PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER BY DONALD Q. KERN D. Q. Kern Ansociatr, and Professorial Lalarer in Chemical Pegineeing ‘Case Institute of Techwlony McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY - Auckland Bogoté Guatemala Hamburg Lisbon London Madrid Mexico New Delhi Panama’ Paris San Juan Sio Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo KtPROCESS HEAT TRANSFER INTERNATIONAL EDITION 1965 mar Te si se Mer Bo Cosp Te consigned by 10 123456789 20 FSP9543, CCopyrighs 1980, by the McGraw-Hill Book Cov:ps, Ig. All rigs sesered Rete af tht pueden mayb repre sed ante ‘or wnamitd, i any form oF by any mete, clonic, mechanical, phosocopying, ‘cording, ov echereln, without the free wisen permiocn ofthe pabtaer ‘When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07-085353-3 Printed in Singapore felPREFACE tis the object of this text to provide fundamental instruction in heat transfer while employing the methods and language of industry. This treatment of the subject has evolved from a course given at the Poly- techni Institute of Brooklyn over a period of years. The possibilities of collegiate instruction patterned after the requirements ofthe practicing pprovess engineer were suggested and encouraged by Dr. Donald F. Othmer, Head of the Department of Chemical Engineering. The inclu- sion of the practical aspects of the subject as an integral part of the pedagogy Was inteuded tw serve as a supplement cather thaz = substitute for a strong foundation in engineering fundamentals. These points of view have been retained throughout the writing of the book. ‘Yo provide the rounded group of heat-transfer tools required in process ‘engineering it has been necessary to present a numberof erapirical calcula tion methods which have not previously appeared in the engineering literature. Considerable thought has been given to these methods, and the author has discussed vhem with numerous engineers before accepting. and including them in the text. It has been a further desire that all the calculations appearing in the text shall have been performed by an experienced engineer in conventional manner. On several occasions the author has enlisted the aid of experienced colleagues, and their assistance is acknowledged in the text. In presenting several of the methods some degree of accuracy has been sacrificed to permit the broader application of fewer methods, and it is hoped that these simplifications will cause neither inconvenience nor criticism. tbecame apparent in the early stages of waiting this book that it could readily become too large for convenient use, and this has affected the plan of the book in several important respects. A. portion of the material ‘which is included in conventional texts is rarely if ever applied inthe solu- tion of run-of-the-mill engineering problems. Such material, as familiar ‘and accepted as it may be, has been omitted unless it qualified as impor- tant fundamental information. Secondly, it was not possible to allocate space for making bibliographic comparisons and evaiuacions and ct the ‘same time present industrial practice. Where no mention has been made of a recent contribution to the literature no slight was intended ‘Most of the literature references cited cover methods on which the author bas obtained additional information from industrial applviii PREFACE ‘The author has been influenced in his own professional development by the excellent books of Prof. W. H. MeAdams, Dr. Alfred Schack, and ‘others, and it isfelt that their influence should be acknowledged separately in addition to their invidence in the text as bibliography. For assistance with the manuseript indebtedness is expressed to Thomas HL Miley, John Blizard, and John A. Jost, former associates at the Foster Wheeler Corporation. "For checking the numerical calculations credit is due to Krishnabhai Desai and Narendra R. Bhow, graduate students at the Polytechnic Institute. For suggestions which led to the ine!sion or exclusion of certain material thanks are due Norman E. Anderson, Charles Bliss, Dr. John F. Middleton, Edward L. Pfeiffer, Oliver N. Prescott, Everett N. Sieder, Dr. George E. Tait, and to Joseph Me'sler for assistance with the proof. ‘The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association has been most generous ia granting permission for the repro- duction of a number of the graphs contained in itsStandard. Thanks ere also extended to Richard L. Cawood, President, and Arthur E, Kempler, Vice-President, for their personal assistance and for the cooperation of ‘The Patterson Foundry & Machine Company. Donar Q. Kens New Your, NY. Apri, 1950CONTENTS Pazrace. Ivonx ro rue Provcrrat Arranarus CaLeutanoss. 1. Proces Heat Transfer. 2. Conduction 2. Convection 4 Radtion 5 Temperature - = = 6 Counterfow: Dooble pipe Exchangers 17. 12 Parallel counterfow: Shell-and-Tube Exchanges. Flow Arrangements for Increased Heat Recovers 8. Gases 10. Streamline Flow and Free Convection 11, Caleultions for Process Conditions 12, Condensation of Single Vapors 18. Condenastion of Mined Vapors 14. Evaporation 16, Vaporizer, Evaporators, and Reborn, 16, Brtended Burfacet. . 117, Direct-contact Transfer: Cooling Tower. 18, Batch and Unsteady State Processes 19, Furnace Calculations. 2, Additional Applications 21, The Contre of Temperature and Ralated Process Variables ‘Arrexor oF Cascotamion Dath ‘Aornon Inox. Sunsecr Inoex.INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL APPARATUS CALCULATIONS Exenasorne ‘Double;pipe counteriow exchanger (bensene-tlvene) ‘Double pipe serics-parallel exchanger (ube el-erade ol) ‘Tubular exchanger (keosene-erude oi) ‘Tubular exchanger (water-wate) ‘Tabuler cooler (KsPO«solution-water) ‘obstretr, abated slam) ‘Tubular 24 cooler (35° APL oll-water) Core tube heater (as oil-eenm) - ‘Tank beater (enline-steama) ‘Tubular eschanger(traw ol-napitha) ‘Tubular 48 exchanger Jean oil-rich ci) ‘Tubular cooler (N4OH votutionrater) ‘Tubular heater (aleobo-steam). ‘Tubular plt-fow cooler (Bue gas-water) ‘Jacketed veel (aqueotssolution-weam) ‘Tube cil (aqueous slution-steaz Pipe col cooler (alurry-rates) ‘Trombone cooler (80s gue-water) Atmospheric eoler Gacket water-eate) Electric resitance hester Cospessens (Tenuta) Condenser, horizontal (propancl-rater) Condenser, horisodtal (hydrocarbon mistur, gu, stoam-water) Braronerons (Tencian) ‘Raw water evaporator. Power plant makeup evsporsior us ae geeegueyssINDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL APPARATUS CALCULATIONS Process multiple effet evaporatir. . Hat trancormer evaporator SaS8888 geege Bae eRat a8CHAPTER 1 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Heat Transfer. ‘The science of thermodynamics deals with the quant tative transitions and rearrangements of energy asheat in bodiesof matter. ‘Heat transfer is the science which deals with the rates of exchange of heat between hot and cold bodies called the source and receiser. When a ound of water apes condoned, the energy change in er ‘identical. ‘The rates at which either process can be made to Progrese with an independent source or receiver, however, ars iaberentiy different. Vs * ‘ary filfeentVapriation i generally a much more rapid phenome- ‘Heat Theories. The study of heat transfer would be greatiy enhanced by asound understanding of the nature of heat. Yet thisis an advantage which is not readily available to students of heat transfer or thermo- dynamics because'so many manifestations of heat have beer discovered ‘that no simple theory covers them all. Laves which may apply to snass transitions may be inapplicable to molecular or atomic transitions, and those which are applicable at low temperatures may not apply at high ‘temperatures. For the purposes of engineering it is necessary tu under- take the study with basic information on but a few of the many phe- nomena. The phates of a single substance slid, liquid, and gnseous, are associated with its energy content. In the solid phase the molecules or stoma are close together, gving it rigidity. "In the Liquid phase euficien ‘thermal energy is present to extend the distance of adjacent molecules such that rigiity is lost. In the gas phase the presence of additional thermal energy has resulted in a relatively complete separation of the atoms of molecules so that they may wander anywhere in a confined space. It is also recognised that, whenever a change of phase occurs outside the critical region, a large amount of energy is involved in the ‘transition. For the same substance in its different phases the various therma! properties have diferent orders of magnitude. As an example, the spe- ‘ilo heat per unit mass is very low for solide, high for liqusa, and wmually intermediate for gases, Similarly in any body sboorbing or loing heat, special consideration must be given whether the change is one of sensible Grlatent heat or both. Stil further, tis also known that hot source is i2 ‘PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘capable of such grest subatomic excitement that it emits energy without tty direct contact with the reosiver, aud this nthe underiying principle ‘Gf radiation. Each type of change exhibit ita own peculiarities, Mechanisms of Heat Tranafer..'There ae thre distinct ways in which heat may pass from a source to a receiver, although most engineering spplications are combinations "f two or thee. Theee are edition, tonsecton, and radiation. ‘Conduction. Conduction is the transfer of heat through fixed material such ot the stationary wall chown ‘Fig. 1. Tho direction of beat flow willie stright angles tothe wall H the wall urfaces are isothermal tnd the body homogencou and i ‘tropic. Assume that a scurce of heat exiat on the left face of the vrll and a receiver of heat exists on ‘the right face. It has been known and later it will be confirmed by derivation that the flow of heat per hour is proportional to the change Tak paeES im temperature through the wall and Fea Lt, Haalfow tweuewa the area ofthe wall A. Itt the temperatre st any poiat inthe wall snd zn the thickness ofthe wall inthe direction of eat flow, the quantity of heat flow dQ is given by ao=4(-2) veo an ‘The term ~di/de is called the temperature grodient and has « negative sign ifthe temperature has been assumed higher at the face of the wall where = = O and lower at the face where == X._ In other words, the instantaneous quantity of heat transfer is proportional to the area’ and temperature difference di, which drives the heat through the wall of thickness dz. The proportionality constant k is peculiar to conductive ‘heat transfer and is known as the ermal Tt is evaluated ‘experimentally and is basically defined by Bq. (1.1). ‘The thermal con- ductivites of solids have a wide range of numerical valves depending ‘upon whether the slid is relatively good conductor of heat such as & ‘metal or 2 poor conductor such as sabestos. ‘The latter serve as énru- llors, Although heat conduction is unally sociated with heat transfer through solids, it is aso applicable with limitations to gases and liquids. Convection. Convection is the transfer of heat between relatively hot and cold portions of a Suid by mixing. Suppose a can of liquid werePROORSS HEAT TRANSFER 3 placed over a hot fame, The liquid at the bottom of the can becomes heated and lees dense than before o-ing to its thermal expansion, ‘The liquid adjacent to the bottom is also less dense than the cold upper portion and rises through it, transfering its heat oy mizing an it ries. The transfer of heat from the hot liquid at the bottom of the can to the remainder is natural or fre coutecion, If any other agitation occurs, such as that produood by w stirrer, it is forced convection. This type of hheat transfer may be describea in ‘an equatiou which imitates the form. of the conduction equation and is given bz" dQ = haat a2) “The proportionality constant his term whichis infuence by the nature of the fd and the nature ofthe agitation and must be evalua‘ exper- ‘mentally. It is called the heat-transfer coeficient. When Eq. (1.2) is ‘written in integrated form, Q'= hd Ai, itis called Newton's law of coking Radiation. Radiation involves the transfer of radiant energy from souree to a receiver. When radiation isms from a source to a receiver, part of the energy is absorbed by the receiver and part reflected by it. ‘Based on the second lw of thermodynamics Boltsmann estab that the rate at which a source gives off heat is dQ = oedA 7 aay ‘Thisis known asthe fourth-power la in which T'is the absolute tempera ture. ¢ isa dimensional constant, but «isa factor peculiar to radiation and is called the emissivity. ‘The emissivity, ike the thermal condue- tivity F or the hest-transfer coefficient A, must also be determined experimentally. Process Heat Transfer. Heat transfer has been described as the study of the rates at which heat is exchanged between heat sources and receivers