiter, fastest-rotati ng of the pl anets, turns in l ess
than 1 0 hours. Thi s speed has produced a pronounced
fatteni ng at the pol es.
The temperature of J upiter i s cl ose to mi nus 200
degrees F. Ammoni a and methane gases are i n the
atmosphere, but no water. Ice may exist on its col d,
barren surface.
1 1 9
SATURN is a bri ght "star" to the unai ded eye, but its
ri ngs can be seen onl y through a tel escope. The cl osest i t
gets to the earth i n i ts tri p around the sun, whi ch takes
29 of our years, i s 7 45 mi l l i on mi l es. I t stays two years i n
each constel l ati on of t he Zodiac. Li ke J upiter, i t i s cov
ered with banded cl ouds. The bands are not so cl ear as
Jupiter's but seem more nearl y permanent. Bright spots
occasi onal l y appear in them.
The ri ngs were discovered i n 1 655 by tel escope. They
are probabl y made of very many smal l sol i d parti cl es.
1 20
and Six of I ts Moons
These may be materi al whi ch never formed i nto a satel l ite,
or fragments of a cl ose satel l ite torn asunder by the tidal
pul l of Satur, or i ce particl es. Fi rst i s a dul l outer ri ng,
next a dark area, then the widest, bri ghtest ri ng, and i n
si de thi s a thi n, dark space and a dusky "crepe" ri ng.
Thi s i nner ri ng i s thi n and qui te transparent. The ri ngs
shi ne bri ghtl y, and when they are ti lted toward the earth,
Saturn' s bri ghtness i ncreases. Outside the rings are ten
moons. One, l arger than ours, is the on l y satel l i te be
l i eved to have an atmosphere.
1 2 1
Photographic Plates by Which
URANUS, NEPTUNE, ond PLUTO Uranus may be
seen by a sharp-eyed observer. The other outer pl anets
are tel escopi c. Uranus was acci dental l y discovered i n
1 78 1 . I ts fai l ure t o fol l ow its predicted orbi t seemed t o be
due to the gravitati onal pul l of a pl anet farther out. Two
astronomers i ndependentl y cal cul ated the position of the
undi scovered pl anet, and when tel escopes were turned
to thi s region in 1 84, Neptune was found. Pl uto was
di scovered i n 1 930 at the Lowel l Observatory as the suc
cessful concl usi on of a search over many years.
1 22
ASTEROI DS The 1 , 700 mi nor pl anets now known are
al l tel escopi c obj ects. Most of them were discovered
photographi cal l y. The l argest, Ceres, has a di ameter of
480 mi l es. Most of the rest are l ess t han 50 mi l es wi de.
The maj ority move between the orbi ts of Mars and
J upi ter. Others ent er the area between Mars and the
sun. Eros, one of these asteroi ds, wi l l be wit hi n 1 4 mi l l i on
mi l es of the earth i n 1 975. Most fami l i es of asteroi ds
seem strongl y i nfl uenced by J upi ter, and move i n orbits
determi ned by t he gravitati onal pul l of J upi ter and t he sun .
1 23
LOCATI NG THE VI SI BLE PLANETS
The t abl es on these pages wi l l hel p you l ocate the
best-known pl anets i n the constel l ati ons where they wi l l
be found at vari ous ti mes. The constel l ati ons are those of
the Zodi ac (pp. 1 00- 1 01 ). Positions i ndi cated are ap
proxi mate. To be sure of not mistaki ng a star for a pl anet,
check appropriate constel l ati on charts if necessary.
For posi ti ons of Mercury, Uranus, Neptune, and Pl uta, refer Ia Ameri
can Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac or ather yearly aslranami cal
handbooks, ar I a Sky and Telescope magazi ne.
Italic type i ndi cates morni ng star; regul ar type i ndi cates eveni ng star.
Dashes i ndi cate pl anet is too near Sun for observati on . ( Source: Pl anet
Tabl es by Fred L. Whi ppl e)
JANUARY APRI L J ULY OCTOBER
VENUS
1 975 Capri corn us
Taurus lea Lea
1 976 Ophiuchus
Pisces Li bra
1 977 Aquari us
Taurus Virgo
1 978
Ari es Leo li bra
1 979 Scorpius Aquarius
1 980 Capri corn us Taurus Taurus Leo
Path of Saturn 1 970-1 985
Venus in Leo, July 1 978 Mars in Gemi ni , Apri l 1 976
MARS
1 975 Sagittarius Aquarius Aries Taurus
1 976 Taurus Gemi ni leo Vi rgo
1 977 Sagittarius Aquarius Taurus Gemini
1 978 Cancer Cancer leo l i bra
1 979 Pisces Taurus Cancer
1 980 Leo leo Vi rgo Scorpius
J UPI TER
1 975
Aquari us
Pisces Pisces
1 976 Pi sces
Taurus Taurus
1 977 Ari es Taurus Taurus Gemini
1 978 Taurus Gemi ni Gemini Cancer
1 979 Cancer Cancer Cancer Leo
1 980 Leo leo leo Virgo
SATURN
1 975 Gemi ni Gemi ni
Cancer
1 976 Cancer Gemini Cancer
1 977 Cancer Cancer Cancer Leo
1 978 Leo leo leo Leo
1 979 Leo Leo Leo Leo
1 980 Virgo leo Virgo Virgo
Path of Hal l ey's Comet
COMEI5appear five to ten ti mes yearl y. Most are fai nt
tel escopi c obj ects, but the chance of seei ng at l east one
l arge
,
bri ght comet duri ng your l i fe i s good. Records of
comets, whi ch often caused terror i n anci ent ti mes, go
back at l east 25 centuri es. The famous Hal l ey's comet
was reported as l ong ago as 240 B. C.
Comets are among t he smal l er
members of the sol ar system
,
mov
i ng around the sun i n defi nite
orbi ts. Most have orbital peri ods
of tens of thousands of years.
Comets seem to be cl osel y rel ated
to meteors and perhaps to aster
oi ds. The head of a comet may
consist of i ce and meteori c par
ti cl es. Many comets and meteor
swarms have si mi l ar orbi ts . A few
comets have not reappeared as
1 26
Path of Encke's Comet
Halley' s Comet, Morning of May 1 3, 1 91 0
predi cted, but i nstead, meteor showers have occurred.
Comets s hi ne partl y by refl ected l i ght
,
partl y because
sunl i ght causes thei r own gases to gl ow.
Comets' tai l s consist of exceedi ngl y fne gases and dust,
expel l ed from the heads of the comets. The tai l may be so
tenuous that stars shi ne through it with undi mi ni shed
br i gh tnes s . ( The ear t h h as
passed through the tai l of Hal
l ey' s comet with no apparent
efect.) A comet's tai l al ways
streams away from the sun,
and as the comet recedes from
the sun the si ze of the tai l de
creases. Most comets l ack a
spectacul ar tai l ; i n others it
devel ops rapi dl y and may be
come hundreds of mi l l i ons of
mi l es l ong.
Efect of Sun '-s Rays on Tail of Comet
SOME FUS COMETS
Hal ley's-Last seen i n 1 91 0. Next expected
about 1 986. The onl y conspi cuous comet that
returns i n less than 1 00 years. I t has been ob
served on 28 returns.
Sept. 1 882-A bri l l i ant comet, di srupted after
passi ng cl ose to the sun. Spl i t i nto four comets,
whi ch may return between 2500 and 2800.
Biela's-l n 1 846 this comet spl it. In 1 852, twi n
comets returned on t he s ame orbi t. I n 1 872 and
i n 1 885, the comets fai l ed to retur n but bri l l i ant
meteor showers were seen i nstead.
Encke's-A smal l tel escopic comet of Jupiter's
fami l y. I t has returned regul arl y since 1 8 1 9 at
3. 3-year i nterval s.
Schwassmann-Wachmann-This comet, dis
covered in 1 925, has an orbit whi ch l ies enti rel y
between the orbits of J upiter and Saturn, givi ng
it the path of a pl anet.
Left: Great Camet af 1 843
METEORS are general l y stony or metal l i c parti cl es whi ch
become separatel y vi si bl e when they pl unge i nto our at
mosphere. Though 1 00 mi l l i on or more stri ke the earh's
atmosphere dai l y, those l arger than dust parti cl es vapor
ize. Occasi onal l arger pi eces penetra
