Combination of aviation and electronics Avionics system or Avionics sub-system dependent on electronics Avionics industry- a major multi-billion dollar

industry world wide Avionics equipment on a modern military or civil aircraft\ account for around
   30% of the total cost of the aircraft 40% in the case of a maritime patrol/anti-submarine aircraft (or helicopter) Over 75% of the total cost in the case of an airborne early warning aircraft

To enable the flight crew to carry out the aircraft mission safely and efficiently Mission is carrying passengers to their destination (Civil Airliner) Intercepting a hostile aircraft, attacking a ground target, reconnaissance or maritime patrol (Military Aircraft)

To meet the mission requirements with the minimum flight crew (namely the first pilot and the second pilot)
Economic benefits like Saving of crew salaries Expenses and training costs Reduction in weigh-more passengers or longer range on less fuel

IN THE MILITARY CASE

 A single seat fighter or strike (attack) aircraft is lighter  Costs less than an equivalent two seat version  Elimination of the second crew member (navigator/observer/crew member)  Reduction in training costs

OTHER VERY IMPORTANT DRIVERS FOR AVIONICS SYSTEMS ARE

Increased safety Air traffic control requirements All weather operation Reduction in fuel consumption Improved aircraft performance and control and handling and reduction in maintenance costs * In the military case, the avionics systems are also being driven by a continuing increase in the threats posed by the defensive and offensive capabilities of potential aggressors

AIRPLANE PARTS

Aircraft Motion Pitching

Elevator

Aircraft Motion Rolling

Aileron

Aircraft Motion Yawing

Rudder

COCKPIT DISPLAY Provides Visual presentation of Information & Data from A/c sensors and systems PROVIDE THE PILOT WITH Primary flight information Navigation information Engine data Airframe data Warning information

MILITARY PILOT ALSO HAS WIDE ARRAY OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION VIEW SUCH AS
Infra-red imaging sensors

Radar Tactical mission data Weapon aiming Threat warning

      


Head Up Display (HUD) Helmet Mounted Display (HMD) Forward Looking InfraRed (FLIR) video picture through HUD Head position sensor Night Vision Goggles (NVG) - HMD HMDs & Virtual cockpit Colored Head Down Display (HDD)
Multi-Function Display (MFD) with Multi -Function Keys (MFK)

HELMET MOUNTED DISPLAY

Avionics

HMD functions as a HUD on the Helmet Provide the display for night/poor visibility viewing system

HUD SCHEMATIC
OUTSIDE SCENE COMBINER GLASS Parallel rays of Outside scene + Display PILOTS EYES

COLLIMATING LENS

MIRROR

CRT
MAGNIFYING LENS

MULTI-FUNCTION DISPLAYS
Avionics

Provide the primary flight displays of height, airspeed, mach number, etc. Provide navigation displays

MFD

NIGHT VISION GOGGLES Night-vision goggles are electronic widgets that allow you to see things at night when it is too dark to see things with just your eyes alone.

How do Night-Vision Goggles work?

* Our eyes need a certain amount of light to see by. * Night-vision goggles amplify the existing light many times over. * This allows you to see in conditions way too dark to see with just your eyes.

* The photo cathode converts light to an electric current, the micro channel plate amplifies it, and the phosphor screen converts it back to light.

NEW LOW COST NVG

HIGH RESOLUTION NVG

MILITARY NVG

SURVEILLANCE PHOTO TAKEN WITHOUT NIGHT VISION SCOPE

SURVEILLANCE PHOTO TAKEN WITH NIGHT VISION SCOPE

Night Vision Binoculars

WHAT IS NAVIGATION
NAVIGATION IS KNOWING,

WHERE YOU ARE? WHERE YOU WANT TO GO? WHAT IS THE SPEED AT WHICH YOU ARE TRAVELLING? HOW MUCH FUEL IS LEFT?

Two way communication between the ground bases and the aircraft or between aircraft Communication radio suite on modern aircraft is a very comprehensive one and covers several operating frequency bands Long range - HF radios operating in the band 2-30 Mhz Near to medium range (civil aircraft) by VHF radios operating in the band 30-100 Mhz
Contd..

Contd..