usually treated independently. Process heat transfer deals with the rates of heat exchange as they occur in the heat-transfer equipment of the engineering and. chemical processes. This approach brings to better focus the importance of the temperature difference between the source and receiver, which is, aftr all, the driving force whereby the transfer of heat is accomplished. A typical problem of process heat transfer is ‘concerned with the quantities of heats to be transferred, the rates at which they may be transferred because of the natures of the bodies, the driving potential, the extent and arrangement of the surface separating ‘the source and receiver, and the amount of mechanical energy which max ‘be expended to facilitate the transfer. Since heat transfer involves an exchange in a metem, the loa of heat by the one body will equal the heat abeorbed by another within the confines ofthe acme ayslem.CHAPTER 2 conDUCTION ‘The Thermal Conductivity. The fundamentals of heat conduction were established over a century ago and are generally attributed to Fourier. In numerous systems involving flow such as heat flow, fid flow, of electricity flow, it has been observed that the flow quantity is directly proportional to a driving potential and inversely proportional to the resistances applying to the eystem, or potential Flow « ey In a simple hydraulic path the presure slong the path is the driving potential and the roughness of the pipe is the flow resistance. In an ‘electric circuit the simplest applications are expressed by Ohm's law: ‘The voltage on the circuit is the driving potential, and the difficulty with which electrons negotiate the wire isthe resistance. In heat flow through a wall, low is eflected by a temperature uifference between the hhot and cold faces. Conversely, from Eq. (2.1) when the two faces of a wall are at different temperatures, s flow of heat and a resistance to heat, flow are necessarily present. The conductance is the reciprocal of the resistance to heat flow and Eq. (2.1) may be expressed by Flow « conductance X potential 2 ‘To make Eq. (2.2) an equality the conductance must be evalusted in such 1 way that both sides will be dimensionally and numerically correct. Suppose a measured quantity of heat Q’ Btu has been transmitted by a ‘wall of unknown size in a measured time interval @ br with a measured temperature difference A¢ °F. Rewriting Eq. (22) @ =F = conductance x At Blu/he @3) ‘and the conductance has the dimensions of Btu/(hr)("F). ‘The conduct ‘ance is s measured property of the entire wall, although it has also been found experimentally that the flow of heat is influenced independently by the thickness and the area of the wall. If tis desired to design a wall to have certain heat-low characteristics, the conductance obtained above °conpuoriox 7 is not useful, being applicable only to the experimental wall. ‘To enable 1a broader use of experimental information, it has become conventions) ‘to report the conductance only when all the dimensions are referred to unit values, When the conductance is reported fora quantity of material 1 ft thick with heat-fow area 1 £0, time uni I hr, and temperature differ- ‘ence 1°F, itis called the thermal conductivity. The relationship between the thermal conductivity and the conductance of an entire wall of thickness L and area A is then given by Conductance = kf and ontha oo where & has the dimensions resulting from the expression QU /a At or Beu/(hr) (fof flow area)(F of temperature differ cence)/({t of wall thickness) * “apparatus for the determination of the thermal conductivity of nonmetal solids is shown in Fig. 2A, Te consists of an electrical Iheating plate, two identical tot ‘specimens through which heat 7% 24+ Guarded pastes, and two water jackets which remove heat, ‘The temperatures st both feces of the specimens and at their sides are measured by thermo- couples. A guard.ing is provided to assure that all the measured heat input to the plate passes through the specimens with a negligible loss from their sides. ‘The guard ring surrounds the test assembly and con- sists of an auriliry heater sandwiched between ploces ofthe material ‘being tested. While current enters the heating plate, the input to the nthe mae tem ti lo pot he thermal oduct a lee (ea9¢C/em). * An exllent review of experimental methods wil be found in Sha and Srivastava, “Trenton Heat," Te fnian Prem, Coletta 158," Laterrfreoat ar Bate, ©. ey Jad. Bag. Chen, 36, 52 (103); 8, 4041008); 8, 57504); 8,196 (145). Tolland, JL and H.W. Afelvie, Trane Faraday Se, 38,1918 (1987). ‘otchinoo, EE, Trans, Forday So, 41,87 (108).8 ‘PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘surilary beater is adjusted ust no temperature differences exit between the specimens and sdjecent points in the guard ring. Observations are made when the heat input and the temperatures on both faces of each ‘specimen remain steady. Since half of the measured electrical beat {input to the plate flows through each specimen and the temperature difference and dimensions of the specimen are known, k can be computed directly from Eq. (2.4). . Liquids and Gases. ‘There is greater dificulty in determining the conductivities of liquide and gatet. Ifthe heat flows through a thick layer of liquid or gas, it cause free eon- veetion and the conductivity is decep- tively high. To reduoe convection it is necessary to use very thin films and small ‘temperature differences with attendant cerors of measurement. A method appli- ‘able to viscous fuids consinta ofa bare ‘electric wire passing through « horizontal tube filed with tet liquid. ‘The tube is ‘immersed ins constant-temperatare bath ‘The resistance of the wire ia calibrated against its temperature.” Fora given rate of heet input and for the temperature of ‘the wire obtained from resistance measure- meats the conductivity can be calculated by suitable equations. A more exact method, however, i that of Bridg- man and Smith,! consisting of a very thin fluid annulus between two Fig. 22. Heat supplied to the inner eylinder by areistance wire flows ‘arough the film to the outer cylinder, where itis removed by the bath. ‘This apparatos, through the use of a reservoir, assures that the annulus is full of liquid and is adaptable to gases. The film is 344 in. thick, and ‘the temperature difference is kept very small. Tnfluence of Temperature and Pressure on E. ‘The thermal conductivi- toe of solide are greater than