.
te th
e
atmosphere
and stri ke the earh.
Meteor fragments that reach the ground are known as
meteorites. They vary from bits hardl y l arger than dust
parti cl es to chunks wei ghi ng tons. The average meteor i s
esti mated t o wei gh oos ounce. The two l argest known
meteorites were found i n Southwest Afri ca ( Hoba mete
orite) and Greenl and ( Ahni ghito meteorite). Both are from
the ni ckel -i ron type of meteor. Another type, the stony
meteor, is smal l er or i s broken up more i n fal l i ng. No
stony meteorites l arger than about a t on have been found.
Near Wi nsl ow i n Ari zona, east of Hudson Bay, and i n
Si beri a and Esthoni a are l ar ge craters made when gi ant
meteors struck the earth. Smal l meteorites have been
found near the Ari zona crater, but the gi ant one, esti
mated at over 50,000 tons, has never been di scovered.
I t probabl y vapori zed on i ts i mpact.
Meteorites are often covered with a smooth bl ack
crust formed as the tremendous heat caused by the fri c
ti on of the ai r fused the meteor's surface. I nsi de, the
1 29
IMPORTANT ANNUAL METEOR SHOWERS
Date Shower
Location of Radiant
Jan. 2-3 Quadranti ds E Between Bootes ana
heod of Draco
Apr. 20-22 lyrids NE Between Vega an d Hercul es
May 4-6 Aquari ds E SW of the Square of
Pegasus
Aug. 1 0- 1 3 Persei ds NE Pe:seas
Oct. 8- 1 0- Draconi ds E Bri l l i ant in 1 946.
Peri od about 61h years
Oct. 1 8-23 Ori oni ds E Between Ori on and Gemi ni
Nov. 8- 1 0 Tauri ds NE Between Taurus, Auri ga,
and Perseus
Dec. 1 0- 1 2 Gemi ni ds E Near Castor in Gemi ni
Large I ron Meteorite from Greenland: 34 Tons
Meteor Crater, Ari zona
meteorite ei ther i s stony or i s composed of i ron-nickel
al l oys, which usual l y show pecul i ar crystal patterns. I n
al l , about 30 chemi cal el ements have been found i n
meteorites.
Meteors may be seen on al most any cl ear ni ght,
though they are more common i n the hours after mi d
ni ght. An observer can usual l y see about 1 0 per hour.
Occasi onal l y great meteor showers fl l t he sky with cel es
ti al freworks. These are rare, but l esser showers of me
teors can be seen peri odi cal l y
du r i n g t he year . Some 600
Stony Meteorite
"streams" of meteors are bel ieved
to exist, but onl y a few provide
s pectac u l ar s hower s t hat t he
amateur c an count on seei ng.
HOW TO OBSERVE METEORS
Amateurs who know t he stars and constel l ati ons can
study and map meteor showers. Most are best seen be
tween mi dni ght and dawn on ni ghts when showers are
expected. Observati on works best when two or more ama
teurs co-operate. Several observers faci ng i n di ferent
di recti ons can thus cover the enti re sky, and few meteors
escape notice. When possi bl e, each observer shoul d have
an assistant to record the data, because meteors may
someti mes come so fast that one cannot take ti me out to
record them. For each meteor observed i t is i mportant to
record the ti mei the star and constel l ati on near whi ch it is
frst seen; its di recti on; and the l ength of its path, i n de
grees. Notes on i ts speed (meteors vary consi derabl y),
col or, trail , and bri l l i ance as compared to stars of known
magni tude are al so worth whi l e.
Prepare data sheets i n advance. Devel op abbrevi ati ons
for qui ck recordi ng. Fi nd a pl ace with a cl ear vi ew of
the sky and arrange for deck chairs or some other com
fortabl e rest. Warm cl othi ng and a bl anket, even i n sum
mer, are advi sabl e. Amateurs have recorded hundreds of
meteors i n an hour of observati on. Each, pl otted on a
chart of the sky, gives a pi cture si mi l ar to that on the
next page, cl earl y i ndi cati ng the radi ant poi nt of the
shower.
Perseid Shower Noted on American Meteor Society Chart
METEOR CHART Thi s is a chart of the paths that
meteors seem to fol low duri ng a shower. Actual l y, the
meteors move i n paral l el paths. These paths seem to
emerge from a poi nt-an opti cal i l l usi on due to perspec
tive. Meteors i n a shower do ori gi nate i n the same part
of the sky, though they are not rel ated to the constel l a
tion from whi ch t hey seem t o come. I f the radi ant poi nt
and the speed of the meteors are known, the orbi t of
the meteor swarm can be cal cul ated. The more observa
tions, the more accuratel y thi s can be done. Possi bl y most
meteors bel ong to swarms and very few sol itary, stray
meteors exist.
1 33
ZODIACAL LIGHT is so cal l ed because the tri angul ar
band of l i ght whi ch extends fr om t he hori zon hal f way
to the zeni th fol l ows the earth's ecl i pti c and hence passes
through the constel l ati ons of the zodi ac. Thi s fai nt gl ow
ing l i ght i s best observed i n the earl y eveni ngs of March
and Apri l and j ust before dawn i n September and Octo
ber. In the tropics i t is seen more often. On a cl ear,
moonl ess ni ght i ts bri ghtest areas may outshi ne the Mi l ky
Way. In the above i l l ustrati ons its bri ghtness has been
emphasi zed to show i ts form.
Zodi acal l i ght i s apparentl y sun l i ght refected from
meteori c parti cl es existi ng i n areas near the pl ane of the
ecl i pti c. Though meteoric parti cl es are concentrated i n
1 34
this regi on, they are widel y separated. If the particl es were
of pi nhead size and fve mi l es apart, there woul d be
enough withi n the earth's orbi t to refect the amount of
l i ght usual ly observed.
The zodi acal l i ght seems to wi den i nto a spot some 1 0
degrees i n di ameter at a pl ace j ust opposite the sun. Thi s
fai nt haze of l i ght that moves opposite the sun i s known
as Gegenschei n or Countergl ow.
The area of zodi acal l i ght cal l ed Gegenschei n may owe
its i ncreased l i ght to the fact that meteori c parti cl es di
rectl y opposite the sun refect toward us more s unl i ght
than i s refected by particl es i n port
i
ons of the band that
are not di rect l y opposite the sun.
1 35
ON THE MOON Our uni que moon is over a quarter
of t he d i ameter of the pl anet around whi ch i t revol ves.
However, its wei ght is onl y 1 /83 that of the earth, i ts
vol ume 1 /50, and its gravi tati onal pul l l /5 of t he earth' s.
No l ife forms have been found there. On the sunny si de,
temperatures are near boi l i ng; on the dark si de they are
l ower t han any on eart h. I n some secti ons ci ndery, dusty
pl ai ns extend in al l di recti ons, t hei r surface marred by
deep cracks and broken ri dges. Thousands of craters,
some caused by meteors, some perhaps by anci ent vol ca-
1 36
Earth ri si ng over l unar hori zon ( NASAl
noes, cover the rest of the moon' s surface. These range
from 1 mi l e to 1 50 mi l es across, wi th steep, rocky wal l s
j utti ng upward as hi gh as a mi l e or two. Someti mes an iso
l ated peak i s wi thi n the crater. Bright streaks or rays
extend i n al l di recti ons from some craters.
Besi des the craters and pl ai ns (cal l ed seas by earl y
astronomers who thought they were ful l of water), the
moon has mountai n ranges wi th peaks three, four, and
fve mi l es hi gh. I n proporti on to the si ze of the moon,
they are much hi gher than mountai ns on the earth.
1 37
kOCKIIO IH MOON

