National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov.

2006, Nagpur

STATE OF THE ART LECTURE

1. Rain Water Harvesting, Conservation and Management Strategies for Urban and Rural Sectors
* Dr. R. K. Sivanappan
1. Introduction Water is essential for all life and used in many different ways, It is also a part of the larger ecosystem in which the reproduction of the bio diversity depends. Fresh water scarcity is not limited to the arid climate regions only, but in areas with good supply the access of safe water is becoming critical problem. Lack of water is caused by low water storage capacity, low infiltration, larger inter annual and annual fluctuations of precipitation (due to monsoonic rains) and high evaporation demand. The term water harvesting was probably used first by Geddes of the University of Sydney. He defined as the collection and storage of any form of water either runoff or creek flow for irrigation use. Meyers of USDA, USA has defined it as the practice of collecting water from an area treated to increase runoff from rainfall. Recently Currier ,USA has defined it as the process of collecting natural precipitation from prepared watershed for beneficial use. Now a days water harvesting has become a general term for collecting and storing runoff water or creek flow ,resulting from rain in soil profile and reservoirs both over surface /under surface. Previously this was used for arid and semi arid areas, but recently their use has been extended to sub humid and humid regions too. In India water harvesting means utilizing the erratic monsoon rain for raising good crops in dry tracks and conserve the excess runoff water for drinking and for recharging purposes. 2. History of Rain Water Harvesting Water harvesting like many techniques in use today is not new. It is practiced as early as 4500 B.C. by the people of Ur and also latest by the Nabateans and other people of the Middle east. While the early water harvesting techniques used natural materials, 20th century technology has made it possible to use artificial means for increasing runoff from precipitation. Evenari and his colleagues of Israel have described water harvesting system in the Negve desert. The system involved clearing hill sides to smooth the soil and increase runoff and then building contour ditches to collect the water and carry it to low lying fields where the water was used to irrigate crops. By the time of the Roman Empire, these runoff farms had evolved into relatively sophisticated systems. The next significant development was the construction of roaded catchments as described by the public works Department of Western Australia in 1956. They are so called because the soil is graded into ditches. These ditches convey the collected water to a storage reservoir. Lauritzan, USA has done pioneering work in evaluating plastic and artificial rubber membranes for the construction of catchments and reservoirs during 1950s. In 1959,Mayer of water conservation laboratory, USA began to investigate materials that caused soil to become hydrophobic or water repellent. Then gradually expanded to include sprayable asphalt compounds, plastic and metal films bounded to the soil compaction and dispersion and asphalt fiber glass membranes. Early 1960, research programmes in water harvesting were also initiated in Israel by Hillal and at the University of Arizana by Gluff. Hillals work related primarily to soil smoothing and runoff farming. Cluff has done a considerable amount of work on the use of soil sealing with sodium salt and on ground covered with plastic membranes.

* International Consultant in Water Resources & Irrigation, No:14, Bharathi park, 4th Cross Road, Coimbatore 641 043 1

Water harvesting was practiced more than 1000 years back in South India, by way of construction of irrigation tank, ooranis, temple tanks, farm ponds etc, but the research in India on this subject is of recent one. Work is taken up at ICRISAT, Hyderabad, Central arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Central Research Institute for dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad, State Agricultural Universities and other dry land research centers throughout India. In Pakistan, in the mountainous and dry province of Balukhistan, bunds are constructed across the slopes to force the runoff to infiltrate. In China, with its vast population is actively promoting rain and stream water harvesting. One very old but still common flood diversion technique is called Warping (harvesting water as well as sediment). When water harvesting technique are used for runoff farming, the storage reservoir will be soil itself, but when the water is to be used for livestock, supplementary irrigation or human consumption, a storage facility of some kind will have to be produced. In countries where land is abundant, water harvesting involves; harvesting or reaping the entire rainwater, store it and utilize it for various purposes. In India, it is not possible to use the land area only to harvest water and hence water harvesting means use the rain water at the place where it falls to the maximum and the excess water is collected and again reused in the same area. Therefore the meaning of water harvesting is different in different area/ countries. The methods explained above are used for both agriculture and to increase the ground water availability. The water harvesting for household and for recharging purposes are also in existence for long years in the world. During rainy days, the people in the villages used to collect the roof water in the vessels and use the same for household purposes including drinking. In South East Asian countries people used to collect the roof water ( thatched roof by providing gutters) by placing 4 big earthern drums in 4 corners of their houses. They use this water for all household purposes and if it is exhausted only they will go for well water. The main building of the Agricultural College at Coimbatore was constructed 100 years ago and they have collected all the roof water by pipes and stored in a big under ground masonry storage tanks by the sides of the building.
2

These rainwater are used for all labs, which require pure and good quality of water. In the same way the rainwater falling on the terrace in all the building constructed subsequently are collected and stored in the underground masonry tanks Even the surface water flowing in the Nallas in the campus are also diverted by providing obstructions, to the open wells to recharge ground water. Hence Rainwater harvesting is as old as civilization and practiced continuously in different ways for different purposes in the world The only thing is that it has not been done systematically in all places. Need has come to harvest the rainwater including roof water to solve the water problems everywhere not only in the arid but also in the humid region. 3. Need for Rain Water Harvesting Water is a becoming a scarce commodity and it is considered as a liquid gold in this part of the country (especially in Coimbatore, Erode, Salem Districts of Tamil Nadu). The demand of water is also increasing day by day not only for Agriculture, but also for household and Industrial purposes. It is estimated that water need for drinking and other municipal uses will be increased from 3.3 MHm to 7.00 MHm in 2020/25. Similarly the demand of water for industries will be increased by 4 fold i.e. from 3.0 MHm ti 12.00 MHm during this period At the same time more area should be brought under irrigation to feed the escalating population of the country, which also needs more water. But we are not going to get one litre more water than we get at present though the demand is alarming. The perennial rivers are becoming dry and ground water table is depleting in most of the areas. In Coimbatore, the depletion is about 30-50m in the last 30-40 years. Country is facing floods and drought in the same year in many states. This is because, no concrete action was taken to conserve, harvest and manage the rain water efficiently. The rainfall is abundant in the world and also in India. But it is not evenly distributed in all places. India being the monsoonic country, the rain falls only for 3 to 4 months in a year with high intensity, which results more runoff and soil erosion. Total rain occurs only in about 100 hours out of 8760 hours in a year. It also erratic and fails once in 3 or 4 years. This is very common in many parts of the country.

The availability of water in the world, in India and in Tamil Nadu is given below with rainfall. Places Rainfall Population in mm 840 1150 6 Billion 1.0 Billion Availability of Water/Person/Yr M 3 /P/Year 700 2200

World India

Tamil Nadu 925

62.5 Million 750

If the availability of water is 1700 M3/p/y, there will be occasional water stress, and if it is less than 1000 M3/p/y, it is under water scarcity condition. Though India is not under water stress conditions but Tamil Nadu state is already under water scarcity condition, but there is no need for panic since it is possible to manage this condition as in the case of Israel where the availability is only about 450 M3/p/ y, by means of water harvesting, water conservation and water management. Water scarcity / stress is not limited to the arid regions; only but also occurring in high rainfall areas also. Chirapunji gets more than 11,000mm of average annual rainfall but face drinking water problem before monsoon commences whereas in Ralegoan Siddhi, in Maharastra there is no water scarcity problem though the annual average rainfall is only about 450mm. Hence to mitigate water problem / drought etc, there is an urgent need to follow our ancestral way of water harvesting and the latest technologies adopted in Soil and water conservation measures on watershed basis including roof water harvesting etc which are described in detail below. The Theme paper on Water vision 2050 of India, prepared by Indian Water Resources Society(IWRS) has indicated that a storage of 60 MHm is necessary to meet tbne demand of water for irrigation, drinking and other purposes. But the present live storage of all reservoirs put together is equivalent of about 17.5 MHm which is less than 10% of the annual flow in the rivers in the country. The projects under contruction (7.5 MHm) and those contemplated (13 MHm) are added, it comes only 37.50 MHm and hence we have to go a long way in water harvesting to build up storage structures in order to store about 60 MHm. More than 75% of the areas comes under
3

hard rock in Tamil Nadu. Further the porosity of the rock is only about 3%. The natural recharge of rainwater in this region is only about 8 -12%, which is very minimal. Therefore there is an urgent need to take up the artificial recharge of the rain for which water harvesting and water conservation structures are to be build up in large scale. The rainfall in coastal area is more than 1200 mm (Chennai) still; drinking water is a problem in almost every year. This is because the entire rainwater is collected in masonry drains (from houses, streets/roads etc) are taken to the sea instead of taking into the ground water aquifers or in surface reservoirs by pumping if need be. The ground water available can be used during summer and make the aquifer empty so that the rainwater can be put into the aquifers during rainy period by suitable water harvesting measures. All the above details indicate the need for water harvesting measures in urban and rural area for the use of Agriculture, drinking and other purposes. 4. Methods of Water Harvesting in Rural and

Urban Areas
There are different / various system of water harvesting depending upon the source of water supply and places as classified below. a) In situ Rainwater harvesting Bunding and terracing. Vegetative / stone contour barriers. Contour trenching. Contour stone walls. Contour farming. Micro catchments. Tie ridging methods Farm ponds. b) Direct surface runoff harvesting Roof water collection Dug out ponds / storage tanks Tankas Kundis Ooranis Temple tanks Diversion bunds Water spreading c) Stream flow / runoff harvesting Nalla bunding

 Gully control structures Check dams Temporary Permanent Silt detension tanks Percolation ponds d) Sub surface flow harvesting Sub surface dams Diaphragm dams e) Micro catchments / watershed Inter terrace / inter plot water harvesting Conservation bench terrace f) Runoff inducement by surface treatment Roaded catchments Use of cover materials Aluminum foils, Plastic sheet, bentonite, Rubber, etc Using chemicals for water proofing, water repellent etc. to get more run off water. A comprehensive watershed development on watershed basisincluding water harvesting structures are given in the figure 1. 5. Plan of Action for Rainwater Harvesting As stated early, rainwater harvesting is as old as civilization and is practiced in many countries including India from time immemorable. But government and people remember this only when water is not available even for drinking purposes. There is no use of spending huge sum of money when we notice the water scarcity for drinking, industry and agriculture. These activities / structure should be taken / constructed before the rainy season so that the rain water which goes as runoff outside the sub watershed / city limits can be collected and used directly or by recharging into the ground. Government is undertaking the wasteland / watershed development programs, but not done in a comprehensive / integrated manner / holistic saturating the watershed in all water harvesting measures. Hence there is a need to take up watershed development programmes mainly water harvesting measures in a scientific and systematic manner. The government of Tamil Nadu has laid condition that in any building construction, water harvesting work should be included and executed, but in practice, it is not perfect. The authorities concerned should monitor the programme so that the drinking water problem can be solved in all
4

municipalities / corporation without any difficulty to some extent. To sum up the following types of Water Harvesting System for different uses can be implemented in different parts of the country.
No. Region 1 Arid plains Types of Water Artificial catchments to capture rainfall (tankas or kundis in Rajasthan) Tanks or talabs in Rajasthan to capture surface runoff Use Drinking

Drinking and irrigation

Embankments / Irrigation obstructions across water & also drainage / Nalla to for recharging capture surface runoff 2 Semi Arid places Tanks / Ponds/Eri to capture surface runoff and also chains of tanks called cascade. Irrigation water and drinking water through recharge of ground water Irrigation water and drinking water through recharging ground water

3.

Flood plains

Mud embankment which may be breached during the floods.

Hill and Diverted stream flows Irrigation Mountain Jammu, M.P., water region Maharastra

6. Case Study In Water Harvesting There are numerous case studies available in water harvesting both in Rural and Urban sectors. In Rural areas it is Soil and Water conservation measures taken on watershed basis to conserve and augment ground water. In the urban sector, it is mostly roof water harvesting for direct use and recharging the ground water and also collecting of surface runoff from pavements / roads and recharging it into the ground through recharge pits or using abandoned / existing wells. The following are the places where rain water / roof water

harvesting has been implemented in a successful manner. 1. Rural areas a. Ralegoan Siddhi in Maharastra state b. Lakshman Nagar and Varisai Nadu inTheni Dt., Tamil Nadu. c. Alankulam Taluk in Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu. d. Aravari watershed in Alwar Dt., of Rajasthan. e. Maheshwaram watershed in Andhra Pradesh. f. Kapilnalla watershed in Karnataka 2. Urban Sectors Mostly the roof water harvesting measures are taken up. a. India i. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, all main buildings. ii. PRICOL, Periyanaickenpalayam (Industry Building), Coimbatore iii. TWAD Board / office and PWD office at Chennai. iv. Numerous Apartment buildings in Chennai. v. Sundaram and Clayton Ltd, Padi, Chennai (Industry buildings) vi. TVS training schoool at Vanagaran, Chennai vii. Rastrapathi Bhavan, Delhi. viii. Center of science and environment building at Delhi. ix. Institute of economic growth, New Delhi. b. Foreign Countries i. Thailand Many houses including thatched houses in villages. ii. Japan office complex. iii. Germany office buildings. iv. Singapore office buildings. Rules and regulations have been framed for Rain Water Harvesting in all corporation, municipalities and panchayat unions in Tamil Nadu. The Gujarat government has issued a general resolution for the effort that no new construction would be allowed if it does not have provision for roof top rainwater harvesting. This would be valid in all 143 municipalities and 6 urban development authorities in the state. It is heartening to note that Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) and Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) have taken action to implement
5

the rain water harvesting to their Industry premises. If the above measures are implemented in Rural and Urban areas, the drought in rural areas and drinking water problem in Urban and Rural population can be solved to some extent. The people, NGO, and Government should joint together and implement the rain water harvesting in a big way in all places in the years to come to solve water scarcity problem in the country. 7. Conclusions It is very important to make water everybodys business. It means a role for everybody with respect to water. Every household and community has to become involved in the provision of water and in the protection of water resources. Make water the subject of a peoples movement. It means the empowerment of our Urban and Rural community, i.e., to manage their own affairs with the state playing a critical supportive role. Further involving people will give the people greater ownership over the water project including watershed development, Soil and Water conservation and water harvesting will go a long way towards reducing misuse of government funds. It will also develop the ownership (own water supply systems), they will also take good care of them. In this way it is possible to solve water problems facing the county in the 21st century. References
Ake Nilsson, Ground water dams for small-scale water supply, IT publication, 1988. Center for science and environment. A water-harvesting manual, Delhi 2001. Center for Science and Environment Making water everybodys business, New Delhi, 2001. Chitale M.A., A blue revolution, Bhavans Book University, Pune 2000. CII, Rainwter harvesting A guide, New Delhi 2000. Rajiv Gandhi, National Drinking water missions Handbook on Rainwater harvesting, Government of India, New Delhi, 1998. Sivanappan, R.K., Soil and Water Conservation and Water harvesting, Tamil Nadu Afforestation project, Chennai, 1999. Sivanappan, R.K. Water harvesting, ICCI, Coimbatore 2001. Stockholm water Symposium Water harvesting Stockholm, Aug 1998. Verma HN & Tiwan KN current status and Prospects of Rain Water Harvesting, NIH, Roorkee, 1995.

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

2. Water Issues and Related Concerns

* Prof. (Mrs.) Vijaya Agarwal ** Prof. (Dr.) J. H. Agarwal

ABSTRACT By 2025, world population will be 8 billion water will become scarcer. Global farming accounts for 70% of water use, while only 17% of farmland is irrigated and it provides only 40% (estimated) of worlds food. Water application losses in irrigation are quite high almost 40 % of the total irrigation water is lost. Per capita irrigated agricultural land is declining main reason shortage of water. Water table is falling steadily in intensive farming regions. People and ecosystems are under threat from persistent chemicals like pesticides, fertilizers and heavy metals in waters. There are no serious efforts to gain water by practices like rainwater harvesting, watersheds and mini-ponds, reuse and recycling of waste water. It is said there is enough freshwater in world however, it is not always available in the right place or right form. The problem is mainly of access, distribution, and optimum utilization. The paper discusses related concerns and outlines what need to be done. Key words : Fresh water, harvesting and conservation of water, water reuse, water management in agro-ecosystems, electronics and IT based devices.

1.0 WHAT NEED TO BE DONE? Some suggestions 1.1 Ground Water Recharge, Reuse, and Efficient Systems Watersheds, Check dams, Roof water harvesting (should be made compulsory and mandatory), India uses around 15% of rain water while Israel almost 100% (see Appendix). Efficient irrigation systems: Sprinkler, drip, trickle (macro and micro irrigation). Drip irrigation cuts water use by between 30% and 70% , increases crop yield by between 20% and 90%, compared with traditional irrigation. Sequential water use : Reuse, recovery and recycling of waste waters. Switching to less water-dependent crops.

Water conservation and higher efficiencies for water-conveyance, water-application and water-use. Scientific management of water by making use of electronics and IT based aids like soil-moisture measurements. Participation of women in conservation of water. Competent, knowledgeable and experienced personnel to be involved in management of water related activities and balanced distribution of water.

1.2

Water needs of plants Agriculture accounts for 70% of fresh water use. It requires as much as 2000 litres of water to grow 1 kg of rice. Water (with elements H + O) is a vital component for crop growth. Plants need water for:

* Selection Grade Assistant Professor (Electrical Engineering), Department of Agricultural Structures and Environmental Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru Agricultural University, Krishi Nagar, Adhartal P.O., Jabalpur 482 004, Email : vijaya_agarwal@gmail.com Phone : 0761 2681820 ** Retired Director Instrumentation & Project Coordinator UNDP-GOI-MAEP, JNAU, G-83 Krishi Nagar, Adhartal P.O., Jabalpur 482 004 Email : jhagarwal@sancharnet.in Phone : 0761 2680400 6

Temperature regulation, Photosynthesis, Transport of nutrients from soil to plant, and Transport of assimilates from plant parts to the produce location.

web site: www.irrometer.com). Tensiometric principle, indicates the amount of moisture available to plants. Direct display of moisture. Automatic control of irrigation systems.

1.3

Excess water harmful Excess water to crop is harmful. It causes/ results in : Spoilage of soil-health, salinity built up. Loss of nutrients due to excessive leaching. Contamination of surface and ground water. No proportionate increase in yield, and wastage of water and energy.

4. Watermark Soil Moisture Sensor 200SS (Irrometer Company, USA, web site : www.irrometer.com ). Solid state, electrical resistance type. Available with meter, electronic control unit. Low cost. 5. Sentek Soil Moisture Probes EnviroSCAN, EnviroSMART, EasyAG and Diviner 2000 (Sentek, Australia, web site : www.sentek.com.au ). Electrical capacitance principle, continuous measurement of soil moisture over multiple depths in root-zone. Easy installation, data download options for retrieving data in the field or remotely. Provides information on crop water use and water management in root-zone, facilitates decisions on how much and when to irrigate.

2.0 SOIL-MOISTURE MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS A variety of electronics and microprocessorbased devices for soil-moisture measurement are available for scientific water management in agroecosystems. Some of the devices are based on electrical impedance, infrared thermometry and time-domain reflectometry. Salient features of five such devices are given below: 1. Gro-Point GP-ERS Moisture Sensor and Irrigation Management System (ESI Environment Sensors Inc., Canada, web site : www.esica.com ). Soil moisture range: 5 50 % (volumetric) +/1%. Rechargeable battery or mains operated. Available with hand-held display or with data logger. Intelligent Irrigation System, with a set of sensors, computer, software and irrigation controller. 2. Moisture-Point, Multi-Probe Sensor MP-917 (ESI Environment Sensors Inc., Canada, web site: www.esica.com ). Soil moisture range : 0 50 % (volumetric) +/1.5%. A single probe gives moisture profile. Rechargeable battery or mains operated. LCD display or datalogger or RS-232 with PC. 3. Irrometer-Tensiometer Probe (Irrometer Company, USA,
7

These devices should be used for scientific management of water in agro-ecosystems to make efficient use of water and to minimize problems like water logging, salinity built up, non-point contamination (see Appendix , Fig. 2 (a), (b), (c) and (d) for photographs of some soil-moisture devices). 3.0 IT ENABLED SUPPORT SYSTEMS FOR OPTIMUM UTILIZATION Use of Crop Simulation Models, Weather data and Knowledge Base(s): To select appropriate crop and crop variety suitable to agro-climatic pattern, and switch to less water-dependent crops. To decide about the date of sowing, duration of crop. To decide about the irrigation inputs to crop by monitoring soil-moisture and crop-water stress, to decide when and how much to irrigate, and to optimize utilization of water by using efficient systems like sprinkler, drip and trickle irrigation.

To apply fertilizer to crops through irrigation water by computer-controlled fertigation techniques. To adopt controlled environment farming wherever easily feasible: This provides monitoring and control of lighting, humidity, temperature, CO2 level, irrigation, nutrients supply, chemical treatments, etc. To adopt a GIS coupled soil-water-balance computation system to calculate the available residual soil-moisture for its better utilization.

4.0

CONCLUDING REMARKS Water is a very valuable resource. There are no serious efforts to gain water by practices like rainwater harvesting, watersheds and mini-ponds. Rainwater harvesting should be made mandatory. Sequential water use (reuse, recovery and recycling of waste waters) should be planned wherever possible so that the load on fresh water can be reduced. Waters presence in agro-ecosystems should be treated on a holistic approach, and by employing scientific management tools it should be judiciously used. For agriculture, an integrated water management practice consisting of three main components rain water harvesting, water-saving micro-irrigation, and highly efficient crop production should be adopted. Conservation of water should be taken as a way of life and widely adopted. SELECTED READING Goodchild, M.F., B.O. Parks and L.T. Steyaert (Eds.). Environmental Modelling with GIS. Oxford University Press, New York, 1993. Berkhoff, J. A Strategy for Managing Water in the Middle East and North Africa. World Bank, Washington, DC, 1994. Bian, F., Z. Sha and W. Hong. An integrated GIS and knowledge-based decision support system in assisting farm-level agronomic decision-making. J. Geogr. Syst., 1995, 3, pp. 49-67. Soil-Moisture Systems. ESI Canada < www.esica.com > , Irrometer USA < www.irrometer.com > , Sentek Australia < www.sentek.com.au > . Hinrichsen, D., B. Robey and U. D. Upadhyay. Solutions for a Water-Short World.
8

Population Reports, Series M, No. 14. Population Information Program, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, December 1997. United States Department of Agriculture. ARS National Program # 201 on Water Quality and Management : Component I Agricultural watershed management, Component II Irrigation and drainage management, Component III Water quality protection and management, 1998 ongoing. < www.nps.ars.usda.gov > Li, F., S. Cook, G. T. Geballe and W. R. Burch. Rainwater Harvesting Agriculture: An integrated system for water management on rainfed land in Chinas semiarid areas, AMBIO Journal of Human Environment, Vol. 29, Issue 8, December 2000, pp. 477-483. Gleick, P. H. The Worlds Water 2000 - 2001: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Island Press, Washington, DC, 2000. Rijsberman, F. and D. Molden. Balancing water uses: water for food and water for nature (Thematic background paper), International Conference on Freshwater, Bonn, Germany, 37 December 2001. Smajstrla, A.G., B.J. Boman, D.Z. Haman, F.T. Izuno, D.J. Pitts and F.S. Zazueta. Basic irrigation scheduling in Florida < http:// edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE111 > Bulletin # 249, Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, 2002. Fahimi, F.R., L. Creel and R.M. De Souza. Finding The Balance: Population and Water Scarcity in the Middle East and North Africa. Population Reference Bureau, Washington, DC, 2002. Simonne, E. and G. Hochmuth. Irrigation scheduling as a means of applying the right water amount and monitoring soil moisture for vegetable crops grown in Florida in the BMP era. Document # HS909, Horticultural Sciences Department, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, 2003 < http:/ /edis.ifas.ufl.edu/HS166 > Rijsberman, F. Sanitation and Water, In: Global

crises, global solutions (Ed. - B. Lomborg), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004, 670 p. IWMI. Beyond more crop per drop (Note prepared by F. Rijsberman and D. Molden for the 4 th World Water Forum, Mexico, 16-22 March 2006), International Water Management Institute, Sri Lanka, Press release, 17 March 2006.

2.

Soil-Moisture Probes :

APPENDIX 1. Rainfall Facts : Percentage of Rainfall consumed to support direct and indirect human uses of water (Source: IWMI, Sri Lanka) System / Uses Food irrigation Food rainfed Domestic & industry In-stream ecology Flood runoff Permanent grazing Grasslands Forests & woodlands Arid lands All others Total % of Rainfall 2 4 1 8 27 18 11 17 5 7 100
(a) Soil-Moisture Probe for moisture measurements in the root zone of a crop (Sensors are mounted on a screwable insert )

(b)

Tensiometer type soil-moisture probe.

(d) Soil-Moisture Probe working on impedance principle. (c) Sentek Soil-Moisture Probe working on capacitance principle. 9 [Note : Photographs of the probes from websites / product literature. Disclaimer: No preference to any particular firm by the authors].

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

3. Rainwater Harvesting Techniques

* Dr. K. A. Patil ** G. K. Patil

ABSTRACT Water is our most precious natural resource and something that most of us take for granted. We are now increasingly becoming aware of the importance of water to our survival and its limited supply. The human beings require water for various purposes. The most part of the earth surface i.e. about 71 % is covered by water. Out of total volume of water available on the surface of the earth 97 % is saline water, 2 % water is in the form of ice and glaciers and only 1 % is fresh and potable water. India is well endowed nations in the world in terms of average annual rainfall. It is unbelievable but it is true that Cherapunji which gets 11000 mm annual rainfall still suffers from serious drinking water shortage. Though Indias average annual rainfall is 1170 mm; in the deserts of western India it is as low as about 100 mm. Hence, it is necessary to opt for rainwater harvesting measures for fulfillment of water requirement.

