OutcomesfromtheEPECentreWorkshopon PowerQualityinFutureElectricalNetworks

June2009

www.epecentre.ac.nz

DISCLAIMER This document was prepared by the Electric Power Engineering Centre (EPECentre) at the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand. The content included in this document is based on a Power Quality workshop held in April 2009. The EPECentre takes no responsibility for damages or other liability whatsoever from the use of this document. This includes any consequential damages resulting from interpretation of material. Electric Power Engineering Centre, University of Canterbury, New Zealand

Published by Electric Power Engineering Centre (EPECentre), University of Canterbury, New Zealand. First edition, June 2009 Authors and Editors: Assoc. Prof. Neville Watson, BE(Hons), PhD, CPEng, Int PE, SMIEEE, MIPENZ, EPECentre, University of Canterbury, New Zealand Prof. Vic Gosbell, BSc, BE(Hons), PhD, CPEng, MIEEE, FIEAust Integral Energy Power Quality and Reliability Centre, University of Wollongong, Australia Dr Stewart Hardie, BE(Hons), PhD, MIEEE EPECentre, University of Canterbury, New Zealand Acknowledgements: Joseph Lawrence, EPECentre, University of Canterbury Tas Scott, Orion NZ Ltd Assoc. Prof. Sarath Perera, Integral Energy Power Quality and Reliability Centre, University of Wollongong, Australia Bill Heffernan, EPECentre, University of Canterbury Peter Berry, Executive Director, EEA Ken Smart, University of Canterbury Dudley Smart, EPECentre, University of Canterbury Sponsors and participants of the EPECentre Power Quality Conference and Workshop, 23-24 April 2009, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.

Electric Power Engineering Centre University of Canterbury Private Bag 4800 Christchurch New Zealand T: +64 3 366 7001 E: info@epecentre.ac.nz www.epecentre.ac.nz

2009 Electric Power Engineering Centre, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. All rights reserved, no part of this publication may be reproduced or circulated without written permission from the Publisher. OutcomesfromtheEPECentreWorkshopon PowerQualityinFutureElectricalNetworks

OutcomesfromtheEPECentreWorkshopon PowerQualityinFutureElectricalNetworks

OutcomesfromtheEPECentreWorkshopon PowerQualityinFutureElectricalNetworks

ElectricPowerEngineeringCentre OutcomesfromtheEPECentreWorkshopon PowerQualityinFutureElectricalNetworks

Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................................6 1 Introduction to Power Quality....................................................................................................................7 1.1 What is Power Quality?......................................................................................................................7 1.2 Power Quality issues..........................................................................................................................7 1.2.1 Steady-state voltage..................................................................................................................10 1.2.2 Voltage dips (sags)...................................................................................................................10 1.2.3 Voltage imbalance....................................................................................................................10 1.2.4 Harmonics.................................................................................................................................10 1.2.5 Interharmonics..........................................................................................................................11 1.2.6 Transients..................................................................................................................................11 1.2.7 Light flicker due to voltage fluctuations...................................................................................11 1.3 Power Quality standards...................................................................................................................13 1.3.1 IEEE Standards ........................................................................................................................13 1.3.2 IEC 61000 series of Standards and Technical Reports.............................................................15 1.3.3 New Zealand standards.............................................................................................................18 1.4 Emission from existing equipment...................................................................................................19 1.4.1 Residential equipment..............................................................................................................19 1.4.2 Industrial equipment.................................................................................................................27 1.4.3 Distributed generation and inverters.........................................................................................29 1.4.4 Future equipment......................................................................................................................30 1.5 Immunity of equipment....................................................................................................................31 2 Summary of Power Quality Workshop....................................................................................................33 2.1 Question 1: Identification of significant Power Quality issues .......................................................33 2.2 Question 2: Data acquisition and use ..............................................................................................35 2.3 Question 3: Responsibility for Power Quality issues ......................................................................38 2.4 Wrap-up............................................................................................................................................40 2.5 Future challenges..............................................................................................................................41 3 Conclusions and future work...................................................................................................................42 4 Bibliography............................................................................................................................................43

OutcomesfromtheEPECentreWorkshopon PowerQualityinFutureElectricalNetworks

Preface
First of all, thank you to all those who attended the Power Quality in Future Electrical Networks workshop. Your presence and participation made it the successful event that it was. It was a great time of learning from each other, as well as making useful contacts. Power Quality issues have been around for a long time. However, most of the time it does not feature in peoples thinking until problems are experienced. Prevention is far better than curing problems after they occur, hence the focus of this workshop. This document contains a summary of the workshop group discussions, which we hope you will find informative. As a primer to the Power Quality area, a summary of the international standards and the concepts underpinning them is included. Moreover, the measured characteristics of existing and up-and-coming electrical equipment is given, so that you can be aware of the likely impact equipment will have if widespread use is made of it. Finally, a comprehensive list of books on Power Quality is given for further reading on this subject. Assoc. Prof. Neville Watson Associate, Electric Power Engineering Centre, University of Canterbury

OutcomesfromtheEPECentreWorkshopon PowerQualityinFutureElectricalNetworks

1 IntroductiontoPowerQuality
1.1 WhatisPowerQuality?
The geometry of synchronous generation results in a sinusoidal EMF being generated. This allows transformation to higher voltages for efficient transmission of power. All equipment connected to the electrical network is designed to operate with a sinusoidal voltage at rated value, as shown in Figure 1. Power Quality, or more accurately Voltage Quality, is essential for electrical equipment to operate correctly. Power Quality is the degree to which the supply voltage waveform conforms to the ideal sinusoidal waveform (including magnitude and timing). Any deviation from this is a Power Quality issue. Power Quality is a subset of ElectroMagnetic Compatibility (EMC), as depicted in Figure 2. The principal phenomena causing ElectroMagnetic Compatibility issues are listed in Table 1. ElectroMagnetic Compatibility refers to the ability of electrical and electronic equipment or systems to function satisfactorily in the environment, without introducing intolerable disturbance to that environment. Thus it implies that a limitation of emissions from equipment or systems is required, as well as a certain level of immunity to interference which must be expected from other equipment and systems in that environment. Emissions can be in the radiated or conducted form. Although power systems can be sources of radiated emissions, radiated emissions from outside sources rarely affect the voltage waveform. Therefore in Power Quality only conducted interference is of concern. Traditionally, Continuity of Supply (Reliability) is considered as a separate class from Power Quality, however many would argue that the ultimate poor Power Quality is having no voltage, hence Continuity of Supply is shown on the boundary in Figure 2.