thore of liquide, which in turn are greater than those of gases. It is easier to transmit heat through a solid than a liquid and through aliquid than a gat. Some solids, ouch as metals, have high thermal conductivities and are called conducora. Others have low conductivities and are poor conductorsof sai. ‘These areineulalore. Ta experimental determinations of the type described above the thermal conductivity has boen assumed independent of the temperature at any ‘point in the test material. The reported values of I are consequently Bath FD. Tad. Bag, Chem, #4, 1246 (130); Trane, ASME, 88, 719 1086)conpucrio 9 the averages for the entire specimen, and the error introduced by this assumption can be estimated by an examination of Tables 2 to 5 in the Appendix. The conductivities of solida may either increase or decrease ‘with temperature and in some instances may even reverse their rate ‘of change from a decrease to an increase. For the most practical prob- ems there is no need to introduce « correction for the variation of the thermal conductivity with temperature. However, the variation ‘can usually be expressed by the simple linear equation kektat where ky is the conductivity at OF and 7 is a constant denoting the change in the conductivity per degree change in temperature. ‘The con- ductivities of most liquids decrease with increasing temperature, although water is a notable exception. For all the common gases and vapors there is an increase with increasing temperature. Sutherland! deduced ‘an equation from the kinetio theory which is applicable to the variation of the conductivity of gases with temperature 492 + Cy Ey era where Cy = Sutherland constant 7 aboacte temperatare ofthe gs, x= conéactivity ofthe gas at 37 ‘The influence of pressure on the conductivities of solids and liquids appears to be wegligible, and the reported data on gases are too inexact cing othe eet of free convection and radiation to permit generalina- tion From the Kinetie theory of ge it can be concluded tha the influence of preamre should be small except where a ery low vacuum is encountered Contact Resistance, One ofthe factors which urs err the deter sinaion of th thermal conductivity isthe nature ofthe bod formed between the eat pource and the Sui o aid wecinea which contacta it and transmits heat. If a solid receives heat by contacting a solid, it is smoot impossible to exclude th presence of ai or other fd frm the contact. Even when a liquid contacts « metal, the presence of minute pits or surface roughness may permanently trap infinitesimal bubbles of air, and it will be seen presently that these may cause considerable error. Derimtion ofa General Pondaction Bqurtin. Tn qe (21) £0 (24) a picture of heat conduction was obtained from an unqualified observation of the relation betwen heat Sow, potential, and resstance. Tt now feasible to develop an equation which will have the broadest applicability *utbman, W, PAL Mop 6 27 18010 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER and from which other equations may be deduced for epocal applications Brquation (24) may be written in differentia form Ba-rad @s) In this stetment fis the only property ofthe matter and itis astumed to’be independent ofthe other variables. Refering to Fig. 23, an ele- santa cube of volume de = ds dy de receives a diferential quantity of Theat dQ Btu through ita left yo face in the tine interval da. Aamume al but the left and right ye faces are inmulted. Inthe same interval the quanity of heat 4 leaves at the right face. Tes apparent that any of three eflecte may oocur: dO tay be greater than dQ; 00 that the elemental volume :tores heat, increasing the ooeraye temperature of the cube; dQ; may be greater than Qj so that the cube loses heat; and lastly, dQ; and oj may be equal so that the heat wll simply through the cube without afeting the storage of heat. Taking either of the frat two ease aa being more general, storage or depletion term dQ’ can be defined as the diference betwoen the heat entering and the heat leaving or AQ’ = dQ ~ 20% @8) According to Bq, (2.5) the heat entering onthe left face may be given by i raa(-2 an The tamper pdt ~ 2 may vy wth oh tie and pion i ‘the cube. ‘The variation of — 2 an f(s) only is ~ 2/22). Over the distance ds from z to = + de, if 4G, > a0, the total change in the tem- peratregradieat wil bo — 22082 gs og 2 ae Then at «the rect in — and ats de th emptor gt am eeeconpucrion u dQ; out of the cube at the right face and in the same form as Eq. (2.7) is given by BY -raya(-2- Ba) a) from whica 2B -B-S -cya(M) ac es) ‘The cube will have changed in temperature by ~dt deg, The change in temperature per unit time will be di/d@ and over the time interval dit in given by (21/40) d0 deg. Bice the analy has been based on an a ae emai ea ler = th eel ai nok em In other words, the maximum hest los from a pipe occurs when the tical radius equals the ratio of the thermal conductivity of the insula- tion to the surface coefficient of heat transfer. The ratio has the dimen- sion of ft. It is desirable to keep the critical radius as small as possibleconpucriow 21 0 that the application of insulation will reul in a reduction and not an increase in the heat loss from a pipe. ‘This is obviouly accomplished by using an insulation of small conductivity so that the critical radius i los than the radius of the pipe, ot re <1 ‘The Optimum Thickness of Insulation. The optimum thickness of insulation is arrived at by a purely economic approsch. If « bare pipe \ere to cary a hot fluid, there would be a certain hourly loss of heat ‘whose value could be determined from the cost of producing the Bew the plant heat-generating station. The lover the heat loss the greater the thiekness and initial coat of the insi- lation and the greater the annual fixed charges (maintenance and. depreciation) ‘which must be added to the annual heat loss. ‘The fixed charges on pipe inslation ese cae tial installed cost of the insulation. By souning ¢ number of ickneaes af inne 4 lativn and adding the fixed charges to the 3 value of the heat lost, a minimum cort will be obtained and the thickneas corre- Tense ofiaciton sponding to it. will be the optimum eco- Fic. 2 Optimum whiehnen nomic thickness of the ineulation, The “om form of exch an analysis is shown in Fig. 2.1, The most dificult partis ‘obtaining reliable initial-installtion-cost data, since they vary greatly ‘vith plant to plant and with the amount of