Generators

An electric current creates a magnetic field. The reverse effect of producing electricity from magnetism is called electromagnetic induction.

deflection when the magnet is at rest, i.e. only relative motion is needed.

Faradays law
Faraday suggested that a voltage is induced in a conductor whenever it cuts magnetic field lines, i.e. moves across them, but not when it moves along them or is at rest. If the conductor forms part of a complete circuit, an induced current is also produced. Induced p.d. increases of or voltage increases with

Electromagnetic induction
A voltage is always induced when a conductor moves in a magnetic field, but current needs a complete circuit for it to flow around. Two ways of investigating the effect follow.

i) the speed of motion of the magnet or coil ii) the number of turn on the coil iii) the strength of the magnet The size of the induced p.d. is directly proportional to the rate at which the conductor cuts magnetic field lines.

a) Straight magnet

wire

and

U-shaped

First the wire is held at rest between the poles of the magnet. Only when it is moving upwards or downwards is there a deflection on the meter, indicating an induced current in the wire. The deflection is in opposite directions in these two cases and only lasts

Lenzs law
The direction of the induced current is such as to oppose the change causing it. Lenzs law is an example of the principle of conservation of energy. If the current caused opposite poles to those that they do, electrical energy would be created from nothing. As it is, mechanical energy is provided, by whoever moves the magnet, to overcome the forces that arise. For a straight wire moving at right angles to a magnetic field Flemings right-hand rule (the dynamo rule) is used.

while the wire is in motion.

b) Bar magnet and coil

The magnet is pushed into the coil one pole first, and then held inside it. It is next withdrawn. The meter shows that current is induced in the coil in one direction as the magnet moves in and in the opposite direction as it is removed. There is no

Hold the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand at right angles to each other with the First finger pointing in the direction of the Field and the thuMb in the direction of Motion of the wire, then the seCond finger points in the direction of the induced Current.

Simple a.c. generator (alternator)

The frequency of an a.c. is the number of complete cycles it makes each second and is measured in hertz (Hz).

Simple d.c. generator (dynamo)

An a.c. generator becomes a d.c. one if the slip rings are replaced by a commutator.

The simplest a.c. generator consists of a rectangular coil between the poles of a Cshaped magnet. The ends of the coil are joined to two slip rings on the axle and against which carbon brushes press. When the coil is rotated it cuts the field lines and a voltage is induced in it. An alternating voltage is generated which acts in one direction and then the other; it would cause a.c. to flow in a circuit connected to the brushes. When the coil reaches the vertical position, the side that was previously cutting up through the field lines will now cut down the field lines. This means that the induced e.m.f. will change direction and therefore the current will change direction. Every time the coil reaches the vertical position, the current will change direction.

The brushes are arranged so that as the coil goes through the vertical, changeover of contact occurs from one half of the split ring of the commutator to the other. In this position the voltage induced in the coil reverses and so one brush is always positive and the other negative. Although varying in value, voltage never changes direction and would produce a d.c. in an external circuit. When a motor is working it acts as a dynamo and creates the voltage which opposes the

applied voltage. The current in the coil is therefore much less once the motor is running.

d) Bicycles
The rotor of a bicycle dynamo is a permanent magnet and the voltage induced in the coil which is at rest. Application of electromagnetic induction

Practical generators
In actual generators several coils are wound in evenly spaced slots in a soft iron cylinder and electromagnets usually replace permanent magnets

a) Moving-coil loudspeaker
The moving-coil loudspeaker can be operated in reverse mode as a microphone.

a) Power stations
In power stations alternators the electromagnets rotate (the rotor) while the coils and their iron core are at rest. The large p.ds and currents induced in the stator are led away through stationary cables. Instead the relatively small d.c. required by the rotor is fed via the slip rings from a small dynamo (the exciter) which is driven by the same turbine as the rotor. The output is three-phase a.c. obtained by having three sets of stator coils and three rotor coils at 120O to one another. This results in a steadier power supply.

b) Magnetic recording
In the recording head the tape becomes magnetized when it passes over the gap in the pole piece of the electromagnet and retains a magnetic record of the electrical signal applied to the coil of the microphone or computer. In playback mode, the varying magnetization on the moving tape or disk induces a corresponding electrical signal in the coil as a result of electromagnetic induction.

In a thermal power station, the turbine is rotated by high-pressure steam obtained by heating water in a coil- or oil-fired boiler or in a nuclear reactor.

c) Cars
Most cars are now fired with alternators because they give a greater output than dynamos at low engine speeds.