1.2 PowerQualityissues
Power Quality events can be classified into those that are discrete events (such as voltage dips/sags) and those that are continuous (e.g. harmonics, steady-state voltage, flicker etc). Each of the more common Power Quality problems will be introduced in the following sections. One suggested classification of voltage magnitude events is shown in Figure 3. Note that the boundaries are somewhat arbitrary, for example the threshold between under-voltage and interruption is 1% of nominal for IEC and 10% for IEEE. The classification according to IEEE standard 1159 is displayed in Figure 4. Note that Voltage Dips and Voltage Sags are synonymous, the former term being used in Europe and the latter in North America.

Phase-to-neutral Voltage (Volts)

325.27

230 V

Figure 1: Ideal voltage waveform (also showing RMS value).

OutcomesfromtheEPECentreWorkshopon PowerQualityinFutureElectricalNetworks

ElectroMagneticCompatibility (EMC)
Continuity of Supply Flicker due to Voltage (Reliability) Surges/ fluctuations Electric Steady-state voltage Swells Fields Impulse and Switching or more accurately Transients Frequency Deviations

Power Quality

Voltage Quality
Unbalanced 3-phase Voltages

Harmonics Sub-Harmonics Inter-Harmonics

Waveshape Faults High Frequency Noise

Magnetic Fields

RF Radiation

Figure 2: Power Quality as a subset of ElectroMagnetic Compatibility (EMC). Table 1: Principal phenomena causing electromagnetic disturbances.
Conducted low-frequency phenomena Harmonics, Inter-harmonics Signalling voltages Voltage fluctuations Steady state voltage Voltage swells Voltage dips and interruptions Voltage unbalance Power frequency variations Induced low frequency voltages DC in AC networks Radiated low-frequency phenomena Magnetic fields Electric fields Conducted high-frequency phenomena Induced CW (continuous wave) voltages or currents Unidirectional transients Oscillatory transients Radiated high-frequency phenomena Magnetic fields Electric fields Electromagnetic fields Continuous waves Transients Electrostatic discharge phenomena (ESD) Nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP)

OutcomesfromtheEPECentreWorkshopon PowerQualityinFutureElectricalNetworks

Transient

Very short over-voltage

Short over-voltage

Long over-voltage

Very long over-voltage

120% 110% 100% 90%

Normal operating Voltage range

Notch/transient

Very short under-voltage

Short under-voltage

Long under-voltage

Very long under-voltage

1 to 10% 0.5 cycle

Very short interruption

Short interruption 1 to 3 cycles

Long interruption

Very long interruption

1 to 3 min. Event Duration

1 to 3 hours

Figure 3: Suggested definition of voltage magnitude events. (Source: M. Bollen.)

Transient

Swell

Over-voltage

120% 110% 100% 90%

Normal operating Voltage range

Notch/transient

Voltage Dip/Sag

Under-voltage

10% Momentary 0.5 cycle 3s Temporary 1 min. Event Duration Sustained Interruption 1-3 hours

Figure 4: Definition of voltage magnitude events according to IEEE Std. 1159 (1995).
OutcomesfromtheEPECentreWorkshopon PowerQualityinFutureElectricalNetworks

1.2.1 Steadystatevoltage Long term over-voltage or under-voltage is a major problem in many electrical networks around the world. In New Zealand, the supply voltage is required to be 230 6%. 1.2.2 Voltagedips(sags) A voltage dip is typically caused by a fault on the system or a large motor starting. The large current flowing through the system impedance causes a depressed voltage until the fault is cleared or the motor gets up to speed. If the retained voltage is very low (<10% IEEE or 1% IEC), it is classed as an interruption instead of a voltage dip. 1.2.3 Voltageimbalance There are a number of causes for the phase voltages to be imbalanced. Due to the geometry of overhead transmission lines, the electrical parameters are different for the different phases unless transpositions are used. Even with transpositions, unequal loading can create unbalanced voltages. 1.2.4 Harmonics Any periodic waveform, such as the waveform in Figure 5, can be considered to be made up of a fundamental with harmonic components. Hence a voltage or current waveform f(t) can be expressed as: f t = a0 [ a cos n t b n sin n t ] 2 n=1 n

where an and bn are the Fourier coefficients. The magnitude and phase angle of the nth harmonic is given by: c n = an b n
2 2

=tan

bn an
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 0

V ltag (p .) o e .u

50

100

150 200 T e (d rees) im eg

250

300

350

Figure 5: Example of harmonic distortion.

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There are numerous Power Quality indices derived from the harmonic components of a waveform, but the most widely used is the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), i.e. :

THD V =

V2 h
h= 2

V1

THDI =

n h=2

I2 h

I1

The THD does not represent the ability to distort as it is a normalised index (normalised by fundamental level), hence Total Demand Distortion (TDD) has been proposed as an alternative, i.e. :

TDDI =

I2 h
h=2

50

I rated

For calculating the interference on telecommunication systems caused by harmonics and interharmonics, two weighting systems are used, i.e.: 1. Psophometric weighting system proposed by the International Consultation Commission on Telephone and Telegraph Systems (CCITT), used in Europe. 2. C-message weighting system proposed jointly by Bell Telephone System (BTS) and Edison Electric Institute (EEI), used in the United States and Canada. 1.2.5 Interharmonics With the introduction of Integral cycle controlled load and cyclo-converters, the waveform is not periodic over the period of the fundamental and hence inter-harmonics and sub-harmonics are present. This is demonstrated in Figure 6. Interharmonics can be also induced by some types of control signals. 1.2.6 Transients Transient phenomena is also classified into impulsive transients (e.g. due to lightning) or oscillatory transient (e.g. capacitor bank switching). Two examples are shown in Figures 7 and 8. 1.2.7 Lightflickerduetovoltagefluctuations Voltage fluctuation that causes the fluctuations in the magnitude of the voltage envelope to have a frequency component in the visual perception range (< 35 Hz), as shown in Figure 9, will cause light bulb flicker. Voltage fluctuations due to amplitude modulation can be mathematically described by: v t = 2 V 1mt cost Consider for example the fundamental modulated by a purely sinusoidal voltage fluctuation i.e.: mt =M cosm m The voltage waveform can then be seen to be made of three sine waves, a carrier and two sidebands: v t = 2 V 1M cos m m cost = 2 V cost M cosm m cost = 2 V cos t 1 1 2 VM cos m tm 2 2VM cos mt m 2

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Figure 6: Cyclo-converter waveform which contains inter- and sub-harmonics.

Impulsive

Oscillatory

Figure 7: Voltage transients as defined in IEEE 1159.