INTRODUCTION India is one of the developing countries. Due to faster industrialization and urbanization and increase in population water demand is increasing day by day. Rainfall in India is highly irregular. Most of it is concentrated during a few months of the year and maximum amount flows away resulting in poor recharge of ground water. There is significant spatial imbalance in water resource available and water demand. Therefore, it is becoming necessary to bring water from distant places increasing the cost of conveyance. It is also a common observation that underground water table is depleting due to uncontrolled extraction of water. The state of Maharashtra covers an area of 307,713 square km and supports a population of 82 million. Over half of this population is in rural area which faces problems related to water. Conventional sources like open well, bore well and piped water supplies have failed due to depleting water tables, poor water quality and high cost involved in operation and maintenance. Every year a great amount of water is being lost that falls on terraces, all of which finds its way to the storm water drains. Rain water

harvesting can play important role for solving the water problems. WHY RAINWATER HARVESTING? Rainwater harvesting means the activity of direct collection of rain water which can be recharged in to the ground water to prevent fall of ground water level or storing in surface or underground water tank. It is most suited in todays context due to following reasons. 1. It is the most scientific and cost effective way of recharging the ground water and reviving the water table. 2. It offers advantage in water quality for both irrigation and domestic use. 3. It provides naturally soft water and contains almost no dissolved minerals or salts, arsenic and other heavy metals. 4. It can be done at individual as well as in a community level. This way we can be self sufficient in terms of domestic water requirements and not just dependent on the actions initiated by government or any other local body.

* Lecturers in Civil Engineering Dept; Govt. College of Engineering, Aurangabad (M.S.) 431 005 10

Collecting rainwater as it falls from the sky seems immensely sensible in areas struggling to cope with potable water needs. Rainwater is one of the purest sources of water available as it contains very low impurities. Rain water harvesting systems can be adopted where conventional water supply systems have failed to meet peoples needs. COMPONENTS OF RAINWATER HARVESTING STRUCTURE All rainwater harvesting structures will have three basic components: 1. Catchment area i.e. the surface area utilized for capturing the rainwater. 2. Collection device, like tanks or cisterns or percolation pits used for collecting or holding the water. 3. Conveyance system i.e. the system of pipes or percolation pits through which water is transported from the catchment area to the collection device. METHODS OF RAINWATER HARVESTING There are different ways by which rain water harvesting is carried out. Some of the important methods are discussed one by one as discussed in coming paragraphs. 1. Utilizing Rainwater for Dewas Roof Water Filter Dewas is the name of the city located in Madhya Pradesh. This roof water filter is first practiced at Dewas and hence the name Dewas roof water filter. Fig.1 shows details of Dewar roof water filter. It can be made easily using sand pebbles of different sizes. In this two caps are provided as T1 and T2. Keep the cap T1 and T2 always closed. The T2 is used for periodical back washing of filter and cap T1 is used for backwash drainage. Small pebbles of size 6 mm are on entry side of rainwater. Use of medicine for water purification is made through cap T2. Do not recharge rainwater for first two days in rainy season. Keep the roof always clean, especially in rainy season so that quality of rain water falling on roof is not deteriorated. The cost of this roof filter excluding connecting pipe is about Rs 800. For average condition in Maharashtra, from 100 square metres roof area about 50 m3 of water can be percolated through this filter.
11

2. Utilization of Rainwater for Recharging Pit Where there is no well or bore well in the house, total rainwater falling on the open plot can be recharged by making recharge pit. Water flowing out of the plot can be directed to this pit. This pit may get filled 10 to 15 times in one monsoon and can recharge water up to 200 m3. This method is effective in the area where permeability of soil is more. The capacity of the pit may be taken up to 10 m3. The percolation of water through this pit of the order of 200 m3 per annum is possible. The cost of this structure may come about Rs 7000. 3. Utilization of Rainwater for Well Recharging Rainwater flowing in the farm is diverted to a water collecting tank of size 6 m x 6 m x 1.5 m near well and a small filter pit of size 1.5 m x 1.5 m x 0.6m is made at the bottom of large pit. Otherwise suitable pit may be excavated depending upon the availability of space near well. Fig.2 shows details regarding recharge of open well by runoff from farm. Filter pit is filled with sand, pebbles larger than 20 mm and pebbles/boulders larger than 75mm pebbles is filled in three equal layers and connected to the well by 150 mm diameter PVC pipe and this pipe projects 0.5 to 1.0 m inside the well. The capacity of the water tank may be taken about 50 m3. The percolation of water 400 to 1000 m3 per year is possible through this structure. 4. Utilizing of Rainwater for Bore well Recharging Arrangement of bore well recharging is as shown in fig. 3. A six metre diameter collecting pit of 1.5 m depth is excavated around the bore well casing pipe. Another small pit of 1.5 m x 1.5 m x 0.6 m depth is made at the bottom of large pit and filled with filter media. A 75 mm diameter PVC pipe is connected to the bore well casing pipe after first layer of 75 mm pebbles. An inverted elbow is connected to the pipe. 5. Utilizing Roof Water to Recharge Trench The roof water collected can be recharged through recharge trench. Water can be recharged throughout the year either by using used water or rainwater. This recharge trench may get filled many times as per availability of used or rain water. This method is effective in the area where permeability

of soil is more. The capacity of the trench may be taken up to 20 m3. The percolation of water through this pit of the order of 100 to 200 m3 per annum is possible. The cost of this structure may come about Rs 5000. 6. Utilizing Surface Rainwater to Recharge Tube well Depleted aquifers are directly fed with surface rainwater by using a recharge tube well so that recharge is fast and evaporation and transit losses are zero. A typical recharge tube well is designed as follows : 1. A borehole of 50 cm diameter is drilled to the desired depth. 2. A 20 cm diameter casing i.e. outer pipe of the bore well is designed by providing slotted perforated sections against aquifers. 3. The depth of the recharge tube well should be about 30 metre below the water table in the area. 4. The annular space between the borehole and the pipe is filled with good gravel and developed with a compressor till it gives clear water. To stop the suspended solids from entering the recharge tube well, a filter mechanism is provided at the top. 5. A pit of dimensions 6 m x 6 m x 6 m is dug with the tube well at the center. 6. This pit is filled with small rounded boulders, stone chips and sand in layers with boulders at the bottom and sand at the top. 7. The top one metre of the casing assembly in this pit is filled with sand. The top of the casing pipe is provided with a cap which is about 600 mm below the sand bed to prevent suspended material from entering the well. 8. In order to release the air present in the casing assembly during the percolation process of floodwater, the air vent is provided through a 75 mm diameter pipe connected to the recharging tube well within the top 600 mm through a reducer tee of dimensions 200 mm x 75 mm. The air releasing pipe is then extended to one of the banks where the vent is constructed. When flood water filters through the sand, most of the suspended materials are filtered out. The
12

second sand filter surrounding the slotted section of the well at the top prevents the remaining suspended material entering the well. Beyond this is a coir wrapping as a final protective filter before water enters the well. The rate gradually decreases due to setting of slit at the top. Every year, after the rainy season about one meter of the sand at the filter bed has to be replaced. Every year the well is developed with a compressor once immediately after the storage structures become empty because the water level is shallow immediately after the monsoon and development is effective. During pumping when the water is clear, it may be allowed on the filtered bed so that it takes down the slit accumulated in the filter bed into the well which is being developed. Through this method the entire filter bed also gets cleared of the silt during the time of infiltration. 7. Utilizing Roof Water to Collect into the Storage Tanks Rainwater from the roof surface is drained through gutters into storage tanks. To prevent contamination and dust to flow into the storage tanks there is a provision of a hand movable gutter connection which can be manually moved to divert the water out. The rooftop is used as the collection device. Guttering generally made of PVC is used to transport the rainwater from the roof top to the storage tanks. Storage tanks may be either above or below the ground and should be properly covered. In apartments more than one storage tanks can be used and they can be interconnected through connecting pipes. The storage tanks should have provision of an adequate enclosure to minimize contamination from human, animal or other environmental contaminants. The end of the gutter, which connects the storage tank, should be attached with a filter to prevent any contaminants to get into the storage tank. It is also advisable to drain the first flow to get rid of the dust and contaminants from the roof top. CASE STUDY OF RAIN WATER HARVESTING FOR BUILDING IN URBAN AND VILLAGE AREA Rain water harvesting system for annexure building of Govt. College of Engineering, Aurangabad is being considered for study purpose.

The Government Engineering College is located in Marathwada region of Maharashtra State. The average annual rainfall of Aurangabad town is around 700 mm/year. The population of the city is more than 10 lakh. Presently the water is supplied to the town by Municipal Corporation, Aurangabad. Considering the capacity of water treatment plant, the water is supplied to town on alternate day. The institute needs water about 350 m3 per day. In last few years it is observed that the ground water level of the town is being depleted. It is essential to conserve the rainwater not only in the city itself but also in areas surrounding to Aurangabad. No one can neglect the importance of rainwater harvesting. According it is proposed to collect roof water from at least ten hoses from each village. It is also proposed to collect rainwater from roof of Annex building of this institute. If this roof top rain water harvesting scheme is implemented all civil engineering students from this institute will have a role model. These students will see the system and in future they will be motivated to implement roof water harvesting system elsewhere. The tentative estimate is as given below. Estimate for rain water harvesting system for annex building Area of building : 2159.78 m2 Perimeter of building : 335.45 m Average annual rainfall at Aurangabad : 700 mm Coefficient of runoff : 0.8 Quantity of water to be harvested per year : 1209.47 m3 Requirement of soak pit : 6 m x 6 m x 1.5 m (Two numbers) I ) Cost of excavation : 2 x 54 m3 x Rs.60/= Rs. 6480/-

III) Plumbing cost a. PVC pipe 6" size total length 200 m @ Rs 100/- per m = Rs.20000/b. PVC pipe 4" size total length 120 m @Rs 85/per m = Rs 10200/c. Labour charges (Lump sum) = Rs 20000/d. PVC pipe accessories = Rs 10000/IV) Tube Well 100 m deep and 2 H.P. pump = Rs.30000/Total Expenditure = Rs142680 /The total cost of rain water harvesting system project is Rs.142680/Rain water harvesting system for village community This system is designed for the village community situated in locality where there is scarcity of water. The annual rainfall is 650 mm per year. The water is supplied by panchayat/local authority alternate day. Incase of summer season the water is supplied by tankers. So it is proposed to conserve the rain water by allowing it to percolate so as to meet underground water. It is proposed to conserve rain water collected on top of every house and common rain water harvesting system is designed for group of 10 houses having approximate area of 70 m2 each Estimate for rain water harvesting system for village community Area of group of houses : 700 m2 Perimeter: 340 m Average annual rainfall: 650 mm Coefficient of runoff: 0.8 Quantity of water to be harvested per year: 364 m3 Requirement of soak pit: 3 m x 3 m x 2 m I) Cost of excavation : 18 m3 x Rs.60/= Rs. 1080/-

II) Cost of material for filling of soak pit a. 75 mm to 100 mm size aggregate = Rs. 12000/b. 15 mm to 25 mm size aggregate = Rs. 12000/c. Sand = Rs. 8000/d. Protection wall with perforation = Rs 8000/e. Labour cost for filling material ( Lump sum) = Rs. 6000/13

II) Cost of material for filling of soak pit a. 75 mm to 100 mm size aggregate = Rs. 2500/b. 15 mm to 25 mm size aggregate = Rs. 2500/c. Sand = Rs. 2000/-

d. Protection wall with perforations = Rs 2000/e. Labour cost for filling material = Rs. 5000/III) Plumbing cost a. PVC pipe 4" size total length 200 m @Rs 85/per m = Rs.17000/b. Labour charges (Lump sum) = Rs 8000/c. PVC pipe accessories = Rs 6000/Expenditure for one unit of ten houses = Rs 46080/CONCLUSION Water is essential element of life. Everyone knows that, if we do not harness available sources of water and use them judiciously with proper care the problem of water scarcity is going to be serious. Irrespective of fast development in all fields of science there can be no substitute to water. Hence, it is necessary to opt for various water harvesting measures. It is the responsibility of government organization as well as individual to harvest each drop of water falling on earth surface. For this, it is necessary that each person collect the raindrops

failing on his roof, plot, and farm and recharges it under ground. Two cases of roof top water harvesting for urban and rural area have been considered in the present study. Similarly for other building roof top rain water harvesting can be implemented. In fact there is no village and habitation in India that cannot meet its basic drinking and cooking needs through rainwater harvesting techniques. REFERENCES 1. Gawai A.A. and Aswar D.S. (2006) Towards Self reliance for Water Needs through Rain Water Harvesting Conference on Engineering Technology for Efficient Rain Water Harvesting and Soil Conservation, S.G.G.Nanded, 29-30 May 2006.pp. 1-7 2. Kaushal Kishore (2004) Rain Water Harvesting, Journal of Civil Engineering and Construction Review, May 2004, pp.42-48 Magar R.B. and Waghmare S.T. . (2006) Rain Water Harvesting Conference on Engineering Technology for Efficient Rain Water Harvesting and Soil Conservation, S.G.G.Nanded, 29-30 May 2006.pp. 44-51

14

15

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

4. Harvested Rainwater for Drinking

*Dr. N. Balasubramanya

Abstract It is clear from the World water quantity that out of total available water, only 0.3% is available for human consumption. But today even this is getting polluted due to human activities like mining, industrialization has created acute shortage of potable drinking water. Rain water harvesting is one of the most ancient and easy methods that can be adopted at urban and rural level efficiently. The aim of this study is to investigate the possibility of using harvested rainwater as a source of drinking water without causing any health risk. This can be achieved by adopting suitable storage technique efficient and economical treatment methods. Roof harvested rainwater samples were collected from five different places of Bangalore during October 2005. The water samples were collected and stored in good grade plastic containers and were subjected to periodical treatments (like chlorination, solar disinfections and use of silver nitrate) and tests fro and use of silver nitrate and tests for physical chemical and Biological parameters up to May 2006 as per IS 10500:1991. All the above treatment methods suggested proved to be highly effective in reducing the colonies fro an initial value of around 300 to zero.

Introduction For centuries world has relied upon rainwater harvesting to supply water. Rainwater harvesting promotes self sufficiency and fosters an appreciation for water as a resource. It saves money, saves other resources of water, reduces erosion and storm water runoff and increases water quality. Rainwater can provide clean, safe and reliable water for drinking so long as the collection system is properly constructed and maintained and treated appropriately for its intended use. Rainwater harvesting means capturing rain where it falls or capturing the runoff in a village or town and taking all precautions to keep it unpolluted. One third of worlds population will experience severe water scarcity by the end of this century. In rural areas, the water may not be fit for drinking due to the polluted water bodies, due to contaminated ground water and also due to acute water scarcity. In urban areas, water demand

increases due to increase in the population. Hence, the most effective way to obtain fresh drinking water is to harvest rainwater. Rainwater harvesting system is inherently simple in form, and can often be assembled with readily available materials by owners, builders with a basic understanding of the plumbing and construction skills. The present investigations was proposed with a vision to overcome the scarcity of drinking water during the non rainy seasons such that it gives easy and economical solution that can be adopted both in urban and rural areas. Sample Collection and Storage Rainwater samples were collected from five different places of Bangalore during October 2005. The samples were stored in good grade plastic cans. The above samples were tested for physical, chemical and microbiological parameters. Table 1 gives the experimental finding.

* Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, M.S.Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore 54 16

Table 1 : Experimental Results of Physical, Chemical & Biological Parameters

Sample Date of Expt Turbidity pH NTU Do mg/l of Hardness mg/l Chloride mg/l Alkalinity Acidity mg/l of mg/l of CaCO3 CaCO3

1. Banashankari 2. MSRIT 3. Shivajinagar 4. Vijayanagar 5. Vidyaranyapura

14/08/05 17/01/06 21/11/05 18/01/06 12/12/05

4.6 6.3 8.3 11.9 7.3

7 8.4 8.11 7 8

7.8 7.7 8 7.7 8.1

56 22 58 58 46

13.96 16 13.2 21.3 12

86 30 40 46 18

06 08 06 12 14

A detailed study of Table 1 reveals that both the physical& chemical parameters are very much within the limits for drinking water standards specified by WHO (1984) and IS 10500:1991. However, the colony counts were quite significant in all the five samples. Therefore, it was decided to emphasize more on the microbiological contaminations and suitable treatment methods to make the rainwater fit for drinking. Treatment methods and Results All the five rain water samples were subjected to the following treatments. Solar disinfection Chlorination Using Silver nitrate Combination of the above method. Solar Disinfection Solar disinfection is a process where in microbes are destroyed through temperature and ultra violet radiation provided by the fun. Water is filled either in a clean transparent or painted (Black) bottle oxygenated by shaking, followed by topping up. It is placed in the horizontal portion on tope exposed to direct sunlight for about
Sample Date of Collection

sis hours. Such an exposure increases the temperature of water and also gives an extended dose of solar radiation killing the microbes. Chlorination Chlorination is one of the most reliable methods of disinfecting drinking water. In this method the calculated amount of chlorine is added to one litre of water sample for a specified tune and thereafter tested for the coliform counts. Silver Nitrate Silver nitrate is very small doses of 0.05 to 0.1 mg/l helps in disinfecting the drinking water. Silver nitrate in smaller doses does not impart any taste, odour or produces any harmful effect on human body. Combination of the above methods In order to investigate the effectiveness of the treatment methods following combinations were tried. a) Chlorine + Solar disinfection b) Silver nitrate + Solar disinfection. Tables 2,3 & 4 presents the details of coliform counts of the above specified treatments.

Table 2: Coliform Count (At room temperature)

Date of experiment Coliform Count/100ml (Average of 3 tests) Chlorination Silver Nitrate

1. Banashankari 2. MSRIT 3. Shivajinagar 4. Vijayanagar 5. Vidyaranyapura

20/10/05 25/10/05 25/10/05 25/10/05 28/10/05

17/05/06 17/05/06 17/05/06 17/05/06 17/05/06

17

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

Table 3 : Coliform Count (Solar disinfection using transparent bottle)

Sample Date of Collection Date of Expt Coliform count / 100ml Transparent Bottle Chlorination Silver nitrate (Average of 3 tests)

1. Banashankari 2. MSRIT 3. Shivajinagar 4. Vijayanagar 5. Vidyaranyapura

20/10/05 25/10/05 25/10/05 25/10/05 25/10/05

17/03/06 24/03/06 02/04/06 15/04/06 21/04/06

40 38 40 35 28

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

Table 4 : Coliform Count (Solar Disinfection using black painted bottle)

Sample Date of Collection Date of Expt. Coliform Count / 100 ml (Average of 3 tests) Black Bottle Chlorination

1. Banashankari 2. MSRIT 3. Shivajinagar 4. Vijayanagar 5. Vidyaranyapura

20/10/05 25/10/05 25/10/05 25/10/05 28/10/05

17/03/06 24/03/06 02/04/06 15/04/06 21/04/06

2 2 3 2 0

0 0 0 0 0

Careful study of Table 2 depicts that chlorination and Silver nitrate in very small dosages are very effective even at room conditions, justifying their selection. Detailed study of Table 3 indicates that solar disinfection using a transparent bottle is not very effective in reducing the coliform counts. However, addition of chlorine and silver nitrate have proved to be highly effective, further strengthening their selection as disinfectants. Finally from Table 4, it can be seen that solar disinfection using a black painted bottle has yielded in a more effective disinfection, the coliform counts have very significant, reduced. The reason being that a black bottle or body absorbs more heat, which enables in destroying the bacteria. In the present investigations is was observed that the water temperature in the bottles recorded a temperature around 500 C. It is also very interesting of disinfection to note that the chlorination method has established its supremacy.
18

Conclusions Rainwater collection is easy and economical both in rural and urban areas. Rainwater harvested during Oct 2005, tested till May 2006 without much changes in physical properties like colour, odour & turbidity, inspite of the fact that they were from various sources and stored in normal food grade plastic containers. All the treatment methods suggested are highly effective in reducing the microbiological contamination and also viable both at rural and urban levels. Rainwater harvesting and its treatment is affordable by individuals and will be highly useful in drought prone areas. Future It is suggested that similar investigations are made on a number of samples collected from different places, stored under different conditions.

Acknowledgement The author wishes to thank the management of M.S.Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore 560054 for all the encouragements & inspiration provided for the study. Also many thanks are due to Mr.Sunil Hegde, Mr.Anantha Padmanabha & Mr.Vinay Final Year B.E. Students for their help during the course of the experimental investigations. References : 1. Bell, F.A.Jr, D.L.Jerry, J.K.Smoth, and S.C.Lynch, Studies on home water treatment systems. Jr.Am water works Assoc. 75:104-1071984. 2. Davies C.M., and Evison L M Sunlight & the survival of entropic bacteria in natural water Journal of applied Bacteriology 7, 265-2741991. 3. Drinking water standards, www.epa.gov/safe water/md.html. 4. I.S. 10500:1991 Drinking Water Standards. 5. Jalbottt R Rural water supply and Sanitation program in India Goals, roles & innovation.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Proe. 23rd WEDC Conf. Sep 1-5 1997, Durban S.Africa. Sharma S.K. and Jain S.K, Proceedings of the International Conference on Management of Drinking water resources central leather Research Institute. Anna University & Tamil Nadu Water supply & Drainage, Board, Chennai, 1997, pp129-138. Wegelin M & Sommer B, Solar water disinfections (SODIS) Destines for world wide use. Water lines, Vol 16, No.3, IT Publications, London 1998. Winter bottom, Daniel Rainwater Harvesting, An ancient technology cisterns in reconsidered, Landscape Architecture, April .2000 pp 42-46. White G.C, Hand Book of chlorination & Alternative Disinfectants, Johns Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York 1999. Wolfe R.L., 1990, Ultraviolet Disinfection of Possible water Env.Sci and Technology 24(6), 768-773, 1990.

19

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

5. Rain Water Harvesting and Ground Water Recharge

*Madhaorao Bajirao Deshmukh

1.1 Water is an essential natural resource for sustaining life and environment. The available water resources are under pressure due to increasing demands and the time is not far when water, which we have always thought to be available in abundance and free gift of nature, will become a scarce commodity. Conservation and preservation of water resources is urgently required to be done. Water management has always been practiced in our communities since ancient times, but today this has to be done on priority basis. 1.2 Indias population has recently crossed the one billion mark, with an ever-increasing population, our country faces a serious threat to the management of her water resources as the gap between demand and supply widens. 2.1 In our villages and cities, down the ages, people have developed a wide array of techniques to harvest rainwater, which are simple, efficient and cost effective. There is a tendency to ignore these traditional water-harvesting systems. We should draw upon the wisdom of our ancient life sustaining systems and through better management, conserve our precious water resources. 2.2 Harvesting of rainwater is of utmost important and the ministry of water resources is embarking on such programme. A judicious mix of ancient knowledge, modern technology, public and private investment and above all, peoples participation will go a long way in reviving and strengthening water harvesting practices through out the country. 3.1 Ground Water Resources: - Annually replenishable resources are assessed as 432 billion cubic meters (BCM)

By adopting water harvesting, an additional 160 BCM shall be available for use. 3.2 Ground water level in some areas are falling at the rate of one meter per year and rising in some other areas at the same rate. You can capture and recharge 650000 liters of rainwater from a 100-sq. meters size rooftop and meet drinking and domestic water requirement of family of four for 160 days. The number of wells and borewells for irrigation in the country has increased five fold to 175 lacks during past fifty years. There are 25 to 30 lack wells and borewells for drinking, domestic and industrial uses. More than 80% of rural and 50% of urban, industrial and irrigation water requirement in the country are met from ground water. 3.3 Causes Of Fall In Ground Water Levels Over exploitation or excessive pumpage either locally or over large areas to meet increasing water demands. Non-availability of other sources of water. Therefore, sole dependence is on ground water. Unreliability of municipal water supplies both in terms of quantity and timings, driving people to there own sources. Disuse of ancient means of water conservation like village ponds, baolis, percolation tanks and therefore, higher pressure on ground water development. 3.4 Effects Of Over Exploitation Of Ground Water Resources Drastic fall in water levels in some area Drying up wells/ borewells Enhanced use of energy

*B.Sc., B.E. (Hon), AMICE (USA), Ex- Superintending Engineer, 54, Tatya Tope Nagar, Nagpur 20

Deterioration in ground water quality Ingress of sea water in coastal areas.