VHF and UHF are line of sight propagation systems Equipment is usually at duplex level of redundancy VHF radios are generally by triplex level on a modern airliner SATCOM systems in many modern aircraft and provide very reliable world wide communication

Essential for the crew to interact with the avionics systems

KEY BOARDS TOUCH PANELS DIRECT VOICE INPUT (DVI) CONTROL EXPLOITS - SPEECH RECOGNITION TECHNOLOGY

TOUCH SCREENS

TWO AREAS
AUTO STABILISATION (or stability augmentation) systems Needed for most swept wing jet a/c Lightly damped short period oscillatory motion FBW FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS Enables a lighter, higher performance aircraft designed with relaxed stability Good consistent handling which is sensibly constant over a wide flight envelope and range of load conditions

Continuous automatic stabilization of the aircraft by computer control of the control surfaces Auto pilot integration Care free maneuvering characteristics Ability to integrate additional controls automatically such as Leading edge slats/flaps and trailing edge flaps to generate additional lift Variable wing sweep Thrust vector control nozzles and engine thrust

Elimination of mechanical controls runs - friction, backslash Small control stick Ability to exploit aerodynamically unstable configuration Aerodynamics versus stealth - the concept of reducing the radar cross section Very high integrity, a failure survival system

Air Data Systems

Accurate information on the air data quantities Altitude Calibrated airspeed Vertical speed True airspeed Mach number Air stream incidence angle (angle of attack) Total air temperature

IR DATA INSTRUMENTS
Air data system senses total pressure and static pressure, to measure speed, altitude and vertical speed

EARTHS ATMOSPHERE
Troposphere: The lowest layer in which conventional types of aircraft are flown Tropopause : The boundary height of Troposhere Stratosphere : The next layer Stratopause : The boundary height of Stratosphere Chemosphere Ozonosphere Greater heights Ionosphere Exosphere

Atmospheric pressure
The atmosphere is held in contact with the earths surface by the force of gravity, which produces a pressure within the atmosphere - Atmospheric Pressure Gravitational effects decrease with increasing distances from the earths centre Atmospheric pressure decreases steadily with increase of height above the earths surface. The steady fall in atmospheric pressure has a dominating effect on the density of air, which changes in direct proportion to changes of pressure.

Atmospheric Temperature
Another important factor affecting the atmosphere is temperature. The air in contact with the earth is heated by conduction and radiation, hence its density decreases as the air starts rising The pressure drop allows the air to expand and this in turn causes a fall in temperature from a known sea-level The temperature falls steadily with increasing height up to the tropopause, and the rate at which it falls is termed the lapse rate.

Pressure, Temperature and Density Variations

STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
Standard atmosphere, is one in which the values of pressure, temperature and density at different altitudes are assumed to be constant. They are based on established meteorological and physical observations, theories and measurement. The assumptions are
Pressure at MSL is 14.7 psi,1013.25 mb or 29.921 Hg Temperature at MSL is 15 C (59 F) Temperature decreases by 1.98 C for every 1000ft till 36090 ft above which it remains at 56.5 C.

From the MSL values all other corresponding values have been calculated and presented and termed the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

Basic Air Data System

The system consists of a pitot-static probe, the three primary air data instruments (Airspeed indicator, altimeter and vertical speed indicator) and pipelines and drains interconnected. Sensing of the total or pitot pressure (pt), and of the static pressure (ps) is effected by the probe which is suitably located in the airstream and transmits these pressure to the sensing elements within the indicators.

The pressure transmission displacements corresponding to:

produces

(a) Airspeed (b) Altitude

Difference between pt and ps Directly to ps

(c) Vertical speed Difference between ps and a case pressure pc produced by a calibrated metering unit.