Figure 8: A recorded voltage transient.

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Figure 9: Sinusoidal modulation of the voltage waveform.

1.3 PowerQualitystandards
The development of standards and guidelines is centred around the following: 1. Description and characterisation of the phenomena. 2. Major sources of power quality problems. 3. Impact on other equipment and on the power system. 4. Mathematical description of the phenomena using indices or statistical analysis to provide a quantitative assessment of its significance. 5. Measurement techniques and guidelines. 6. Emission limits for different types and classes of equipment. 7. Immunity or tolerance level of different types of equipment. 8. Testing methods and procedures for compliance with the limits. 9. Mitigation guidelines. 1.3.1 IEEEStandards The United States (ANSI and IEEE) do not have such a comprehensive and complete set of Power Quality standards as the IEC. IEEE 1159 (1995), as shown in Table 2, contains recommended practice on monitoring electric power quality and categories of power system electromagnetic phenomena. The IEEE Standard 519 is more specialised and is the IEEE recommended practice and requirement for harmonic control in electric power systems, as shown in Tables 3 and 4.
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Table 2: Overview of IEEE Standard 1159.

Description Transient Impulsive Nanoseconds Microseconds Milliseconds Oscillatory Low frequency Medium frequency High frequency Short duration variation Instantaneous Sag Swell Momentary Interruption Sag Swell Temporary Interruption Sag Swell Long duration variations Interruption, sustained Under-voltage Over-voltage Voltage imbalance Waveform distortion DC offset Harmonics Interharmonics Notching Noise Voltage fluctuations Frequency variations Spectral Content 5 ns rise 1 s rise 0.1 ms rise <5 kHz 5-200 kHz 0.5-5 MHz Typical Duration < 50 ns 50 ns 1 ms >1 ms 0.3 to 30 cycles 20 s 5 s 0.5 cycle to 3 s 0.5 cycle to 3 s 30 cycle to 3 s 30 cycle to 3 s 30 cycle to 3 s 3 s to 1 min 3 s to 1 min 3 s to 1 min > 1 min. > 1 min. > 1 min. Steady-state 1-100th Order 1-6 kHz Broad-band <25 Hz Steady-state Steady-state Steady-state Steady-state Steady-state Intermittent <10 s Magnitude

1.1 to 1.2 pu 0.1 to 0.9 pu 0.8 to 0.9 pu 1.1 to 1.2 pu 0 to 0.1 % 0 to 20% 0 to 2% 0 to 1%

Table 3: IEEE Standard 519 recommended harmonic voltage limits.

Maximum for individual harmonic Total Harmonic Distortion 2.3-68.9 kV 3.0% 5.0% 69-138 kV 1.5% 2.5% >138 kV 1.0% 1.5%

Table 4: IEEE Standard 519 current distortion limits for general distribution systems in the range 120 V to 69 kV.
Maximum harmonic current distortion in % Harmonic Order (odd harmonics) Total Harmonic Distortion ISC / IL <11 11 to 16 17 to 22 23 to 34 >35 <20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0 20 to 50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0 50 to 100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0 100 to 1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0 >1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0 ISC refers to the maximum short-circuit current at the PCC. IL refers to the maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at the PCC. Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above. All generation power equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of actual short circuit ratio. For PCC from 69 kV to 138 kV, the limits are 50% of the limits above. OutcomesfromtheEPECentreWorkshopon PowerQualityinFutureElectricalNetworks

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1.3.2 IEC61000seriesofStandardsandTechnicalReports ElectroMagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is the ability of equipment or system to function in its electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable disturbances to anything in that environment (IEC 61000-1-1). The compatibility level is the specified disturbance level at which an acceptably high probability of electromagnetic compatibility should exist. Each utility is to decide what emission margin is appropriate for their system, based on the characteristics of their system and set a planning level which is lower to give an emission margin. Likewise an appropriate immunity margin is needed to give an immunity level which is larger than the compatibility level, for equipment manufacturers to design their equipment to meet. This is illustrated in Figure 10 where the compatibility level is set to give a high probability of electromagnetic compatibility. The rectangles show a range of possible planning levels and immunity testing levels that may be chosen. These are at the discretion of the utilities and regulatory/standard setting bodies. Compatibility levels are often set as a level to be achieved at least a certain percentage of time, as demonstrated in Figures 11 and 12. The IEC 61000 series of standards and technical reports are very comprehensive and the major subdivisions are: General (IEC 61000-1-x): The general section introduces and provides fundamental principles on EMC issues and describes the various definitions and terminologies used in the standards. Environment (IEC 61000-2-x): This part describes and classifies the characteristics of the environment or surrounding where equipment will be used. It also provides guidelines on compatibility levels for various disturbances. Harmonic compatibility levels of residential low voltage (LV) systems (IEC 61000-2-2) Industrial plants (IEC 61000-24) Residential medium voltage (MV) systems (IEC 61000-2-12). Limits (IEC 61000-3-x): This section defines the maximum levels of disturbances caused by equipment or appliances that can be tolerated within the power system. It also defines the immunity limits for equipment sensitive to EMC disturbances. Harmonic current emission limits for equipment connected at LV with input current 16 A per phase (IEC 61000-3-2). Flicker (IEC 61000-3-3): Limitation of voltage change equipment connected at LV with low (< 16 A per phase) current. Harmonic current emission limits for equipment connected at LV with high (> 16 A per phase) current (IEC 61000-3-4) Assessment of emission limits for distorting loads in MV and HV power systems (IEC 610003-6). Assessment of emission limits for voltage fluctuations in MV and HV power systems (IEC 61000-3-7). Assessment of emission limits for voltage fluctuations and flicker in LV power systems Equipment rated current < 75 A and subject to conditional connection (IEC 61000-3-11). Harmonic current emission limits for equipment connected at LV with input current >16A and 75 A per phase (IEC 61000-3-12) Testing and Measurement Techniques (IEC 61000-4-x): These provide guidelines on the design of equipment for measuring and monitoring Power Quality disturbances. They also outline the equipment testing procedures to ensure compliance with other parts of the standards.
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Figure 10: Relationships between attributes of ElectroMagnetic Compatibility.

Disturbance Level Percentage Time = 100*(t1+t2)/tTotal

x

t1 tTotal

t2

Time

Figure 11: Example of calculation of disturbance level time percentage.