4.0 Method And Techniques Of Rain Water Harvesting Roof top rain water harvesting and its recharge to underground through existing wells and borewells or by constructing new wells, borewells, shafts etc. Capturing and recharging city storm water run off through wells, shafts, storm water drains. Harnessing run off in the catchment by constructing structures such as gabions, check dams, bhandaras, percolation trenches, sub-surface dykes etc. Recharging treated and industrial affluent underground by using it for direct irrigation or through ponds, basins or wells etc. 5.0 Objective Of Rain Water Harvesting Restore supplies from the aquifers depleted due to over exploitation Improve supplies from aquifers lacking adequate recharge. Store excess water for use at subsequent times. Improve physical and chemical quality of ground water Reduced storm water run off and soil erosion Prevent salinity ingress in coastal areas. Increase hydrostatic pressure to prevent/ stop land subsidence. Recycle urban and industrial wastewater etc. Rehabilitate the existing traditional water harvesting structure like village ponds, percolation tanks, baolis, tanks, etc With minor scientific modifications and redesigning, convert the traditional water harvesting structure into ground water recharge facilities. Use the existing defunct wells and borewells after cleaning and also the operational wells as recharge structures. 6.0 Benefits Of Rain Water Harvesting Rise in ground water levels in water Increased availability of water from wells Prevent decline in water levels Reduction in the use of energy for pumping water and consequently the costs. Reduction in flood hazard and soil erosion
21

Benefiting in the water quality Arresting sea water ingress Assuring sustainability of the ground water abstraction sources and consequently the village and town water supply system Mitigating the effect of droughts and achieving drought proofing Reviving the dying traditional water harvesting structures and their rehabilitation as recharge structures. Effective use of lack of defunct wells and tubwells as recharge structure Up gradation of social and environmental status etc. 7.0 Proposed Policy Measures For Rain Water Harvesting Provides at least one roof-top rain water harvesting structure for every 200sq. meters plot in urban areas. Revive/ rehabilitation all village ponds Subject to technical feasibility, provides at least one check dam / KT weir / Sub- surface dyke in each streamlet with catchments of 1 to 3 sq. km. Provide all drinking water wells with a recharge structure Ban construction of irrigation wells / tubewells within a distance of 200 m or less (depending on scientific criteria) of the drinking water supply well. 8.0 Success Stories Of MAHARASHTRA In Yaval taluka, Jalgaon District, Six percolation tanks, two recharge shafts and one injection well were constructed- A total of about 546 ha area benefited In Amravati District, three percolation tanks and ten cement plugs benefiting an area of 280 ha and 100 ha respectively have been constructed- rise in water level up to 10 meters recorded. Experiments of catchments treatment carried out at Adgaon and Palaswadi in Aurangabad, Ralegaon Siddhi in Ahmednagar and Naigaon in Pune by Shri Anna Hazare - effort have led to revival of streamlets and enhanced availability of ground water in the water shed. 9.0 Proposed Strategy Organize Mass Awareness Programmes involving district administration and NGOs to

educate in different sections of users and to make the programme demand oriented. Roof-Top rain water harvesting and its recharge underground through more than two lack existing but defunct drinking water and irrigation wells, or by constructing new wells, borewells, Shafts, spreading basins etc. Make roof-top rain water harvesting and recharge mandatory in all urban dwellings. Capturing city storm water run- off and recharging it through wells, shafts, spreading basins, storms and water drains etc. Harnessing run off in catchments by constructing structures such as gabions, check dams, bhandaras, percolation trenches, bus-surface dykes etc. Impounding surface run from village catchments and water shed(s) in village ponds and percolation tanks. Rehabilitation all ancient rain water harvesting structures. Invoke legal provision, if and when required, to regulate indiscriminate boring of wells and to make the installation of recharge facilities mandatory Constitute water user Association (WUA) or village Beneficiary Groups (VBG) NGOs to organize the constitution of these bodies. The WUA/ VBG and NGOs to be associated with the project right from the concept to completion stages. For expanding further scope of work, the

industrial houses to be invited to participate in the work and adopt towns and villages and provide financial support. Government organizations to act as facilitators and provide technical and financial support for creating the demonstration facilities etc. 10.0 Future Action Plans Prepare national and state level water harvesting perspective plans. Develop plans and implement roof-top rain water harvesting measures using 1,00,000 wells (existing, defunct and or operative wells to be used in the first instance) Provide rural drinking water wells with recharge facilities- cover 1,00,000 wells Harvest and recharge city storm water in 100 towns Revive and rehabilitate 1, 000 dying village ponds. Design and construct 200 percolation tanks, 5000 check dams/ bhandaras and 1,000 sub surface dykes. Recycle secondary treated urban waste water through aquifers at five centers. Identify potential aquifers in drought prone areas and declare these apart as Ground Water Sanctuaries Ref: - CENTRAL GROUND WATER BOARDMINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES.

22

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

6. Rain Water Harvesting Tanks for Supplementing Minor Irrigation Tanks during Drought
* Mohd. Mahboob Hussain

Introduction : Indias total land area is 3287263 Sqkm. The cultivated land is 55.7% i.e., 183.09 million hectors. Average annual rainfall is 117 Cm; average monsoon rainfall is 55 Cm. The occupation of about 70% of people in India is agriculture. The population of India is fed on the food production of the country. Main source of water in this country is rainfall during monsoon season. The rainfall mainly confined in the months from June to September. But it is not regular and erratic with respect to both time and place. Now a days drought and floods are the sever hazards in different parts of our country. The requirement of agricultural produce is expected to rise steeply by 2025.Hence India must concentrate on increasing area under irrigation and improving the productivity of both land and water to meet the needs of the population. The demand of water increasing due to several factors such as increase in population growth, which has led to a situation in which water has become a scarce resource. Hence it is very essential to harvest rainwater during rainy season. Rainwater harvesting is the intentional collection of rain water from a surface and its subsequent storage in order to supply water during the time of demand. Rain water harvesting is essential in view of the fact that rainfall, which is a source of fresh water, occurs in very short spells and runs off as a waste unless arrangements are made for its storing. Main source of irrigation development are dams and canals. Other option are water harvesting structure such as for ground water development, surface minor irrigation systems, watershed

development etc. Rainwater harvesting is usually classified into two types (i) harvesting for agriculture (irrigation) needs and (ii) harvesting for domestic and other needs. For irrigation needs the rainwater can be harvested during rainy season by constructing any of the following structures. 1. Major storage reservoir 2. Medium storage reservoir 3. Minor storage tanks 4. Watershed development Structures, like Check dams, percolation tanks, Sunken gully pits etc., Looking in to the rainfall trends in past forty years it is felt that rain water above 75% P.L. should be stored for beneficial use during droughts / low rainfall year. In this paper it is proposed to construct Rain Water Harvesting Tanks for the beneficial use of water for supplementing minor irrigation tanks during drought years. Rain Water Harvesting is being promoted extensively in India, particularly in the Southern States. Need for Rain Water Harvesting Tanks : Since rivers occasionally swells, hence some countries have built oversized capacity reservoirs to store surplus water which will other wise be wasted in to sea. For example, Egypt had built Oswan Dam to store water about five times the yield available in Nile River. During droughts they are successfully irrigating lands so that the country is not vulnerable by famine. In most of the areas of semi-arid region yearly rainfall is below the normal for continuous two to three years followed by a normal rainfall year. The year wise monsoon rainfall

* Deputy Executive Engineer, Medium Irrigation, I & C.A.D.Department, Govt. of A.P., Hyderabad 23

for some of the rain-gauge stations of Ranga Reddy District in Andhra Pradesh are shown in annexureI and graph enclosed showing rainfall variation for last 40 years indicates that lot of water above 75% P.L .is wasted. More over from rainfall graphs it can be seen that there are number of years when there is rainfall more than 75 % P.L followed by a low rainfall year. From graph of Monsoon rainfall versus year for Medchal R.G.S, the following conclusions are drawn. (i) In the year 1967 there is excess rainfall over 75% P.L. followed by a normal rainfall year 1968 and a low rainfall year in 1969. In the year 1971 the rainfall is much higher than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year of 1972. In the year 1974 the rainfall is much higher than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year of 1975. In the year 1976 the rainfall is much higher than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year of 1977. In the year 1978 the rainfall is much higher than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year of 1979. In the year 1983 there is flood followed by a normal rainfall year of 1984 and a low rainfall year of 1985. In the year 1990 the rainfall is much higher than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year of 1991. In the year 1996 the rainfall is much higher than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year of 1997. In the year 2000 the rainfall is much higher than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year of 2001.

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

(ix)

From the above it can be stated that the water above 75% P.L. can be stored in the proposed Rain Water Harvesting Tanks and used in the low rainfall years. Presently any irrigation project is design to utilize water out of the available 75% dependable yield. Water has to be harvested, preserved and utilized for beneficial used, as it is becoming a scarce
24

natural resource. Hence all water over and above 75% dependable yield is wasted in to sea. Since rainfall is a natural phenomenon, we do not know when and in which year rainfall will be above 75% P.L., hence it is the need of the hour to harvest Rain water above 75% P.L. also and to utilize during the drought / low rainfall year. It is proposed to construct Rain Water Harvesting Tanks without any canal system with a sluice to letdown water in the down stream for existing minor irrigation tanks. For one R.G.S (i.e., TANDUR) the year wise total yield available for one of the subgroup having 20 Sq.Miles for 40 years have been calculated. The yield available @ 75 % PL also has been calculated using stranges table which works out to 255.64 Mcft. The surplus yield available after deducting the yield @ 75 % PL from the total yield is also calculated year wise. Statement showing the above values year wise are presented in annexure- II enclosed. From the statement it is observed that for 30 years there is surplus yield available. The maximum surplus yield is 801.20 MCft. The average of surplus yield for 30 years is 267.495 Mcft, but where as the 75% dependable yield is 255.64 Mcft. The average of surplus yield is slightly higher than the yield available at 75% dependability. Since every year the surplus yield may not be available so much, hence it is proposed to utilize at least 50% of the yield available at 75% dependability duly constructing Rain Water Harvesting Tanks. In the statement minus values indicates that the yield available is below the 75% PL yield for ten years out of 40 years. Hence there is scope for storing this surplus yield in the proposed Rain Water Harvesting Tanks. More over sometimes heavy rainfall occurs in one single month followed by a dry spell of 20 to 30 days. In such case also this excess water due to heavy rainfall can be stored in Rain Water Harvesting Tanks and released for existing minor irrigation tanks during dry spell so that crops can be grown successfully. The World Banks has published a report Indias Water Economy: Bracing for a turbulent future. In this report it is highlighted that Indias storage capacity of 200m3 per person is too little, as

compared to over 5000 m3 per person in U.S.A. and Australia, and 1000 m3 per person in Mexico and China. It is also highlighted that the need for storages in India will be even more in the post climate change scenario. In India the poverty in irrigated districts is one third of that in unirrigated districts. Hence the proposed Rain Water Harvesting Tanks will increase storage capacity per person in India. Methodology for Proposing Rain Water Harvesting Tanks : In a sub-group of a given sub-basin of a river basin there may be few minor irrigation tanks, check dams and percolation tanks which together may utilize 75 % dependable yield. Whenever there is high rainfall above 75% P.L. in the catchment, the water go waste down stream and ultimately joins sea. We may not be able to know how much surplus water (above 75% P.L.) a sub-group catchment yields. Hence it is proposed to utilize at least 50 % of the water utilization of that of existing tanks designed to utilize 75 % dependable water, so that if there is failure of monsoon next year we can make use of this water for irrigation and avoid drought. The following sketch shows probable locations of Rain Water Harvesting Tanks in a given sub-group. The Rain Water Harvesting Tanks should be located in the initial reaches of streams, so that the stored water can be utilized for filling the minor irrigation tanks when there is scanty rainfall and hence crops can be grown successfully.

through natural stream with minimum conveyance losses. The Rain Water Harvesting Tanks should essentially have a sluice and a surplus weir to dispose off flood water. The sluice can be used to let down water to the down stream existing minor irrigation tanks. The design procedure of minor irrigation tank can be adopted for design of Rain Water Harvesting Tanks. The capacity of each Rain Water Harvesting Tank can be fixed based on the number of tanks to be taken up as Rain Water Harvesting Tanks duly utilizing at least 50 % of the utilization of that of minor irrigation tank designed for 75 % dependable water. Eg: - In a given subgroup if the 75% dependable water is 100 M.cft. and the existing utilization is 80 M.cft. under existing minor irrigation tanks. Rain Water Harvesting Tanks should be design to hold 40 M.cft. of water, which is 50% of present utilization. To store 40 M.cft. of water, now propose 4 tanks of each 10 M.cft. live capacity in the upper reaches of streams so that this water can be utilized during droughts / low rainfall year. Plan of operation for Rain Water Harvesting Tanks : Once these Rain Water Harvesting Tanks are constructed, the sluices should be kept open so that when it rains the water will flow down to the existing minor irrigation tanks to fill them up to their full tank level in the monsoon. When the minor irrigation tanks are filled up the sluices of Rain Water Harvesting Tanks should be closed so that water can be stored in these Rain Water Harvesting Tanks. Then depending up on the number of fillings required ( as per design ) again water can be released to lower existing minor irrigation tanks for their full utilization as per hydrological clearance given . Now close the sluices of Rain Water Harvesting Tanks and store water up to full tank level. If there are heavy rains again the surplus water will automatically flow down through surplus weir. Next year when monsoon are late, some quantity of water from these Rain Water Harvesting Tank can be released through sluices to the existing minor irrigation tanks so that farmers can take up land preparation and sowing can be done in time. Even
25

Design of Rain Water Harvesting Tanks : Select the site of Rain Water Harvesting Tanks such that it can feed the minor irrigation tank

if the monsoon fails the remaining water also can be released to down stream tanks so that the crops can be grown successfully. In a year when total rainfall is less than normal, these Rain Water Harvesting Tanks can be kept empty. Conclusions : (1) The concept of Rain Water Harvesting Tank is to store water during excess rainfall year (above 75% P.L.) and to utilize during drought /scanty rain fall year. (2) Since Rain Water Harvesting Tanks are designed to store surplus water over and above 75% P.L yield, there will not be any effect on existing minor irrigation system. (3) Success rate of existing minor irrigation tanks can be ensured by regulation of water from Rain Water Harvesting Tanks, thus utilizing water optimally. (4) Generally minor irrigation tanks are designed for 150% irrigation intensity. Because of proposed Rain Water Harvesting Tanks in upstream by storing surplus water, the intensity of irrigation can be increased to 200% by supplying water for Rabi crops by virtue of which food production can be enhanced. (5) These Rain Water Harvesting Tank can serve as percolation tank in upper reaches of catchments to improve ground water table, as there will be some dead storage below sill level of sluice of that tank. (6) Because of construction of Rain Water Harvesting Tanks the loss due to flood damages can be minimized. (7) Wastage of heavy surplus water in to sea can be minimized. (8) Rain Water Harvesting Tanks also will be very much useful for flora and fauna for maintaining ecology of that area.

(9)

There will be soil conservation in the upper reaches of the catchment because of construction of Rain Water Harvesting Tanks. (10) There is a need to workout surplus yields for every year for each Rain Gage Stations and prepare model for storing water in Rain Water Harvesting Tanks to utilize surplus water optimally. (11) As water is becoming scarce natural resource, the cost of construction of Rain Water Harvesting tanks should not come into way. (12) There is a need to formulate a coherent policy or strategy towards strengthening extension and technical support for Rain Water Harvesting Tanks for crop production. References : (1) Innovative participatory technologies for water shed development in drought prone areas of India by Sri. T. Hanmanth Rao, Consultant of united nation. (2) Hand book for planning water shed management works, Government of India, Ministry of water resources, CWC, December, 2000. (3) Paper on Irrigation development in India by Sri. Uddhao Wankede published in proceedings of National Seminar on Irrigation development India held from 910 October 2004 hosted by the Institution of Engineers (India), Nagpur local Center. (4) Irrigation manual by Illys. (5) Rain water harvesting a case study in a collage campus in Mysore, by Sri. M. R. YADUPATHI PUTTY & Sri. P.RAJE URS, Dept. of civil engineering, National Institute of Engineering, Mysore published in Hydrology Journal of Indian Association of Hydrologist volume 28, November 3-4, September December 2005.

26

ANNEXURE - I Monsoon Rainfall ( in mm ) of different Rain guage stations of R.R. District in A.P S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 Year 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Medchal N/A N/A N/A 759.9 710.3 671.9 468.2 804.2 663.4 600.9 754.9 797.7 547.8 957.6 784.4 566.7 720.1 584.1 783.3 440.3 845.2 1102.8 862.8 1858.5 673.7 563.1 445.9 604.8 933.4 845.3 760.4 624.8 645.8 767.5 787.2 899.9 775.8 533.6 988.6 701.3 791.3 589.6 629.4
27

Tandur N/A 909.1 1063.6 942.8 751.5 663.6 493.1 670.2 652.3 684.4 992.9 459.3 454 1097 850 1116.5 725.1 480.8 1216.6 585.2 650.5 711.9 665.9 1036.6 651.6 822.6 645 853.8 961.1 864.4 1173 767.4 795.8 697.2 479.8 790.8 758.6 648.3 1342.1 670.7 861.9 N/A N/A

Himayat Sagar 551.2 571.2 856 751.8 710.8 796 689.4 865.4 440.9 452.4 842 497.6 221.7 633.5 614.4 1689.6 906.8 568.5 1009.7 564.6 577.6 660.1 564.6 793.2 595.6 550.9 586 795.5 741.4 711.5 721.6 393.4 611.9 479.8 598.7 1077 803.7 514.4 983.5 540.8 N/A N/A N/A

N/A Not Available.

Annexure- II Statement showing the surplus yield beyond 75% dependability

No. Year Monsoon Rainfall in mm Yield per Sq.miles in MCft Total Yeild from subgroup C.A ( 20 Sqm) Yeild Available @ 75% PL Surplus Yeild % of Surplus Yeild beyond 75 % PL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

909.1 1063.6 942.8 751.5 663.6 493.1 670.2 652.3 684.4 992.9 459.3 454 1097 850 1116.5 725.1 480.8 1216.6 585.2 650.5 711.9 665.9 1036.6 651.6 822.6 645 853.8 961.1 864.4 1173 767.4 795.8 697.2 479.8 790.8 758.6 648.3 1342.1 670.7 861.9

27.25 38.566 29.53 17.742 13.317 6.479 13.628 12.783 14.297 33.148 5.417 5.255 41.248 23.447 42.841 16.322 6.079 51.618 9.872 12.698 15.647 13.426 36.404 12.75 21.767 12.437 23.691 30.863 24.37 47.745 18.627 20.213 27.448 6.048 19.926 18.139 12.593 52.838 13.652 24.21

545 771.32 590.6 354.84 266.34 129.58 272.56 255.66 285.94 662.96 108.34 105.1 824.96 468.94 856.82 326.44 121.58 1032.36 197.44 253.96 312.94 268.52 728.08 255 435.34 248.74 473.82 617.26 487.4 954.9 372.54 404.26 548.96 120.96 398.52 362.78 251.86 1056.76 273.04 484.2
28

255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64 255.64

289.36 515.68 334.96 99.2 10.7 -126.06 16.92 0.02 30.3 407.32 -147.3 -150.54 569.32 213.3 601.18 70.8 -134.06 776.72 -58.2 -1.68 57.3 12.88 472.44 -0.64 179.7 -6.9 218.18 361.62 231.76 699.26 116.9 148.62 293.32 -134.68 142.88 107.14 -3.78 801.12 17.4 228.56

113.19 201.72 131.03 38.8 4.19 -49.31 6.62 0.01 11.85 159.33 -57.62 -58.89 222.7 83.44 235.17 27.7 -52.44 303.83 -22.77 -0.66 22.41 5.04 184.81 -0.25 70.29 -2.7 85.35 141.46 90.66 273.53 45.73 58.14 114.74 -52.68 55.89 41.91 -1.48 313.38 6.81 89.41

29

30

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

7. Rain Water Harvesting and Recharging Ground Water

*R. K. Parghane *S. P. Kulkarni **A.W. Dhawale

INTRODUCTION : Water is the most important resource of the entire society as a whole, since no life is possible without water. As water, being a limited resource, its efficient use is basic to the survival of the ever increasing population of the world. In India, the ground water is mainly used for drinking and agricultural purposes. About 85% of drinking water is available through dug well, bore well, filter point and tube well etc. The per-capital availability of water at national level has reduced from about 5,177 m3 in the year 1951 to present level of 1,869 m3. In view of this, water management is very critical for the growth and development of any economy, more so in a large country like India which is endowed with many large rivers, lakes and wells that need to be conserved, better managed, recharged and channellised for meeting the ever growing requirement of agriculture, industrial and urban growth. Moreover exploitation of ground water has been taken up by millions of individual farmers mostly in regions where surface water is either scarce or absent to meet their dire water needs. Although this has lead to local depletion or decline of ground water levels causing serious concern about rainwater harvesting & the need to recharge ground water. The quantum of ground water so far harnessed is one third of the replenishable ground water of 431 km3 a year. In the comprehensive strategy needed for the conservation and development of water resources, several factors are to be kept in view. These include the availability of water, its quality, location, distribution and variation in its occurrence, climatic conditions, nature of the soil, competing demands & Socio-economic conditions. In dealing with each of these, every effort must be made to make the best use of water for the survival of human life, animal and plant life.

WATER AVAILABILITY : India receives precipitation (including snowfall & rain) of around 4,000 billion cubic metres (BCM), only 1,869 BCM is accessible water, of which India uses barely a third. Nearly 1,179 BCM of water drains in to the sea. Region, whose yearly renewable freshwater availability is below 1,700 m3/ person is called as the water stress region. And the region whose yearly availability falls below 1,000 m3 / person is termed as water scarcity region. But national figure of annual average per capita water availability is 2,464m3. It shows that the country is not in the water stress range so far. However in some regions per capita availability is as low as 411m3. (Kanyakumari, Pennar, Kutchh, Kathiawar, Krishna basin, etc. ) The run-off which is about 215 MHM needs to be arrested by making proper planning on micro level as well macro level. Microlevel means water conservation schemes of the state governments which is to be implemented in every village. But on macro level, a large chunk of water must be arrested by programme like national river linking. Availability and utilization of water in India is shown in table No.1 & Fig. No.1. Table No. 1
No. Item Quantity (Cu.Kms.)

1. Annual precipitation volume (including snowfall) 2. Average annual potential flow in rivers 3. Per Capita Water availability (1997) 4. Estimated utilizable water resources i) Surface water resources ii) Ground water resources

4,000 1,869 1,967 1,122 690 432

*Lect.in Civil Engg., Govt. Polytechnic, Nanded **Lect.in Civil Engg., Govt. Polytechnic, Washim 31

The average annual precipitation is 400 million Hectare Metre (MHM)

Evaporates 70 MHM

Percolates 115 MHM

Run - off 215 MHM

Moist soils 65 MHM

Enters into the ground water table 50 MHM

Fig. 1 : Details of precipitation water

RAINWATER HARVESTING AND ITS TECHNIQUES : Rain is the ultimate source of fresh water with the ground area around houses and buildings being cemented, rain water which runoff from terraces and roofs was draining into low-lying areas and percolating into the soil and causing floods else where. Rainwater Harvesting is a system by which, rainwater that collects on the roofs and the area around buildings is directed into open wells, bore wells, tube wells through a filter tank or in to a percolation chamber, built specifically to serve the purpose. The rain water can be stored in tanks and can be recharged in to the ground to improve ground water storage. The storage of rainwater on surface is a traditional technique and the structures used were underground tanks, ponds, check dams, percolation wells, weirs etc. Recharge to ground water is a new concept of rainwater harvesting. There are following three techniques of rainwater harvesting. a) Storing rain water for direct use. b) Recharging ground water aquifers, from roof top run off. c) Recharging ground water aquifers with runoff from ground area. The techniques of rainwater harvesting
32

have been depicted in the Fig.No.2, Fig.No.3, Fig. No.4.

Fig. No. 2 Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting

Fig. No. 3 Recharging of Bore well

Fig. No. 4 Recharging of Open well WHY RAINWATER HARVESTING ? To meet our water demand, we entirely depend upon rivers, lakes & ground water. However the rain is the ultimate source that feeds all these sources. The rainfall is highly seasonal and occurs over a short rainy season with a very large dry period. As a result, there is a progressive decrease in the ground water level. Hence, it should be admitted that rain water harvesting is essential because. i) Surface water is inadequate to meet our demand and we have to mostly depend on ground water. ii) Due to rapid urbanization population growth and industrialization, improved sanitation, living standard, infiltration of rain water into the sub-soil has decreased drastically and recharging of ground water has diminished. iii) Over exploitation of ground water results in toi) Ground water depletion. ii) Drying up of wells / bore wells. iii) Enhance use of energy. iv) Ingress of sea water in coastal area. It is now alarming to seriously consider about conserving water by harvesting and managing this natural resource by artificially recharging the system. HOW MUCH RAIN WATER CAN BE HARVESTED FROM ROOF TOP ? The estimation of water available from top of roof (flat terrace) is worked out by multiplying the roof area with normal rainfall data for monsoon period. Total quantity of rain water available from roof top to be used for harvesting is about 70% to 90%, due to losses like evaporation, absorption, leakages etc.
33

Following table shows how much roof water can be harvested by considering 80% efficiency and according to roof top surface areas. Roof top Area (Sq.m) Considering hypothetical case following calculations shows as to how much rain water can be harvested. Consider a building with a flat terrier area = 125 Sq.m. Average annual gainful in the area is say 1000 mm (40 inch) Suppose, there is no loss of water from the terrace floor, then in one year, there will be rainwater on the terrace floor to a height of 1000mm. Height of rainfall = 1000 mm, Volume of rainfall = 125 x 1000= 1,25,000 litres Assuming that only 80% water harvested. Volume of water harvested = 1,00,000 litres. A family of four needs 87,600 litres of water per year. (@ 60 litres / person) ARTIFICIAL GROUND WATER RECHARGE : Optimum development and sound management practices are vital to the sustained use of ground water. Ground water recharge may be increased by conservation measures and artificial recharge procedures. Artificial recharge to ground water is a process by which the ground water reservoir is augmented at a rate exceeding that obtaining under natural conditions of replenishment. In general any man-made system or facility that adds water to an aquifer is an artificial recharge system. Artificial recharge of ground water is, therefore, preferred and encouraged in the present

Roof top Area (Sq.m)

Rain Fall (mm.) 100 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.6 6.4 7.2 8.0 12.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 32.0 40.0 80 160 200 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0 9.6 11.2 12.8 14.4 16 24 32 40 48 64 80 160 320 300 400 500 600 800 Harvested Water from Roof Top (Cum) @ 80% 4.8 7.2 9.6 12.0 14.4 16.8 19.2 21.6 24.0 36.0 48.0 60.0 72.0 96.0 120.0 240 480 6.4 9.6 12.8 16.0 19.2 22.4 25.60 28.80 32.0 48.0 64.0 80.0 96.0 128.0 160.0 320 640 8.0 12.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 28.0 32.0 36.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 160.0 200.0 400 800 9.6 14.4 19.2 24.0 28.8 33.6 38.4 43.2 48.0 72.0 96.0 120.0 144.00 192.0 240.0 480 960 12.8 19.2 25.6 32.0 38.4 44.8 51.2 57.6 64.0 96.0 128.0 160.0 192.0 256.0 320.0 640.0 1280.0 1000 16.0 24.0 32.0 40.0 48.0 56.0 64.0 72.0 80.0 120.0 160.0 200.0 240.0 288.0 400.0 800.0 1600.0

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 1000 2000

days, so as to augment the natural available underground yield for management of water supply systems. Artificial recharging techniques is under intensive research and is being increasingly used in France, Israel, U.K. Germany etc. Ex.- Estimation of i) The specific yield of the aquifer and ii) The volume of Recharge during the wet season. Soln Consider, the area of aquifer is 4 km2. Water pummeled out in lowering W.T. i.e. Volume of water drained by 6.8-4.8 = 2m is 2 M.m3 Total Volume of aquifer drained in lowering W.T. by 2 m = Area x 2m = 4x106x2m3 = 8M.m3 Specific yield of aquifer S.Y. Specific yield, S.Y.= Volume of water drained
Total volume of aquifer drained
=