 The complexity of an air data system depends primarily upon the type and size of aircraft, the number of locations at which primary air data are to be displayed, the type of instrument installed, and the number of other systems requiring air data inputs. Probes:
Probes may be either of the combined pitotstatic tube type or of the single pitot tube type

BASIC AIR DATA SYSTEM

PROBES

PITOT STATIC PROBE

POSITION ERROR
POSITION ERROR: the amount by which the local static pressure at a given point in the flow differs from the free stream static pressure. As a result of PE, airspeed indicator and altimeter develop errors in their indications whereas vertical speed indicator remain unaffected PE errors are minimized by Aerodynamically compensated probes Correction devices within separate transducer or central air data computers

SQUARE LAW COMPENSATION

Air speed indicators measure differential pressure, which varies with square of air speed The response characteristics in relation to speed becomes non-linear. This makes difficult to read low end of speed range To obtain linearity, controlling either the capsule characteristics or the dimensioning of the coupling element conveying capsule deflection to the pointer is necessary One such method is tuning spring compensation

SQUARE LAW COMPENSATION contd.,

AIR SPEED TERMINOLOGY

Machmeter
Mach number =

v a

Where v aircrafts speed a speed of sound Since the speed of sound depends on atmospheric pressure and density and also with altitude, this suggests that for an aircraft to operate within speed limits commensurate with structural safety, a different speed would have to be maintained for each altitude.  This obviously is not a practical solution and so it is therefore necessary to have a means of common base which is the mach number.  The instrument which measures this is called Machmeter. 

Q-CODE FOR ALTIMETER SETTING

QFE:setting the barometric pressure prevailing at an airport to make the altimeter read zero on landing at and taking off from that airport. QNH:setting the barometric pressure to make the altimeter read airport elevation above sea level on landing and take off. SAS: Barometric counters are set to ISA values
Altitude Elevation Height

Altitude ,Elevation and Height

VERICAL SPEED INDICATOR

VERICAL SPEED INDICATOR(CONTD.,)

VERICAL SPEED INDICATOR(CONTD.,)

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (CONTD.,)

CONSTRUCTION OF VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR(CONTD.,)

AIR TEMPERATURE SENSING

STATIC AIR TEMPERATURE:Measurement by direct means is not possible in all aircraft, because of adiabatic compression of air resulting from increases in airspeed RAM RISE: increase in temperature higher than SAT ,due to boundary layer behavior and friction effects Total Air Temperature is thus sensed SAT =TAT Ram Rise

MACH WARNING SYSTEM

Attitude and heading information are essential for a/c mission

Autopilot Navigation system Weapon aiming INERTIAL SENSORS Gyros - mechanical - electromechanical - RLG-FOG Accelerometer AHRS Strap Down Gimbaled systems

Gyroscopes
The name gyroscope from the Greek words
  Gyros means rotation Scopein means to view

A literal translation is thus to view rotation which is a good description of the function of the instrument

 The spinning rotor type of gyroscope uses the fundamental characteristics of the angular momentum of the rotor to resist changing its direction to either provide a spatial reference or to measure the rate of angular rotation.

(b) Precession
This behavior, where the application of a torque about an axis orthogonal to the spin axis causes the rotor to rotate about a third axis which is mutually orthogonal to both the applied torque axis and the spin axis is called precession.

GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION(I)

GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION(II)

REFERENCES ESTABLISHED BY GYROSCOPES

 In aircrafts, gyroscopes establish two reference datums: one for the pitch and roll attitude changes and the other for the detection of changes about the vertical axis (ie) a directional reference. The pitch, roll and directional attitude of an aircraft are determined by its displacement w.r.t each appropriate gyroscopes. For this reason, therefore, the gyroscopes are referred to as displacement type. Each has three degrees of freedom and consequently, three mutual axes, but for the purpose of attitude sensing, the spin axis is discounted since no useful attitude reference is provided when displacements take place about the spin axis alone. Thus in the practical case, the two types of gyroscopes are further classified as two axis displacement gyroscopes. gyroscopes. reason

ACCURATE NAVIGATION INFORMATION

Aircraft's position, ground speed, track angle (direction of motion of the aircraft relative to true north)

NEED FOR ACCURATE NAVIGATION

Effective operation of any a/c Automatic because of speed Density of air traffic on major air routes to fly in a specified corridor defined by ATC authorities-3D-4D (time) - high accuracy NAV is essential & forms part of FMS

Contd.. For military operation - to enable the a/c to fly low & take advantage of terrain screening from enemy radar Use of weapon - released from several Kms away from target also requires an accurate knowledge of the a/c position in order to indicate the mid course inertial guidance of the missile. DR systems Position fixing systems