When the frst arifcial erth

satel l ites were successful (Soviet, October 4, ! 57, U. S.
February !, ! 58),experts prediced that rockets capabl e
of reachi ng the moon woul d soon be developed. Speeds
of about 7 mi l es per second, or 25,0 mi l es per hour, are
requi red to carry rockets past the point where the earh's
gravitati onal pul l . drags them back. Once that point i s
reached no fuel i s needed unl ess special maneuvers or
return of a manned vehi cl e i s pl anned. The rocket coasts at
ful l speed through space, no l onger sl owed down by at
mospheric friction.
I n earl y ! 5, such space probes were l aunched i n or
bit of the sun and by l ate fal l a probe had l anded on the
moon and another had transmited pi ctures of the moon' s
far si de. Two astronauts, Nei l Armstrong and Edwi n
E. Al dri n, J r. , fi rst l anded on the moon on Jul y 20,
1 969 (Apol l o 1 1 ) , whi l e a t hi rd, Mi ke Col l i ns orbi ted
the moon. Weari ng space suits, they expl ored a s mal l
area near t he l andi ng craft on foot. Dur i ng a l andi ng
i n 1 971 (Apol l o 1 5) a battery- powered vehi cl e was
used t o dri ve about the l unar surface
,
whi ch al l owed
for more extensive expl orati on. On each l andi ng sci en
tific i nstruments were l eft behi nd to record data, such as
sei smi c events, magneti sm,
vari ati ons i n temperature,
and other l unar conditi ons,
and to trans mi t i t back to
earth. Sampl es of l unar
dust and roc k wer e col
l ected by th e astronauts
and returned to earth for
sci entifi c anal yses. Manned
fl i ghts to Mars and Venus
are bei ng pl anned.
PHASES OF THE MOON
On the earth we see the
moon change from crescent to ful l and back agai n i n
29Y2 days. If you were out i n space, you woul d see that
about hal f the moon is al ways l it up by the sun and hal f
i s al ways i n darkness, except duri ng an ecl i pse. When the
moon is most di rectl y between us and the sun, we see onl y
the dark si de. But, because t he moon i s revol vi ng around
the earth every 27Ya days, varyi ng amounts of the l i ghter
si de are seen.
When the earth is i n l i ne between the sun and the
moon, we see the moon' s ful l y i l l umi nated side and can
watch i t as a ful l moon from sunset to the next sunrise.
1 40

e
4
t


.. -.
Al l other stages are in between. When the moon is a
quarter of the way around its orbit, we sti l l see half its
surface, but hal f of this hal f i s dark and hal f i s i l l umi
nated, gi vi ng us a quarter moon. When t he moon i s more
than a quarter, but l ess than ful l , i t is cal l ed "gi bbous. "
As the moon revol ves around the earth, i t rotates on
i ts axi s, keepi ng al most the same face turned toward us.
A sl i ght wobbl e of the moon, due mai nl y to a s mal l di f
ference between the ti mes of revol uti on and rotati on
and t o a ti l t of the moon' s axi s , has al l owed us t o see
from the earth a total of 59 per cent of the moon' s sur
face. Lunar probes have now mapped the enti re surface.
1 4 1
EARTHSHI NE is l i ght whi ch has travel ed from the sun
to t he earth, hence to the moon, and back agai n to the
earth. Earthshi ne i s very fai nt because onl y a smal l part
of the s unl i ght refl ected from the earth hi ts t he moon .
The moon refl ects onl y 7 per cent of thi s i nto space agai n
and onl y a t i ny fracti on of thi s 7 per cent fi nal l y comes
back to earth. When you l ook for earthsh
i
ne, note that
the crescent moon, because i t i s bri ghter, seems l arger.
1 42
LUNAR HALO Ri ngs around the sun and moon are
often seen. These are i n our atmosphere and are of the
same general nature as rai nbows. Hal os are due to the
refraction of sunl i ght or moonl i ght by thi n, hi gh, i cy
cl ouds. The hal o maki ng a 22-degree ci rcl e around the
moon is the most common. A 46-degree ci rcl e may al so
form and, if the i ce crystal s i n the cl ouds are j ust ri ght,
one may see arcs and other curi ous efects. Hal os are
usual l y col orl ess but someti mes they appear l i ke fai nt
rai nbows wi th the red on the i nsi de.
TI DES The gravi tati onal pul l of a pl anet, satel l ite, or
star decreases wi th di stance and wi th s mal l er wei ght or
mass. The moon; though s mal l , has a strong gravi tati onal
pul l on the earth because i t i s rel ati vel y ver y near. The
sun has a strong pul l because of i ts great wei ght. Thi s
gravitati onal pul l hol ds both the eart h and t he moon i n
t hei r orbi ts. The pul l s of the sun and the moon cause t he
t i des, the moon havi ng the greater i nfl uence.
The pul l of the moon i s greater on the si de of the earth
nearest i t, and is l ess on the opposite si de of the earth,
whi ch is farther away. The di ference between the l esser
and the stronger pul l is equal to a pul l away from the
moon. These pul l s i n opposite di recti ons cause the oceans
to fow toward t he axis of t he pul l i ng. The resul t is a bul ge
of several feet or mor e i n t he oceans on opposite si des of
the earth.
As the earth rotates and the moon revol ves, the bul ge
of ti des moves al so, givi ng most pl aces al ter nati ng hi gh
and l ow ti des. The ti dal pul l of the more di stant sun i s
about half that of the moon. When both pul l i n l i ne at
new and ful l moon, the ti des are hi gher. These are known
Spri ng Tide
Neap Ti de
as spring ti des. When they pul l at ri ght angl es and partl y
counteract one another, the ti des are l ower and are cal l ed
neap ti des.
Ti de schedul es rangi ng far i nto the future can be pre
pared on the basi s of the moon' s predicted movements.
The shapes of ocean basi ns and seacoasts may deter
mi ne actual hei ghts of l ocal ti des. In general the ti dal
range is 3 to 1 0 feet. I n V-shaped bays, as the Bay of
Fundy, the ti de may ri se 30 to 50 feet. I n broad bays it
may rise a foot or l ess.
1 45
OBSERVING THE MOON