During wet season, the W.T. rose by, 6-4.8 = 1.2 m., Since 2m lowering of W.T. equals 2M.m3 of water, 1.2 m rise will equal to 1.2 M. m3 of recharge. DIVERSION OF RUN OFF IN TO EXISTING SURFACE BODIES Construction activity in and around the city/ town is resulting in the drying up of water bodies and also reclamation of these tanks for conversion in to plots for houses has impacted urban hydrology as under. 1. Over consumption of water increases water demand. 2. More dependence on ground water use. 3. Increase in run off, decline in well yields and fall in water levels. 4. Reduction in open soil surface area. Reduction in infiltration and deterioration of water quality.

x 100

2Mm3 8Mm3

x 100 = 25%

34

RECHARGING OF UNDERGROUND STORAGE : In order to store the surplus surface water the artificial surface reservoirs are constructed by building dams, in the summer, artificial underground reservoirs are now-a-days developed by artificial recharge for storing water underground. The development of such a reservoirs may be advantageous as compared to the development of a dam reservoir, because of the following reasons. i) Much pure water can be obtained from an underground reservoir source. ii) No space is required for building such a reservoir. iii) The cost of building such a reservoir by recharging the aquifers may be considerably less than the cost of the surface reservoirs. Moreover in an underground reservoir, the aquifer in which the water is stored shall itself act as a distribution system for carrying the water from one place to another, and as such, the necessity of constructing pipe lines or canals (as is required in a surface reservoir) is completely eliminated. iv) The water lost in evaporation from an underground reservoir is much less than the water lost from a surface reservoir. v) The raising of the water table by artificial recharge may help in building pressure barriers to prevent sea water intrusion in the coastal areas. METHODS OF RECHARGING : The below mentioned methods are being generally adopted for ground water recharging. 1. Spreading Method. 2. Recharge-well Method. 3. Induced Infiltration Method. 1. Spreading Methods : This method consists in spreading the water over the surfaces of permeable open land and pits, from where it directly infiltrates to rather shallow aquifers. In this method, the water is temporarily stored in shallow ditches or is spread over an open area by constructing low earth dykes (called percolation bunds). The stored water, slowly and steadily, percolates downward so as to join the nearby aquifers. The recharging rate depends upon
35

the permeability of the spread area and on the depth of water stored, and is generally less, say of the order of 1.5m/day, though rates as high as 22m/day have been possible. 2. Recharge-well Methods : This method consists in injecting the water in to bore holes called recharge wells. Depending upon the favorable condition of surface, the water is fed in to recharge wells by gravity or for increasing the recharge rate, it may be pumped under pressure. The recharge wells used are just like ordinary production wells. In fact the ordinary wells are many a times could directly used for recharge during the off season, when the water is not required in use. With this method high recharge rates can be obtained. This method is widely used in Israel. Moreover, this method may help in injecting water in to the aquifers and also where it is most needed. To avoid clogging of the well screens, the water used for recharging well should be free from suspended impurities. 3. Induced Infiltration Method : This method is sometimes used for recharge is that of the induced infiltration which is accomplished by increasing the water table gradient from a source of recharge. In this method, Renney type wells are constructed near the river banks. The percolating water is collected in the well through radial collectors and is then discharged in to a lower level aquifer B for storage as Shown in fig. No.5. This types of well construction is very common in France and is sometimes referred to as French system of tapping underground water. In addition to the above mentioned methods, the recharge to ground water is accomplished by using some of the structures are a) Pits : The pits have been constructed about 3 metres deep & 1 to 2 metres wide filled with boulders, gravel and coarse sand such types of ponds are constructed for recharging shallow aquifer. b) Trenches : Trenches are constructed subjected to the availability of permeable stream at shallow depth. These trenches are back filled with filter materials. The trenches may be 0.5 to 1 metre wide, 1 to 1.5 meter

increasing the available usable water by developing artificial rain technology. It is also of vital importance to conserve water by practicing economy and avoiding its wastage. However ground water exploitation is inevitable especially urban areas. To curtail its reduction, a strategy to implement the groundwater recharge, in a major way needs to be launched with concerted efforts by various Non-Governmental and Governmental agencies and the public at large, to increase the water table and make the groundwater resource, a reliable and sustainable source for supplementing water supply needs. It is about building our relationship with water and the environment. Harvest rain. Learn the prestigious value of each rain drop. REFERENCES : 1. Dr. S.V.Dahasahasra, Dr. Y.B.Katpatal & Dr.M.M.Mahajan, National River Linking Journal of CE & CR, May 2004, PP.26 34. 2. Eye Opener, Rainwater Harvesting & Recharging Ground Water enROUTE, JULDEC. 2005, Vol IX, PP. 16-17. 3. Kaushal Kishore, Rainwater Harvesting, CE & CR Journal, May 2004, PP.42-48. 4. Dr. Pranab Kumar Ghosh, Rain Water Harvesting A Ray of Hope Orissa Review, August 2004, pp. 38-40. 5. Dr. Gauhar Mahmood & Sharshikant Chaudhary A Comprehensive Water Management Plan A Case Study of Lakewood city, Harayana Journal of Indian Water Works Association, July Sept. 2004, pp. 219-228. Santosh Kumar Garg, Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering Khanna Publication.

Fig. No.5 Induced infiltration method of recharge

deep and 10 to 20 meters long depending on the availability of water. c) Dug wells : Existing dug wells may be utilized as recharge structure and water should be allowed to pass through filter media before storage.

CONCLUSION The proper conservation, maintenance and careful use of water resources, along with developing additional storages may considerably reduce the chance of water famines for further generations to come. In addition to these measures, it is necessary to find out means and ways for

36

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

8. Artificial Recharge of Aquifers in Urban Setup

*Mrs. Grace Selvarani
Introduction To meet the growing water supply demand, we are depending maximum on surface water, which is stored in the form of lakes and reservoirs. Availability and storage of water in reservoirs and lakes depends ultimately on yearly rainfall. If rainfall is inadequate or if there is draughts for successive years, surface water bodies get consumed and in such a case, we have no alternative than using the ground water. Therefore we must guard against the depletion or spoiling of our most valuable ground water storage. Natural conservation and efficient use of this natural storage and at the same time making arrangements for additional recharge of ground water aquifer by one way or other, to replenish the used ground water becomes our responsibility. We should make maximum use of the easily available normally wasted, local renewable source of water that is rainwater. The effective way to store rainwater is by allowing it to percolate into ground by enriching ground water storage. The artificial recharge to ground water aims at augmentation of ground water reservoir by modifying the natural movement of surface water utilizing suitable civil construction techniques. Artificial recharge techniques normally address to following issues (i) To enhance the sustainable yield in areas where over-development has depleted the aquifer (ii) Conservation and storage of excess surface water for future requirements, since these requirements often changes within a season or a period. (iii) To improve the quality of existing ground water through dilution. (iv) To remove bacteriological and other impurities from sewage and waste water so that water is suitable for re-use. The basic purpose of artificial recharge of ground water is to restore supplies from aquifers depleted due to excessive ground water development. 1. Basic Requirements for Artificial Recharge Projects The basic requirements for recharging the ground water reservoir are: a) Source Water Availability Before undertaking any artificial recharge project, it is a basic prerequisite to ascertain the availability of source water for the purpose of recharging the ground water reservoir. Availability of non-committed surplus monsoon runoff in space and time can be assessed by analysing the monsoon rainfall pattern, its frequency, number of rainy days and maximum rainfall in a day and its variation in space and time. b) Identification of Area The artificial recharge projects are site specific and even the replication of the techniques from similar areas are to be based on the local hydrogeological and hydrological environments. The first step in planning the project is to demarcate the area of recharge. The artificial recharge of ground water is normally taken in following areas: 1. Areas where ground water levels are declining on regular basis. 2. Areas where substantial amount of aquifer has already been de-saturated. 3. Areas where availability of ground water is inadequate in lean months. 4. Areas where salinity ingress is taking place. 2. Scientific Inputs In order to plan the artificial recharge schemes following studies are needed.

* Lecturer in Applied Mechanical Dept., M.H. Saboo & Siddik Polytechnic, Byculla, Mumbai - 8 37

Hydro meteorological Studies Hydro meteorological Studies are undertaken to decipher the rainfall pattern, evaporation losses and climatological features. These can bring out the extent of evaporation losses in post monsoon period which would be helpful in designing the storages of particular capacity with a view to have minimum evaporation losses. The data on rainfall intensity, number of rain-days, etc. help in deciding the capacity and design of the artificial recharge structures. Hydrological Studies For determining the source water availability for artificial recharge, hydrological investigations are required to be carried out in the Watershed/Subbasin/basin where the artificial recharge schemes are envisaged. Hydrological studies are undertaken to work out surplus monsoon run off which can be harnessed as source water for artificial recharge. Soil Infiltration Studies In case of artificial recharge through water spreading methods, soil and land use conditions which control the rate of infiltration and downward percolation of the water applied on the surface of the soil assume special importance. These two phenomena are closely related since infiltration cannot continue unimpeded unless percolation removes infiltrated water from the surface soil. Hydro geological Studies. A detailed hydro geological study providing information on regional hydro geological rock units, their ground water potential and general pattern of ground water flow and chemical quality of water in different aquifers are necessary so as to know precisely the promising hydro geological units for recharge and correctly decide on the location and type of structures to be constructed in field. Geophysical Studies The main purpose of applying geophysical methods for the selection of appropriate site for artificial recharge studies is mostly to help and assess the unknown sub-surface hydro geological conditions economically, adequately and unambiguously. Mostly it is employed to narrow down the target zone, pinpoint the probable site for artificial recharge structure and its proper design. Concept :

Figure (1) Elements of RWH system

Figure (2) Components of Rooftop RWH system In situ precipitation will be available almost at every location but may or may not be adequate to cause artificial recharge but the runoff going unutilised outside the watershed/ basin can be stored/ transmitted through simple recharge structures at appropriate locations. Various kinds of recharge structures are possible which can ensure that rain water percolates into the ground instead of draining away from the surface. While some structures promote the percolation of water through soil strata at shallow depth (e.g. recharge trenches, permeable pavements) others conduct water to greater depths from where it joins the ground water. (e.g. recharge wells). At many places, existing features like wells, pits, and tanks can be modified and be used as recharge structures, eliminating the need to construct any structures afresh. A few commonly used artificial recharging methods are explained here. Innumerable innovations and combinations of these methods are possible.
38

a.

Direct surface techniques Flooding Basins or percolation tanks Stream augmentation Ditch and furrow system Direct sub surface techniques Dug well/Bore well recharge Recharge pits /Recharge well Percolation pit (Soak away) Recharge trenches Modified injection well Aquifer storage and recovery Indirect Techniques Induced recharge from surface water source

. b.

This is the most common method for artificial recharge. In this method, water is impounded in series of basins or percolation tank. The size of basin may depend upon the topography of area, a flatter area will have large basin. The most effective depth of water in basin is 1.25 m because lesser or greater depths resulted in reduced rate of infiltration. This method is applicable in alluvial area as well as hard rock formation. The efficiency and feasibility of this method is more in hard rock formation where the rocks are highly fractured and weathered. Stream Augmentation Seepage from natural streams or rivers is one of the most important sources of recharge of the ground water reservoir. When total water supply available in a stream / river exceeds the rate of infiltration, the excess is lost as run off. This run off can be arrested through check bunds or widening the steam beds thus larger area is available to spread the river water increasing the infiltration. The site selected for check dam should have sufficient thickness of permeable bed or weathered formation to facilitate recharge of stored water within short span of time. The water stored in these structures is mostly confined to stream course and height is normally less than 2 m. To harness maximum run off, a series of such check dam may be constructed. 4. Ditch & Furrow system In areas with irregular topography ditches or furrow provide maximum water contact area for recharge. This technique consists of a system of shallow flat bottomed and closely spaced ditches / furrow which are used to carry water from source like stream /canals and provide more percolation opportunity. This technique required less soil preparation and is less sensitive to silting. Generally three pattern of Ditch & furrow system is adopted (i) lateral (ii) dendritic & (iii) contour. In area of low-transmissibility the density of ditch & furrow will be high. B. SUB-SURFACE METHODS 3.

c.

. d. Recharging Techniques to arrest sea water intrusion I DIRECT METHODS

A. SURFACE SPREADING METHODS 1. Flooding This method is suitable for relatively flat topography. The water is spread as a thin sheet. It requires a system of distribution channel for the supply of water for flooding. Higher rate of vertical infiltration is obtained on areas with undisturbed vegetation and sandy soil covering. 2. Basin & Percolation Tanks

Figure (3) Generalized cross-section of artificial recharge of groundwater using a surface spreading technique.

(1) Artificial recharging of aquifers through bore well/dug well Figure (4) shows typical systems of recharging wells directly from rooftop runoff.
39

Rainwater collected on the rooftop of the building being diverted by drainpipes to a settlement or filtration tank, from which it flows into a recharge well (bore well or dug well). If a bore well is used for recharging, then the casing of the bore well should be preferably be slotted or perforated pipe, so that more surface area will be available for the water to percolate

Settlement tank : Settlement tanks are used to remove silt and other floating impurities from rainwater. A settlement tank is like an ordinary storage container having provisions for inflow (bring water from the catchment), out flow (carrying water to the recharge well) and over flow. A settlement tank can have an unpaved bottom surface to allow standing water to percolate into the soil. Apart from removing silt from the water, the de-silting tank acts like a buffer is the system. In case of excess rainfall, the rate of recharge, especially of bore wells may not match the rate of rainfall. In such situations, the de-silting chamber holds the excess amount of water till it is soaked up the recharge structure. Design Parameters : Providing the following elements in the system can ensure the quality of water entering the recharging wells. 1. Filter mesh at entrance point of roof top drains. 2. Settlement Chamber. 3. Filter bed.

Figure (4) Artificial recharging of aquifers through bore well/dug well

Developing a bore well would increase its recharging capacity. Developing is a process where water or air is forced in to the well under pressure to loosen the soil strata surrounding the bore to make it more permeable. If a dug well is used for recharging the well lining should have openings, (weep holes) at regular intervals to allow seepage of water through the sides. Dug well should be covered to prevent mosquito breeding and entry of leaves and debris. The bottom of recharge-dug wells should be de-silted annually to maintain intake capacity. It is preferred that the dug well or bore well used for recharging shall be shallower than the water table. This ensures that the water recharged through the well has a sufficient thickness of soil medium through which it has to pass before it joins the ground water. Any old well, which has become dysfunctional, can be used for recharging, since the depth of such well is above water level.
40

Design parameters for settlement tank: For designing the optimum capacity of the tank following aspects have to be considered. 1. Size of the catchments 2. Intensity of rainfall. 3. Rate of recharge. Since the de-silting tank also acts as a buffer tank, it is designed such that, it can retain certain amount of rainfall, since the rate of recharge may not be comparable with the rate of runoff. The capacity of the tank should be enough to retain the runoff occurring from conditions of peak rainfall intensity. In Mumbai, peak hourly rainfall is 90 mm. (Based on 25 year frequency). The rate of recharge in comparison to runoff is critical factor. However, since accurate recharge rates are not available without detailed hydro geological studies, the rates have been assumed. The capacity of recharge tank is designed to retain runoff from at least 15 minutes rainfall of peak intensity say 25 mm/hr. Suppose the following data is available, Area of rooftop catchment (A) = 100 m2 Peak rainfall is 15 min (r) = 25 mm=0.025 m.

Runoff coefficient, (C ) = 0.85 Then capacity of the de-silting tank =A x r x C =100 x 0.025 X 0.85 = 2.215 m3 (2125 lit).

(2) Recharge pits : (Recharge well)

Figure (7) Percolation pit in section A soak away is a bored hole of up to 30 cm diameter in the ground to a depth of 3 to 10 m. The soak away can be drilled with a manual auger unless hard rock is found at a shallow depth. The borehole can be left unlined if a stable soil formation like clay is present. In such a case, the soak away can be filled up with a filter media like brickbats or pebbles. In unstable formations like sand, the soak away should be lined with PVC or M.S. pipe to prevent collapse of the vertical sides. The pipe may be slotted or perforated to promote percolation through sides. (4) Recharge trenches :

Figure (5) Recharge pit Plan and section A recharge pit is a pit 1.5 m to 3 m wide and 2 m to 3 m deep. The excavated pit is lined with a brick/stone wall with (weep holes) at regular intervals. The top area of the pit can be covered with a perforated cover to allow entry of rain water runoff. (3) Percolation pit (soak away) :

Figure (6) Percolation pit (photograph)

Figure (8) Recharge trench in section

41

Recharging through recharge trenches, recharge pits and soak away is simpler compared to recharge through wells. Fewer precautions have to be taken to maintain the quality of the rainfall runoff. For these types of structures, there is no restriction on the type of catchments from which water is to be harvested, (i.e.) both paved and unpaved catchments can be tapped. A recharge trench is simply a continuous trench excavated in the ground and refilled with porous media like pebbles, boulders or brickbats. A recharge trench can be 0.5 m to 1m wide and1m to 1.5m deep. The length of the recharge trench is decided as per the amount of runoff expected. The recharge trench should be periodically cleaned off the accumulated debris to maintain the intake capacity. In terms of recharge rates, recharge trenches are relatively less effective since the soil strata at depth of about 1.5 m is less permeable. To enhance the recharge rate, percolation pits can be provided at the bottom of the trench. Design of a recharge trench : The methodology of design of a recharge trench is similar to that for designing a settlement tank. The difference is that water holding capacity of recharge trench is less than the gross volume because it is filled with porous materials. A factor of loose density (voids ratio) of the media has to be applied to the equation. Using the same method as used for design of settlement tank: Area of rooftop catchment (A) =100 m2 Peak rainfall is 15 min. (r) = 25 mm (0.025 m) Runoff coefficient (C) = 0.85 Voids ratio D = 0.5 (assumed) Required capacity of recharge tank = (A x r x C)/D = (100 x 0.025 x 0.85) / 0.5 = 4.25 m3 (4250 liters) The voids ratio of the filter material varies with the kind of material used, but for the commonly used materials like brickbats, pebbles and gravel, a void ratio of 0.5 may be assumed. In designing the recharge trench, the length of the trench is an important factor. Once the required capacity is calculated as illustrated above, length can be calculated by considering a fixed depth and width.
42

(5) Modified injection well Injection techniques use wells to accomplish artificial recharge. Injection wells usually place water directly into a deep, confined aquifer where surface spreading would usually not work. Injection wells also require maintenance to remove particles, microbial growth, and chemical precipitates (solid substances).Hence, modified injection wells are preferred.

Figure (9) Modified injection well In this method water is not pumped into the aquifer but allowed to percolate through a filter bed, which comprises sand and gravel. A modified injection well is generally a borehole, 500 mm diameter, which is drilled to the desired depth depending upon the geological conditions, preferably 2 to 3 m below the water table in the area. Inside this hole a slotted casing pipe of 200 mm diameter is inserted. The annular space between

the borehole and the pipe is filled with gravel and developed with a compressor till it gives clear water. To stop the suspended solids from entering the recharge tube well, a filter mechanism is provided at top. (6) Aquifer Storage and Recovery

its path through the aquifer material before it is discharged from the pumping well. D. RECHARGING TECHNIQUES TO ARREST SEA WATER INTRUSION The situation of over-extraction of ground water in coastal aquifers cause problem of seawater intrusion. The method that is used to control sea water intrusion is to use recharge well barriers through a line of injection tube wells driven parallel to the coast. This mechanism establishes a pressure ridge which pushes the saline front seawards. SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS Whether the harvested water is used for direct usage or for recharging ground water, it is of utmost importance to ensure that the rainwater collected is free of any pollutants that might be added to rainwater from the atmosphere or the catchment. While polluted water directly used for consumption would have an immediate impact on health, polluted water recharged into the ground would cause long term problems of aquifer pollution. Damage done to aquifers by recharging polluted water is irreversible. Most of the precautions to ensure rainwater quality have been summarized below. (1) At the catchment level 8 Keeping the catchment clean 8 Using gratings to trap debris at the catchment itself 8 Paving the catchment with ceramic tiles stone tile or other such non erosive materials (2) At the conduit level. 8 Provision for first flush to drain off from initial spell of rain (3) Before recharging. 8 Allowing for sedimentation of water 8 Filtering the water In establishments like industries it is very necessary to ensure that the catchments surfaces are free of chemical wastes, fuels, lubricants etc.While physical and biological impurities in water can be easily removed by de-sedimentation and filtration, it is very difficult to remove chemical impurities.

Figure (10) Generalized cross-section of aquifer Storage and Recovery Aquifer storage and recovery is a special type of artificial recharge of groundwater that uses dualpurpose wells for both injecting water into the aquifer and recovering (withdrawing) it later. Although the intent of artificial recharge generally is to increase groundwater storage for later use, incidental activities such as excess irrigation, storm water disposal, canal leakage, and leaking water pipes may also result in artificial recharge. Artificial recharge and aquifer storage and recovery are valuable water management tools that effectively help to offset increased demands for water. II INDIRECT METHODS C. INDUCED RECHARGE It is an indirect method of artificial recharge involving pumping from aquifer hydraulically connected with surface water such as perennial streams, unlined canal or lakes. The heavy pumping lowers the ground water level and cone of depression is created. Lowering of water levels induces the surface water to replenish the ground water. This method is effective where stream bed is connected to aquifer by sandy formation. The greatest advantage of this method is that under favourable hydro geological situations the quality of surface water generally improves due to
43

SCALE OF WATER HARVESTING: Most methods described here are applicable at a singular building or establishment level. However, the same principles can be applied for implementing water harvesting at a larger scale, say, a residential colony or an institutional cluster. To an extent, the nature of structures and design parameters remain the same; the physical scale and number of structures may increase corresponding to the size of catchment.

To control the total amount of runoff received by a large-scale system, the catchment can be subdivided into smaller parts. A locality-level water harvesting system illustrated in figure shows how the runoff from individual houses can be dealt with at the building-level itself, while remaining runoff from the storm water drain (which drains water from roads and open areas) can be harvested by constructing recharge structures in common areas

Figure (11) Tapping storm water drains in a community level system

References: 1. A Water Harvesting Manual Published by Centre for Science and Environment 2. Guide on Artificial Recharge to Ground Water Published by Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources 3. web site www.rainwaterharvesting.org 4. www.waterencyclopedia.com 5. http://www.aboutrainwaterharvesting.com/rwh_methods.htm

44

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

9. The Scope of Rainwater Harvesting in Urban Areas

*Sandip. H. Deshmukh **Prof. R. B. Magar

Abstract : A project is being undertaken for the feasibilty study of RainWater Harvesting for the buildings in the premises of Fr.Agnel Technical Education Complex, Vashi. The research is being carried out as a part of one of the objectives of Agnel Seva Ashram, Save Electricity & WaterAbhiyan (SEWA ). In a city like Mumbai, where the ground surface is heavily concretised, the main way to harvest rainwater is to tap the water falling on the terraces of buildings. Thus, in residential or commercial buildings, the pipes on terraces should be connected not to the BMC drains but to a recharge well or recharge pit. This process is termed recharging the groundwater. The same bore well or tube well then can be used for pumping out the groundwater. Key words : Aquifer, Recharging, Catchments Area, Average annual rainfall.

1.

INTRODUCTION The rapid development in science and technology in the world has brought the countries closer to each other and the world has become a global village. Vasudeiva Kutumbakam (The world the one family) is the need of the day. The integrated world is the new concept which Acharya Vinobaji Bhave had given in his slogan of Jay Jagat long back in the same context. However as we see our country progressing in the global market there is increase in the suicides of Indian farmers every year. Today, it is the responsibility of engineers in all the disciplines to come together to provide them with possible alternatives to cope up with the problems of environmental imbalances and scarcity of proper knowledge to adjust with the weather uncertainties. On the other side, there are urban cities which are over-flooded with the population and finding the difficulties like inadequate supply of municipal water. Even though Bombay Municipal Corporation is in denial of a water crisis, since October 2002 it has made it mandatory for all new constructions covering

an area of more than 1,000 square metres to install a rainwater harvesting system that will tap the terrace water and make it flow to a bore well. The BMC will henceforth supply such buildings only 90 liters/person/day for drinking, cooking, where as they are expected to derive another 45 liters/ person/day from rain water for flushing of toilets and other not potable uses.While many builders have only recently and grudgingly started implementing BMC s directive, it will come as a surprise to many that the costs of doing it are not that high. 2. THE PRINCIPLE OF RAINWATER HARVESTING Rainwater falling on the ground is absorbed by the earth and it constitutes the groundwater. This water is stored amidst the loose soil and hard rocks beneath the earths surface just as sponge stores water. Just as the water can be sucked out of a sponge, so can groundwater be sucked out from beneath the earth through bore wells. All this can happen only if the rainwater is allowed to touch the loose earth. Extreme urbanisation in a city like

*Asst.Professor **Sr.Lecturer Fr. Agnel Technical Education Complex, Sector 9A, Vashi, Navi Mumbai 400703. E-mail: sandiphk@rediffmail.com, rbm59@rediffmail.com 45

Mumbai has meant that at least three-fourths of the citys surface area has been developed, that is, covered in hard concrete by way of buildings and roads. The BMCs extensive drainage system in the form of big nullahs and small arterial gutters is designed to ensure that rainwater does not accumulate on the roads and buildings. It is another matter that nullahs and gutters get choked with garbage and silt and many areas of Mumbai still experience flooding. But even this flooded water cannot seep in through the hard concrete. Which is primarily why one needs to devise techniques that can make the rainwater seep into the earth. It is also necessary to ensure that only reasonably pure rainwater goes into the ground, or else there is a grave risk of contamination of groundwater. The different techniques to make rainwater seep into the ground, which otherwise would not happen naturally, is known as rainwater harvesting. In a city like Mumbai, where the ground surface is heavily concretised, the main way to harvest rainwater is to tap the rainwater falling on the terraces of buildings. The idea is to prevent this water from running off in BMCs drains and divert it to bore wells or storage tanks. Thus, in residential or commercial buildings, the pipes on terraces should be connected not to the BMC drains but to a bore well. This process is also termed as recharging the groundwater. The same bore well is then used for pumping out the groundwater for use. 3. THE PROJECTS DONE ON RWH IN MUMBAI Let us have a short survey on the projects on RWH done in the past in Mumbai & near by area.