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Figure 12: Two case studies that demonstrate percentage compatibility. Case 1 meets the standard at least 95% of the time, while Case 2 meets the standard only 75% of the time. This is irrespective of Case 2 levels often being much lower than Case 1 levels for much of the time. Harmonic and interharmonic measurements and instrumentation (IEC 61000-4-7) Dips and interruptions (61000-4-11) Interharmonics (61000-4-13) Testing and measurement techniques: Flickermeter Functional and design specifications (IEC 61000-4-15) Power Quality measurement methods (IEC 61000-4-30) Installation and Mitigation Guidelines (IEC 61000-5-x): This section provides guidelines on the installation techniques to minimise emission as well as to strengthen immunity against EMC disturbances. It also describes the use of various devices for solving Power Quality problems. Generic Standards (IEC 61000-6-x): These include the standards specific to certain category of equipment or for certain environments. They contain both emission limits and immunity levels standards. Class A: Balanced three-phase equipment and all other equipment, except those listed in other classes. Class B: Portable tools. Class C: Lighting equipment, including dimming devices. Class D: Equipment with a "special wave shape" and an input power of 75 to 600 W.

IEC 61000-3-2 introduces Power Quality limits for four classes of equipment:

It is not widely appreciated that some of these publications are International Standards while others are Technical Reports and hence do not have the same standing.
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1.3.3 NewZealandstandards New Zealand was one of the first countries to pass regulations in 1981 to limit the harmonic levels in the electrical network (Limitation of Harmonic Levels Notice 1981, issued by the Office of the Chief Electrical Inspector, Ministry of Commerce). This was due to the early installation of large rectification equipment in the form of a HVDC link between the North and South Islands and aluminium smelter at Tiwai point. This Limitation of Harmonics Notice 1981 now forms the basis of NZ Electrical Code of Practice 36, which is cited in the Electricity Regulations 1997, making it a mandatory requirement. This covers only allowable harmonic voltages and also indices covering telephone interference (EDV & EDI). The code is split into requirements for when the Point of Common Coupling has a nominal voltage of less than 66 kV, or 66 kV and above. All these limits are absolute, not statistical, however there is an exception for control signals (i.e. ripple control). Nominal voltage less than 66 kV 1. The phase-to-neutral harmonic voltage at any Point of Common Coupling with a nominal voltage of less than 66 kV shall not exceed 4% for any odd numbered harmonic order, or 2% for any even numbered harmonic order. 2. The Total Harmonic Voltage Distortion (THDV) at any Point of Common Coupling with a nominal voltage of less than 66 kV shall not exceed 5%. Nominal voltage of 66 kV or above If the nominal voltage is above 66kV, the limits in Table 5 apply. The equivalent disturbing voltage (EDV) shall not exceed 1% on any phase. EDV =6.25x105

50 n=2

nP n V n 2

where Pn is the weighting given to each frequency (from Psophometric weighting table). Section 3 of this code of practice does give harmonic current limits, but only for 66kV, 110kV and 220kV. New Zealand also has joint AS/NZS standards and these are clones of the IEC standard of the same number. These at present are volunteering standards and some requirements (i.e. harmonic levels, frequency deviation) conflict with the existing regulations. Table 5: Harmonic voltage limits for nominal voltages of 66 kV or above.
Harmonic order 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 to 21 23 to 29 2 4 6 8 to 10 12 to 50 Harmonic voltage levels (percentage phase-to-neutral values) 2.3 1.4 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 1.2 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2

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1.4 Emissionfromexistingequipment
The rectification process by which AC is converted to DC is a common source of harmonics. This process is widely used in household appliances such as TVs, stereos, PCs, microwave ovens, compact fluorescent lamps, fluorescent lamps with electronic ballasts, LED lighting, and all types chargers (for cell phones, cameras etc). The level of harmonic distortion is very much a function of the design of the rectifier. The problem is that market forces put pressure on to cut costs, which results in a poorer rectifier. 1.4.1 Residentialequipment
1.4.1.1 Compactfluorescentlamps(CFLs)

Block 1 Filtering and Protection

Block 2 Rectifier

Block 3 DC Filter

Block 4 Inverter and tube

Fuse

PTC

DIAC

Figure 13: Block diagram of a CFL

Power-Factor Control Drive

No filtering

Active filtering

Passive filtering

Improved Valley-Fill

Figure 14: Various CFL filtering options presently in use.

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600

Basic, no filtering

400 300 200

400

Active Power-Factor Control

200 C rren (m ) u t A

C rren (m ) u t A
0.005 0.01 T e (s) im 0.015 0.02

100 0 -100 -200 -300 -400 0

-200

-400

-600 0

0.005

0.01 T e (s) im

0.015

0.02

600

Basic, with filtering

C rren (m ) u t A

600

Valley-fill or Equivalent

400

400

200 C rren (m ) u t A

200

-200

-200

-400

-400

-600 0 0.005 0.01 T e (s) im 0.015 0.02

-600 0 0.005 0.01 T e (s) im 0.015 0.02

Figure 15: Current waveforms resulting from use of different CFL filtering options shown in Figure 14.
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0 0 C rren (m ) u t A 150 250

Basic, no filtering
200

Active Power-Factor Control

R S C rren (m ) M u t A

100

50

10

15 20 H arm ic O er on d

25

30

10

15 20 H arm n o er o ic rd

25

30

35

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0

90

Basic, with filtering

R SC M urren (m ) t A

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0

Valley-fill or Equivalent

R S C rren (m ) M u t A

10

15 20 H arm ic O er on d

25

30

10

15 20 H arm n O er o ic d

25

30

Figure 16: Current harmonics resulting from use of different CFL filtering options shown in Figure 14.
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1.4.1.2 Personalcomputers

The current THD for a PC is typically between 70% to 120%. Below is a measurement on a PC with a waveform with a THDI of 119%.

Current
10 5

Amps

0 -5 -10

2.5

5.

7.5

10.01 12.51 15.01 17.51

mSec

Current
2.0 1.5

Amps

1.0 0.5 0.0 DC 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

27

29

31

Harmonic

Figure 17: Example current waveform and harmonics of a personal computer.

Figure 18: Example current waveform and harmonics of personal computer components.
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Figure 19: Example current harmonics of personal computer components.

1.4.1.3 Microwaveovens
Current
50 25

Amps

2.51

5.02

7.53

10.04

12.55

15.06

17.57

-25

-50

mSec

Current
15

10

Amps
5

DC

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

Harmonic

Figure 20: Example current waveform and harmonics of a microwave oven.

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1.4.1.4 Stereos

A current THD of 38.8% was measured and this is typical of stereos.

Current
500 250

Amps 1

2.5

5.