With the photograph and

map on pages 1 46- 1 47 as a guide, you can easily study
the moon and identify a dozen. or two of the most promi
nent features. Even a pair of small feld glasses wi ll show
the "seas, " mountain ranges, and ringed plains, and the
great "craters. " larger feld glasses or a small telescope
wi ll disclose all the features identifed on the map.
The very best t i me to observe the moon is in t he two
or three-day peri od after the first quarter. The moon is
then in a good posi ti on for eveni ng study; nearl y al l
maj or features can be s een and t he moon i s not suffi
ci entl y bri ght to cause l oss of detai l through gl are. I t i s
even better to fol l ow the moon eveni ng after eveni ng
fr om i t s fi rst t hi n crescent t i l l i t i s ful l . As t he l i ne of dar k
ness recedes, features near the bor der stand out i n bol d
rel i ef; the shadows become stronger and detai l s are
more easi l y seen.
Shoul d you pas s t hi s stage and desi re t o expl ore the
moon further, more detai l ed maps are avai l abl e. These
di vi de t he ful l moon up i nto secti ons and s how you the
features of each secti on . Over 500 features on t he moon
have been named. I ts whol e surface has been mapped.
Detai l ed study wi l l cal l your attenti on t o i nterest i ng prob
l ems : t he di stri buti on of craters; the overl appi ng of some
craters; t he nature of rays on the moon; and the or i gi n of
the seas. Even though the moon i s our nearest nei gh
bor, t here is much we have yet to l earn about it. How
ever, si nce we have
vi si ted t he moon and
brought back rocks
f r om i t, t h e n e we r
expl orati on wi l l prob
abl y be chemi cal rath
er than astronomi cal .
1 48
Total Eclipse of the Sun Showing Promi nences and Outer Corona
ECLIPSE OF THE SUN Unti l recentl y no astronomi cal
event ofered such opportunities as a total ecl i pse of the
sun. Usi ng new methods, astronomers can now make some
of the observati ons that once had to awai t an ecl i pse.
But " the beauty and awesomeness of a total ecl i pse are
sti l l unequal ed. I n the pattern of movements of moon,
earth, and sun, there are al ways two to fve sol ar ecl i pses
each year. Some are total , some parti al , and some annu
l ar (p. 1 52) . On t he average there are two total ecl i pses
of the sun every three years.
1 49
Total Ecl i pse of Sun
SOLAR ECLIPSE An ecl i pse of the sun can occur only
when the moon is new-when it is between the earth and
the sun. If the orbits of earth and moon were on exactly
the same pl ane and if these two bodies were at their mi ni
mum di stance apart, an ecl i p
se woul d occur every month.
It does not occur that often because the moon's orbi t i s
i ncl i ned about 5 degrees to the earth' s orbi t. I n addi ti on,
the moon's path takes it sl i ghtl y nearer or farther from
earth as i t revolves
. Thi s i s i mportant, as the average
l ength of the moon' s shadow is 232,000 mi l es, but its di s
tance from earth averages 235,000 mi l es. A total ecl i pse
cannot occur under average conditi ons.
However, because of vari ati ons i n i ts orbit, the moon's
shadow is someti mes l onger and its di stance from earth
someti mes shorter. If this occurs at the ti me of a new
moon, we may have an ecl i pse. The ti me and pl ace of
earth ecl i pses are cal cul ated years in advance. At any one
pl ace the durati on of total ity vari es. i n the ecl i pse of
1 50
June 30, 1 973, the maxi mum total i ty was about 7 mi n
utes, sl i ghl ty l ess t han t he one on June 22, 1 955.
You wi l l see a total ecl i pse when t he true shadow
( umbra) of t he moon passes over you. The umbra pro
duses a round shadow, never more than 1 70 mi l es i n
di ameter
,
whi ch travel s rapi dl y over t he eart h. The pen
umbra, whi ch surrounds the umbra l i ke an i nverted cone,
does not compl.etel y excl ude the sunl i ght and hence gi ves
onl y a parti al ecl i pse. I t forms a ci rcl e about 4, 000 mi l es
i n di ameter around the umbra. Observers i n the pat h of
total i ty see a parti al ecl i pse as t he di sc of t he moon cov
ers more and more of t he sun' s face. Then, at t he mo
ment of total i ty, red promi nences appear. The wei rdl y
darkened sky is l i t up by the streami ng corona, whi ch may
extend over a mi l l i on mi l es from the sun' s surface. Noth
i ng is as i nspi ri ng and awesome as the few mi nutes of
total i ty. Then, after repeati ng the part i al phase, t he
ecl i pse i s over.
1 5 1
ANNULAR ECLI PSE The di stance from the
earth to the moon vari es. I f an ecl i pse occurs
when the moon is i ts average di stance away
or farther, the umbra of the moon' s shadow
does not reach the earth. An annul us, or thi n
ri ng of sunl i ght, remai ns around the moon.
The path of an annul ar ecl i pse i s about 30
mi l es wi der than that of a total ecl i pse. Sur
roundi ng thi s area, as i n a total ecl i pse, is a
regi on 4,000 to 6, 000 mi l es wi de where the
ecl i pse is parti al . Of al l sol ar ecl i pses, about
35 per cent are parti al ; 32 per cent annul ar;
5 per cent both annul ar and total ; and 28 per
cent total .
1 52
Ri ght: Total Eclipses Visible in the
Northern Hemi sphere, 1 952-1 986
left, Annul ar Ecl i pse. Red Spot Shows Area in Whi ch Annul ar
Ecl i pse I s Seen; El sewhere i n the Penumbra Ecl i pse 1 5 Parti al
TOTAL ECLI PSES OF SUN The movements of sun,
moon, and earth causi ng ecl i pses are wel l known . They
occur i n a cycl e of j ust over 1 8 years, after whi ch a new
seri es of ecl i pses repeats wi th onl y mi nor changes. One
change i s a westward shift wi t h each new cycl e. A knowl
edge of these cycl es enabl es astronomers to predi ct
ecl i pses hundreds of years i n advance. Anci enf ecl i pses
are t he most certai n and useful of chronol ogi cal data.
The next total ecl i pse of the sun vi si bl e i n the Uni ted
States wi l l take pl ace on February 26, 1 979 and wi l l be
seen i n the Paci fi c Northwest. Not unti l August 2 1 , 20 1 7
wi l l another total ecl i pse be vi si bl e from t he Uni ted
States. Annul ar ecl i pses wi l l be seen i n t he Uni ted States
on May 30, 1 984 and May 1 0, 1 994. Dur i ng a sol ar
ecl i pse, total i ty may l ast as l ong as seven mi nutes .