This will consolidate our methodology & validate the procedure. The simple formula to find the water harvesting potential is given below in Fig.1. 3.1 RWH for Indian Woman Scientists Association The site of the construction is located at Plot.No.20, Sector 10A of Vashi, Navi Mumbai. In this site both the methods of rainwater harvesting i.e. storage and recharge is proposed. The site falls in a deccan trap terrain with top layer covered with clay. 3.1.1 Recharging underground aquifers The roof water from the top through the rain water pipes can be collected by series of chambers with interconnected pipes and diverted to the recharge well. The evaluation of rainwater harvesting potential is done by the method shown the Fig.1. The collection chambers are designed to be of 0.5 m x 0.5m x 0.5m in size and the interconnecting pipes are of 6 inches in diameter. The recharge well is of 2m x 1.5m x2m in size, and the recharge bore of 20m depth. This recharge well can be filled with filtering materials consisting of layer of pebbles and sand each of 0.3m in thickness. In the recharge well a recharge bore well of 6 inch diameter of 50m depth should be drilled using air compressor. A slotted casing pipe of 1m length should be provided inside the recharged well. This slotted pipe will be wrapped with coir rope to prevent the entry of fine silt into the recharge bore well. The cost for recharge well including collection chambers and interconnecting pipes is Rs.30, 000.

Fig.1 : Evaluating Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting Potential 46

Fig. 2 : Design & Estimate of Recharge Well

3.1.2 Trench cum percolation pit : The surface runoff from the drive way, lawn and the part of the roof water normally flows to the road would be harvested by constructing a collection trench measuring 2.5m length,0.5m width and 0.75 m depth. This will be covered with a metal grill for easy vehicular movement. The runoff collected will
47

be used for recharge purpose by constructing two percolation chambers of 0.5m x 0.5x 0.5m in size with a recharge bore of 10m depth of 6 inch diameter. The collection chamber can be provided with pebbles for filtering purpose. Two numbers of trench cum percolation pits will be constructed in two gates and the total cost will be Rs 40,000.

Fig. 3 : Trench cum Percolation Pit

3.1.3 Storage tank system: The rainwater can be stored in a sub surface concrete tank below ground level and will be used for flushing purpose. This sump can be either in addition to the existing tanks or if the drinking water is stored in separate tank, the rainwater can be directly routed to existing storage tanks through filtration chamber.As per our observation the association has routed the complete roof water to the existing storage tank of capacity 50,000 litres through a filtration chamber of size 1m x 1m x 1m.The first flush device is a diversion valve of 3 inch size. The initial rooftop rainwater with silt is flushed out to the sew age drain. Then the filtered water from the filtering tank is connected to the storage tank. The cost of constructing the storage tank along with first flush, filtering tank & interconnecting pipes is 72,000/-

3.2 RWH proposal for Anoopam Mission Centre, Kharghar : Another case study was observed to be carried out for Anoopam Mission Centre, Kharghar, and Navi Mumbai. The options for RWH proposed a) Storage of Rainwater b) Recharging Underground Aquifers The Average Annual Rainfall in the region is 2250 mm with Runoff coefficient 0.85 (as per CSE). Catchments Area & Potential Rainwater Quantity : Consider the Terrace (Roof top) Area as the minimum catchments area available: 656 Sq.m. Quantity of Water available =656sq.m x 2.250x0.85 =1254.6m3 =12, 54, 600 Litres/4moths Assuming 50 days of the rainy days per year the Harvestable Water per day =25,092L/day

Fig. 4 : Design of Storage Tank Design

48

Water Requirements /day (Min): 50 Residents @ 135 L/ h /day =6,750L 60 Day staff or Personnel @ 45L/h/day =2,700L 1000 Visitors @15L/h/day =15,000L Total Flushing Requirements = 11,100L /day Garden Requirements = 680 Sqm @ 4L/sq.m = 2,720 L /day Total Water Requirements =27,170 L /day The harvested rainwater can be used for flushing and gardening purposes. The rain water from the terrace is to be routed to an underground Rainwater Storage Tank though a silt trap & 2 filtering tanks each of 1mx 1mx1m size with a facility for bypass or overflow into Cidco Storm Water Drain or Nallah. The terrace and filter media needs to be cleaned before letting water into tank and mesh filter should be provides at the rainwater pipe inlet. No fertilizers or pesticides should be allowed to enter the system. Thus with the above data a suitable size of the tank can be arrived. 3.3 RWH in Urban Housing Societies 3.3.1 Potential and estimate of installing rainwater harvesting in a 12-year old building in Kandivli : In the Coronet Co-op. Housing Society, Lokhandwala Township, Kandivli there are two wings of seven floors each and four flats on each floor. That means the total flats are 56 with the area of terrace equal to 360 sq. m. Assuming the average yearly rainfall in Bombay of 2 metre high per sq. m. The harvestable rainwater volume: 360 sq.m x 2m x 0.85 = 612 (cu. m.) = 612,000 litres One-time estimated cost of installing a rainwater harvesting system is evaluated as shown below: For 50-250ft deep bore well : Rs 45,000 to Rs 60,000 Settlement tank and filtration tank: Rs 15,000 to 30,000 adjacent to bore well Piping work: Rs 15,000 to Rs 20,000 ============================================== Total cost : Rs 75,000 to Rs 1, 10,000 (Average cost per flat = Rs 1350/- to 1965/-) ============================================== 3.2.2 RWH for Ekta Woods : In the month of February 2006 it was observed that a new group of
49

buildings, Ekta Woods of Ekta Shelters Builder at Borivli (East), having three wings of eight floors each and four flats on each floor, the rainwater harvesting system was in the final stage of construction. A casual enquiry with the sitesupervisor revealed that its total cost was about Rs 300,000. When you average it out across the collective 96 flats in the three wings it worked out to just Rs 3,100 per flat which is just 0.17 per cent of the average cost of a flat of Rs. 18,00,000. 4. THE PROJECT ON RWH AT Fr. A. T. E. COMPLEX : A project is being undertaken for the feasibility study of Rainwater Harvesting for the buildings in the premises of Fr. Agnel Technical Education Complex, Vashi. The research is being carried out as a part of the one of the objectives of Agnel Seva Ashram (ASA) as to Save Electricity & Water Abhiyan(SEWA). 4.1 Factors Influencing RWH potential: There are various factors which are influencing RWH potential. Rainwater harvesting is catching rainwater, when and where it falls for the use. It can be done in two ways, either by diverting it into tanks, ponds etc or as ground water by injecting into the soil aquifers. The choice of the system depends on Geography of area, topographical features of the site etc. Ecological and climate conditions Rainfall available at the site The rainfall Pattern Site characteristics like type of catchments, runoff coefficient of site 4.2 Benefits Projects on RWH: 1. It is an attempt to make a standby arrangement or emergency supply services for the water needs of the complex. 2. Rain water harvesting replenishes the ground water table and enables the dug wells and bore wells to yield in a sustained manner. 3. If ground water is brackish, harvesting will reduce the salinity of water. Flooding of low lying areas and roads can be avoided to a large extent, since rain water that is not harvested both within

the house as well as out side is responsible for flooding. 4. Rain water harvesting can be used for irrigation purpose. 5. It promotes conjunctive use of river, rain ground, and sea and sewage water. 6. It prevents unsustainable exploitation of the aquifer. 7. It ensures efficiency, economy and equity in the water use through co-operative management of water sheds and command area. 4.3 The various plans of RWH : Plan A : The first option is to utilize the three existing water tanks of fire fighting system of capacity 1,52,400 liters (50800*3) to fill the rainwater collected from the roof top. We can route the rainwater pipes of the BalBhavan & Boys hostel Building to these tanks through proper interconnected pipes, Devas filters and filtration chambers. These two buildings have got rain water harvesting potential per year of 16,25,630 liters. The yearly flushing requirement for the two building per year is 71,35,750 liters (considering 85litres consumption per day per capita excluding drinking water requirement). There is one more tank of capacity 1,020,50 liters which can be used for drinking purpose. There is a provision to divert the BMC water supply to this tank with a flow control valve to fill the other three tanks if these tanks remain empty. One of the water pumps would be pumping the water from these three interconnected tanks supplying water to the buildings of Boys hostel & BalBhavan for flushing.

Plan B : To dig a trench of 3m deep and 1m wide along the inside portion of the compound wall and fill it with HDPE (High Density Poly Ethylene) Film and clay along the length of the wall of the campus as shown in the fig 6. This will not allow the saline sea water to drip into the soil of Fr.A.T.E.C.campus. Then using the bore wells of 15m to 18m deep we will pump out the existing saline water from the soil creating the voids which can be recharged with the rainwater. Using the recharge well technique we will fill the underground aquifers with the rainwater collected from the roof tops as shown in Fig 7. Then we can take two additional bore wells to retrieve this stored water during non monsoon season. The care should be taken that we pump less quantity of water than what we will recharge. We are also trying to construct open well instead of bore well if it is feasible.

Fig. 5 : Routing rainwater to the storage tanks 50

Fig.6 Compound Wall of HDPE Film

 Plan C : The third plan is most assured way of getting the rain water collected from the roof tops. This includes collecting the water from the rooftops into underground tanks or open wells designed according to rooftop area and the average annual rain fall. This plan has limitations of high initial investment cost of constructing tanks of Rs.1000/per m 3 and regular maintenance of the filters. However this is the most ensured way of getting the rainwater during the no monsoon season. With proper filtration system incorporated we can even use rainwater stored in these tanks for drinking purpose.

Plan D : In this plan we are planning to mount loft tanks wherever necessary in staff quarters. The rainwater pipes can be routed to these tanks fitted in the houses. These tanks can be interconnected in such a way that, once the tank on the upper floor is full, water starts filling the tank on the adjacent lower floor. These tanks can be used only to store water for flushing purpose. 5. PILOT STUDY FOR DIFERENT PLANS

5.1 PLAN A: Total Catchments area of = 530 + 320 = 850 m2 Boys Hostel and BalBhavan Average annual rainfall = 2.25 m in Navi-Mumbai Total quantity of Harvestable Water = 850 X 2.25 = 1912.5m3 Considering 15% losses = 1912.5 X 0.85 = 1625.625 m3

Fig.7 Recharging bore well with Wall of HDPE Film

(For four months) Total quantity of water available = 16, 25,625 L (By considering 50 Rainy days) Quantity of harvestable water = 32,512.5 L / Day. Assuming the requirement of 85L /capita/day The total requirement of water for = 230X85x365 = 19,550L/day = 19.55 m3 /Day =136.85m3/Week both the buildings.

Fig. 8 : Rainwater Harvesting for Bal Bhavan Building 51

As mentioned earlier, we have decided to route the rainwater pipes of the BalBhavan & Boys hostel buildings to the existing three tanks of fire fighting system of capacity 50,800L each through proper interconnected pipes, filters and filtration chambers. The total size of water that can be stored will be 1,52,400L i.e.152.4 m3.This will be quite sufficient for weekly storage of rainwater 136.85m3 during rainy season. Also after the monsoon this water will be sufficient for 152.4/19.55 = 8 days during summer season.

Then the total volume of 450m3 rain water can be harvested by the method of under ground storage water tank. This will be sufficient for 450/37.5=12 days of non monsoon season saving the equivalent cost of Rs.4,950/- per Year.

Fig. 9 Rainwater Harvesting for Boys Hostel Building

Fig.10 Rainwater Harvesting of Fr. Agnel Degree &Diploma Buildings

5.2 PLAN C: Total catchments area = 2500 sq. m. Average annual rainfall = 2.25 m in Navi-Mumbai Total quantity of Harvestable = 2500 x 2.25 = 5,625 m3 Water Considering 15% losses = 5625 x 0.85 = 4,781.25 m3 Total quantity of water available = 47, 81,250 L (For four months) (By considering 50 Rainy days) Quantity of Harvestable water = 95,625 L / Day

5.3 PLAN B : We are trying to implement this plan by first doing hydro geological investigation and estimating the rough estimate of construction of gravel pack ring well cum bore well. This is necessary to be carried out in order to identify points or locations for ground water development. As per the quotation

available per day Assuming the requirement of 15L /capita/day The total requirement of water = 2500 x 15 = 37,500L/day = 37.5m3 /Day If we design and construct two tanks of size 15m length X 5m Width X 3m depth having the total Area = 225m3
52

Fig.11 A open tank constructed with HDPE film

from one of the consultants the assessment cost will be Rs 7,500/After this assessment we will be able to conclude whether we can take open well or not. Also the estimate for one gravel pack ring well cum bore well given including all taxes is 1,53,210/-. For protection against the saline water to enter inside the soil of the complex, HDPE film of gauge 500 micron can be used as imperious film in the trench that we are going to excavate .The cost of the film is around Rs.50 per m2. We have to calculate the film area required and the quantity of excavation of

the trench. The rate of excavation depends on the strata below the ground. 5.4 OBSERVATION TABLES After carrying out the pilot study we have made a observation Table 1, comparing the water harvesting potential of each building with the annual water requirement .This also facilitate cost benefit analysis of the project. Also Table 2 shows the rough estimate of the particulars of Plan A which very soon we have decided to implement.

NO. I 1 2 3 4 5 II III IV 1 2 3

PARTICULAR ITEM PVC PIPES DIA.100mm DIA.120mm DIA.140mm DIA.150mm DIA.160mm DEVAS FILTER ELBOWS 45 ANGLE EXACUVATION P.C.C. BRICK WORK

UNIT m m m m m m3 m3 m3

RATE / UNIT 155 165 175 180 185 600 100 150 15000 1400

TOTAL QNTY. 28.22 56.6 29.92 15.9 18.5 7 7 17.89 1.19 7.45 TOTAL RATE :

TOTAL COST 4374.1 9339 5236 2862 34225 4200 700 2683.5 1785 10430 55,469.10/-

53

Fig.12 Fr. Agnel Technical Education Complex, Vashi

6.

FURTHER STUDIES IN PROGRESS We have decided to first implement Plan A which involves designing the interconnecting pipes with DEVAS filters. The rain pipes will be connected to main pipeline through these filters that are costing approximately Rs. 600/- each. The following figure shows the DEVAS filters which can be manufactured easily from PVC pipes and sands of various sizes. The crucial factor is soil assessment and determination in what way we can recharge and retrieve the rainwater. This will be the area of our further research.

Fig.13 : Manufacturing of Devas Filters for Water Purification

54

7.

CONCLUSION and FUTURE SCOPE As per our Vedic scriptures the Great Saint Parashara says || Annam Hi Dhanya Sanjatam, Dhanyanm Krishya Vina Na Ch || Tasmad Sarvam Parityajya, Krushim Yatnen Karayet ||1|| || Vrustimula Krushi Sarva, Vrushti Mulam Ch Jeevanam || Tasmadadau Prayatnen,Vrushti dhnyanam Samacharet ||2|| Which means we get food from grains.Without doing farming we can not get grains. Therefore leaving every thing aside we should do harvesting. As the root of agriculture is in the rains, life is dependent on rains. Therefore we should very meticulously study the rains Thus in the direction of his guidance we march forward to get more and more knowledge about rain harvesting and water management. We should feel proud of harvesting rainwater in our own houses

and flats, complexes since it makes us more self sufficient and less dependent on government for our requirements of fresh water. Let us make a sincere attempt to harvest rainwater falling on both rooftop as well as the open area all around our homes to prevent any further deterioration of ground water source. 8. REFERENCES Anil Agarwal, Available from: http:// www.rainwaterharvesting.org Accessed: 2006-0723 Sunita Narain & Rahul Ranade (2003). A Water Harvesting Manual, Centre For Science And Environment, New Delhi M. Jacob, (2005), Technical Report for rainwater harvesting, Navi Mumbai Gopal Chandorkar (2005). Parjanya Mapan va Purva Anuman, Proceedings of Traditional Wisdom in Water Management, pp. 96-101, A National Conference at Nasik, October 2005, The Indian Council for Water & Culture, Aurangabad

WATER SCARCITY DIVIDE PEOPLE.. .. RAINWATER HARVESTING UNITES THEM.

55

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

10. Measures for Water Conservation and Improvement in Water Quality

*R. S. Goel **V. B. Patel
ABSTRACT Safe water supply and environmental sanitation are vital for protecting the environment, improving health and alleviating poverty. According to the World Bank estimates, water pollution accounts for about 60% of the major annual environmental costs in India. Availability of water in India is under tremendous stress due to growing population, rapid urbanization, increase in per-capita consumption, industrial growth and other demands for maintaining ecology. It is to be stressed that non-development of water storage projects is not a viable or available option; due to the large temporal variations in river flows in Indian monsoonic climate. Integrated water management is most vital for poverty reduction, environmental sustenance and sustainable economic development in India because water has the potential for both disease causation and prevention. This article highlights the challenges in supplying the qualitative water for the bulging requirements of water for various uses in our highly populated country and suggests measures to overcome the serious crisis. The article would help the policy planners, municipal agencies and professional societies to properly focus and channelise their energy for integrated water resources development and management. Keywords- water quality, water management, wastewater, reuse, recycle, INTRODUCTION It is estimated that 80% of all diseases and over 1/3 rd of deaths are caused by consumption of contaminated water and on an average as much as 1/10th of each persons productive time is sacrificed to water related diseases. India supports 1/6th of the worlds population on 1/50th of worlds land with meager 1/25th of the worlds water resources. Due to the indiscriminate discharge of untreated sewage and industrial effluents into natural water bodies, the quality of surface water as well as ground water is deteriorating in India. Deteriorating water quality has become a serious problem. Safe water supply and environmental sanitation are vital for protecting the environment, improving health and alleviating poverty. Unless facilities for the treatment of domestic sewage and industrial effluents are manifold increased, the increasing pollution load due to urbanization will further deteriorate the quality of water bodies. Preserving the quality and the availability of the freshwater resources is the most pressing of the many environmental challenges on the national horizon. It is imperative that conservation, recycle, reuse of precious water and proper

*Former Vice-President, Indian Water Resources Society, Former Convenor of Programmes, Water Management Forum, Convenor, Coordination Committee, Water Related National Professional Societies, Chief Engineer, Narmada Tapi Basin Organisation, Central Water commission, Sector 10 A, Gandhinagar (Gujrat) 382043 E-mail - goelrscwc@yahoo.com **Vice-President, Indian Water Resources Society, Former Chairman, Central Water Commission, Former Chairman, Board of Governors, Water Management Forum, Co-chairman, Coordination Committee, Water Related National Professional Societies, 128, Manekbaug Society, Ambawadi,Ahmedabad38 00 52 E-mail - vbpatel@multimantech.com 56

treatment of waste are given serious attention for sustainability of built environment for our highly populated country. CONCENTRATED WATER NEEDS DUE TO RAPID URBANIZATION During last 50 years the share of urban population in the country has increased from 14% to 33%. During the last fifty years the population of India has grown two and half times, but Urban India has grown by nearly five times. Indias population has already crossed 1 billion mark and it has been assessed that the urban population may reach 50% of the total population by the middle of this century, as against about 33% at present. Already there is acute shortage of drinking water supply in cities like Bangalore, Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad and Chennai and water is being transmitted long distance to cater to the needs. Between years 2000 and 2050 freshwater withdrawals by urban areas will rise from an estimated minimum of about 15 BCM to a projected maximum of about 60 BCM. Options like watershed management, rainwater harvesting, groundwater exploitations, which create spatially distributed resources, are unable to meet these concentrated demands. Supply of safe drinking water to such a large urban population besides meeting the commercial, industrial, cattle and recreational purposes is proving a Herculean task and calls for creating concentrated sources of water to meet the concentrated demands. WATER CONSERVATION Water Conservation has three broad connotations; maximum storage of rainwater, economical and optimal use including prevention of wastage/ leakage and multiple use Reuse and Recycling. In urban water supply almost 30 to 40% of the water is wasted through the distribution system. In Industrial sector also, there is a scope of economy in use of water. Public awareness should be generated through a massive campaign of communication through all available media and by the utility management itself setting an example for conservation. All urban dwellers should be made aware of the source from which water is being brought to the city and from which additional water will have to be brought in the future. They should be aware of the costs involved, not only in financial
57

terms, but also the cost that other communities have to incur in terms of opportunity lost by not using the water. The measure for water conservation should include metering of supplies as a matter of policy and increase in tariff rate on a sliding scale. Use of treated effluents, in place of filtered water for horticulture and large gardens, and fitting of wastenot taps on public stand-posts to avoid wastage of water should be encouraged. WASTEWATER GENERATION Between years 2000 and 2050 freshwater withdrawals by urban areas will rise from an estimated minimum of about 15 BCM to a projected maximum of about 60 BCM. About 80 percent will be returned as polluted wastewater to nearby surface water bodies. This will result in massive pollution of fresh surface water resources. A large part of the sewage in most of the municipalities is still flowing into the aquatic environment without any treatment, thereby increasing the oxygen demand in shrinking water bodies and increasing the bacterial load of water, the main cause of water borne diseases. Discharge of untreated domestic waste water is predominant source of pollution of aquatic resources in India. Urban centers contribute more than 25% of the sewage generation in the country. The smaller towns and rural areas do not contribute significant amounts of sewage due to low per capita water supply. Waste water generated in these areas normally percolates in the soil or evaporates. Owing to the indiscriminate discharge of untreated sewage and industrial effluents into natural water bodies, the quality of surface water as well as ground water is deteriorating. A result of this is that the principal drinking water supply sources of cities and towns are becoming polluted of which is increasing considerably the cost of water treatment. Even in the mega cities namely Mumbai, Calcutta, Delhi and Chennai; wherein about two third of the total wastewater of 23 metro cities is generated, the waste management is highly unsatisfactory despite the huge infrastructure and paraphernalia due to many socio-political and managerial problems. Of the wastewater generated in Class I cities, 12 metropolitan cities accounted for about 65 percent. Mumbai and Delhi generated more wastewater than that generated in all the Class II cities together. About 80% of about 20% collected

wastewater in these cities was receiving primary or primary and secondary treatment. Further, out of the wastewater generated in Class II cities, only 5% was being collected and only 2% was receiving some kind of treatment. Almost all the wastewater was being disposed in the rivers and agricultural lands, affecting surface and ground water; creating highly alarming situation. The major water polluting industries are leather, sugar, distilleries, paper and pulp, chemicals, iron and steel, and metal plating. A large part of industrial water pollution is caused by small-scale units. The integration of proper water supply, recycling and reuse of water, roof water harvesting and adequate sanitation facilities in all cities and bigger towns is absolutely vital for revival and maintaining the integrity and purity of rivers eco-system. In the 8th five-year plan 24 highly polluted stretches in rivers of 16 states were identified and Ganga Action Plan Phase I & II were launched which were later on integrated into National River Conservation Plan. Focus of the River Action Plans has been on sewage with very little success with regard to the other two forms of water pollution viz., industrial pollution and agricultural run off. SURFACE WATER POLLUTION About 75% of domestic water supplies from urban areas come back as return flow, deteriorated in quality due to organic, chemical and bacterial pollution. Even though, drains and rivers have been functioning as waste disposal channels from time immemorial; but the pollution load in earlier times was within the self-purification capacity of these streams. Due to the bulk of discharge of effluents with very heavy doses of impurities of the modern day world which are mostly untreated, the pollution load is now manifold and beyond the self-purification capacity of the rivers. Analysis of water quality data for 1997 reveals that Gujarat tops in chemical pollution, followed by Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu , Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. The worst affected states in terms of presence of coliform bacteria in water, are Uttar Pradesh, Gujrat, Tamilnadu and Assam. In terms of BOD values Kerala is at the bottom and Maharashtra at the top (most polluted). Many of the modern water pollutants are nonbiodegradable. Greater abstraction of water,
58

especially during lean season for various diverse uses has greatly diminished the dry flows in streams. To reverse this situation, moderation of floods and increasing the dry season flows is imperative. The increasing discharge of domestic and industrial wastes has also led to the contamination of ground water, making it unfit for human consumption at many places. In some regions, over-exploitation of ground water has led to salinity ingress and severe depletion of ground water accentuated by low recharge capabilities. For small scale sector, a scheme titled Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP) has not been uniformity successful as different units within the same complex release different types of effluents which cannot be treated through a single technology. More important, pooling of resources for this common cause has not found favour with small scale & cottage industry. Waste Water Generation from Different types of Industries and Possible Reuse
Industry Average Volume of Wasteland per Unit of Product 155 kl./hr/MW 250 kl./tonne 150 kl./1000 lit/tonne 4.5 kl./tonne 15 lit/lit of alcohol 250 lit/kg cloth 34 lit/kg of raw hides Possible Percent Reuse 98 50 40 40 25 15 12

Thermal Power Plant Pulp & Paper Iron and steel Pharmaceutical Distillery Textile Tannery