7.5

10.01

12.51

15.01

17.51

-250

-500

mSec

Current
150

100

Amps rms 1
50

DC

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

Harmonic

Figure 21: Example current waveform and harmonics of a stereo.

1.4.1.5 Heatpumps

Figure 22: Example current waveforms of six different models of residential heat-pump.

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1.4.1.6 Batterychargers
Current
50 25

Amps 1

2.5

5.

7.5

10.01

12.51

15.01

17.51

-25

-50

mSec

Current
20 15

Amps rms 1

10 5 0

DC

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

Harmonic

Figure 23: Example current waveform and harmonics of a battery charger.

1.4.1.7 Digitalcamera

Current
100 50

Amps 1

2.5

5.

7.5

10.01

12.51

15.01

17.51

-50

-100

mSec

Current
10 8

Amps rms 1

6 4 2 0 DC 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

27

29

31

Harmonic

Figure 24: Example current waveform and harmonics of a digital camera.

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1.4.1.8 Mobilephonecharger

Current
50 25

Amps

0 -25 -50

2.51

5.02

7.53

10.04 12.55 15.06 17.57

mSec

Current
20 15

Amps

10 5 0 DC 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

27

29

31

Harmonic
Figure 25: Example current waveform and harmonics of a mobile phone charger.

1.4.1.9 Cordlessphonecharger

Current
50 25

Amps 1

2.5

5.

7.5

10.01

12.51

15.01

17.51

-25

-50

mSec

Current
15

10

Amps rms 1
5

DC

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

Harmonic

Figure 26: Example current waveform and harmonics of a cordless phone charger.

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1.4.1.10 Electronicphotoframe

Current
500 250

Amps 1

2.5

5.

7.5

10.01

12.51

15.01

17.51

-250

-500

mSec

Current
30 25 20

Amps rms 1

15 10 5 0 DC 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

27

29

31

Harmonic

Figure 27: Example current waveform and harmonics of an electronic photo-frame.

1.4.1.11 Television

Figure 28: Example current waveform and harmonics of a television and video tape player.
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1.4.2 Industrialequipment Another major source of harmonic distortion is equipment used in industry and on dairy farms, particularly the use of Variable Speed Drives (VSD). On dairy farms, VSDs for driving irrigation pumps are a major harmonic source in rural networks with the 5th harmonic current often approximately 30% of the fundamental current.
1.4.2.1 Irrigationpumps

AC DC

DC AC

IM

Figure 29: Schematic of a Variable Speed Drive.

Current
500 250

Amps

2.5

5.

7.5

10.01

12.51

15.01

17.51

-250

-500

Time mS

Current
200 150

33.2% 8.5% 8.0% 3.7%

DC 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

Amps rms

100 50 0

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

27

29

31

Harmonic number

Figure 30: Example current waveform and harmonics of a Variable Speed Drive.

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1.4.2.2 DCDrive

Because of the simplicity and precise motion control capability of DC Drives, as shown in Figure 31, they find applications in printing presses, gondolas, and traction applications.

M
4 6 2

Figure 31: Schematic of a DC Drive system.

1.4.2.3 Metallurgicalapplications

Many metallurgical processes have a large impact on Power Quality: arc furnaces (AC, DC and induction furnaces) as well as electroplating and refining processes.
1.4.2.4 Manufacturing

In manufacturing, conversion from AC to DC is often used. For example, one case that arose was in making a product out of plastics. To ensure accurate control of the constituent compounds, thyristor controlled heating elements were used, as shown in Figure 32. The machine had five three-phase thyristor bridges driving a purely resistive element and the 5th harmonic current was 40% of the fundamental. The AC side harmonic currents are a function of the DC side ripple and the 5 th harmonic increases as the ripple increases.

5 R

Figure 32: Schematic of a thyristor controlled heating element.

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1.4.3 Distributedgenerationandinverters Inverters are an essential component to allow the energy from renewable sources to feed into an AC electrical network. Many papers have been written about the harmonics introduced by photovoltaic systems and this would be of great concern if the use of photovoltaic systems became widespread. Some wind energy systems rectify the generator output and use an inverter to feed the energy into the AC system. The design of the inverter that interfaces the DC source of energy determines the impact the distributed generation will have on Power Quality. Figure 33 shows measured waveforms and spectrum of two commercial inverters. It is clear that these waveforms are rich in harmonics and can detrimentally affect cables (due to extra I2R losses) and voltage waveform. Inverters are often used to reclaim energy that might otherwise be lost. In some applications, a process can be used to generate DC, and this energy can be fed back to the AC system. One example would be in combined heat and power systems, such as Whispergen, and similar schemes. These systems use energy sources such as natural gas to provide heat. Electricity is generated from the waste heat and is fed back into the AC system via an inverter. Another Power Quality issue with distributed generation (particularly wind) is its intermittent nature and how it fluctuates. These give rise to frequency stability issues and voltage fluctuations which cause lights to flicker.

(a)

(b)

Figure 33: Example current waveform and harmonics of two commercial inverters.

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1.4.4 Futureequipment There are several major future trends that could considerably impact on the Power Quality of the electrical network. One of these is the widespread use of electric vehicles, such as the 2009 sample in Figure 34. Various prototypes are already in service and full scale production will be within one year. Although the initial uptake of electric vehicles is expected to be low, when the cost reduces and peoples' confidence increases, they may well gain wide acceptance, particularly if they are heavily promoted. The charging circuit again requires rectification and the same issues regarding the design of the rectifier and its performance in terms of Power Quality is an issue. The charging requires a higher current than available from the domestic 10A outlet and hence at present an electrician is required to wire in an outlet with greater capacity in order to charge these vehicles. LED lighting has the promise of giving higher efficiencies. A prototype LED system, shown in Figure 35(a), gives 30% more light for the same electrical consumption. They are also very flexible, with the ability to colour correct and automatically adjust for lighting levels. There are also advantages for specialist applications such as in hydroponics. The main barrier is cost. Again they run on DC and hence require rectification. Hot-water cylinders that use a heat-pump rather than a resistive element, as shown in Figure 35(b), are already a commercial reality with most manufacturers offering this alternative. The Power Quality issues associated with heat-pumps also apply to this, and if widely adopted would mean conversion of a significant amount of the resistive loading of the system to a non-linear load. This has implications for harmonics, voltage dips and voltage stability of the system.

Figure 34: Mitsubishi Innovative Electric Vehicle.

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(a)

(b)

Figure 35: (a) Prototype LED lighting system and (b) hot-water cylinder that uses a heat pump (Source: Quantum Energy Technologies).