 Navigation is the determination of the position and velocity of a moving vehicle. Navigation where you are Guidance where to go (Steering) Control how to go

Navigation
Art of directing the movements of a craft from one point to another along a desired path. In early days, Compass, Chronometer and sextant were not available. Navigations were accomplished by the knowledge of the movement of the sun and the stars and the winds

Navigation Contd
By the sixteenth century, the compass, the clock and crude charts of the known world were available to the navigator. Magellan, circumnavigated the globe with the aid of these instruments. By 18 th century, the chronometer, a very accurate clock, was produced. (Navigator determined his longitude by transit time of heavenly bodies)

Navigation Contd
Twentieth century, electronic entered the field. Time signals were broadcast by which the chronometers were corrected. Direction finders and other navigational aids were developed to make a fix using entirely electronic aids

Navigation Contd
The three components of position and the three components of velocity make up a six component state vector that fully describes the translational motion of the vehicle. When the state vector is measured and calculated on board, the process is navigation. When it is calculated outside the vehicle, the process is called surveillance or position location.

Navigation Contd
Handling of vehicle is called guidance More specifically:
 conning for ships  flight control for Aircraft  attitude control for spacecraft

Four methods of navigation

1. Navigation by pilotage 2.Celestial or astronomical navigation 3.Navigation by dead reckoning 4.Radio navigation 5.Satelite navigation

Self contained and independent of external systems DR navigation systems used in aircraft are Air data/heading reference system - lower accuracy Doppler/heading reference systems - widely used in helicopters Inertial Navigation systems - most accurate and widely used systems Doppler/Inertial navigation system - combination

Inertial Navigation
Disadvantages
Position/velocity information degrade with time (1-2NM/hour). Equipment is expensive ($250,000/system) - older systems had relatively high failure rates and were expensive to maintain newer systems are much more reliable but still expensive to repair Initial alignment is necessary - not much of a disadvantage for commercial airline operations (12-20 minutes)

Inertial Navigation Gyroscopes

 To keep the platform level we must be able to:  Sense platform rotation and Correct for it

To do this we mount gyroscopes on the stable platform and install small motors at each of the gimbal pivots. The gyroscopes sense platform rotation in any of the three axes and then send a correction signal to the pivot motors which then rotates the relevant gimbal to maintain the platform at the correct attitude

Inertial Navigation Alignment

Before the INS can navigate it must do two things: Orient the platform perpendicular to the gravity vector Determine the direction of True North Also it must be given: Initial Position: Input by the Pilot (or navigation computer) Velocity: This is always zero for commercial systems

Inertial Navigation Accelerometers

Requirements: high dynamic range (10-4 g to 10g) low cross coupling good linearity little or no asymmetry Exacting requirements dictate the use of ForceRebalance type of devices

Inertial Navigation Accelerometers

Types: Pendulum floating flexure pivot Vibrating String or Beam MEMS (micro electromechanical systems)

POSITION FIXING SYSTEMS

Range and bearing (R/U) radio navigation aids VOR/DME TACAN- Accuracy of 1-2 miles

HYPERBOLIC RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

LORAN C - positional accuracy of around 150 m 8 LORAN C chains comprising 34 ground station transmitters OMEGA - accuracy around 2 NM -VLF at 10 khz using 8 ground stations

GPS - most important & accurate position fixing navigation System Used by a/c, ships & land vehicles Eqpt is passive & requires only a receiver Accuracy C/A code - 100 m P- code 16m - position, 0.1 m/s - velocity

APPROACH GUIDANCE TO THE AIRFIELD/AIRPORT ILS, MLS

A full navigation suite on an aircraft include INS, GPS, VOR/DME, ILS, MLS Many of these systems are at duplex level and some may be at triplex level

Radar systems Infrared sensor systems

All weather, night time operation Transform the operational capability of the aircraft

Weather radar
Installed in all civil airliners & in many general aviation aircraft To detect water droplets and provide warning of storms, cloud turbulence and severe precipitationaircraft can alter course and avoid such turbulent conditions It should be noted that in severe turbulence, the violence of the vertical gusts can subject the aircraft structure to very high loads and stresses These radars can also generally operate in ground mapping and terrain avoidance modes.

