from those of psychoanalysis. An irate Freud "forced the whole Adler gang" to resign from psychoanalytic circles, and forbade his followers to attend any of Adler's conferences. Long- standing friendships broke up, wives of the combatants stopped speaking to each other, and members of opposing factions refused to sit near each other at dinner parties.

causes by showing that psychopathology most often occurs when pathogenic parenting (notably pampering and neglect) causes the childto develop an inferiority complex, abandon the desireto

Alfred Adler was born on February 7,1870, in Rudolfsheim, a suburb of Vienna. His father was a Jewish grain merchant with a cheerful disposition and a particular fondness for Alfred, and his mother has been described as gloomy, rejecting, and self-sacrificing. Like Freud and Jung, Adler rose from lower middle-class origins to world fame; but unlike his illustrious counterparts, he remained emotionally attached to the lower classes and keenly concerned with their problems. Adler was a second-born (Ellenberger, 1970, p. 576) who grew up in the shadow of a gifted and successful older brother, and his family included an envious younger brother and three other siblings. Alfred never developed strong ties to his Jewish heritage, per- haps because his childhood was spent in liberal and heterogeneous surroundings, and he converted to Protestantism in 1904.

Adler studied medicine at the University of Vienna. Ironically, he never attended any of the lectures on hysteria given there by a relatively unknown psychologist, Sigmund Freud. Adler received his medical degree in 1895, though not with outstanding marks, andsoon thereafter began private practice. In 1897 he married Raissa Epstein, an ardent socialist and independent

thinker whom he met at a political convention. The Adlers were to have four children (three daughters and a son), two of whom became individual psychologists. His first publication, which appeared in 1898, stressed the pathogenic working conditions of independent tailors and the need of the poor for socialized medicine.

Adler first met Freud in 1902 under circumstances that are shrouded in legend (Ellenberger, 1970, p. 583). He remained active in psychoanalytic circles for some 10 years, and became the first president of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society in 1910. Like Jung, however, Adler in- sisted on the freedom to pursue his own ideas. As he once remarked to Freud, "do you think it gives me such great pleasure to stand in your shadow my whole life long?" (Freud, 1914/1967, p. 51; Roazen, 1975/1976b, pp. 179-184.) Eventually Adler's theories became so different from psychoanalysis as to precipitate an acrimonious parting of the ways, with Freud accus- ing him of heresy and imposing the penalty of excommunication. Adler resigned from the Psy- choanalytic Society in 1911 and founded his own organization, known first as the Society for Free Psychoanalysis and later as the Society for Individual Psychology.

Adler suffered a particularly painful rebuff in 1915, when he was denied a teaching posi- tion at the University of Vienna because his work was regarded as unscientific. During World WarI, he engaged in psychiatric work with the Viennese Army. The postwar period was a dif- ficult one, with the defeated Austria-Hungary suffering from poverty, famine, and epidemics. These trying times reinforced Adler's socialistic leanings, though he rejected any involvement with militant political activities.

Adler was a short and sturdy man. He was less handsome and charismatic than Freud or Jung, and he often presented an almost sloppy appearance. His style of life was simple and unpretentious, quite unlike the typical man of distinction. He possessed strong emotions that at times yielded to hypersensitivity, as well as the ability to make quick and accurate guesses about a patient's clinical disturbances, life problems, and birth order. He also impressed peo- ple as a witty and inspiring lecturer. Unfortunately, he could be highly impractical as well. Whereas psychoanalytic conferences were conducted in a formal and proper manner, Adler unwisely acquired a reputation for superficiality by meeting with followers and patients in various Viennese coffeehouses.

Adler's most significant achievements came during the years 1920-1933. He published nu- merous important books, and founded a series of child guidance clinics in Vienna. Adler visited the United States frequently from 1926 onward, participating in a symposium at Wittenberg College and teaching extension courses at Columbia University. In 1930 he was honored with the title of Citizen of Vienna, but the mayor unwittingly earned Adler's deep resentment by in- troducing him as "a deserving pupil of Freud." Adler foresaw the Nazi menace at an early date and moved permanently to the United States in 1934, where he taught at the Long Island Col- lege of Medicine and continued to strive for the establishment of individual psychology. There is no official standard edition of his works, which number perhaps a dozen volumes.

During his later years Adler developed a heart condition, but he enjoyed working too much to lead a limited life. While on a lecture tour in Aberdeen, Scotland, he suffered a fatal heart attack on May 28, 1937.