1.5 Immunityofequipment
Immunity of equipment is an important aspect and changing the design to improve immunity of a sensitive device (termed device hardening) is often more practical that reducing the disturbance level. Over the years a number of bodies have developed standards for equipment immunity. The most wellknown is probably the 'CBEMA curve' (Computer Business Equipment Manufacturer Association), shown in Figure 36. It was used to evaluate the voltage quality of a power system with respect to voltage interruptions, dips or under-voltages and swells or over-voltages. This curve was originally produced as a guideline to help CBEMA members in the design of the power supply for their computer and electronic equipment. CBEMA has been renamed as ITIC (Information Technology Industry Council) and a new curve, known as the ITIC curve (shown in Figure 37) has been developed to replace the CBEMA curve. The main difference between them is that the ITIC version is piecewise, and hence easier to digitise than the continuous CBEMA curve. The tolerance limits at different durations are very similar in both cases. Other curves have been developed such as SEMI47 which is designed for the semiconductor industry requirements. Testing the immunity of equipment, particular computer equipment for voltage dips has been reported in the literature. Also work on what is known as 'device hardening' has been performed. The development of super (ultra) capacitors now allows a level of energy storage on the DC busbar that was previously unobtainable, and at a low price. This can give substantial improvement in immunity of equipment relatively cheaply. Market forces however cause manufacturers to trim their costs to compete with their competitors and this usually reduces, rather than enhances, the equipment immunity (as well as device emissions).
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Percent of Nominal Voltage (RMS of Peak Equivalent)

400

300

200

100 80 30 0 0.001

Voltage Tolerance Envelope

106 87

0.01 0.1ms

0.1 1ms

0.5 1 c 8.33ms

10 c 0.1s 0.5s

100 c 2s

1000 c

Time in cycles & seconds

Figure 36: CBEMA curve.

Percent of Nominal Voltage (RMS of Peak Equivalent)
500

400

300

Prohibited Region
200

140 120 100 80 40 0

Voltage Tolerance Envelope No Damage Region

0.001 1 us 0.01 1 ms 3 ms 1c 20 ms 10 c 100 c 0.5 s

110 90

10 s

Steady State

Time in cycles & seconds

Figure 37: ITIC curve.

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2 SummaryofPowerQualityWorkshop
This section presents a summary of the individual workgroup responses to three sets of questions presented to them during the workshop, and a end-of-day 'wrap-up'.

2.1 Question1:IdentificationofsignificantPowerQualityissues
What are the most significant Power Quality issues YOU are facing NOW? Mark and describe those issues that have the most negative economic impact, and issues that receive the most customer complaints. NEI = Negative economic impact, CC = customer complaints Harmonics Non linear loads, irrigation drives, HVDC, trains, DC inverters, thermal failure, amplification due to capacitor banks Voltage Dips Motor starting, network faults, loss of production Steady State Voltages Low voltage and high load stressing networks (NEI, CC), high voltage Voltage Unbalance High voltages (NEI) Flicker Industrial loads (NEI, CC), wind farms, single phase loads RF Insulator design/sensitivity of equipment DC components in/by transformers Oversizing of transformers Safety, future proofing, harmonics Transmission Unbalance (one phase loads, lack of transposition with high loads, harmonics) Distribution Flicker (short term soln CFLs), voltage variation (CC), sags not so bad, proliferation of VSD motors, protection relay response to harmonics, quantifying in $$ cost of poor PQ Regulation influences Compliance with regulations Lack of equipment standards Lack of consumer understanding

For UTILITIES, what are the most likely significant Power Quality issues to be faced in the FUTURE? Why? Provide details of Power Quality issues, also considering excessive emissions, immunity, and present or future regulator requirements. Harmonics Increasing levels More distorting loads VSD, CFLs, TVs Less equipment immunity Stricter regulations Standards Different application thereof, are they correct, complex, developing and enforcing new standards Distributed generation Wind farms voltage control Create awareness in community (education) Derated equipment (Transformers/cables) Uncertainty Political, environmental Future loads What are they? D.G and despatch rules Economy Traditional network design vs future design Non compliance enforcement
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Customer responsibility Evolving standards

For each of the following CUSTOMERS (a) to (c), what are the most likely significant Power Quality issues to be faced in the FUTURE? Why? (a) Industrial/commercial Voltage sags Compliance/standards Poor design and installation practices leads to production losses Education/good advice for customers Short interruptions Harden PLC Spending more on quality Increased penetration of sensitive equipment and import of PQ Upgrade requirements due to changing PQ levels (allocation) Embedded generation issues

(b) Rural Voltage sags Customer expectation Increased use of electronics etc in low fault level areas Education/good advice for customers Drive failure due to PF cap switching and voltage dips No filtering required on pumps and drives Designed to urban standard? Insurance stance? Expectation doesnt match the supplier capabilities Disturbances die to interaction of different loads Differential PQ Standards

(c) Residential Voltage sags Infill housing and steady state voltages Increased non linear load (heat pumps, air con) Education/good advice for customers More rubbish on the market Need a star rating for PQ? High Voltage causing appliance failures and short life Shifting load profile (night time charging) Use of ripple control? Expectation doesnt match the supplier capabilities More sensitive equipment Voltage control with DG penetration, uptake of the Greenie effect

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2.2 Question2:Dataacquisitionanduse
At each of the following points of the network (a) to (g), how much data acquisition equipment should be installed by a UTILITY in the next 10 years? What should it record? If only a percentage of multiple sites of the same class should have equipment installed, indicate what that percentage should be. Weight the acquisition equipment/records as compulsory, highly recommended, or useful. A = compulsory, B = highly recommended, C = useful (a) Grid exit point
Workgroup 1 2 3 4 5 % sites measured 100% 100% 20% 80% 100% 100% V Y Y A Y Y I Y Y A Y Y Steady state value A A A Y A Unbalance B A A Y A Harm B A A Y A Fluct B A B Y A Sags A A A Y A Transients C A C Y A CB Status Time Stamp Another quantity

(b) Town substation

Workgroup 1 2 3 4 5 % sites measured 100% 10-20% 5-10% 30% 50% V Y Y A Y Y I Y Y A Y Y Steady state value A A A Y A Unbalance B A A Y A Harm B A A Y C Fluct B A B Y B Sags A A A Y A Transients C A B Y C Another quantity

CB Status Time Stamp

(c) Rural substation

Workgroup 1 2 3 4 5 % sites measured 100% 30-50% 5% 100% 20% V Y Y A Y Y I Y Y A Y Y Steady state value A A A Y A Unbalance B A A Y A Harm B A A Y B Fluct B B B-C Y A Sags A A B Y A Transients C B B Y B Another quantity