insulating to be done at a single time. ‘Graphical Solutions of Conduction Problems. Thus far in the treat- ment of conduction, only those cases have been considered in which the heat input pe: square foot of surface was uniform. It was alto char- sctersti of these cases that the heat removal per square foot of surface ‘was also uniform. This was likewise true for the eylinder, even though the internal and external surfaces were not identical. Some of the com- mon problems of steady-state conduetion in solids involve the removal oF input of heat where it is not uniform over a surface and although the olu- tion of such problems by mathematical analysis often complicated i is possible to obtain close approximations graphically. The method employed here is that of Awbery and Schofield! and earlier investigators. Goasider the section of a metal-eheethed wall, as hora in Fig. 2.12, ‘with hot side ABC at the uniform temperature, At recurring intervals DF on the edd side DEF ct the uniform temperature 4, metal bracing * Awbery, J. and F. Schofield, Proc. Intern. Congr. Refria, Sth Cong, % 801-610 923) err cosh delle22 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ribo are attached to the outer sheath and imbedded two-thirds into the ‘icknem of the wall. Since the sheath and metal ib both have a high ‘thermal conductivity compared with the wall material tel, the sib and sheath may both be considered tobe at very nearly the same ‘emperatire. ‘The predominantly horizontal lines indiated on the drawing Tepreeent isothermal planes perpendicular to the plane af the drawing. Conse- {quently there is no heat flow to be considered in tie direction perpendiew- lar to the plane ofthe drawing. A Ae 8 4 c f TI VV | a te] Rib 0” CSheath 2 ec Te F Fie. 212. Graphical reprenentation of hat eonductin. Since the drawing is symmetrical about the vertical line BE, consider ‘only the right half of the drawing bounded by BCFE. Assume an arbi- trary number of terms the distin frm B to B aot is constant, At = my te If Fvaties with then kt, = 2 eater the snsumed number of iotherma the greater the precision ofthe solution. Next, consider the heat to flow from to metal att through 1m lanes emanating from BC and forming the network indicated. Now refer to any small portion of any Ione, such as abad with length 2, mean width y, where y = (ab + of)/2, and unit depth = = 1 perpendicular to the drawing. Thésteady-hest flow into each lanes. The conduction equation is then Q; = k(ye) Ats/2. The temperature difference from one jsotherm tothe next is naturally the same, and since Qris constant for the lane it in evident from the conduction equation thatthe ratio y/z must ‘so be constant, although y and = may vary. ‘The network of the draw ing is constructed such thet, for each quadrilateral, y = 2. Where 2 is smnall tia becuase tae isotherms are cronded together owing to the high hheat removal by the rib. The heat flow per lane is then given by w=)‘conpucrion 23 ‘The total hest flow from BC thus requires n; = Qna/k(ts ~ ld) lanes, where Q is the total heat flow. Figure 2.12 was constructed in this ‘manner starting with six isotherms. Although the individual portions of the network are neither squares nor rectangles their comers are at right angles in accordance with the steady-state principle that the flow of heat is always at right angles to the isotherms comprising the temperature ditierence. In Fig. 2.12 it is ween ‘that 11 lanes were obtained for each Lalf of a symmetrical section. If ‘the isotherms were undisturbed by the rib, the portions abot would then ‘be squares and the heat entering BC would flow normal to it and 83 lanes, ‘would be required. The rib is therefore equivalent to increasing the heat removal by 33 percent. When the ribs are spaced more closely vogether, the fractional heat removal increases, PROBLEMS 2.4. Afurncoisencloned by walls made (om inde out of Sin of kao fbr, 6 in. of kaon inslating brik, and 7. of frclay brick, What ia the het oes pet square fot of wall when the fide ofthe furnace is maintained at 00°F and the ‘aide at 2007? ‘22. A furnace walls to consist in erie of 7 in. of hacia Srebick, Gn. of kaon fnglatng brick, and maficient fireclay rik to redac the heat otto 160 Ben/he) ‘when the face temparatares are 1500 and 100°F, repectively. What thickness of frelay brick should be used? "If am effective airgap of 3f fn ean be incorporated Detwoen the fireclay ad insulating brick when erecting the wall without impairing ita etructual apport, what thickness ofioulating brick wil be required? "EAA furnace wal consists of three Jasulating materials in serlen 22 pee gent ‘chrome brick, magnesite bricks, and low-grade relrctory bricks (& = 03). The ‘magnesite bricks cannot withstand « face emperttre above 1800°F, and the low fade bricks cannct exceed 600°F. What thicknee of the wall wil give « eat oar {ot in exces of 1800 Btu/(hr)() when the extreme face temperature are 2500 and 00°F, reapetively? ‘24. A Gin, IPS pipe in covered with thos resitance in sein consating frm the inside outward of 3a. of kapo, In. of rock woo, and 3 af powdered magnate ‘plied nau plaster. Tf the inside surface a maintained at 500°F andthe outside TOO"F, what is the het loan per square foot of outelde pipe raface? ‘26. Ain. TPS lint to refrigerated press covered with 3 in. of kapok e=ies 25% NaC brine at OFF and ata ow rate of 90,000 fof. The outer aurace of the ‘apok willbe maintained at 90°F. Whats the equation forthe flow of heat? ~Caleu- te the heat leakage into the pipe andthe temperature vite of the Suid for « €De length of pipe. ‘26, A vertical elindvial Ln 2 tin diameter is enclone atthe top by « hemi= spberial dome faberated from an Bin. layer of interlocking and wal-eupporting ‘8 per ecat chime brick, Derive an exprenion for conduction through the dame. ‘When the inde and outside of the hemapbercal dame are maintained at 1000 and 00°F, repectively, what isthe heat lus per square foot of internal dome wurface? low doce the total het loes forthe dome compare withthe total heat let for fit structurally epported rot of the ume material when exposed tothe sn dilerence in temperature?“ PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 12.7, A tin. sta pipe carrying 450° stam is lged wit Yin of kapok surounded ‘by 1 in. of powdered magnesite applied as a plaster. The surrounding eit aut 70°F. ‘What isthe lows of het from the pipe per linear foot? ‘28. A Sin. TPS main carves cam from the powerhouse to the procem plants at Ainear Velocity of 8000 fp. “The steam ia at 200 pai (gage), and the atmoephere io ‘AL 70"F, What percentage ofthe total beat Bow is the bare-tbe heat oa er 1000 ft (Of pipet IF the pipe is lggod with hal « thicknem of kapok and hall «theknest of ‘Sbortog, whet otal thickest wil reduce the insulated beat Jos to 2 pe cent of tho ‘are-tube het oes? "28 In. Gin. ream line at (00°F the unt resitance forthe condensation of east ‘tho inside pipe wall hasbeen found experimentally to be 0.00085 sr) OU)CF)/Bts. Voltage or lectromative foros ‘Sarface coficient of heat tranaer, Btu /Cax) UF) ‘Carrent, amp Electrical conductivity, 1/olm-ft ‘Thermal conductivity, Btu/(h) GU) CE/A0) ‘Thleknem of allo length of pip, ft Number of heat fow anon ‘Number of iether Heat Sow, Bear Heat fow per lane, Bo /hr Heat, Bea Heat fw, Beu/dr) inf) Ranitance to heat fw, Qu) (7F)/Btu yt Qoozeom atmos t pos iCHAPTER 3 CONVECTION Introduction. Heat transfer by convection is due to fuid motion. (Cold fuid adjacent to a hot surface recives heat which it icparts to the bulk of the cold fluid by mixing with it. Free or natural convection ‘cccur when the fluid motion is not implemented by mechanical agitation. But when the fuid i mechanically agitated, the heat is transferred by foreed convection. The mechanical agitation may be supplied by atir- ing, although in most process applications it is induced by circulating the hot and cold fuids at rapid rates on the opposite rides of pipes or tubes, Free- and forced-convection heat transfer occur at very dierent speeds, the latter being the more rapid and therefore the more common. Factors which promote high rates for forced convection do not necessarily have the same effect on free convection. Iti the pupose ofthis chapter to establish « general method for obtaining the rates of heat transfer particulary in the presence of forced convection. ‘Film Coefficients. In the flow of heat through a pipe to air it was en that the passage of heat into the air was not accomplished solely by con- ‘duction. Instead, it oocurred partly by radiation and partly by free convection. A temperature difference existed between the pipe surface and the average temperature of the air. Since the distance from the pipe ‘surface to the region of average air temperature is indefinite, the resist- tance eannot be computed from Re = Le/keA, using b for air. Instead the resistance must be determined experimentally by appropriately ‘measuring the surface temperature of the pipe, the temperature ofthe air, tnd th Beat tranfred from the pipe at eidanoed by the qoantitaf steam condensed in it. The resistance for the entire surface was ‘computed from RF oocH ew If desired, Ly ean also be calculated from this value of Rand wogld 6 ‘the length of a fictitious conduction film of air equivalent to the com= bined resistance of conduction, free convection, and radiation. The length of the film is of little significance, although the concept of the fictitious flm finds numerous applications. Instead i is preferable to 256 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER deal directly with the reciprocal of the unit resistance &, which has an ‘experiinental origin. Because the use of the unit resistance L/k is 50 ‘much more common than the use of the total surface resistance L/kA, ‘the letter will now be used to designate L/k (hr)(ft?)(*F)/Btu and it will simply be called the resistance. ‘Not all effects other than conduction are necessarily combinations of ‘twoeffects. Particularly in the case of free of forced convection toliquids fand, in fact, to most gases at moderate temperatures and temperature ° differences the influence of radiation may be — neglected and the experimental resistance ‘corresponds to forced or free convection alone ‘as the case may be. Consider a pipe wall with forced conver tion of different magnitudes on both sides ba Atel ete liquid. The heat transfer can be determined Fig, 34, Tro conection from the sensible-heat change in either fluid cover the length of the pipe in which the heat transfor occurs. “Designating the resistance on the inside by Ry and on the outside by R, the inside and outside pipe-vall temperatures by and, snd applying an expression for the steady state, a an where 1 is the temperature of the hot fluid on the inside and t, the temperature ofthe cold fuid on the outside. Replacing the resistances by their reciprocals hc and h. respectively, Q = hdc At = hehe te 62 ‘The reciprocals of the heat-transfer resistances have the dimensions of Buu/(he) (CCF of temperature difference) and are ealled individual lm coxficents oF simply fle coefciens. Inasmuch as the film coefficient is a measure of the heat flow for unit, surface and unit temperature difference, it indicates the rate or speed with which fuids having » variety of ‘physical properties and under ‘varying degrees of agitation transfer heat. Other factors influence theconvection a film coefficient such as the size of the pipe and whether or not the fui is ‘considered to be on the inside or outside of the pipe. With eo many ‘variables, each having its own degree of influence on the rate of heat transfer (lm cooffcient), it is fairly understandable why a rational derivation isnot available for the direct calculation of the film coeficient. (On the other hand, itis impractical torun an experiment to determine the coefficient each time heat is to be added or re- ‘moved from a fivid. Instead it is desirable to oc emeemee FL ‘ral basic experiments performed with 2 wide ba ee Tae oe meer tions of the variables. The immediate problem - sere heme apply it to some experimental data. 5/ ‘The Viscosity. It is not possible to proceed very far in the stody of convection and fui ae flow: without defining a property which has ‘an Important bearing upon both, visconly. In order to evaluate this property by fluid dynamies two‘ assumptions are required: (1) ‘Where a solid-iquid interface exists, there is nv slip between the solid ‘and liquid, and (2) Newton's rule: Shear strese 1 proportional to the rate ‘of chear inthe direction perpendicular to motion. An unstressed particle of liquid as shown in Fig. 3.2 will v assume the form in Fig. 3.2 when a film of liquid is subjected to shear. ‘The rate of ahear is proportional to the velocity gradient du/dy. Ap- plying Newton's rule, if ris the shear stress, or Fro, 32, Fad stean, Fro. 23,,Fleid sew, rZ ga) where the proportionality constant or ‘in solids it results in deformation and is equivalent, += alg 1, to the modula of elasticity. {in liquids it results in deformation at a given rate, ‘To evaluate » refer to Fig. 33 where shear is produced by maintaining the liquid film between s stationary plate at distance Y and a moving plate with velocity V. At any point in the film the velocity w ia given3 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ty w= W/¥. Rate of shear = $4 = Ga) ra0y ea) bere «is called tne viscosity when V and ¥ have ‘mit values. ‘The actual furce required to move :he plate is rA. If F is thepound- (ee _ Eft Z WO Bip ee tion of gravity, ‘When evaluated in ogs metric nits » is commonly called the absolule viscosity. petites x nod ‘This unit has been named the poise after the Frenc scientist Poiseuille. ‘This is « large unit, and it is customary to use and speak of the eenti- poise, or one-hundredth poise. In engineering unite its equivalent is defined by +> Eactos ‘Viscosities in centipoises can be converted to engineering unite on multi- plying by 2.42, This unit has no name. Another unit, the kinematic “viscosity, is also used because it occurs frequently in physical systems and produces straighter graphs of viscosity vs. temperature on logarithmic coordinates. ‘The’ kinematic viscosity is the absolute viscosity in centi- ppoises divided by the specific gravity. “ine vnadty = Sever ‘The unit of kinematic viscosity is the stokes, after the English mathe- matician Stokes, and the hundredth of the stokes is the centistokes. ‘The viscosity can be determined indirectly by measuring the time of ‘efflux from a calibrated flow device having an orifice and a controlled ‘temperature. ‘The commonest ia the Baybolt viscometer, and the time of effiux from a standard cup into a standard receiver is measured inconvacrion 29 seconds and recorded as Saybolt Seconds Universal, SSU. Conversion {actors from the time of efflux to centistokes for the Saybolt and other Viscometers are given in Fig, ‘Heat Transfer between Sotide and Fluids: Streamline and Turbulent Flow. The Reynolds Number. When a liquid flows in a horizontal Pipe, it may flow with a random eddying motion known as urbule! ow, 4 shown in Tig. 34 by a plot of the locel velocity in the pipe va the distance from ite center. If the linear velocity of the liquid is decreased below some thresboli walce, the mature of the flow changes and the turbulence disappears. ‘The uid particles ow in lines along the axis of the pipe, and this is known as ereamline ow, An experiment used ion of the type of flow consists ofa glam tube ‘through which A thin stream of ink is injected at the center of the tube, and if the ink remains at the center for a reasonable distance, it is indicative of streamline flow. Synonyms for streamline flow are viscous, laminar, and rodlike flow. Additional experimentation has indicated that streamline flow proceeds as if by the sliding of con- centric thin eylinders of liquid one within the other as shown in Fig. 3.5. It appears that the distribution of the velocities of the eylinders ie para. bolic with the maximum at the center and approaching zero atthe tube wall Reynoldst observed thatthe typeof flow assumed by liquid flowing in 1 tube was influenced by the velocity, density, and viscosity ofthe liquid and the diameter of the tube, Whea related as the quotient of Dup/s, called the Reynolds number, it was found that turbulent flow always existed when the numerical ‘value of Dup/y exceeded about 2300 and usually when it exceeded 2100. By definition, the transfer of heat by convection proceeds mainly as the result of mixing, and while this require- ment appears to be satisfied by turbulent flow, itis not fulilled by stream- * igure sumbera which are not preceded by a chapter number willbe found in the Appendix. "Reynolds, 0, “BeientiSe Papers of Osborne Reynold,” p, 61, Cambeldge Uni- verity Pret, Loadon, 190130 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER line flow. Streamline flow is, in fact, a form of conduction whose study will be deferred to « later chapter. ‘Tho speed with which heat is trane- {ferred to or from a given liquid to a tubs is considerably less for stream- line than for turbulent flow, and in industrial practice itis almost always desirable to avoid conditions euch as low liquid velocity which promote streamline flow. ‘iimensional Analysis. A method of correlating a numberof variables into a single equation expressing an effect is known as dimensionol analy- sis, Certain equations describing physical phenomena ean be obtained rationally from basic Inws derived from experiments, An example is the time of vibration of a pendulum from Newton's second law and the gravitational constant. Still other effects can be described by differ- ‘ential ecuations, and the course or extent of the phenemena deduced by ‘means of the calculus. Numerous examples of this type are encountered in lementary physics. In tll other types of phenomena there is insufh- cient information to permit the formulation of either diferential equations or a clear picture by which fundamental laws may be applied. This last group must be studied experimentally, and the correlation of the obeerva- tions is an empirical approach to the equation. Equations which ean 'be obtained theoretically ean also be obtained empirically, ut the reverse isnot true ‘Bridgman! as presented by far the most extensive proof of the mathe- ratical principles underlying dimensional analysis. Because it operates ‘aly upon the dimensions of the variables, it does not directly produce ‘umerical reiults from the variables but instead yields # modulus by which the observed data can be combined and the relative influence of the variables tablished. As uch, iis one ofthe important cornerstones of empirical study. Tt recognises that any combination of « number and a dimension, such as 5 Ib or St, possemses two identifying aspect, one of pure magnitude (numerical) and the other quantitative (dimensional). Fundamenal dimensions are quantities such as length, time, and tempera ‘ure which are directly measurable. Derived dimensions are those which are expressed in terms of fundamental dimensions such as veloc- ity = length/time or density = mass/length*. The end results of dimensional analysis may be slated as follows: Ifa dependent variable ‘having given dimensions depends upon some relationship among a group ‘of variables, the individual variables ofthe group must