The main challenge lies in devising instruments, which make it attractive for corporate sector to conserve and recycle water by adopting less water intensive processes and encourage material recovery. The direct regulation of the Command and control Type has not worked due to weaknesses in enforcement coupled with low level of penalty. Under regulation of this kind, perceived benefit from conservation must be more than the cost of compliance. GROUND WATER POLLUTION Regulation and conservation of ground water present technical and administrative difficulties

because precise delineation of aquifers is difficult and monitoring and control of extraction by large numbers of individually owned wells is not feasible. Accordingly, depending upon the characteristics of the pollutants and application of water, the pollutants may migrate to the saturated zone along with recharge water, thereby affecting ground water quality. The reasons for ground water pollution mainly related to the faulty agricultural practices, industrial pollution, municipal pollution, mine pollution and natural pollutants present in the ground water itself. Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) is monitoring the quality of ground water at 16,000 hydrograph stations in the country. ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCES DUE TO DETERGENTS The health risk posed by phosphate rich detergents is not yet recognized in India despite a worldwide awareness and ban in several countries in Europe and America. Detergents contain many ingredients which could be a threat to the environment and human health. A common ingredient, sodium tri-polyphosphate (STTP) softens the water thus helping to remove dirt from clothes and to keep the dirt off during the washing cycle. Phosphorus, part of STPP is an essential nutrient for the growth of aquatic plants and as such adds to the cultural eutrophication, a process in which the excess nutrients result in algae bloom, kill fish and increase pathogenic organism, causing loss in aesthetic and recreational values of water. Strict regulations be made requiring that not more than 5% phosphorus in detergents. WASTE WATER TREATMENT Care is necessary that treated wastewater does not contain toxic matter beyond a threshold. Otherwise, it may enter the food chain, both aquatic and terrestrial. Besides, wastewater can damage fertility of soil and quality of ground water if its constituents are not kept within the prescribed limit For the most economic disposal of wastewater from various sources, recycling, re-use, renovation and regeneration (summed up by the term 4-R Concept) must be practiced with utmost keenness. Recycling refers to repeating the same use; re-use is done by using effluent for other purposes; renovation refers to treatment to the (tertiary) level
59

so that it is fit for use like fresh water, and regeneration refers to replenishment of a water source in a natural manner. Recycling and re-use has been demonstrated to be cost-effective in a large number of cases, with periods of return of investments ranging from a few months to less than five years. Thus it makes sense to practice recycling/re-use for economic reasons, besides doing so to meet moral or legal liability associated with disposal of wastewater. EFFECTIVE RECYCLE AND REUSE OF WATER In urban water supply, 30 to 40 % of the municipal water is wasted through the distribution system. In Industrial sector too, there is a scope of economy in use of water. As per estimates by Bureau of Industrial Costs and Prices, 10 to 30% saving in water consumption in industries is possible by recycling, modifications in processing, evaporation control etc. Apart from ensuring leakage control, water conservation strategy in industries should include introduction of appropriate technology to ensure efficient use of cooling and process water and necessary pollution control mechanisms and maximum recycling and reuse. Treatment of wastewater in stabilization ponds is an effective and low-cost method of pathogen removal, and is, therefore, suitable for schemes for wastewater reuse, particularly for irrigation of crops. Similarly, duckweed ponds are quite effective in treating municipal wastewater and at the same time the harvested duckweed is a good fish and chicken feed. As such, there is a need to develop appropriate and cost effective technologies, for treatment and reuse of municipal wastewater, suitable to Urban Local Bodies for their adoption. Possible health risks to agricultural workers should, however, be assessed thoroughly and monitored regularly. Treated wastewater should conform to pollution control standards for adopting reuse practice. There are various options for recycling and reuse of grey water (bathroom and kitchen wash) and black water (sewage). However, the grey water and black water from large residential complexes like Cooperative Housing Societies, multistoried buildings and industrial effluents from large industries can be recycled and reused for various purposes other than drinking. The grey water may be put into

various types of treatment such as grease trap, anaerobic filter etc and the filtered water may be let into wet land, polishing ponds etc. and can be reused for gardening and horticulture etc. The black water may also be put into various types of treatment such as screen, grit removal primary, secondary and tertiary treatment etc. and the treated waste water can be let into wet land for irrigation or for ground water recharge. The municipal wastewater and industrial effluent may be treated up-to tertiary level and used for various purposes other than drinking by various industries and cities. For example, in Chennai the Chennai Metro Board is providing 30mld treated municipal wastewater to Ennore Thermal Power Plant for recycle and reuse for cooling & other purposes. Likewise in Mumbai, many of the industrial houses are using the recycled industrial effluent for purposes such as air-conditioning, cooling etc. In Pondicherry Ashram, the wastewater from housing complexes and communitys toilets are recycled and reused for horticulture purposes and irrigation. State Governments may create Urban Development Fund for Urban Infrastructure development and the same can also be used for setting up of pilot projects for waste reuse, recycling and resource recovery. INCENTIVES AND LEGAL ASPECTS Suitable fiscal concessions and subsidies may be considered by the Central and State Governments to the industries, commercial establishments and any other agencies which adopt/practice waste reuse, recycling and resource recovery. Similarly, in case the Urban Local Bodies on their own would like to take the initiative and set up waste reuse, recycling and resource recovery schemes in their respective areas, similar fiscal concessions and subsidies may also be made available to them. It may be made mandatory in phases that large industries and commercial establishments must meet a sizeable percentage of their non-potable water requirements from the reclaimed water. Similarly, for irrigating crops, horticulture, watering public lawns/gardens, flushing of sewers, fire-fighting etc. reclaimed water should only be used. Economic instruments may provide incentives to economic actors inducting them to behave in an environmentally responsible manner. Their merits include: effectiveness, efficiency, flexibility and incentives for eco-innovation. Under
60

the scope of the polluter pays principle we can consider of such subsidies such as originating from funds created on the basis of pollution related charges (e.g. acidification funds). RENTING OF WATER Above economic instruments provide incentives to economic actors inducing them to behave in an environmentally responsible manner. Their merits include: effectiveness, efficiency, flexibility and incentives for eco-innovation. Under the scope of the polluter pays principle we can consider of such subsidies as originating from funds created on the basis of pollution related charges (e.g. acidification funds). Another important thing about pricing of water may be costing it according to its end use. Farmers and low income industries may not be charged at the rate of charges fixed for high yielding industries. MARKETING BOTTLED WATER Considerably more satisfaction and benefit can be obtained from the present water supply system, if managed efficiently. Costly systems are constructed, but for want of proper operation and maintenance, the benefits are not received by the people who have to incur considerable private costs and have to resort to alternate means or supplementary sources. Fast catching up practice of selling mineral water bottles at rates even more than milk and more than 1000 times than the tap water in India is paradoxical. While half of our population is unable to afford even the absolute minimum needs to quench their thirst. Only water supply utilities should be allowed to bottle and market the bottled water to generate much-needed funds for modernization and proper maintenance of existing infrastructure. PROTECTION OF NATURAL WATER RESOURCES Responsibility should be fixed on various civic and industrial authorities to treat the wastewater before disposing it in conveyance drains or natural streams. Water quality should be monitored regularly at every out-fall drain. State wise river basin conservation plan should be formulated for different basins. The pathogenic, toxic and biological and physico-chemical effects of various types of water

pollution in different scenario and regions should be scientifically analysed, collated, understood and suitable action plans should be framed. QUESTIONABLE USE OF WATER AS A CARRIER OF WASTES The traditional way of removing wastes from industries, and homes has been to dilute them in water and then carry this wastewater over long distances to extract most of the waste in the sludge, leaving polluted water as effluent. Such traditional and highly unscientific method of using water carriers of wastes need to be closely examined. There are many better alternatives to treat the waste at its origin, without using so much water. Use of low flushing and dry toilets as well as use of grey water drained from showers, kitchens and laundries to flush the toilets, should be targeted for adoption in at least in all new construction of commercial institutions and planned colonies in all class I and II cities. MINIMUM FLOW REQUIREMENT Quality of river waters is deteriorating with large number of municipal and industrial effluents being discharged untreated into rivers. Return flows from irrigated areas pollute river water with residual fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. Necessity for maintaining minimum flow therefore, arise out of the need to maintain water quality, river regime, maintenance of river eco-system or other public necessities. SOCIO-ECONOMIC & ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DROUGHTS It is estimated that around 263 million people live in drought prone area of about 108 m. ha., which works out to 1/3rd of the total Indian geographical area. Thus, more than 26% of total population of the country face the consequences of recurring droughts, on a wide spectrum of social concerns. During the drought years there is a marked tendency of intensive exploitation of ground water, resulting in abnormal lowering of ground water table thus accentuating the distress. Grave adverse impacts are borne by flora, fauna and domestic cattle and the very life itself fights against nature for its survival. Droughts accentuate problems in cities in the form of mushrooming of slums and pressure on the existing civil amenities thereby adversely affecting urban life.
61

Large storage projects are essentially required for diverting surplus water from flood prone areas to deficit areas. Indira Gandhi Nahar Project has been a boon for large tracts of Rajasthan in alleviating droughts. SOCIO-ECONOMIC & ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF FLOODS Over 40 million hectares of the area of the country experiences periodic floods. The average area affected by floods annually in India is about 7.5 m. ha of which crop area affected is about 3.5 m.ha. Floods have claimed on an average 1,529 human lives and 94,000 cattle ever year. Apart from loss of life and domestic property, the devastating effects of floods, sense of insecurity and fear in the minds of people living in the flood plains is enormous. The after effects of floods like the agony of survivors, spread of epidemics, non availability of essential commodities and medicines and loss of their dwellings make floods most feared natural disaster being faced by human kind. Large-scale damages to forests, crops & precious plants and deaths of aquatic and wildlife, migratory and native birds in various National Parks, Delta region, low altitude hilly areas and alluvial flood plains of Assam, Arunachal, Uttrakhand, U.P., Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, have always been the matter of serious concern. River Valley Projects such as Bhakra, Ramganga, Hirakud, Pong etc. have proved highly successful in moderating the magnitudes as well as frequencies of floods. ACCELERATED WATER STORAGE DEVELOPMENT Water demands forecasts show that Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka and Tamilnadu could face heavy water supply shortfalls. The water shortages would be far more serious in the water short basins like the Cauvery, Pennar, Sabarmati, Mahi, and Krishna etc. To meet the bulging water requirements, it would be necessary to ensure substantial augmentation of water supplies; requiring sufficient raising of water storage capacities, thus necessitating completion of new large water storage projects. Supreme Court Majority Judgement for Narmada Projects has also highlighted that against the utilisable storage 690 cu. km. of surface water resources out of 1869 cu. km.; so far storage capacity

of all dams in India is only 174 cu. km., which is incidently less than the capacity of Kariba Dam in Zambia/Zimbabwe with capacity of 180.6 cu. km. and only 12 cu. km. more than the Aswan High Dam of Egypt. The impact on environment should be seen in relation to the project as a whole. Water of poor quality leads to ill health, whereas water in insufficient quantity claims large chunks of time spent in augmenting the supply; otherwise, the significant time could be spent on more remunerative tasks. We must realize the basic fact that the medium and small water projects as well as water harvesting schemes cannot substitute the need of large water storages but can at best complement the larger projects. This, too, depends upon the hydrological, geological, topographical and regional limitations. The controversy of the large versus small dams is irrelevant. Sustainable management of water resources with due respect to ecological, economic and ethical sustainability blended with technical feasibility requires a holistic and integrated approach involving engineering, socio-economic and environmental aspects. Expansion of storage capacity by completing on-going projects and construction of new projects is imperative to enhance water availability. ROLE OF COMMUNITIES AND PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES It is essential that environmental aspects and the process of planning and operation of water resources projects be fairly understood by the experts of different disciplines. Participation of people is a must in the management of water. People have to be made an integral part of the water management system. The community is to be made not only water conscious, but also to be integrated to participate in the planning and management of such projects and pollution prevention programmes. It is unfortunate that a smear campaign has been launched during last two decades against hydropower and water resources projects by exaggerating the likely or assumed adverse environmental impacts and by suppressing their need and tremendous benefits. Knowledge about the changes required in cropping patterns and agronomic practices also must be communicated to farmers to sensitise them about the constraints of water supply and motivate them to use it carefully and efficiently. Professional
62

societies can act as multi-disciplinary fora for national and regional debates, analysis and framing of action plans on water related matters by utilizing their infrastructure, professional expertise, library, publication and documentation services. These societies can serve as rich sources in generating technically sound options with well-defined limitations & assumptions in Indian peculiar situations for taking informed decisions. The services of professional Societies like Indian Water Resources Society, The Institution of Engineers (India), Indian National Science Academy, Indian Water Works Association, Indian Association of Hydrologists, Indian Society of Hydraulics, Water Management Forum, Association of Hydrologists of India & Indian Buildings Congress having vast network, good spread and pool of expertise may be channelised in debating, dissemination and creating balanced scientific public awareness. WORKING GROUP ON WATER RELATED ECOLOGICAL MATTERS Considering the seriousness and deteriorating state of affairs concerning quality and quantity of available water particularly for urban use, alarming water pollution levels and challenges in managing water related ecological concerns, a Working Group on Water Related Ecological Matters for X Five Year Plan was formed vide Planning Commissions O.M. No. M-12018/1/2000-E&F dated 8th January, 2001 under the Chairmanship of Secretary (Water Resources). The Group consisted of the representatives of the Planning Commission, Confederation of Indian Industries and the Ministries of Environment and Forests, Agriculture & Cooperation, Urban Development & Poverty Alleviation, Industrial Development, Rural Development, Department of Ocean Development as well as Chairman, Central Water Commission; Chairman, Central Ground Water Board; Chairman, Central Pollution Control Board and Member (River Management), CWC. The first author of this article was inducted as Member Secretary for the Group. Working Group in its Report has suggested that the following measures may yield significant benefits from the overcoming crisis in the field of water related ecological arena : Strict measures to ensure proper treatment of waste water

Strict enforcing of responsibility on users for waste treatment before discharging into water bodies Local bodies should be responsibile for maintaining CETPs Economic Instruments as incentives and subsidies to induce users accountability to curb increasing water demands and to encourage recycling and reuse of water Suitable cess collected on marketing of water bottles be exclusively reserved for modernization of public water supply systems. Water sensitive urban planning Wide spread use of water saving fixtures Strategy based on agro-climatic regional planning Integrated planning and management of river basins Declaration of water resources projects as green projects in respect of environmental clearance Equitable distribution of water Use of appropriate technology in water supply and sanitation sectors Scientific public awareness and curbing environmental pseudoism. Encouraging professional societies for feedback, documentation and proper dissemination Research and development activities in the area of water quality management Impose restriction in water abstraction and ensuring discharge of only treated sewage/ trade effluent on land, rivers and other water bodies with a view to mitigating crisis of water quality; To maintain minimum discharge for sustenance of aquatic life forms in riverine system; Encourage rain-water harvesting, roof top harvesting for indigenous consumption To utilize self assimilation capacities to minimize cost of effluent treatment; Encourage ground water recharging with strict monitoring of the water quality To create public awareness on water conservation and economical water usage. CONCLUSION India supports 1/6th of the worlds population on 1/50th of worlds land with meager 1/25th of the worlds water resources. Further, 80% of all diseases and over 1/3rd of deaths are caused by consumption of contaminated water and on an average as much
63

as 1/10 th of each persons productive time is sacrificed to water related diseases. Deteriorating water quality has become a serious problem. We would have to maintain a balance between the thrust areas of development (infrastructure and consumer goods), which are said to improve the quality of life, and the social aspects like bare necessities of life in the areas of water, food, fiber, power, education, health, housing and nutrition. Preserving the quality and the availability of the freshwater resources is the most pressing of the many environmental challenges on the national horizon. Social tensions, political instability and street fights are already on the horizon; due to stoppage and slowing down the construction of almost all major dams; ignoring the bulging demands of water and power for municipal uses in metro cities, by few environmental activists and novelists; without professional analysis. It is to be stressed that non-development of water storage projects is not a viable or available option; due to the large temporal variations in river flows in Indian monsoonic climate. Conservation, recycle, reuse of precious water and proper treatment of waste water must be given serious attention for sustainability of built environment for our highly populated country. In such peculiar conditions, the initiative for interlinking of rivers in India so as to meet the bulging demands of water for various uses even for water starved states is highly commendable and timely. Note - The views in the article may not belong to the Authors Organisations. REFERENCES
Central Water Commission, 2000 River Valley Projects and Environment-Concerns and Management, Publication No. 61/2000, New Delhi. Goel R.S.(Editor), 1993, Environmental Impacts of Water Resources Development, M/S Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New Delhi. Goel R.S.(Editor), 2000, Environment Impacts Assessment of Water Resources Projects, M/s Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., ISBN-81-204-1422-5, New Delhi. Goel R.S. (Editor), 2000, Environmental Management in Hydropower and River Valley Projects, ISBN-81-204-1423-3, M/S Oxford & IBH Publishing Ltd., New Delhi. Goel R. S. and Srivastava R.N.(Editors), 2000,

Hydropower and River Valley Development, M/s Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi. Goel R.S., 2002, Management of Water Supply and Wastewater for Sustenance of Indian Urban Infrastructure, VIII Annual Convention and Seminar on Urban Infrastructure Development, Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi, 14-16, June 2002. Goel R.S., 2002, Integrated Water Management for Sustenance of Indian Urban Environment, International Conference on Water & Wastewater: Perspectives of Developing Countries, 11-13th Dec, 2002, New Delhi. Goel R.S. and Shete D.T., 2005, Water Quality Management in Urban Centres- an Overview in Indian Context, XI Annual Convention and Seminar on Water Management in Urban Centres, Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi, 21-23, July 2005. Goel R.S., 2000, The Unquiet Narmada - The Antagonism Against River Valley Projects Is Unjustified, The Economic Times, New Delhi, 31st December 2000. Goel R.S., 2001, River Valley Projects, Dams are Beneficial, The Times of India, , 11th May 2001, New Delhi

Indian Water Resources Society, 1999, Theme Paper on Water Vision 2050, New Delhi. Indian Water Resources Society, 2002, Theme Paper on Integrated Water Resources Development and Management, New Delhi. Ministry of Water Resources, 1999, Report of the National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development, New Delhi. Ministry of Water Resources, 2001, Report of the Working Group on Water Related Ecological Matters for Xth Five Year Plan, New Delhi. Prasad Kamta and Goel R.S.(Editors), 2000, Environmental Management in Hydro Electric Projects, ISBN-81-7022-870-0, M/s Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. Supreme Court Judgement, 2000, Narmada Bahao Andolan Vs. Union of India, AIR, SCC, 2000. Water Management Forum, 2002, Theme Paper on Inter-Basin Transfers of Water Challenges and Opportunities, New Delhi.

64

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

11. Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management

Dr. S. G. Kirloskar
Abstract The water crisis has taken considerable space in our lives. The problem of water shortage has become a national and universal theme of discussion. The water crisis has become alarming to such an extent that unless every citizen starts acting towards saving and preserving the rainwater, the survival of present and future generations would be in jeopardy. Thanks to the environmentally aware masses for sowing the seeds of rainwater harvesting in the society. In this paper, some of the methods of rainwater harvesting, particularly feasible in urban areas, actually implemented elsewhere are discussed.

Introduction India is facing a huge water crisis today. There is an enormous unmet demand for water. Even as clean water sources are being viciously attacked by pollution and over exploitation, hardly any river or groundwater aquifer near a city escapes the perils of pollution today. While agricultural lands go thirsty, many thousands of villages find it difficult to get clean drinking water. The dispute over tap waters heard in the history in olden days and in the villages in present times has been transferred to urban areas too. The issue of water-crisis is more acute than the petrol for which largely the human beings are responsible. There has been growing reliance on the use of surface and groundwater, while the earlier reliance on rain water and flood water has been declined, even though rain water and flood water are available in much greater abundance than river water or groundwater. It is reported that the money pumped in for rural drinking water supply and methods used were unsustainable. Corruption, lack of peoples interests in maintaining government schemes, land degradation leading to heavy runoff, heavy groundwater exploitation leading to lowering of groundwater tables, neglect of traditional water harvesting system and growing pollution are all added

to the problem. The ecological balance has been collapsed owing to irregular rains, environmental deterioration, and uncontrolled pollution. The exclusive reliance on river and groundwater is already leading to a number of problems. Heavy extraction of water from rivers : The rivers are so heavily exploited that there is no water left during the summer season. Agencies involved in water resource development are not bothered to implement the legislation for the minimum river flows. Construction of large dams and neglect of small water harvesting structure : Because of this, the numbers of displaced populations will steadily increase, while forests will submerge and availability of land for resettlement will go down continuously. Dependence on the state : There are financial and human problems with state sponsored water supply. The state subsidises water. People squander it. The state soon runs out of money for new projects to meet the burgeoning demand and for maintaining projects already built. The state becomes responsible for water supply. Demand will grow in future because of population growth, increased urbanization,

Professor of Environmental Engineering and Principal of Rizvi College of Engg., Bandra (W), Mumbai 50 65

industrialization. Increased water pollution has further reduced the availability of clean water which means greater stress on remaining sources of ground and surface water. To get the reliever, people started boring the tube wells only to lower the depth of water table from 50 feet to 100-200 feet. The water crisis has become alarming to such an extent that everyone has to be educated to start saving and preserving the rainwater. The concept of storing the rainwater and elevating the level of water table, popularly known as water harvesting has already taken its roots. In the villages, the rainwater harvesting is being practiced by building small bunds, by digging small trenches around the wells. However in urban areas specific methods have to be applied for rainwater harvesting. Some of the methods are listed (1) water from roof or terrace can be allowed to permeate near the bore or well or in the house premises if bore or well is not available (2) water from roof or terrace can be taken (i) to well or bore through pipe or (ii) to an underground tank of sufficient capacity can be built to receive the water through pipe. The methods of water harvesting are described below. (1) Permeating the water from the roofs into premises of the house Construction of underground structures of 20,000 l capacity to harvest water from rooftops for domestic consumption , manual withdrawal of water, to use runoff water as recharge in shallow wells. The capacity depends upon the no. of people in the houses with average consumption of 7 l per capita per day. Many houses will not have bore wells or wells. One can utilize the open space available at any corner of the plot for the permeation of water. A trench of 9-10 depth and 6-8 length can be prepared depending up on the availability of the space. As shown in fig. 1.1, the boulders of 2-3 dia. are placed up to 300 mm at the bottom of the trench. The sand layer of 1.5-1.75 m is placed over the boulders. The water from the roof and terrace should be diverted into the trench. The bricks have to be laid on the boundary of the trench to avoid falling of earth in the trench. Trench is covered with a grilled
66

lid to avoid contamination.

Fig. 1.1 Bleaching powder is applied to prevent contamination and maintain the quality of stored water. Airtight covers on storage tank protect the water from sunlight and contamination. Initial investment cost of the structure is little high. Operating cost consists of cleaning expenses once in a year and periodic expenses of bleaching powder which would cost around only Rs. 1000/- per year. Considering the life span of the structure of 20 years and the relief it brings, this method is the most reliable. (2) A soak-pit can also be created at the outlet point of the house premises As shown in fig. 1.2, a soak-pit of 8 depth and 5 length can be prepared containing brickbats, stones, boulders etc. The water starts filling up the trench of the soak-pit. It is estimated that a small soak-pit gives 25000 liters of water in the monsoon season.

Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.3 (3) Diverting water from roof and terrace to bore or well through a pipe The roof would be cleaned initially. Water collected from the roof is taken to the bore through pipe of 4.5" dia. As shown in Fig. 1.3, following material is required. (i) pipe of 6" dia., and 4 length (ii) two reducers (iii) 4 mesh screen (iv) T pipe, 2 in number and T cap (v) 4.5" dia. and 4.5 length The assembly of pipe filter can be fabricated. One end of this pipe is connected to the outlet end of the pipe from the roof. The other end of the pipe filter through a casing is directed towards the bore. The first rain water is allowed to drain. The system can be started operating from the second monsoon. The graded sand beds incorporated in the pipe act as filter. Thus there is three- stage filtration. (4) The earthen bunds are placed at certain places in the farms and thus water is temporarily stored Water is seeped through the soil. The earthen bund is constructed about 2-3 feet above the ground with pitching done from inner side, as shown in Fig. 1.4. The bund is constructed necessarily on the sloping ground. A trench of 2x 8 (depth) is prepared at a corner with pitching of stones on one side and a lining of PVC sheet. The trench is filled up with the earth for rest of the year. In monsoon, the trench is filled up with water before it starts spreading around. Water is raised with this technique. (5) Open air rainwater harvesting In this a number of materials are used to capture rainfall directly from the skies. (i) Polythene sheets (3m x 3m size) spread across in open air devoid of trees to collect direct rainfall. Water thus collected is cleaner than the roof runoff. The polythene sheet is mounted on 4 poles and a hole is made centrally for collection of water. This technique is an ad-hoc one, which is installed prior to rain. Lot of water goes waste in heavy rains. Collection rate is 85-100 l/hr on an average rainfall day. This method is expensive and weak for wind resistance. (ii) Galvanised sheet : A galvanized sheet of 2 m X 1 m is spread in the open air. The sheet is tied from the two corners in the shape of a boat. The sheet is mounted on 4 or 6 poles in the open air. This method is costly and faces rusting problem. The water collected is limited sufficient for about 2 days for a family of 7-8 members on average rainy day. (iii) Akshaydhara System: (a) First stage involves segregating the small volume of sanitary toilet waste and subjecting it to anaerobic bio-digestion and then discharging the liquid effluent into the city sewer system. This step involves only minor modification of the already existing civil work as the drains toilet and non-toilet wastewaters are already separated in buildings as part of the normal building construction practice. (b) The second stage involves construction of percolation wells in the housing societies for soilaquifer treatment of the segregated non-sanitary
67

Fig. 1.4

wastewater and storm runoff water, to rejuvenate the shallow ground water system. This would result in reduction of wastewater to be discharged into the city sewer system. (c) The third stage consists of providing separate plumbing and pumping / recycling system for nonpotable water. This would gradually ease the load of high quality public drinking water supply system. (d) In the fourth stage, the existing wastewater treatment system can be augmented through construction of infiltration basins and soil-aquifer treatment of the organic rich liquid waste collected at the centralized sewage collection point. (e) In the last stage, the domestic sewerage system can be linked to city garbage collection system, wherein segregated recyclable waste is collected by the dry waste collection network and the wet biodegradable kitchen waste is disposed off in the community bioreactor, the output of which being liquid can be let out either into the city sewer system or utilized locally for horticulture. With the commissioning of bioreactors for kitchen waste, the

sewer system will help reduce expenditure on collection / disposal of wet biodegradable waste as recyclable waste is more hygienic and environmentally sustainable. The biogas generated can be used for street lighting. This system is useful in urban environment because of reduction of the cost of centralized sewage collection, reduction in high quality water supply thus ensuring resource sustainability and involvement of the residents in maintaining hygienic conditions in city. Fig. 1.5 shows Akshaydhara concept for total water management. Facilitating urban water harvesting Following pints need to be undertaken: All water bodies in urban areas should be controlled by one single water authority. All building plans must provide for rainwater harvesting structures before applications are accepted. There should be a ban on permitting rainwater to be mixed with sewer or septic tanks. A central rainwater harvesting fund can be set

Fig. 1.5

68

up by the union water resources ministry offering funds on loan-cum-grant basis for the promotion of rainwater harvesting. Rainwater harvesting should be viewed by the society as a means of provision of water and prevention of flooding of low-lying urban areas. One of the most effective means of encouraging household and community participation is through financial instruments such as water tariffs and property tax assessments. Water conservation may be included in the curriculum of the school The Central Govt. should take up and declare the rain water harvesting as the national program. Annual national and state awards should be announced on recognition of outstanding work in water conservation.