(d) Industrial site

Workgroup 1 2 3 4 5 % sites measured 0-10% 1% 50%+ critical Roaming 5% V Y Y A Y Y I Y Y A Y Y Steady state value A A A Y A Unbalance A A A Y A Harm A A A Y A Fluct B B A Y A Sags A A A Y A Transients B B B Y A Another quantity

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(e) Residential transformer

Workgroup 1 2 3 4 5 % sites measured <5% 0.1% 1% Roaming 10 V Y Y A Y Y I Y Y B Y Y Steady state value A A A Y A Unbalance A A A Y A Harm A A A Y A Fluct B B B Y A Sags A A A Y A Transients B B A Y A Another quantity Vn

(f) End of LV feeder

Workgroup 1 2 3 4 5 % sites measured <5% 0.01% 0.5% Roaming 10 V Y Y A Y Y I Y Y B Y Y Steady state value A A A Y A Unbalance A A A Y A Harm A A A Y A Fluct C B Y A Sags C A A Y A Transients C B A Y A Another quantity Vn

(g) Another location of your choice (if time is available)

Workgroup 1 2 3 4 5 % sites measured V I Steady state value Unbalance Harm Fluct Sags Transients Another quantity

Generator Connection: Wind Farms Third party Gen & Rural End User

Y Y

Y Y

Y A

Y A

Y A

Y A

Y A

Y A

Other comments Innovative graphical presentations Envelope graphs Cost is assumed to be low for instruments main cost is in data retrieval and analysis Line Companies dont own meters, contractual arrangements for access to data Customer metering (non disclosure offshore particularly) Data access represents regulator risk PQ monitors are relatively cheap and memory/storage is cheap

A rapidly increasing amount of raw data is being collected from the power system, and much more data will be created in the future. For each of the following scenarios (a) to (e), what PRACTICAL techniques and processes should be used to CONVERT collected raw data into useful Power Quality awareness/knowledge of the network? Eg. for trouble-shooting, limits, planning and investment. Also consider practical presentation of analysed data eg. 10 min averages, cumulative, bar-graphs. (a) Steady state voltage variation Graph monthly/quarterly/yearly

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(b) Voltage unbalance Graph monthly/quarterly/yearly

(c) Harmonics THD and 5th

(d) Voltage fluctuations (flicker) Continuous PST < 1?

(e) Events (sags, transients) Continuous

Other comments Exceedances to be reported Data used if network issues arise Perhaps trend PQ issue Project, other signals, circuit breaker status, time stamping Standardisation of sampling/presenting According to standards 10 min to 1 week period Lack of consistency

So that effective technical mitigation options may be studied, what are the barriers and good and poor approaches to obtain Power Quality data (and system network information) from OTHER UTILITIES or CUSTOMERS? Any specific experiences that have been witnessed that stand out? Consider high-level political/commercial/personal relationships and agreements for data access or acquisition. Consider low-level formatting of data, data standards and universal protocols. Barrier to sharing Commercial, closed mentality, utilities can lose access to data, revenue meters owned by retailers Different devices - Instruments hold data in different forms Low level formatting can be an issue 10 min cycles Resourcing Is there a cost benefit? Need utilities to take responsibility No litigation data distribution and data sharing International data format agreement International standards agreement Standardisation of sampling/presenting Regulator issues Planning Working together with customers and regulators Who pays?

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2.3 Question3:ResponsibilityforPowerQualityissues
For each of the following equipment scenarios (a) to (e), what CRITERIA and WEIGHTING for responsibility/costs should the UTILITY, EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURER/RETAILER and CUSTOMER have for meeting future Power Quality conditions. Why? (a) Rural customer's equipment that generate significant harmonic current injections. Consider how harmonics should be allocated (device/site level, first come first served, divided by expected number of connections, IEC declared customers)? Consider how allocations should be enforced? What problems are there with present standards? Should modifications be made to harmonic allocation levels in NZECP? Equipment Harmonic current limits (with inf. bus) Utility Harmonic voltage, perhaps connection charges? Manufacturer, by agreement with utility Use allocated share Ratio of S/C capacity allocation Rural/Urban User pays Utility = Standard, Equip/Mnf = Standard, Customer = Ongoing Monitoring = IEC stds, utility. Costs = User.

(b) Residential heat pumps causing voltage sag and generating harmonic currents. Should modified standards be introduced? What should they be? Forced drop out and soft start Manufacturer (not DOL) Quality over price Standard driven production Quality driven by refined standards Import guidelines CF type tests? Utility = Min standard of network required, Equip/Mnf = Standard Monitoring = Stds, manufacturer. Costs = Manufacturer.

(c) Compact Fluorescent Lights generating harmonic currents. Should modified standards be introduced? What should they be? Enforce import standards for Ih Manufacturer (not DOL) Quality over price Standard driven production Quality driven by refined standards Import guidelines Tests? Utility = Min standard of network required, Equip/Mnf = Standard Monitoring = Stds, manufacturer. Costs = Manufacturer.

(d) Wind farms: system frequency stability, voltage sag and flicker. Consider large wind farms and small DG wind farms. What about sub-20kW grid connected wind turbines, especially in remote network sections? IEC61400 21 Utility to require AS4777
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Large farms Keep on line voltage regulation Small farms Safety Responsibility Grid operation, ensures compliance Utility = Min level, Equip/Mnf = Network code, Customer = Ongoing Monitoring = IEC stds, utility. Costs = Owner.

(e) Distributed Generation inverters at residential premises. Should modified standards be introduced? What should they be? A standard of some sort DG more on safety, same as d) Utility = Min level, Equip/Mnf = Network code, Customer = Ongoing Networks not designed for embedded DG at local level Ongoing monitoring/policing/teeth Monitoring = Manufacturer. Costs = Owner.

(f) Another scenario of your choice (if time is available). Utility should be ultimate policeman to protect other and all users

What sort of information would be the most useful in a Power Quality guidelines booklet that helps plan and mitigate present and future Power Quality issues? Eg. Case studies, bench marking, calculation methods, other? Please update later if further suggestions arise in the future. Practical examples Examples with typical solutions Possible side effects Review of standards/summary Clarification and agreement of standards Publicly available book Increased awareness Communication to end users Equipment emission levels Assessment criteria Need to modify standards to suit NZ conditions Education to local Electricians Product standards heat pumps - realistic Process flowcharts Complaint, new installation, preventative 5 year review

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2.4 Wrapup
This section contains the Power Quality workshop end-of-day 'wrap-up'. It consists of whiteboard notes and floor comments about what were considered to be the important issues. ECP36 Consensus to change it Requirement to update standards, but do not want NZ only standards (too costly for manufacturers to meet), therefore need international standards. Except if there is good grounds to vary eg. fault levels reference impedance, current limits.

