Electrons

Thermionic emission
The evacuated bulb contains a small coil of wire, the filament, and a metal plate called the anode because it is connected to the positive of the power supply. The negative of the supply is joined to the filament which is called the cathode. If the meters are connected to the anode and cathode, they will show deflection, indicating that current flows in the circuit containing the gap between the anode and cathode. The current stops if either the voltage supply is reversed or the filament is not heated. Negative charges, in the form of electrons, escape from the filament when it is hot because they have enough energy to get free from the metal surface. This process is knows as thermionic emission and the bulb is a thermionic diode. There is a certain minimum threshold energy which the electrons must have to escape. Also, higher the temperature of the metal - greater the number of electrons emitted. The electrons are attracted to the anode if it is positive and are able to reach it because there is a vacuum in the bulb.

Electrons emitted by the hot cathode are accelerated towards the anode but must pass through the hole in it and travel along the tube. Those that miss the cross cause the screen to fluoresce with green or blue light and cast the shadow of the cross on it. The cathode rays evidently travel in straight lines. If the N pole of a magnet is brought up to the neck of the tube, the rays (and the fluorescent shadow) can be shown to move upwards. The rays are deflected by a magnetic field and, using Flemings left-hand rule, we see that they behave like conventional current travelling from anode to cathode. There is also an optical shadow of the cross, due to the light emitted by the cathode. This is unaffected by the magnet.

Deflection of an electron beam

 By a magnetic field

Cathode rays
Beams of electrons moving at high speed are called cathode rays. Their properties are studied using the Maltese cross tube.

Evenly spaced crosses represent a uniform magnetic field acting into and perpendicular to the paper. An electron beam entering the field at right angles to the field experiences a force due to the motor effect. This indicates that the force acts inwards at right angles to the direction of the beam and makes it follow a circular path (the beam being

treated as conventional opposite direction).

current

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 By an electric field
An electric field is a region where an electric charge experiences a force due to other charges. The two metal plates act as a charged capacitor. If the charge is evenly spread over the plates, a uniform electric field is created between them and is represented by parallel, equally spaced lines; the arrows indicate the direction in which a positive charge would move.

Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)

It contains a cathode ray tube which has three main parts.

 Electron gun
This consists of a heater (H), a cathode (C), another electrode called grid (G) and two or three anodes (A). Grid controls the number of electrons passing and it is at a negative voltage; it is the brilliance or brightness control. The anodes are at high positive voltages; they accelerate the electrons along the highly evacuated tube and also focus them into a narrow beam.

If a beam of electrons enters the field perpendicular to it, the negatively charged beam is attracted to the positively charged plate and follows a parabolic path.

 Demonstration
The deflection tube can be used to show the deflection of an electron beam in electric and magnetic fields. Electrons form the hot cathode strike the florescent screen. A p.d. applied across two horizontal metal plates creates a vertical electric field which deflects the rays upwards or downwards.

 Fluorescent screen
A bright spot of light is produced on the screen where the beam hits it. When the beam of electrons hits the fluorescent screen, their kinetic energy is transformed to light energy.

 Deflecting system
The Y-plates are horizontal but create a vertical electric field which deflects the beam vertically. The X-plates are vertical and deflect the beam horizontally. The p.d. to create the electric field between the Y-plates is applied to the Y-input terminals on the front of the CRO. The input is usually amplified by an amount that depends on the setting of the Y-amp gain control, before it is applied to the Y-plates. The p.d. applied to the X-plates is also via an amplifier, the X-amplifier, and can be either

When current flows in the two coils outside the tube, a horizontal magnetic field is produced across the tube. It can be used instead of a magnet to deflect rays, or to cancel the deflection due to an electric field.

from an external source connected to the Xinput terminal or from the time base circuit in the CRO. The time base deflects the beam horizontally in the X-direction and makes the spot sweep across the screen from left to right at a steady speed. It must then make the spot fly back to its starting point very rapidly. The p.d. from the time base should then have a waveform like this:

blocks d.c. in the input but allows a.c. to pass.

 Measuring p.ds
A CRO can be used as a d.c. / a.c. voltmeter if the p.d. to be measured is connected across the Y-input terminals; the deflection of the spot is proportional to the p.d.

 Displaying waveforms
The time base is on and the CRO acts as a graph-plotter to show the waveform, i.e. the variation with time, of the p.d. applied to its Y-input. Sound waveforms can be displayed if a microphone is connected to the Y-input terminals.

The distance moved by the spot is directly proportional to the time and the horizontal deflection becomes the measure of time, i.e. a time axis or base.

 Measuring time intervals and frequency

These can be measured if the CRO has a calibrated time base.

X-rays
X-rays are produced when electrons are stopped by matter. high-speed

 Production

Uses of the CRO

 Practical points
The brilliance control should be as low as possible when there is just a spot on the screen. When preparing the CRO for use, set the brilliance, focus, X- and Y-shift controls to their mid positions. The time base and Yamp gain controls can then be adjusted to suit the input. When the a.c. / d.c. selector switch is in the d.c. position, both d.c. and a.c. can pass to the Y-input. In the a.c. position, a capacitor

In an X-ray tube, electrons from a hot filament are accelerated across the vacuum to the anode by a large p.d. The anode is a copper block with a target of a highmelting-point metal (tungsten) on which the electrons are focused by the electric field between the anode and the concave cathode. The tube has a lead shield with a small exit for the X-rays.

This will equal the k.e. of the electron reaching the anode if Q= electron charge and V is the accelerating p.d.. High p.ds give short wavelength, very penetrating (hard) X-rays. Less penetrating

(soft) rays, of longer wavelength are obtained with lower p.ds. The absorption of X-rays by a matter is greatest by materials of high density having a large number of outer electrons. A more intense beam of rays is produced if the rate of emission of electrons is raised by increasing the filament current.

The photoelectric effect is the process by which X-ray photons are absorbed by matter, in effect it causes ionization. Photons not absorbed pass through with unchanged energy.

Waves or particles?
Electromagnetic radiation has a dual nature and has to be regarded as waves on some occasions and as particles (photons) on others.

 Properties and nature

X-rays i) ii) readily penetrate matter are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields

iii) ionize a gas, making it a conductor iv) affect a photographic film v) cause fluorescence

vi) give interference and diffraction effects vii) are electromagnetic wavelength waves of short

Photoelectric effect
Electrons are emitted by certain materials when electromagnetic radiation of small enough wavelength falls on them. This effect is knows as photoelectric emission and is given by zinc exposed to ultraviolet. The photoelectric effect only occurs for a given metal if the frequency of the incident electromagnetic radiation exceeds a certain threshold frequency. We can explain this by assuming that (i) all electromagnetic radiation is emitted and absorbed as pockets of energy called photons, and (ii) the energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency. The absorption of a photon by an atom results in the electron gaining energy and the photon disappearing.