Total Eclipse of the Moon
LUNAR ECLI PSE The earth' s shadow i s some 900,000
mi l es l ong. When the moon enters i nto il and i s ecl i psed,
the ecl i pse l asts as long as sever al hours and may be
total for as much as ! hour and 40 mi nutes. In any year
there may be no ecl i pses of the moon or as many as two
and rarel y three. Though there are fewer ecl i pses of the
moon than of the sun, they l ast l onger and can be seen
by more peopl e over a wider area. Because some of
the sunl i ght stri ki ng the earth is difused and scattered by
our atmosphere, the earth' s shadow is not compl etel y
dark. Enough of thi s l i ght reaches the moon to give it a
faint coppery gl ow even when it is total l y ecl i psed. An
ecl i pse of t he moon occurs onl y at t he time of ful l moon.
Because of angl es of the moon's orbit, it may miss the
Date
J an. 30, 1 972
May 25, 1 975
Nov. 1 8, 1 975
Sept. 6, 1 979
J ul y 6, 1 982
Dec. 30, 1 982
Apri l 24, 1 986
1 54
TOTAL LUNAR ECLIPSES
Ti me af Mi dpoi nt
of Ecl i pse I ESTI
5: 55 a. m.
1 2: 45 a. m.
5: 25 p. m.
5: 55 a. m.
2: 30 a. m.
6: 25 a. m.
7: 45 a. m.
Durati on
of Ecl i pse
3 h. 25 m.
3 h. 40 m.
3 h. 25 m.
3 h. 25 m.
3 h. 45 m.
3 h. 30 m.
3 h. 30 m.
Durati on
of Total i ty
0 h. 40 m.
1 h. 30 m.
0 h. 45 m.
0 h. 50 m.
1 h. 40 m.
1 h. 5 m.
1 h. 1 0 m.
shadow of the earth compl etel y at that time, or it may
onl y pass t hrough the penumbra. A l unar ecl i pse ofers
proof of the earth's shape, for the umbra that passes over
the moon has the disti nct curve of a shadow of a bal l .
The tabl e shows total l unar ecl i pses whi ch can be seen
in most parts of thi s country and southern Canada.
1 55
THE CONSTELLATI ONS
The 88 general l y recogni zed constel l ations ar e l isted below.
Al l but a few appear on the star charts i n thi s guide. Keep i n
mi nd that l ati tude, season, el evati on, atmospheric conditi ons,
and ti me of ni ght al l determi ne whether a constel l ati on is vi si bl e.
If a constel l ati on is too far south to be seen from any part of
the northern hemi sphere, a figure is gi ven which is the northern
most l ati tude at whi ch the constel l ati on (or most of i t) can be
seen u nder good conditi ons. Thus the figure "25N. " fol l owi ng
Crux means that thi s constel l ation can be seen no farther north
than about 25N. l atitude-the l ati tude of southern Fl orida.
The best season for seei ng the constel l ati on is i ndicated by the
date on whi ch the constel l ati on reaches i ts hi ghest poi nt above
the hori zon (the meri di an) at 9 p. m. Each eveni ng a constel l ation
reaches the meri di an about 4 mi nutes earl i er than the previous
eveni ng; each month, about 2 hours earl ier. Thus Andromeda i s
on the meri di an at 9 p. m. on Nov. 1 0; at about 8: 56 p. m. on
Nov. 1 1 ; at about 5 p. m. on Jan. 1 0.
On Meridian On Meridian
Constel lation 9 p. m. Constellation 9 p. m.
Andromeda Nov. 1 0 Cani s Mi nor (The
Antl i a (The Pump) 5N. Apr. S
Li ttl e Dog) Mar. 1
Capri cornus (The Goat,
Apus (The Bird of
or the Sea Goat) 65N. Sept. 20
Paradise) S0N. June 30
Cari na (The Keel ) of
Aquarius (The Water
the ship Argo, whi ch
bearer) 7S0N. Oct. 1 0
i s no l onger a con
Aqui l a (The Eagl e) Aug. 30
stel l ati on. 2S0N. Mar. 1 S
Cassiopeia (The Queen) Nov. 20
Ara { The Al t ar ) 30N. Jul y 20
Centaurus (The Cen
Aries (The Ram) Dec. 1 0
tour) 35N. May 20
Auri ga (The Chari oteer) Jan. 30 Cepheus (The Ki ng) Oct. 1 S
Bootes {The Herdsman) June 1 S Cetus (The Whal e) Nov. 30
Coel um (The Buri n) 45N. Jan. 1 5
Chamael eon S0N. Apr. 1 S
Camel opardal i s (The
Ci rci nus (The Com
Girafe) Feb. 1
passes) 25N. June 1 S
Cancer ( The Crab) Mar. 1 5
Col umba (The Dove)
50N. Jan. 30
Canes Venati ci {The
Coma Bereni ces
Hunti ng Dogs) May 20
{ Bereni ce' s Hai r) May 1 5
Cani s Major (The Corona Austri na (South-
Great Dog) 65N. Feb. 1 5 er n Crown) 4S0N. Aug. 1 5
1 56
On Meridian
On Meridi an
Constellation 9 p. m. Constellation 9 p. m.
Corona Boreal i s ( North
Pavo (The Peacock) 20N. Aug. 2S
ern Crown) June 30
Pegasus (The Fl yi ng
Corvus ( The Craw) 6S0N. May l O
Horse) Oct. 20
Crater (The Cup) 70N. Apr. 2S
Perseus Dec. 2S
Crux ( The Cross) 25N. May 1 0
Phoeni x (The Phoeni x)
40N. Nov. 20
Cygnus ( The Swan ) Sept. 1 0
Pi ctor (The Easel ) 30N. J an. 20
Del phi nus (The Dol phi n) Sept . I S
Pi sces ( The Fi shes) Nov. 1 0
Dorado (The Gol dfsh)
Pi sces Austri nus ( The
2S0N. J an. 20
Southern Fi sh) SS0N. Oct. 1 0
Draco (The Dragon) Jul y 20
Puppi s (The Stern of
Equul eus (The Col t ) Sept. 20
the shi p Argo) Feb. 2S
Eri danus ( The Ri ver)
Pyxi s (The Compass)
Mar. I S
70N. Jan. S
SS0N.
Fornax ( The Furnace)
5S0N. Dec. l S
Reti cu l um ( The Net )
2S0N. Dec. 30
Gemi ni (The Twi ns) Feb. 20
Sagi tta (The Arrow) Aug. 30
Grus (The Crane) 3S0N. Oct. 1 0
Sagi ttari us (The
Archer) 60N. Aug. 20
Hercul es J ul y 2S
Scorpi us (The Scar
Horol ogi um (The pi on) ssoN. J ul y 20
Cl ack) 2SoN. Dec. 2S
Scul ptor SS0N. Nov. 1 0
Hydra (The Sea
Scutum (The Shi el d)
Serpent) 70N. Apr. 20
7S0N. Aug. I S
Hydrus 1 S0N. Dec. 1 0
Serpens (The Serpent)
I ndus ( The I ndi an) 3S0N. Sept. 2S
8S0N.
lacerta (The li zard) Oct. 1 0
Caput ( Head) J une 30
lea ( The li on) Apr. 1 0
Cauda (Tai l ) Aug. S
Sextans (The Sextant)
Lea Mi nor (The li ttl e
8S0N. Apr . S
li on) Apr. 1 0
Taurus (The Bul l ) Jan. l S
lepus (The Hare) 6S0N. Jan. 2S
Tel escopi um (The Tel e-
li bra ( The Scal es) 70 N. June 20 scope) 3S0N. Aug. 2S
lupus ( The Wol f) 4S0N. June 20 Tri angul um ( The Tri angl e) Dec. S
Lynx (The lynx) Mar. S Tri angul um Austral e ( The
Lyra (The lyre) Aug. I S
Southern Tri angl e)
20N. J ul y S
Mensa (The Tabl e
Tucana ( The Toucan)
Mountai n) S0N. Jan. 30
20N. Nov. S
Microscopi um ( The
Ursa Maj or (The Great
Microscope) S0N. Sept. 20
Bear) Apr. 20
Monoceros (The Uni corn)
Ursa Mi nor (The li tt l e
8S0N. Feb. 20
Bear) June 2S
Musca (The Fl y) 1 S0N. May l O
Vel a (The Sai l s o f the
Norma ( The leve l ) 3S0N. J ul y S shi p Argo) 3S0N. Mar. 25
Octans (The Octant) S0N. Sept. 20 Vi rgo (The Vi rgi n) 80N. May 2S
Ophi uchus (The Serpent Vol ons (The F l yi ng
Bearer) 8S0N. Jul y 25 Fi sh) 1 S0N. Mar. !
Ori on 8S0N. Jan. 25 Vul pecul a ( The Fox) Sept. 1 0
1 57
:
0
.
.. :
.
;
;:

. u
,
"
c
z
c
OBJECTS FOR OBSERVATI ON
VI SI BLE THROUGH THE YEAR (Middl e North Latitudes)
Constellations: See seasonal charts,
pp. 54-99. Learn frst those with
righter stars.
Bright Stars: See l i st, p. 35, and
seasonal charts. I dentify star types
by col or (p. 37). Esti mate magni
tudes by comparison.
The Moon: Detai l ed suggestions
on p. 1 48. Map, pp. 1 46- 1 47.
. ar:rlki n!!
o
:
r
ho
e
:;d
of stars. Note dark nebul ae be
tween Cygnus and Scorpius, and
star fel ds i n Cygnus and Sagittarius.
Asteroids: Positions given in as
tronomical periodical s. Large as
teroids, when near earth, can be
spotted with bi nocul ars.
Pl anets: See pp. 1 24-1 25. Use bin
ocul ars for 4 of Jupiter's moons
and Venus' crescent; telescope for
Saturn' s rings. Positions of Uranus
and Neptune gi ven i n astronomi
cal periodical s.
Meteors: Tabl e of showers, p. 1 30.
Suggestions, pp. 1 29- 1 33.
Mizar (star) : I n Bi g Di pper, p. 64.
Note compani on, Alcor.
VI SI BLE DURI NG PART OF THE YEA
R
(Middle North Latitudes)
The celesti al objects l i sted bel ow are at the meridian at 9 p. m. standard
time duri ng the months i ndicated. They are vi si bl e i n mi ddl e l atitudes for
one or more months before and after the months i ndicated. Thei r posi tions
when observed depend on your latitude and the hour of observation.
January
Pleiades (open cl uster) : Near Per
seus, pp. 82 and 86.
Hyades ( open cl uster) : In Taurus,
pp. 90-91 , 93. Easy for naked eye.
M42 (Great Nebul a) : I n Orion, pp.
90, 92. I mpressive i n bi noul ars.
Betelgeuse (variabl e red gi ant):
I n Orion, pp. 90, 92. Compare
with Rigel (mag. 0.3, p. 92) and
Procyon (mag. 0.5, p. 95) .
February
M35 (open cl uster ) : In Gemi ni ,
near Castor's left fool, pp. 65, 66.
March
M44 (open cl uster) : In Cancer, i n
center of ''square/' p. 64. Cal led