be related in mich ‘a way that the net dimensions of the group are-identical with those of the dependent variable. ‘The independent variables may also be related in auch a way that the dependent variable s defined by the sum of several 2 Bridgman, P. W., “Dimensional Aaalys Yale Univesity Pro, New Haren. sea.conv EcTION a1 diferent groups of variables, each group having the net dimensions of the dependent variable. As very simple illustration consider the con- tinuity équation which is frequently written in elementary physics and ‘hermipdynamics texts in the form we @s) where w = fuid flow rate, weight/time 1 = fluid velocity in conduit, length ‘time ‘@ = croes nection of the conduit, length X length = length? SD Why does Eq. (8.5) have this particular form? u, a, and » must be related so that their net dimensions are the tame as those of the depend- ‘ent variable w, namely, weight/time. An equatior involving both pure numbers and dimensions must be correct with respect to either and both. Checking the dimensions alone, writing for the variables in Eq. (8.5) their individual dimensions, “Sine — Be * et ea Se 6) ~ ‘weight tis seen that the dimensions on the left side are identical with the net 2) ‘The factors « and a’ are dimensionles proportionality constants, Since the dimensions ofall the consecutive terms ofthe series are identical, it is not necessary to consider any of the terms beyond the first. Accordingly ‘one can write O(a) = 1 @s) where ¢” indicates the function. Arbitrarily setting U = —1 90 that wu PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘the fundamental dimension, in which case mass is expressed by M = FL, ‘When some of the variables sre commonly expressed in units of force such as pressure FL~* and other variables by units of mass much as the density ML, itis necessary to introduce a dimens‘onsl constant into the series expression before solving forthe exponents. ihe coustant relating 1M and F naturally has the dimensions of the gr.vitational acce'eration ‘constant L¢-*. A similar situation also aries when describing » phe- ‘Bomenon by which a work or kinetic energy change occurs in a eystem. ‘Some of the variables may ordinasily be expressed in terms of foot-pounds ((oree-pound X foot) and others in terms of heat energy such as the Bus. A conversion factor which isthe heat equivalent of work must be introduced to convert FL to H, or vee verse. ‘The constantisthe kinetic energy equivalent of the heat A{L7/H@. Anumber of common variables find dimensional constants are given in Table 8.1 together with tei net was the subject of many investigations. both experimental and mathematical during the nineteenth century, Planck was the first to recognize the quantum nature of radiant energy ‘and developed an equation which fits the spectral energy curve of Fig. 4.1 at any temperature. It is given by C, ze a2) =i where J, = monochromatic intensity of emission, Btu/(hr)({t*) (micron) d= wavelength, mieror Cy and Cy = constants with values 1.16 X 10* and 25,740 T = temperature of the body, "R Wien postulated another law known as Wien’s displacement lave, which states that the product of the wavelength of the maximum value of the ‘monochromatic intensity of emission and the absolute temperature is a constant, oF = an ‘Equation (4.3) may be derived from Eq. (4.2) as follows, a(eS82) «0 ao (scarcer — 1) + carennny Se, £1) ecsar = (-11g)eraseo on By trial and error, the first term equals ~5 when XT’ = 2884, ‘Spectral measurements of the radiation received on the earth's eurface from the sun and allowing for absorption by the atmosphere indicate that ‘the peak lies approximately at 0.25 micron, which is well in the ultra- violet. ‘This accounts for the high ultraviolet content of the sun's rays and the predominance of blue ia the visible portion of the spectrum. The location of the peak allows an estimation of the sun's temperature from Eq. (4:3) at 11,000°R. ‘The Incidence of Radiant Energy: The Black Body. ‘The preceding discussion has dealt with the generation of radiant energy. What hap- ‘pens when radiant energy falls upon a body? In the simple caso of light it may be all or partially absorbed or reflected. If the receiving medium is transparent to the radiation, it will transmit some of the energy through itself. ‘The same effects are spplicable to radiant energy, and sn energy Dalance about a receiver on which the total incident-energy is unity isRADIATION 7 ives by atrtral 46) where the absorptivity ai the fraction absorbed, the rfc the frac- tion reflected, and the (onemisssity + the fraction transmitted, The majority of engineering materials are opaque substances having zero tranmissivities, but there are none which completely absord or relect all the incident energy. ‘The substances having nearly complete or uait, absorptivties are Inmpblack, platinum black, and bismuth black, absorb- ing 0.88 to 0.99 ofall incident ra Tf an ordinary body emits retiation to another body, it will have some ofthe emitted energy returned to itself by efection. "When Planck deceloped Eq. (4.2), he assumed that none of the emitted energy was recumed, this was equivalent to an assumption that bodies having zero teansnisivity also had zero reflectivity. Ths is the cuncept uf the perfect black body and for which a = 1.0. Relationship between Emissivity and Absorptivity: Kirchhot's Lew. Consider a body of given size and shape placed within a hollow sphere of constant temperature, and assume that the air has been evacuated ‘After thermal equilibrium hes been reached, the temperature ofthe body fand that of the enclosure will be the same, infrsing that the body is absorbing and radiating heat at identical rates. Let the intensity of radiation falling on the body be J Btu/(hr)((t), the fraction absorbed 4, and the total emissive poner Ey Btu/(hs)(f). Thea the eneray tenitted by the body of total surface 41 is equal to that received, or Bids = TosAs an By = Te, 43) If the body is replaced by another of identical shape and equilibrium is again attained, Ex Tar a) If third body, a black body, is introduced, then y= la io) But by definition the absorptivity of a black body is 1.0. BB BaZes ay ‘or at thermal equilibrium the ratio of the total emissive power to the absorptivity for all bodies is the same. Thisis known as Kirchhof's law. Since the maximum absorptivity of the black body is taken as 1.0 from Eq, (4.6), its reflectivity must be zero, Absolute valués of the total