Modern fighter aircraft generally

Have a ground attack role as well as the prime interception role and carry very sophisticated multimode radars In the airborne interception mode, the radar, must be able to detect aircraft upto 100 miles away and track while scanning and keeping tabs on several aircraft simultaneously (typically at least 12 aircraft) The radar must also have a 'look down' capability and be able to track low flying aircraft below it. In the ground attack or mapping mode, the radar system is able to generate a map type display from the radar returns from the ground, enabling specific terrain features to be identified for position fixing and target acquisition.

The term 'house keeping' management has been used to cover the automation of the background tasks which are essential for the aircraft's safe and efficient operation Such tasks include Fuel management. The embraces fuel flow and fuel quantity measurement and control of fuel transfer from the appropriate fuel tanks to minimize changes in the aircraft trim Electrical power supply system management

Cabin/cockpit pressurization systems Environmental control system Warning systems Maintenance and monitoring systems. These comprise monitoring and recording systems which are integrated into an on-board maintenance computer system. This provides the information to enable speedy diagnosis and rectification of equipment and system failures by pin-pointing faulty units and providing all the information, such as part numbers etc., for replacement units down to module level in some cases

Control and the efficient management and monitoring of the engines Electronic equipment involved in a modern jet engine is very considerable It forms an integral part of the engine and is essential for its operation

Contd..

Engine control electronics is physically mounted on the engine FADEC

Automatically controls the flow of fuel and respond to throttle command Control system ensures the engine limits in terms of temperatures, engine speeds and accelerations are not exceed and the engine respond in an optimum manner to the throttle command Full authority in terms of the control it can exercise on the engine and a high integrity failure survival control system is essential A FADEC engine control system is thus similar in many ways to a FBW flight control system

FADEC FADEC works by receiving multiple input variables of the

current flight condition including air density, throttle lever position, engine temperatures, engine pressures and many other parameters. The inputs are received by the EEC and analyzed up to 70 times per second. Engine operating parameters such as fuel flow, stator vane position, bleed valve position, and others are computed from this data and applied as appropriate. FADEC also controls engine starting and restarting. The FADEC's basic purpose is to provide optimum engine efficiency for a given flight condition.

Safety With the operation of the engines so heavily relying on automation, safety is a great concern. Redundancy is provided in the form of two or more, separate identical digital channels. Each channel may provide all engine functions without restriction. FADEC also monitors a variety of analog, digital and discrete data coming from the engine subsystems and related aircraft systems, providing for fault tolerant engine control.

FADEC not only provides for efficient engine operation, it also allows the manufacturer to program engine limitations and receive engine health and maintenance reports.

For example, to avoid exceeding a certain engine temperature, the FADEC can be programmed to automatically take the necessary measures without pilot intervention.

Other very important systems include:

engine

avionic

Engine health monitoring systems which measure, process and record a very wide range of parameters associated with the performance and health of the engines Give early warning of engine performance deterioration, excessive wear, fatigue damage, high vibration levels, excessive temperature levels etc

Advantages
       Better fuel efficiency Automatic engine protection against out-of-tolerance operations Safer as the multiple channel FADEC computer provides redundancy in case of failure Care-free engine handling, with guaranteed thrust settings Ability to use single engine type for wide thrust requirements by just reprogramming the FADECs Better systems integration with engine and aircraft systems Can provide engine long-term health monitoring and diagnostics

Reduces the number of parameters to be monitored by flight crews

Due to the high number of parameters monitored, the FADEC makes possible "Fault Tolerant Systems" (where a system can operate within required reliability and safety limitation with certain fault configurations)

Can support automatic aircraft and engine emergency responses (e.g. in case of aircraft stall, engines increase thrust automatically).

Disadvantages 
Full authority digital engine controls have no form of manual override available, placing full authority over the operating parameters of the engine in the hands of the computer. If a total FADEC failure occurs, the engine fails. In the event of a total FADEC failure, pilots have no way of manually controlling the engines for a restart, or to otherwise control the engine. As with any single point of failure, the risk can be mitigated with redundant FADECs. High system complexity compared to hydro mechanical, analogue or manual control systems High system development and validation effort due to the complexity

 

 LCA  SUKOI