irars.
or Beehive. Splendid i n
May
Coma Berenices (open cl uster) :
Between Leo and Bootes, pp. 64-65.
Use binoculars.
July
M13 (gloul ar cl uster) : I n Hercu
les, pp. 72, 74. Fai nt, fuzzy spot.
1 58
Bi nocul ars show gl owi ng cl oud; tel
escope, i ndi vi dual stars.
M6 and M7 (open . cl usters) : In
Scorpi us (pp. 72, 76) , 5 northeast
of ti p of tai l . fi ne i n binoculars.
August
Epsilon Lyrae (doubl e star) : I n
lyra, 2 northeast of Vega, pp.
72, 75. Cl ose pai r. Tel escope shows
each i s a doubl e.
September
Albireo (doubl e star): In Cygnus,
p. 78. Smal l tel escope reveal s peir,
orange and bl ue. Superb.
November
M31 (Great Spi ral Nebul a i n An
dromeda) : See p. 85. Smal l , fai nt
r0
o
d { bi1:s.
eye; gl owing
December
Double cl uster In Perseus: In cen
ter of Perseus, p. 82. fai nt, hazy
patch becomes, i n bi noculars, a
spl endi d spray of stars.
Algol (ecl i psi ng vari abl e): In Per
seus, p. 86. Observe magnitude
changes. Compare with Polaris
(mag. 2. 1 ) .
NU1A
Bold tpe denotes pages containing more extensive i nformation.
. Achernar, 35
Al bi reo, 78
\ldebaran, 35, 37, 9l
Agol, 38, 39, 86
Alpha Draconis, 5, 58
Al phard, 63
Al pheratz, 84, 85
Altair, 35, 71 , 79
Amateur activities, 7- 1 0
Andromeda (an-DROM
eduh), 80-82, 85
Antares (an-TAI R-eez) ,
32, 33, 35, 37, 70, 76
Aquarius, the Water
Carrier, 82, 1 00
Aquil a ( uh-KWI L- uh) ,
the Eagl e, 72, 79
Archer, 72, 77, 1 0
Arcturus, 35, 37, 61 , 68
Aries (AI R-eez), the
Ram, 8 1 , 1 0
Arrow, 71 , 79
Asteroids, 1 02, 1 23
Astronomy, 4, 5, 1 01
Atmosphere, earth' s,
20-21 , 24-27, 1 1 0
Auriga (oh-RY-guh) ,
the Charioteer, 87, 9
Aurora, 23, 24-25
Betelgeuse (BET-el
gerz) , 34, 35, 37, 71 ,
89, 92
Big and Little Dogs, 90,
95
Big Dipper, 51 , 5, 56
Betes (boh-OH-teez) ,
the Herdsman, 6, 68
Bul l, 33, 40-41 , 88, 93,
94, 1 0
Cancer, the Crab, 62,
65, 1 0; cl uster, 40
Canis ( KAY-nis) Maj or
and Minor, 90, 95
Canopus, 35, 37, 99
Capella, 35, 37, 38, 87
Capricornus, 83, 1 00
Cassiopeia (kas-i-oh-
PEE-uh), 55, 59, 61 ,
80
Castor, 34, 38, 61 , 66
Centaur (SEN-tawr),
97, 98
Cepheid (SEE-ld), 34,
39, 51, 60
Cepheus (SEE-fuhs) , the
King, 55, 5, 60, 80-81
c 1 5, 1 23
Cetus (SEE-tuhs), the
Whale, 39, 81 , 82
Charioteer, 87, 9
Cl usters, 40.41 , 62-63,
66, 74, 76, 77, 87, 94
Coal sacks, 45
Colors, 1 8- 1 9, 26-27
Col umba, the Dove,
89, 96
Coma Berenices (ber
ee-NY-seez), 40, 6,
64, 73
Comets, 1 02, 1 26- 1 28
Constel lations, 501 01 ;
autumn, 80-87; key to,
61 ; l i st, 1 5- 1 5;
north circumpolar, 52-
61 ; south circumpolar,
97-99; spring, 62-
69; summer, 70-79;
winter, 88-96;
zodiac, 1 0- 1 01
Corona Boreal i s (boh
ree-AL-i s), North
ern Crown, 70, 72-73
Corvus (KOHR-vuhs) ,
the Crow, 63, 73
Cosmic dust, .2
Counterglow, 1 35
Crab, 62, 65, 9, 1 0
Crater, the Cup, 6
Crow, 63, 73
Crown, 70, 72-73
Crux (CRUHKS), 45, 99
Cup, 6
Cygnus ( SI G-nuhs) , the
Swan, -, 4, 71 , 72,
74, 78
Day and night, 1 1 2-1 1 3
Decl ination, 71
Degrees, measuring by,
71
Del phinus (dei - FY
nuhs) , the Dol phin,
71 , 72, 79
Demon Star, 86
Deneb, 35, 46, 71 , 78
Denebolo, 67, 69, 71
Dol phi n, 71 , 72, 79
Dove, 89, 96
Draco ( DRAY-koh), the
Dragon, 55, 58
Eagle, 72, 79
Earth, 5, 1 04, 1 1 D- 1 1 5
Earthshine, 1 42
Ecl i pses, 1 49-1 55
Ecl i ptic, 1 0
Fishes, 81 , 82, 1 0
Fomal haut (FOH-
mal -o), 35, 81
Fraunhofer l i nes, 1 8- 1 9
Galaxy, 42-45
Gal i leo, 28
Gegenschein, 135
Gemi ni (JEM-i-nee), the
Twins, 61 , 65, 66, 1 00
Goat, 83, 87, 1 0
Great Bear, 4, -, 51 ,
52, 5, 56
Hare, 89, 96
Hercul es, 33, 70, 74;
cl uster, 4D-41 , 7 4
Herdsman, 61 , 68
Horse, Wi nged, 80-8 1 ,
84
Horse-head Nebul a, 45
Hunter, 92
Hyades ( HY-uh-deez),
93-94
Hydra, the Sea Mon
ster, 63, 73, 90, 98
Job's Cofn, 71 , 79
Jupiter, 1 0, 35, 1 02,
1 05, 1 1 8- 1 1 9, 1 25
King, 55, 5, 60, 80-81
Kuiper, G. P., 1 06
lapl. ace hypothesis, 1 06
Leo, the Lion, 61 , 62,
67, 1 01
Lepus ( LEE-pus), the
are, 89, 96
Libra ( LY-bruh) , the
Scales, 70, 73, 1 0
Light year, 31
Lion, 61 , 62, 67, 1 01
Little Bear, 5, 57
Little Di pper, 5, 57
Little Dog, 95
Lyra (L Y -ruh) , Lyre, 72,
75
Magel l anic Cl ouds, 4,
97, 98
Magnitudes, 34-35, 51
Mars, 32, 35, 1 02, 1 04-
1 05, 1 1 6- 1 1 7, 1 24
Mercury, 35, 1 02, 1 04-
1 05, 1 08
Messier, Charles, .l
Meteors and meteorites,
1 0, 67, 1 02, 1 26- 1 27,
1 29-1 33; observing,
1 0, 1 32; showers, 1 30
1 59
,
Mi dni ght sun, 1 1 4- 1 1 5 Queen, 55, 59, 61 , 80
Stars (conf . ):
Mi l k Di pper, 71 , 77
and dwarfs, 1 4 - 1 5,
Mi l ky Way, 40-45, 77- Radio astronomy, 29,
33, 48-49, 92; l i ght,
78
47
32; magni tudes,
Mi ra ( MY- r uh) . 39, 81
Rai nbow, 20-21
34-35, 51 ; moti ons,
Mi zar (MY-zahr ) , 34,
Ram, 8 1 , 1 00
33; names, 51 , 89;
38, 56
Reul us ( REG- yoo- l uhs) .
numbers, 3 1 ; ori gi n,
Moon, 13, 1 02, 1 36
5, 61 , 67
48-49; si ze, 32;
1 48; ecl i pse, 1 54-
Ri gel , ( RY- j el ) , 35, 37,
spectra, 36-37;
1 55; map, 1 46- 1 47;
71, 89, 92
temperatures, 1 6,
see also planets
Ri ght ascensi on, 71
22, 32, 36-37. 45;
Ri ng Nebul a, 47
vari abl e, 1 0, 34,
Nebul ae ( NEB- u- l ee) ,
Rocket t o moon, 1 38
39, 60
41 , 42, 43, 45-47, 58,
Sun, 1 6- 27: bri ghtness,
..
75, 77, 8 1 , 85, 92
Sagi tta ( suh-J I T- uh) ,
32; cl assi fcati on,
Nebul ar hypothesi s,
the Arrow, 71 , 79
37; di stance, 3 1 ;
1 06
Sagi ttari us ( saj - i - TAI R-
ecl i pses, 1 49- 1 53;
Neptune, 1 04- 1 05, 1 22
ee-uhs) . the Archer,
l i ght, 1 8- 1 9, 26-
Northern Cross, 45, 7 1 ,
42, 71 , 72, 77, 1 00
27, 1 1 4- 1 1 5; ob-
72, 74, 78, 83
Satel l i tes, 1 02; see also
servi ng, 1 6; spots,
Northern Crown, 64, 70,
under planet names
22-23, 25; ti de,
73
Saturn, 35, 1 02, 1 20
1 1 4- 1 45
"
Northern li ghts, 23-25
1 2 1 , 1 25
Sundi al , 5
u
North Star, 34, 39, 50,
Scal es, 70, 73 , 1 00
Sunri se and sunset, 26
! 53, 56- 57. 58, 60, 61
Scorpi us, the Scorpi on,
Swan, 71 , 72, 74, 78
..
z Novae, 39, 46, 59
45, 70, 76, 77, 1 01
.
Sea Monster, 63, 73, 98
Taurus (TAWR- us) , the