Conclusion The scarcity of water has gained global attention. The developing countries due to lack of expertise, funds, national policies, public awareness can not do much about this complicated problem. The efforts are being taken by the NGOs and other organizations from the micro level. The municipal offices, town planners of the urban sectors are changing their outlook positively towards meeting water scarcity of the future generations. That is a useful step! References
(1) NGOs from Sangli (Maharashtra) , Ref. No. 02332322412 (2) Making water everybodys business, Practice and Policy of water harvesting Edited by Anil Agarwal, Sunita Narain and Indira Khurana CSE publication.

69

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

12. Water Harvesting : Limitations in Implementation

*Y. Arunakar Reddy

Abstract Since water harvesting depends on natural rainfall, it is no more reliable than the weather. Without adequate storage facilities the system will fail in draught years. In locations with less average annual rainfall, water harvesting will probably never be economically feasible. Lack of rainfall data in many areas makes it very difficult to properly design a water harvesting system. Poorly designed and managed water harvesting systems can cause soil erosion, soil instability, and local flooding. All catchments require a certain amount of maintenance to keep them performing properly which may include occasional patches, weed control, cleaning trash from screens, seal coats, or complete reshaping. A water harvesting system must withstand weathering and some foot traffic. Some may require fences. Contamination of the water must be constantly considered. Discolored or contaminated water will require treatment before it can be used for human consumption. To day no one water harvesting method or material has proven suitable for all areas, soils, and climatic conditions. Another problem is the variability in the quality of some materials, even though they may meet existing manufacturing specifications. This has been particularly true for artificial rubber sheeting, since some batches have proven very effective and durable, whereas others, with the same specification, have failed in a short time. Design of water harvesting system has received less attention than methods or treatments for increasing runoff from the soil surface. Most design procedures are limited in application because of constraints mentioned in the above paragraphs. This paper reviews all the above constraints in implementation of water harvesting system with examples.

Introduction The origin of the term water harvesting is not known, but it was probably first used by Geddes of the University of Sidney. He defined water harvesting as the collection and storage of any farm waters, either runoff or creek flow, for irrigation use. Several modifications of the definition have broadened the term to mean the process of collecting natural precipitation from prepared watersheds for beneficial use.

Ancient History Although the term water harvesting is relatively new, the practice is ancient. Shanan, Evenari, and Tadmor excavated runoff farms that were used over 3,000 yrs ago for several centuries in what is now the Negev Desert of Israel. This area was intensively cultivated by an irrigation system which collected the meager rainfall by clearing large hillside areas of rocks, smoothing the soil, and concentrating the runoff by a system of contour

*Associate Professor in Civil Engineering, Swami Ramananda Tirtha Institute of Science & Technology, Nalgonda, Andhra Pradesh. E-mail:arunakar_reddy2001@yahoo.com 70

ditches. The runoff water was used to irrigate a much smaller lower-lying area. By the time of the Roman occupation these runoff farms had evolved into relatively sophisticated systems covering about 300,000 ha (740,000 acres) of the Negev Highlands. After the Arab conquest, the ancient desert agriculture in this area slowly disintegrated. There is evidence that less complicated systems were used about 700 to 900 yrs ago by the Indians of the southwestern United States, particularly in the four corners of Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. Recent Development Collection and storage of runoff from roofs of houses is a more recent practice that is still used in some regions of the world. Some of the first catchments build specifically to collect water were roof like structures built in Australia in the early 1930s using galvanized sheet iron on a wooden frame. Sheet metal was also used for other catchments built in Australia at about the same time, but the metal sections were placed directly on the soil surface and anchored with spikes. The development of the most widely used type of catchment was reported by the Public Works Department of Western Australia in 1956. These catchments were called roaded catchments because the soil was graded into a series of parallel roadways or gently sloping ridges that drained into the ditches separating them. These ditches carried the collected water to a storage reservoir by way of a collection ditch which ran perpendicular to the roadways. Several thousand acres of these catchments have been installed in the relatively uniform topography of Western Australia where soils often contain significant clay layers which are exposed and compacted and provide a rather low infiltrating surface. Most of these catchments have been used to provide farm water supplies, although some are used for municipal water supplies. In the United States water harvesting began during the 1940s and early 1950s when several small sheet steel and concrete catchments were built to provide drinking water for livestock and wildlife. Of considerably more impact was the pioneering work of Lauritzen in the 1950s in which plastic and artificial rubber membranes were evaluated for constructing catchments and reservoirs. This work
71

served as the basis for installing numerous butyl rubber catchments and storage bags, including over 300 installations in Hawaii and other pacific islands. In 1958 and 1959 two ancient farm systems in Israel were restored to study the hydrology of the desert catchments and the water harvesting techniques of the ancient farmers. In the 1960s Myers and Cluff in the United States and Hillel in Israel initiated research programs to devise methods of waterproofing the soil surface and using soil as the supporting structure. Myers group developed methods using sprayable asphalt compounds, plastic and metal films bonded to the soil, soil compaction and dispersion, and fieldfabricated asphalt fiberglass membranes. Cluff concentrated on using sodium salts to seal the soil and on gravel-covered plastic membranes. Hillel investigated several soil treatments, like crude oil and water repellants, but worked primarily on soil smoothing and crusting. Present Status and Potential Research on ways to increase runoff by soil treatments is presently confined to a few U.S. researchers. Although both Israeli and Australian researchers are investigating the use of fuel oils and asphalt on a small scale, their major emphasis is runoff farming and roaded catchments, respectively. As yet water harvesting is not accepted as a competitive method of providing water supplies, although over 3,000 water harvesting systems have been installed around the world. Most catchments are the roaded catchments type and are used in Western Australia where private farms have supplied the capital for installation. In the U.S. catchments have been built almost exclusively on public lands by government agencies or research organizations. Despite the rather slow acceptance of water harvesting to provide water supplies, its potential for providing economical water is still tremendous. When water harvesting techniques are used, available water supplies can be based on precipitation rather than stream flow or ground water. This is true for both arid and humid areas. Hawaii and Jamaica are two areas using water harvesting techniques developed by researchers in arid parts of the world. For example, a 0.6-ha catchment in Manchester, Jamaica, provides more than 245,000 1/day of water during a year of average

rainfall. Water harvesting will never be used in some areas because other water sources are more economical, or because the annual precipitation is very low. However, water harvesting can often mean the difference between life and death, thus making its economic aspects of minor importance. Methods of Harvesting A wide variety of methods and materials have been used to increase precipitation runoff into storage facilities. Some materials, like concrete and sheet metal, can be used in almost any situation. However, the most economical system for a particular site can be determined by evaluating several factors, like soil type and depth, accessibility to equipment, climatic variables, vegetation, labour and material costs, and availability of treatment products. Whatever treatment or method is used, some maintenance will be required to insure optimum performance. For discussion, the methods used to increase runoff can be divided into four general categories: vegetation management, land alteration, chemical treatments, and soil covers. Vegetation Management : A summary of studies conducted throughout the world indicates that runoff can be increased by vegetation management from areas with precipitation in excess of 280 mm annually. However, the conversion efficiency for producing extra water increases as rainfall increases, at least up to 860 mm/yr; therefore, conversions at lower rainfall values may not be economical. Potential water yield increases depend upon the percent of total precipitation occurring as snowfall, the type, depth, and slope of the watershed soil, and the varieties of vegetation with their associated evapotranspiration rates, which can be managed considering all other constraints. Besides increasing water yield, vegetation management on watersheds can improve wildlife habitat, forage production, and recreation activity. Land Alteration : Often the simplest and least expensive method of water harvesting is to construct walls or ditches to collect runoff from existing natural or manmade catchments like large rock outcrops, highways catchments like large rock
72

outcrops, highways, airports, and parking lots. Chiarella and beck described a highway catchment system in Arizona, used for livestock drinking water that has been used for over 16 yrs with no observed detrimental effect to livestock. According to Evans, Woolhiser, and Rauzi, the interstate highway system in Wyoming would provide 2 ha/km of catchment. Assuming a 90% catchment efficiency, the water supply from a 250-mm rainfall zone would be almost 4,700,000 1/km. For land where rock outcrops or highways are not available, sometimes a water supply can be developed by simple land alteration treatments which increase the runoff from the soil surface. Land clearing is probably the least expensive treatment, but the increase in runoff is often negligible, unless storms are of high intensity of long duration. Because small precipitation events do not usually produce sufficient runoff, rather large catchment and storage facilities must be constructed to insure an adequate water supply to carry over between the large runoff events. Another simple treatment is constructing contour ditches to collect runoff from hillsides before it reaches natural channels or infiltrates into the soil. This was practiced by ancient people who once lived in what is now Mesa Verde National Monument in southwestern Colorado. The roaded catchments discussed previously are a more elaborate method of land alteration. It has been estimated that over 2,500 of this type of catchment have been built in Western Australia. Soil erosion is a potential problem with all of the land elaborate methods. Hollick suggests that maximum nonerosive slopes should be used to increase runoff. However, he indicated that no universal method exists for predicting the maximum nonerosive slope, thus each site must be field evaluated. Chemical and Physical Soil Treatments : Treating soil surfaces with materials to prevent water from soaking into the soil is an intriguing approach to building efficient and low-cost catchments. Runoff from bare soil can often be increased by dispersing its aggregated particles with sodium salts to reduce permeability. Hillel et al. in Israel, and Myers in Arizona, were able to increase runoff by treating cleared and smoothed sandy-loam and clay-loam

soils with sodium carbonate. Both found that treatment effectiveness was lost in about 1 yr and erosion was excessive. The same treatment has been very successful for sealing earthen stock tanks on some soils where erosion is no problem. High-rate applications of sodium chloride have proven considerably more successful on a Whitehouse loam soil in the Tucson area. Here the soil was cleared and smoothed and 11,000 kg/ha of granulated salt was mixed into the upper 5 cm of soil. The soil was later compacted after a couple of small rains. Over 50% runoff has been obtained during the 3 yrs of records, with no deterioration or salt movement noted. A silicone water repellant treatment on loamy sand in Arizona produced 90% runoff during the first year, but runoff gradually decreased to 60% after 4 yrs. Care must be used in designing silicone - and salt treated catchments since increased runoff can cause excessive erosion. Silicone treatments provide no apparent stability, and stabilizing effects of salt treatments have been limited to certain sandy loam soils. A paraffin wax treatment on a sandy loam soil has produced 90% runoff on test plots for over 2 years with no visual signs of deterioration. The molten paraffin penetrates the soil up to 25 mm and tends to stabilize the soil particles as it solidifies. However, a 0.2-ha field catchment treated with paraffin was no longer water repellant or stable after freezing and thawing with a light snow cover. Although laboratory tests in a freeze-thaw chamber confirmed the loss of effectiveness for this soil, two other operational catchments on sandy soils in Arizona have survived a winter of freezing and thawing with no apparent damage. The lower end of one catchment did erode somewhat when the fine soil was disturbed during construction. Laboratory tests indicated that hot summer temperatures may regenerate the wax treatments after freeze-thaw damage on some soils. These tests also indicated that wax treatments were not effective on certain soils under any climatic conditions; therefore, more effectively treated with wax. Several researchers have reported using fuel oil to reduce infiltration. All of the studies indicated that initially the oil did reduce infiltration, but completely deteriorated within to 3 yrs, depending
73

on the soil and the oil used. Rawitz and Hillel found that retreatment each 2 years improved runoff yield above initial treatment values. Soil Covers. Soil covers are treatments that can generally be applied to a wide range of soil types, since they only use the soil as a supporting structure and do not depend on its properties to provide water repellency. Asphalt pavements for water harvesting were constructed by spraying asphalt compounds on nonswelling soils. Another, more durable type of asphalt catchment was made by placing a layer of fiberglass or polypropylene matting on the surface and spraying it with asphalt. A seal coat of asphalt and a protective cover of special paint produced a very durable and efficient catchment. The matting serves as a reinforcing fabric, and the asphalt as a water-proofing agent. The paint extends the period between maintenance retreatments by protecting the asphalt from sunlight, and reduces runoff water discoloration. This type of catchment can be installed over almost any soil and requires only minimum surface preparation. Thin plastic films have been used as ground covers, but they were easily destroyed by wind and deteriorated rapidly under exposure to solar radiation. Cluff developed a unique method of utilizing plastics relatively low cost and high waterproofing characteristics. He developed equipment to install plastic film and cover it with a layer of small gravel. The gravel protects the plastic against both wind and weathering damage; however, the gravel also reduces the runoff efficiency by retaining part of the water which is then lost to evaporation. These catchments are useful where gravel is available and a large portion of the annual rainfall occurs as storms larger than 2.5 mm. A more recent catchment treatment developed by Cluff is constructed by spraying soil with a tack of asphalt, followed immediately by a 4-mail layer of polyethylene plastic. After the plastic is coated with an additional asphalt layer, rock chips are added as a top cover. This catchment can be applied to a wide range of soil types and yields about 95% of the rainfall runoff. A similar catchment using standard roofing paper and procedures, but applied to the soil surface, has remained in good condition after 6 yrs and yields about 80% runoff. Artificial rubber sheeting has probably been

most widely used as a ground cover treatment. Several rubber catchments have been used for over 20 yrs in the United States, and over 300 additional rubber catchments or storage units have been installed in Hawaii and other Pacific islands during the past 15 yrs. When correctly installed and maintained, good rubber sheeting is an efficient catchment material that provides high quality water. Problems encountered with its use have been attributed to improper installation, lack of maintenance, poor quality material, or animal and damage. Artificial rubber catchments have the advantage of being rather easily transportable and simply installed once the site has been prepared. Corrugated sheet metal, one of the first catchment materials used for collecting precipitation, has been used continually through the years, although high costs have restricted its use. Some early sheet metal catchments were built above ground on a roof-like framework. Many catchments failed when the framework deteriorated or collapsed under heavy snow loads. Sheet metal catchments built on the ground have proven very durable and essentially maintenance free. Their runoff efficiency is perhaps the highest of any catchment material, and they have often produced runoff from dew. If protected from corrosion, sheet metal can be used on almost any soil type and can provide an economical source of high quality water under present economic conditions. Use of concrete as a catchment material has been limited, mainly because of its high cost. Concrete catchments require more maintenance and have lower runoff efficiency (60 to 80%) then several other catchment materials. However, when properly constructed and maintained, concrete catchments are very durable and will provide years of service. Storage of Harvested Water Where water supplies are limited and water use rates exceed the supply rate, a means of storing harvested water becomes an essential part of the water harvesting systems. The storage generally means confinement in either excavated pits or ponds, or tanks. One exception to this type of storage is direct storage in the soil profile associated with runoff farming. Even with runoff farming, conventionally storing water for later controlled
74

release to the crop may be necessary if precipitation uniformity and/or variability do not meet the crop requirements. Storage requirements should be balanced against the quantity of precipitation for the area and the reliability of receiving this precipitation. Storage requirements can be readily estimated by considering the purpose for which the water will be used and the use period. The precipitation quantity and dependability generally are often more difficult to determine due to inadequate precipitation records. Seepage Control. Dedrick reviewed the three means of storing harvested water excavated pits or ponds, tanks, and bags and various methods of controlling seepage losses. Excavated pits or small ponds are easily constructed in relatively flat areas, but usually a water barrier must be used to minimize seepage losses. The type of material used may depend on the pit site. Dedrick presented a list of characteristics that should be considered when selecting a barrier for seepage control: (a) degree of seepage control expected; (b) resistance to deterioration by soil microorganisms, atmospheric elements, wind, and sub grade movement: (c) resistance to mechanical puncture and vermin attack; (d) toxicity; (e) installation ease; (f) transportability to use site; (g) maintenance requirements; and (h) economics. Lining materials that have been used, with varying degrees of success, can be categorized as (a) earth linings and chemical treatments compacted earth, bentonite, chemical additives, and chemical sealants; (b) membrane and film prefabricated asphaltic plank, hot applied asphaltic membrane, reinforced asphaltic membrane, plastic film, and synthetic rubber; (c) hard surface linings Portland cement concrete, shotcrete, soil-cement, brick, and stones. The underlined materials have been the most successfully used in the field and are discussed further. Sodium bentonite, fine-textured colloidal clay, has been used to reduce seepage in coarse-textured soils. A good sealing bentonite must have a sufficient amount of exchangeable sodium to disperse the soil particles. Application rates generally range from 5 to 15 kg/m. Laboratory analysis, like that of Dirmeyer is recommended as a guide in classifying the bentonite to be used and in determining application rate.

Sodium salts have been the most successful chemical additives used to control seepage. Sodium carbonate has been most effective considering treatment costs and ability to reduce seepage. The Soil Conservation Service recommends sodium carbonate application rates of 0.5 to 1.0 kg/m while Reginato et al. presented an equation for calculating the amount of use. Retreatment may be required every 2 to 3 yrs. Reinforced asphaltic membrane liners consist of a substrate matting of fiberglass or polypropylene generally made watertight by using asphalt either emulsion or cutback. Linings are fabricated in the field and shaped like the excavated pit. They can be used as an exposed liner if properly protected from mechanical damage. Pit side slopes should not be steeper than 1:2 (vertical: horizontal). Plant growth under the liners should be eliminated by using soil sterilants. Plastic films of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Polyethylene (PE), and chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) have been successful only when buried. Thickness of buried plastic film should be 0.02 to 0.03cm depending on the sub grade soil. Side slope should not exceed 1:3. The earthen pit should be over-excavated to accommodate the cover material. The sub grade should be cleared of all sharp objects, and if too coarse, a fine-textured cushion should be laid in the pit before installing the film. Recommended cover thickness varies from 15 to 30 cm with the layer next to the film not coarser than silty sand. Plastic-lined, rock-filled, excavated pits can be used and are a variation of the standard, buried, plastic-lined pond. The main difference is that the pond is completely filled with rock rather than just covered with to protect the plastic. Freedom from vandalism and reduction of evaporation losses (as much as 90%) are advantages of rock-filled pits over open storage systems. Butyl rubber and ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) are synthetic rubber membranes used as water barriers for harvesting water. All synthetic rubber membranes can be used as exposed linings, but they must be adequately protected against mechanical damage and damage due to vandalism and burrowing animals. Synthetic rubber membranes are resistant to weathering processes that cause failure in other membrane and film materials. Rubber membranes are fabricated in numerous
75

thicknesses and can be either fabric-supported or nonsupport. For most excavated pits, 0.08 cm, nylonsupported liners are adequate. Reservoir side slopes should be not steeper than 1:2. Information regarding field installations, recommendations for use, and physical property requirements are discussed in several publications. Vertical-walled tanks have advantages unattainable with excavated pits including: the ratio of water volume stored to water surface area is maximum when the walls are vertical; evaporative control devices, like floating covers, can be used more effectively and efficiently; and maintenance requirements are generally low and repair is easy. One main disadvantage of vertical-walled tanks is initial cost; however, on an amortized basis the yearly cost may be lower than some low-initial-cost storage systems. Materials successfully used in constructing tank walls include Portland cement concrete; plastered concrete and metal. The bottom of the tanks has been made watertight by using puddle clay, bentonite, sodium salts, concrete, metal, and flexible membranes. Storage bags constructed of butyl-coated nylon have been placed in excavated pits or basins. These storage systems are completely closed and both seepage and evaporation losses are controlled. Their main disadvantages are susceptibility to mechanical damage, vandalism, and vermin attack. Evaporation Control. Cooley has discussed evaporation suppression method. Many methods have been investigated and can be categorized by energy-reducing treatments (energy involved in the evaporative process) like (a) changing the water color, (b) using wind barriers, (c) shading the water surface, and (d) floating reflective covers. Of the four energy-reducing categories, floating covers have been most widely researched and certain materials seem most promising for use in water harvesting storage facilities. These include covers of continuous paraffin wax, polystyrene rafts, and formed rubber. The paraffin wax, like that used for canning, melts at 128 to 130 F and forms a continuous cover during summer months. The wax can either be placed on the surface as blocks which will later be melted by the sun to form a wax layer or melted with a heater and sprayed or poured on the water. Polystyrene rafts are constructed of 1.2 X 1.02 cm

sheets of expanded polystyrene, 25mm thick, coated with emulsified asphalt and covered with a layer of chips. They are then coupled together using a clamp made of PVC pipe. An outer frame of 32 mm diameter PVC pipes is used as a bumper for the rafts. Continuous covers of low-density, closed-cell synthetic rubber sheeting, available as 1.2-m wide roll stock, have been fabricated for use on water storage tanks. Covers have been fabricated from 5and 6-mm thick material. All three covers continuous paraffin wax, polystyrene rafts, and foamed rubber reduce evaporation by 85% to 95%. The cost of water saved in high evaporation areas compares favorably with alternate water sources. Wind damage to floating covers can be a disadvantage. Joining the polystyrene rafts together helps to minimize the wind problem, as does maintaining an adequate freeboard with the foamed rubber. The wax covers have withstood winds up to 22 m/sec on a small tank with only 25 mm freeboard. Summary Water harvesting is an ancient art used by farmers in the Negev Desert of Israel over 3,000 yrs ago where they cleared hillsides to increase rainfallrunoff and directed the water to cultivated fields in the valleys. This practice was then essentially abandoned until the early 1930s, except for collecting rainfall from rooftops in some areas. Although revival of water harvesting techniques began in the early 1930s, most activity in both construction and research did not begin until the late 1950s. even this research effort and the development of new materials have not yet produced widespread use of water harvesting methods to provide water supplies, although there is still a potential for economically collecting water in many areas of the world. The particular water harvesting method used to collect precipitation depends on several factors, including soil type and depth, vegetative cover, surface roughness and slope, climatic factors, land, labour, and material costs, water use rate and distribution, water quality desired, and availability of materials. All of the commonly used methods fall into one of four categories vegetation management, land alteration, chemical or physical soil treatments, or soil covers.
76

Vegetation management methods have been applied to larger areas than the other water harvesting techniques. Annual precipitation in excess of 280 mm is generally required to assure successful vegetation management results, and potential for increasing runoff yield increases as annual precipitation increases. Land alteration methods are especially attractive where impervious areas already exist (highways, airports, rock outcrops, etc.), and only collection and storage facilities are required. Land alteration techniques are also economically feasible in areas where labor costs are low and soil conditions are suitable. Chemical and physical soil treatments, like salts, silicones, and waxes, have been applied successfully to certain soils, but more research is required to delineate the conditions under which each can be used. Soil covers are not generally restricted by soil and climatic conditions; however, initial cost of the system will generally be higher than for the other methods discussed. Regardless of the material or method used, erosion protection, routine maintenance, and protection of the catchment and storage should be considered. Water collected from the catchments can be stored in the soil itself (as in runoff farming) or in excavated pits or ponds, bags, or tanks. Sophisticated computer models and practical experience have been used to provide design standards for constructing and optimum sizing of catchment areas and storage facilities. Water harvesting systems may provide the only source of water in some areas and can provide a low energy input, economical water source in many others. The water obtained from water harvesting system can be used to increase the productivity of rangelands of proper management practices are followed. Although it is very useful in many areas, water harvesting depends on natural precipitation and is, therefore, limited to areas where precipitation is sufficient and variability is not excessive. References American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Installation of Flexible Membrane Linings, Agricultural Engineers Yearbook, ASAE Recommendation: ASAE R340, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, Mich., 1974. Baker, James W., Polypropylene Fiber Mat

and Asphalt Used for Oxidation Pond Linear, Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol.7 No. 11, 1970, F-1721. Burdass, W.J., Water Harvesting for Livestock in Western Australia, Proceedings of the Water Harvesting Symposium, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Western Region, ARS W-22, Feb., 1975. Burgy, R.H., and Papazifiriou, Z.G. Effects of Vegetation Management on Slope Stability, presented at the January 25, 1971, Water Resources Center Advisory Council Meeting, held at Los Angeles, Calif. Catchment Areas for Livestock Water, Soil Conservation Service, Wyoming Engineering Standard, 701-WY, REev. Jan., 1968. Chiarella, J.V., and Beck, W.H., Water Harvesting Catchments on Indian Lands in the Southwest, Proceedings of the Water Harvesting Symposium, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Western Region, ARS W-22, Feb., 1975. Cluff, C. B., Water Harvesting Plan for Livestock of Home, Progressive Agriculture in Arizona, Vol. 19, No. 3, 1967.

Cluff, C. B., Low-Cost Evaporation Control to Save Precious Stock Water, Arizona Farmer Ranchman, Vol. 51, No. 7, July 1972. Cluff, C. B., Plastic Reinforced Asphalt Membranes for Precipitation Harvesting and Seepage Control, Proceedings of the 11th National Agricultural Plastics Conference, San Antonio, Tex., 1973. Cluff, C.B., and Dutt, G. R., Using Salt to Increase Irrigation Water, Progressive Agricultural in Arizona, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1966. Dedrick, A. R., Rain trap Performance on the Fishlake National Forest, Journal Range Management, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1973. Frasier, G. W., ed., Concluding Remarks, Proceedings of the Water Harvesting Symposium, U.S Department of Agricultural, Agricultural Research Service, Western Region, ARS W-22, Feb., 1975. Frasier, Gary W., Myers, Lloyd E., and Griggs, John R., Installation of Asphalt Fiberglass Linings for Reservoirs and Catchments, WCL Report 8, U.S. Department of Agricultural, U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory, 1970.