Emerging issues DG Political drive, subsidies, grid code to handle intermittent power injection, smart metering Electric vehicles Opportunities as well as threats, where is the generation, charging currents and load management, smart metering could help, road tax issues VSDs also pumps in general, sag issues for big loads on long lines, general agreement on harmonic issues. Heat pumps Load management, lobby standards committees for reasonable standards, the horse has bolted??, hot water heat pumps, loss of load control through ripple control, use solar water heating Windfarms Need grid code to handle intermittent power injection

Routine monitoring levels GXPs (high need to monitor) LV consumers (more statistical approach, need for utility smart metering?) PQ monitoring in smart metering, accuracy issues, who pays for more accurate meters?

Guidelines Target audience Customers, electricians (ENA guide, no techy talk), internal (HB264 starting point, recommended practices, calc methods) Application Case studies, language, straight forward

Installation standards Connections Factories, farming, residential Appliance standards Extra categories in CEC star ratings, merge with efficiency in the future? ANZS 61000 already available, are the numbers suitable for a compliance regime?

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2.5 Futurechallenges
What is the role of standards/regulations in Power Quality, or should a market approach be used? If standards: How is the permissible level set? Should there be requirements on an installation or on each individual device? Should the standard be absolute or 95% value? Who has the responsibility for policing the Power Quality level? How are interactions and resonances resolved? Which customers should have priority on allocation?

33 kV

11 kV

Customer Customer Customer Customer A B C D

Customer Customer Customer Customer E F G H

Figure 38: Simple model of customers on a 11 kV feeder for Power Quality allocation purposes.

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3 Conclusionsandfuturework
It is clear that Power Quality is an issue and will be more of an issue in the future with the uptake of new technology. A few people prefer a market approach to Power Quality arguing that one limit does not necessarily fit all. There was common consensus that standards and regulations are required to ensure the addition of new equipment can be accommodated without any detrimental effects. This is because it is a more practical way to deal with Power Quality issues, and there are pitfalls with a market approach. At an industrial or commercial level it was felt that any standards should be on installations rather than on individual items of equipment. This is because application to each item of equipment would restrict availability or increase the equipment price, while a more cost effective solution may to deploy to mitigation equipment in one place in the installation. On a domestic level, standards for individual items of equipment were deemed more appropriate due to the impracticability of expecting each installation to install mitigation equipment appropriate to the loading and the variability of the loading. Also the incremental cost is very low to dramatically improve the device performance in low power domestic appliances, hence minimum performance standards are required. There are two sides to Power Quality: the emission levels and the immunity levels of equipment. Coupling these is the network characteristics, as it controls for a given emission level, how high the disturbance level generated is, and the next question is whether it is above or below the equipments immunity level? New Zealands electrical network is a weak Island system due to our geographical isolation from other electrical networks. Our system peak is approximately 6000 MW. This is very small considering Europe, which is interconnected, United Kingdom, North America and our nearest neighbour, Australia. This means that for a given emission level, it would be expected that a higher disturbance level would result with a smaller system (ignoring the possibility of resonances). Much of the future work revolves around investigating what a typical New Zealand electrical system can withstand in terms of steady-state and transient disturbance. Normally the voltage quality is the key quantity and the measure of the disturbance level, while current specification characterises the emission level. To allocate emission limits to installations and equipment while ensuring the disturbance level does not exceed the planning level requires knowledge of the system impedance. The relevant IEC publication is IEC/TR 60725, entitled Consideration of reference impedances and public supply network impedances for use in determining disturbance characteristics of electrical equipment having a rated current 75 A per phase. Tables 6 and 7 show data from this technical report, some of which is measured and the rest based on calculations. Table 6: Single-phase service capacities <100 A per phase.
Country Canada USA Korea Japan 100-120 V 0.2+j0.06 0.09+j0.05 0.35+j0.13 200-400V 0.2+j0.08 0.1+j0.06 0.67+j0.37 0.42+j0.21

Table 7: Three-phase service.

Country Canada (120/208V) USA (277/480V) Korea (230/400V) Japan (200V) Capacities<100A per Phase 0.07+j0.04 No data 0.33+j0.2 No data Capacities>100A per Phase 0.39+j0.07 No data 0.26+j0.3 No data

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4 Bibliography
Arrillaga J., Chen S. and Watson N.R. Power System Quality Assessment John Wiley & Sons 2000 Arrillaga J. and Watson N.R. Power System Harmonics 2nd Edition John Wiley & Sons 2003 B. Kennedy Power Quality Primer McGraw-Hill 2000 R.S. Vedam & M.S. Sarma Power Quality: VAR Compensation in Power Systems CRC Press 2009 M.H.J. Bollen Understanding Power Quality Problems IEEE 2000 E.F. Fuchs & M.A.S. Masoum, Power Quality in Power systems and Electrical Machines Elsevier 2008 G.T. Heydt Electric Power Quality 2nd Edition Stars in a Circle Publications 1991 C. Sankaran Power Quality CRC Press 2002 F. C. De La Rosa Harmonics and Power Systems CRC Press 2006 R.C. Dugan, M.F. McGranaghan and H.W. Beaty Electrical Power Systems Quality McGraw-Hill 1996

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Antonio Moreno-Muoz (Ed.) Power quality : mitigation technologies in a distributed environment Springer 2007 By A. Kusko and M. T. Thompson Power quality in electrical systems McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007 Angelo Baggini Handbook of Power Quality John Wiley & Sons Inc. 2008 G.J. Wakileh Power Systems Harmonics: Fundamentals, Analysis and Filter Design (Hardcover) Springer 2001 W. Mielczarski, G.J. Anders, M.F. Conlon, W.B. Lawrence, H. Khalsa and G. Michalik Quality of Electricity Supply & Management of Network Losses Puma Press, Melbourne, 1997 T.A. Short Distribution Reliability and Power Quality CRC Press 2006 A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich Power Quality Enhancement using CUSTOM Power Devices Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002 Mohammed S. S. Al-Mandhari Improving Voltage Dip Ride-through Using Super/Ultra Capacitors, 2008 Third Professional Year Project, Electrical & Computer Engineering Department, University of Canterbury, 2008

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