Observatori es, 8, 28, 30
Bul l , 33, 88, 93, 94,
0
Seasons, 1 1 4- 1 1 5

Observi ng, 5-7, 88, 1 32,
Serpens, t he Serpent,
1 00; cl usters, 40- 41
; 1 48, 1 58
70-71 ' 83
Tel escopes, 1 0, 28 30;
2 Ophi uchus ( ahf- i - U-
Serpent-bearer, 70, 72
maki ng, 9
!
kuhs) . the Serpent-
Seven Si sters, 41 , 88, 94
Thuban-see Al pha
bearer, 70, 72
Shooti ng stars-see
Draconi s
w
Ori on ( oh- RY -ahn) , the
Meteors
Ti des, 1 44- 1 45

Hunter, 77, 88, 92 :
Si ckl e, the, 67
Ti me, 1 1 2- 1 1 5

nebul a, 45, 47, 92
Si ri us ( SE E- ree- us) ,
Tri angul um, the Tri -
.
3 1 , 33, 35, 36, 89
angl e, 8 1 , 85, 98
z
Tri fd Nebul a, 46
..

Pegasus ( PEG- uh-suhs ) , Sky, col or of, 26-27

the Wi nged Horse, Sol ar system, 1 4- 1 5,
Twi l i ght, 27
:
80-8 1 , 84 1 02- 1 55 ; compo-
Twi ns, 61 , 65, 66, I 0
: Perseus ( PER- sus) , 38, nents, 1 02- 1 03; i n
Uni verse, the, 1 2 - 1 3
40, 59, 80-8 1 ' 86 gal axy, 42; move-
Uranus ( U- ruh- nuhs) ,
Photography 1 0, 29, 89 ment, 33, 74;
34, 1 04- 1 05, 1 22
Pi sces ( PI S- eez) , the ori gi n, I 06- 1 07
Ursa ( ER- suh) Maj or,
Fi shes, 8 1 , 82, 91 , 1 00 Southern Cross, 46, 53,
the Bi g Bear, 40,
Pl anetari ums, 8 63, 97, 99
46, 51 ' 52, 54, 56
Pl anets, 1 2- 1 3, 1 02- Spectrum, 1 821 , 36-
Ursa ( ER- suh) Mi nor, the
1 22, 1 23; bri ght- 37, 48-49
li ttl e Bear, 54, 57
ness, 34-35; tabl e, Spi ca (SPY -kuh) , 35,
1 04- 1 05; l ife on, 36, 38, 69
Vega ( VEE- guh) . 35, 37,
1 03; l ocati ng, 1 24 Stars, 3 1 -49; bri ghtest,
53, 71 , 75
Pl ei ades ( PlEE- yuh- 35; bri ghtness, 32,
Venus, 34, 35, 1 02,
deez) , 41 , 88, 94 34- 35, 38-39, 48-
1 04-1 05, 1 09 , 1 24
Pl uto, 1 02, 1 05, 1 22 49, 51 ; cl assi fca-
Vi rgo ( VER-goh) . the
Pol ari s ( po- LA- ri s) . 34, li on, 36-39; cl us-
Vi r gi n, 63, 64, 69,
50, 53, 56-57. 58, 60, ters, 4041 , 62-63;
1 00
61 74, 87; col ors, 33;
Pol l ux, 35, 61 , 66 densi t y, 33, 76; di s-
Wat er Carri er, 82, 1 00
Precessi on, 53, 60 tances, 31 ; doubl e
Whal e, 39, 8 1 , 82
Procyon ( PRO-see-yun) , and tri pl e, 35, 38-
35, 37, 95 39; ecl i psi ng, 38; Zodi ac, 1 00- 1 01
Pyrami ds, 4 energy, 32; gi ants Zod i aca I I i ght, 1 34- 1 35
1 60
UU VV WW XX
STARS
LLtN Ult

HERBERT S. ZIM, Ph. D. , Sc. D. , an or i gi nator and for

mer edi tor of the Gol den Gui de Seri es, was al so an
aut hor for many years. Author of some n i nety books
and edi tor of about as many, he i s now Adj unct Pro
fessor at the Uni versi ty of Mi ami and Educat i onal
Cons ul tant to the Ameri can Fr i ends Servi ce Commit
tee and ot her organ i zat i ons. He works on educa
t i onal , popul at i on and envi ronmental probl ems.
ROBERT H. BAKER, Ph. D. , D. Sc. , now deceased, was
formerl y head of the Un i versi ty of I l l i noi s Depart
ment of Astronomy. He was the aut hor of t he stan
dard col l ege text Astronomy, one of the most wi del y
used i n t he U. S. A. He al so wrote An Introduction to
Astronomy and When the Stars Come Out.
JAMES GORDON IRVING has exhi bi ted pai nt i ngs at
the Ameri can Museum of Natu ral Hi story and t he
Nati onal Audubon Soci ety. I n the Gol den Gui de
Ser i es he has i l l ustrated Mammals, Birds, Insects, Rep
tiles and Amphibians, Stars, Fishes, and Gamebirds.
GOLDEN PRESS NEW YORK