77

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

13. Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting for Artificial Recharge to Ground Water : An Urgent Need of Present Century
* P. K. Singh **Bhaskar Singh **B. K. Tewary
Abstract : The water has been harvested in India since antiquity. Evidence of this tradition can be found in ancient texts, inscriptions, local traditions and archaeological remains. The Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and various Vedic. Buddhist and Jain texts contain several references to canals. tanks, embankments and wells. Overexploitation of groundwater resources is increasingly being recognized as a major problem. Despite being one of the wettest countries of the world, Indias growing water shortage has reached alarming proportions. Over the last few centuries, a range of techniques to harvest every possible form of water has been developed. Technically speaking, water harvesting means capturing the rain where it falls, or capturing the run-off in ones own village or town. So, the need of roof top rain water harvesting has become an urgent demand of the present century. The amount of water harvested depends on the frequency and intensity of rainfall, catchments characteristics, water demands and how much runoff occurs & how quickly or how easy it is for the water to infiltrate through the subsoil and percolate down to recharge the aquifers. Moreover, in urban areas, adequate space for surface storage is not available and water levels are deep enough to accommodate additional rain water to recharge the aquifers, so the roof top rain water harvesting is ideal solution to solve the water supply problems. The present paper focuses in brief about the components of the roof top rain water harvesting structure, types of recharge structures and the benefits of the system. 1.0 Introduction : Rapid industrial development, urbanization and increase in agricultural production have led to freshwater abstraction in many parts of the country as well as of the world. As the recharging of the groundwater is not adequate, there is a rapid decrease in groundwater level in several parts of the world. In view of increasing demand of water for various purposes like agricultural, domestic and industrial etc., as well as unpredictable monsoon rainfall, a greater emphasis is being laid now-a-days for re-use of waste water. It has become an urgent need of this century. Advancement in pumping technology is extensively used in extracting ground water from the deepest portions of the earth. Thus, the knowledge on the several traditional water harvesting processes, storage facilities, practices and their significance to the present day situations has become necessary in the present century. It is estimated1 that 8 billion people (globally) are to be fed by the end of the first quarter of the 21st century. This effort requires utilization of all water resources intelligently. For this, there is a need to collect, conserve and use critical water resources judiciously. In this context, roof top rainwater harvesting can become popular technique to improve the recharge regionally and globally. Moreover, in Urban

* Scientists **Research Intern, Geo-environment Division, Environmental Management Group Central Mining Research Institute, Barwa Road, Dhanbad, Dhanbad- 826001 (Jharkhand) 78

Areas, adequate space for surface storage is not available and water levels are deep enough to accommodate additional rain water to recharge the aquifers, so roof top rain water harvesting is ideal solution to solve the water supply problems. 2.0 Urgency of the Process: A comparison of water levels from 1960 to 2001 shows that water levels in major part of country are steadily declining because of over-exploitation. During 1960, in Delhi, the ground water level was by and large within 4 to 5 meters and even in some parts water logged conditions existed. During 19602001, water levels have declined by 2- 6 m. in most part of the alluvial areas. Decline of 8-20 m. has been recorded in south-west district and in south district the decline has been 8-30 m. Areas registering significant decline fall mainly in south and south-west districts and have been identified as priority areas for taking up artificial recharge to ground water by roof top rain water harvesting. Thus, though the concept of roof top rainwater harvesting is an age old one, but systematic collection and recharging to ground water is of recent times. As surface water sources fail to meet the rising demands of water supply in urban areas, ground water reserves are being tapped and over-exploited resulting into decline in ground water levels and deterioration of ground water quality. This precarious situation needs to be rectified by immediately recharging the depleted aquifers. 3.0 Typical Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting Structure: A typical roof top rainwater harvesting system comprises of: a) roof catchments b) gutters c) down pipes d) rain water/storm water drains e) filter chamber f) ground water recharge structures like pit, trench, tube well or combination of above structures. 4.0 Methods of Groundwater Recharge: For Rainwater Harvesting System following structures are required: a) Recharge Pits b) Recharge Trenches
79

c) d) e) f) g)

Abandoned Dugwells Hand Pumps Recharge Wells Recharge Shafts Lateral Shafts With Borewells

a) Storage Tanks : for harvesting the roof top rain water, the storage tanks may be used. these tanks may be constructed on the surface as well as under ground by utilizing local material. the size of tank depends upon availability of runoff & water demand. after proper chlorination, the stored water may be used for drinking purpose. b) Recharge Pits recharge pits are constructed for recharging the shallow aquifers. these are constructed 1 to 2 m. wide and 2 to 3 m. deep which are back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand. the size of filter material is generally taken as below: coarse sand : 1.5 - 2 mm gravels : 5 - 10 mm boulders : 5 - 20 cm the filter material should be filled in graded form. boulders at the bottom, gravels in between & coarse sand at the top so that the silt content that will come with runoff will be deposited on the top of the coarse sand layer and can easily be removed. if clay layer encountered at shallow depth, it should be punctured with auger hole and that auger hole should be refilled with fine gravel of 3 to 6 mm size. c) Trenches these are constructed when the permeable strata is available at shallow depths. trench may be 0.5 to 1 m. wide, 1 to 1.5 m. deep and 10 to 20 m. long depending upon availability of water. these are back filled with filter materials. in case of clay layer encountered at shallow depth, the number of auger holes may be constructed & back filled with fine gravels.

d) Abandoned Dug wells existing abandoned dug wells may be utilised as recharge structure after cleaning and desilting the same. for removing the silt contents, the runoff water should pass either through a desilting chamber or filter chamber. e) Abandoned Hand pumps the existing abandoned hand pumps may be used for recharging the shallow / deep aquifers, if the availability of water is limited. water should pass through filter media before diverting it into hand pumps. f) recharge wells recharge wells of 100 to 300 mm. diameter are generally constructed for recharging the deeper aquifers and roof top rain water is diverted to recharge well for recharge to ground water. The runoff water may be passed through filter media to avoid choking of recharge wells. g) Vertical Recharge shafts For recharging the shallow aquifers which are located below clayey surface at a depth of about 10 to 15 m, recharge shafts of 0.5 to 3 m. diameter and 10 to 15 m. deep are constructed depending upon availability of runoff. these are back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand. For lesser diameter shafts, the reverse / direct rotary rigs are used and larger diameter shafts may be dug manually. In upper portion of 1 or 2 m depth, the brick masonry work is carried out for the stability of the structure. h) Shaft with Recharge well If the aquifer is available at greater depth say 20 or 30 m, in that case a shallow shaft of 2 to 5 m diameter and 5 to 6 m deep may be constructed depending upon availability of runoff. inside the shaft, a recharge well of 100 to 300 mm diameter is constructed for recharging the available water to deeper aquifer. at the bottom of the shaft a filter media is provided to avoid choking of the recharge well. i) Lateral trench with bore wells For recharging the upper as well as deeper aquifers, lateral trench of 1.5 to 3 m. wide & 10 to
80

30 m. long depending upon availability of water with one or more bore wells may be constructed. the lateral trench is back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand. 5.0 Benefits of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting Structure a) An ideal solution of water problem in areas having inadequate water resources. b) The ground water level will rise. c) Mitigates the effects of drought. d) Reduces the runoff which chokes the storm water drains. e) Reduces flooding of roads. f) Quality of water improves. g) Soil erosion will be reduced. . 6.0 Design Criteria of Recharge Structures Recharge structures should be designed based on availability of space, availability of runoff, depth to water table & lithology of the area. Assessment Of Runoff The runoff should be assessed accurately for designing the recharge structure and may be assessed by following formula. Runoff = Catchment area * Runoff Coefficient * Rainfall Runoff Coefficients Runoff coefficient plays an important role in assessing the runoff availability and it depends upon catchment characteristics. General values are tabulated below which may be utilised for assessing the runoff availability. Type of catchment Roof top Paved area Bare ground Green area Runoff coefficient 0.75 - 0.95 0.50 - 0.85 0.10 - 0.20 0.05 - 0.10

Design Considerations Three most important components, which need to be evaluated for designing the rainwater harvesting structure, are: 1. Hydrogeology of the area including nature and

extent of aquifer, soil cover, topography, depth to water levels and chemical quality of ground water 2. Area contributing for runoff i.e. how much area and land use pattern, whether industrial, residential

or green belts and general built up pattern of the area. 3. Hydrometeorological characters viz. rainfall duration, general pattern and intensity of rainfall.

Schematic sketch of Rain Water Harvesting in Rural Areas

81

Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting Structure

8.0 Conclusions : Thus, water has been harvested in India since antiquity. Evidence of this tradition can be found in ancient texts, inscriptions, local traditions and archaeological remains. The Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and various Vedic. Buddhist and Jain texts contain several references to canals. tanks, embankments and wells. Overexploitation of groundwater resources is increasingly being recognized as a major problem. Despite being one of the wettest countries of the world, Indias growing water shortage has reached alarming proportions. Over the last few centuries, a range of techniques to harvest every possible form of water has been developed. Technically speaking, water harvesting means capturing the rain where it falls, or capturing the run-off in ones own village or town. Thus, the role of Institution of Engineers (India), Nagpur Local Centre is worthy in this direction.
82

References : a) Nagrajan R. : Water ; Conservation, Use and Management for Semi-arid Region: Capital Publishing Company;2006. b) Athavale, R.N. Water harvesting and sustainable supply in India, Centre for Environmental Education and Rawat Publications; 2003 c) Natarajan, P.M., & Kallolikar S. Rain Water Harvesting New Approaches For Sustainable Water Resources Development, Sarma Sanitorium Press; 2004 d) http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/urban/ Howtoharvest.htm e) h t t p : / / a k a s h - g a n g a - r w h . c o m / RW H / WaterHarvesting.html f) http://www.gdrc.org/uem/water/rainwater/ introduction.html Todd, D.K. (1980). Groundwater Hydrology. Second edition., John Wiley & Sons, New York.

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

14. Roof Top Rain Water Harvest- A Long Lasting Solution to Drive away the Need of Water Tankers
*Mrs. Charu Bhavsar **Pradeep Bhalge

Abstract Water has been harvested in India since antiquity. Roof top water harvesting techniques are not new for Indians. Numerous documentary and filed evidences about the water harvesting techniques used by the ancestors exist in India. For general, Maharashtra receives a good amount of annual rainfall. But the Government has to supply drinking water by the water tankers to numerous villages and wadies. Many of the wadies or tandas are situated in remote places. In such cases drinking water cannot be supplied to the thirsty people by tankers or by any other means. The water supplied by the Tankers may not be either pure or sufficient. There is a need to think; Is it necessary to supply the drinking water by Tankers? The answer is not in all the cases. Roof top rainwater is the best solution to solve all the problems discussed above. This paper will illustrate the drinking water needs, computation of the quantity of the annual rain water from the roof top, methods and type of storages in practice, care to be taken to maintain the purity of the rain water harvested, and the merits and demerits.

Introduction India receives good amount of rainfall. But the rainfall is highly erratic in nature. It is not evenly distributed over the entire area and over the period. India have distinct rainy season. In most part of the country the annual rainy days varies from 10 to 45. As soon as the rains are over, water scarcity starts. The ancestors realize that, harvesting the water in rainy season will be use full in rest period of the year. They have developed varies techniques to harvest the water because they knew that without harvesting the water life is difficult to survive. There are evidences that, during Harappan period, there was very good system of water management as could be seen in the latest excavation at Dholavira in Kachch. The people use to manage water resources considering it as part of the nature, which is essential for their survival. This could be seen from the rainwater harvesting structures in the low rainfall areas of Rajasthan, harvesting springs in hilly areas and mountainous region and percolation

ponds and tanks in southern India. In Tamil Nadu, the ancient people stored rainwater in public placed separately one for drinking purposes and another for bathing and other domestic purposes. They also formed percolation tanks or ponds, for the purpose of recharging irrigation or domestic wells. They periodically clean the waterways so as to get clean water throughout the year. These are instances in the history that people constructed crude rubble bunds across river courses either for diversion of water or for augmenting the ground water. Unfortunately under the British governance system the wisdom of the raindrop was lost. The technological interventions, which got water into our taps, relied on large-scale water impoundments in the upper reaches of rivers and pushed the wisdom of the raindrop into the background. Today the need of the hour is to go back to the wisdom of ancestors, rediscover their concepts and adapt them into our lives.

*Indian Council for water and culture; Aurangabad. **A.E.II, Water Resources Department, Government of Maharashtra. 83

Traditional rainwater harvesting Traditional rainwater harvesting, which is still prevalent in rural areas, was done in surface storage bodies like lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, temple tanks etc. In urban areas, due to shrinking of open spaces, rainwater will have to necessarily be harvested as ground water, Hence harvesting in such places will depend very much on the nature of the soil viz., clayey, sandy etc. The below listed are the various kinds of traditional rainwater harvesting methods.

KUND OF RAJASTHAN

Kunds of Thar Desert : In the sandier tracts, the villagers of the Thar Desert had evolved an ingenious system of rainwater harvesting known as kund or kundis. Kund, the local name given to a covered underground tank, was developed primarily for tackling drinking water problems. Usually constructed with local materials or cement, kund were more prevalent in the western arid regions of Rajasthan, and in areas where the limited groundwater available is moderate to highly saline. Under such conditions, kund provides convenient, clean and Sweetwater for drinking. The kund consists of a saucer-shaped catchments area with a gentle slope towards the centre where a tank is situated. A wire mesh to prevent the entry of floating debris, birds and reptiles, usually guard the openings or inlets for water to go into the tank. The top is usually covered with a lid from where water can be drawn out with a bucket. Kund are by and large circular in shape, with little variation between the depth and diameter which ranges from 3-4.5 m. Lime plaster or cement is typically used for the construction of the tank, since stone as a building material is not always available and is relatively more expensive. Either of these materials can be used to plaster the horizontal and vertical soil surfaces, although cement ensures a longer life span. The success of a kund depends on the selection of the site, particularly its catchments characteristics. An adequately large catchments area has to be selected or artificially prepared to produce adequate runoff to meet the storage requirements of the kund. Bamboo Method : In Meghalaya, an ingenious system of tapping of stream and spring water by using bamboo pipes to irrigate plantations is widely prevalent. About 18-20 liters of water entering the bamboo pipe system per minute gets transported over several hundred meters. The tribal farmers of Khasi and Jaintia hills use the 200-year-old system. The bamboo drip irrigation system is normally used to irrigate the betel leaf or black pepper crops. Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs on the hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity. The channel sections, made of bamboo, divert and convey water to the plot site where it is distributed without leakage into branches, again made and laid out with different forms of bamboo pipes. Manipulating the intake
84

BAMBU DRIP IN MEGHALAYA

pipe positions also controls the flow of water into the lateral pipes. Reduced channel sections and diversion units are used at the last stage of water application. The last channel section enables the water to be dropped at the rate of 20-80 drops per minute near the roots of the plant. Roof top rainwater harvesting and rainwater harvesting techniques is not new The concept of roof top rainwater harvesting and rainwater harvesting techniques is not new. Many of us feel that this tool is devised by the modern society as a tool to drought proofing. This is not so. Our ancestors had been doing it according to the means available then. At large, no of places in India, this art and science has been practiced. The most beautiful rainwater-harvesting scheme could be witnessed at Deogiri fort. Water from the adjacent hillock was transported through an inverted siphon of twin pipes and the mot around the hilltop fort was filled. A moat around the hill top fort is another wonder. Transportation of water though inverted siphon was a unique feature. The temples were used as roof top rainwater harvesting devices. The noteworthy example is of Minakshi temple in Madurai. If seen carefully it is seen that beautiful arrangement of collection of roof top rainwater scheme is made here. The harvested water is stored in a tank. With the advent of tap water, rainwater harvesting has lost its importance. As our State is in a situation where efficient management of water resources has become a necessity, rainwater harvesting has come to limelight again. We have to resort to long-term measures in harvesting the rainwater due to the growing demand. It is hence emphasized that rainwater harvesting should become an integral part of every home, society, village, city and country. Back to the tradition In the previous days peoples were bringing water from the community well. The water was drawing from the well with the help of rope and bucket. Thus there was a limitation of drawing the water and indirectly there was restriction on the water use. The methods of domestic utilization were developed to support the minimum use of water. For example water for mouthwash was taken in a pot. The capacity of such pot was around one liter.
85

But taking the mouthwash under a running tap will require more than 15 to 20 liters of water. A bucket of 15 to 20 liters was sufficient to take bath before the advent of tap water, but now a days taking bath under the water tap consumes 50 to 100 liters of water. In this way, habits of wasteful use of water are increased in these days. With the advent of the electric pumps the rate of withdrawal of water from the well is increased tremendously, resulting in to depletion of ground water level. Every year the rains replenish the ground water. But due to exploitation of more water than the replenish one; peoples do not get water even for drinking in summer days. The wells and bore wells runs dry as soon as the rainy season is over. In such situations tankers are supplying water. The local leaders put lot of pressure on the government officials to supply water tankers. It is observed that nobody worries about the purity of the water supplied by the tankers. Drinking the impure water leads to water born disease. It is said that 80% of the human disease are due to impure water. The whole family has to suffer when any member of their family becomes ill. Especially incase of a family whose livelihoods is depend upon the labor work, if an adult get ill, survival of his family comes in danger. All the problems as said above can be minimized if every family gets sufficient amount of pure water for drinking. A time is now came to think that is it necessary to use heavy cost water supply schemes everywhere? Is it necessary to supply water by tankers? This can be achieved by adopting roof top rain water system. By adoption of the Roof top rainwater harvesting techniques, there will not be any need to supply water by tankers. Let us see that how where and when this technique is useful. Human water needs : Let us understand our daily per head water requirement.
Daily water need Latrine and washing mouth Bath Washing cloths Food preparation and drinking Other purpose Total Maximum in liters 25 25 25 10 10 95 Minimum in liters 05 10 10 05 05 35

The minimum water need is 35 liters per day per person. Thus 175 liters water per day will be sufficient for a family of five persons. Suppose the roof top area of the house is 30 sqm; and the average annual rainfall is 700 mm. Then the roof top rainwater potential is 21000 liters. If a under ground tank of size 3m x 3m x 2.5m is constructed. The storage capacity of the tank will be 22500 liters. This much water will be sufficient to them for 128 days. That is more than 4 months of the dry summer days. The construction cost of the tank will be around Rs.20000/-. With nominal maintenance the tank will serve for more than 40 to 50 years. Thus this is a long lasting solution. The annual cost of the tank will be around Rs.2000/-

Thus it is seen that the cost of the under ground storage tank i.e. 20000/-will be recovered within five years. Construction of Kund and such type of under ground storage tanks are practiced in Rajasthan and Gujarat. With these techniques they have solved the water problems. They built a water storage tank under the main Hall of the house. The storage capacity is ranging from 20000 to 40000 liters. In summer days when the wells become dry they use the stored water. The rainwater harvesting system is found in the house of general publics as well as in the ministers house also. It will be interested to note that an under ground tank was in use in the house at Porabandar, where Mahatma Gandhi was born.

Comparison of tankers expenditure with the construction cost of water storage tank

Harvesting Water at Home

86

The rainwater that is harvested is pure with virtually no impurities and is suitable for all purposes. After filtration the harvested rainwater can be put to all uses including drinking and cooking purposes. The area on which the rainwater falls is the catchments area. The annual rainwater harvesting potential of rooftop can be calculated by multiplying the area and the amount of rainfall that is received annually. In rural areas, the roof top harvested rainwater can be stored or used for recharge of ground water. This approach requires connecting the outlets pipe from rooftop to divert the water in to a storage tank or divert it to either existing well/tube wells/bore wells or specially designed wells/ structures. Following table shows the availability of rainwater through Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting. Size of down water pipe The collection system directs the rainwater falling over the rooftop, into the filtration system. 75 to 90 mm diameter PVC pipes resistant to UV rays appear to be the best bet as down water pipes. Of course, this depends upon the roof area to be

drained. 3 to 4 down water pipes seem sufficient for 30 to 40 square meter roof areas. Filtration Before the water enters the down water pipes Filtration arrangements is must. This can be archived with following simple methods. Put a piece of sponge placed at the inlet of the down water pipe. A PVC bucket with gravel, sand & charcoal is a good filter before rainwater is stored A PVC drum with sponge at the inlet & outlet is also a filter A small two chamber inspection/ filter tank can also be devised A Devas type filter is found to be useful. It is easy to construct, maintain, and have low cost. The rainwater dissolves the impurities that are present on the surface as it flows over the roof area into the collection system. Therefore it is advisable to keep the catchments area free of any chemical or other harmful impurities. At times, it is also advised that the run-off of the first few minutes of the rain

Water yield available in liters from the annual rainfall, roof top area
Annual Rainfall in mm ..................

(m)

Harvested Roof Top Water in liters

87

be allowed to flow out. This washes away most of the impurities that may be possibly present on the surfaces. Storage The harvested rain shall be stored in a storage tank. The tank can be built with locally available materials and traditional construction techniques. The storage tank can be constructed underground, above ground or partially above ground as shown in the following figures. Use the ground water till it is available. Use the water stored in the tanks in dry months. Depending on the amount of rainwater that needs to be harvested and the proposed end use of the harvested rainwaters, an appropriate storage or recharge system is designed. The simple thumb rule for that is build a storage tank of bottom area equal

to the one third area of the roof top and the depth of the tank equal to three times the average annual rainfall in meter or three meter whichever is less. For example there are three rooms in a house of size 3m x 3m. The total roof area will be 3no x3m x 3m i.e. 27 square meter. Let the house is lies in the average annual rainfall of 700 mm (0.7meter). Then for storing the harvested roof top water construct a under ground tank having the bottom area equal to one third the roof area i.e. 27/3=9 square meter. Keep the depth of the tank equal to 3 times the average annual rainfall i.e. 0.7m x 3=2.1 meter. Thus the storage capacity of the tank will be 3 x3 x 2.1 =18.9 cubic meter i.e. 18900 liters. And this much water will be sufficient for three most dry summer month to a family of five members. And if used very precisely for drinking and cooking purpose then this much water will be sufficient for more than six

88

months. It is interesting to note that in Bikaner area of Rajasthan the people prefer to give harvested rain water to an ill person than the tap water. Thus they have very much faith on the purity of the harvested and stored rainwater. Since 1986, in 450 school of Rajasthan under ground storage tank are constructed. The total storage capacity of these tanks is about 27 million liters. The students and the staff have drunk the water since its inception and there have been no complain from their teacher or parents that they have fallen ill from drinking the water. Maintenance Water harvesting systems require occasional maintenance, but this can be easily accomplished. Debris and leaves should be filtered before storing the water by placing screens over gutters. Debris screens over gutters should be cleaned periodically and storage tanks should be drained and cleaned regularly. Water kept in tanks should be covered to minimize algae growth and eliminate the potential for any mosquito breeding. Ground water recharge-Simple Methods The water in the premises can be harvested to recharge the ground water. The recharging will certainly help to increase the ground water storage. The design and the location of these recharge systems is site specific and needs to be evolved as per the requirements. When the rainwater falls on the ground, some of it seeps into the soil but the surplus adversely flows out as a stream or as run-off. The top soil however, can hold only a fraction of water that falls on it and the rest gradually percolates down, depending on the type of the soil and joins the aquifers that are groundwater-bearing formation Artificial recharge is a process of augmenting the underground water table by artificial infiltration of rain water and surface run-off. Techniques of Rain water Harvesting. to make more water to percolate down the soil, percolation pits are made, when there is a paved pathway and are covered with perforated concrete slabs wherever necessary. Whenever the depth of clay soil is more, recharge through percolation pits with bore is preferable.
89

Rooftops of houses serve as excellent and economical form of collection centers for rainwater. If properly diverted and used for artificial recharge it will augment the ground water table to a sufficient extent. The roof is connected to the well through a filtering arrangement by PVC pipe. A valve system can be incorporated to flush the initial part of the rainwater to get rid of impurities collected on the roof. Rainwater also can be collected and stored in large sumps to consume directly after necessary chlorination. Bathing and washing water can be routed to the open ground nearby to percolate down to retain the soil moisture. The gray water can also be treated by some water treatment methods like Soil Aquifer Treatment System (SAT) and further the pretreated water. The ground level near the gate should be raised to retain as much water as possible inside the compound. Alternatively, it is recommended to construct a sloping gutter across the gates and direct the rushing water towards percolation pit. For multistoried building, it is better to direct this water to a recharge well. The storm drains inside the premises should have boundary wall to ensure that the rain water instead of rushing into the drains and going as waste, stagnates over the ground for sometime and seeps into the soil. Wherever there is a slope, it is recommended to construct a dwarf wall to a height if 1 ft, to avoid run-off as well as to retain the rain water and allow for slow percolation. The run-off water generated in monsoons within an area can be well utilized for ground water recharging by diverting it into suitably designed recharge structures in public parks, splay grounds, stadiums, airports, stations, temple tanks, etc. Storm water drains should be designed in such a way that two separate segments are made so as to accommodate water coming from houses and from roads. The segments on the sides of the roads should be covered with perforated slabs and should have percolation pits of depth 20 to 50 ft., depending on the soil condition, at regular intervals. Due to severe depletion of ground water table, many open wells, bore wells and hand pumps are getting dried. Instead of discarding these wells, they can be converted into useful recharge wells. Roof

water and run-off water can be diverted into these wells after filling the wells with pebbles and river sand. There should be an effective arrangement for desalting before diverting the water into these wells. It is advisable to have numerous percolation pits in agriculture lands for gradual percolation and recharging of aquifer. Construction of small bunds on slope areas slows down the run-off water and helps easy percolation. Run-off water can be diverted into a large well through a Baby well and filtering tank to avoid silt depositing in the well. In open grounds, the topsoil is removed and filled with river sand. As the river sand is loosely packed, it allows water to percolate down quickly. Merits It is a low cost long lasting solution supplying pure water. If it is made compulsory to adopt the roof top rain water harvesting then there will be no need to supply water by tankers. This will save huge amount of money. This on other wise can be spent on the development works. This will also save the diesel indirectly foreign currency. The rainwater harvesting system is very useful in the remote places and in arid zone. It is also useful in high rainfall and well as low rainfall zones. This can be a best solution in the areas having saline ground water or water containing fluorides. It is also useful in case of flood situations as

the water sources get polluted due to entry of floodwater in to them, and other reasons. In such conditions harvested rainwater will be the only source of pure water. Combination of roof top rainwater harvesting and rain water harvesting is a long lasting sustainable solution for the drinking water crises, and to keep the tankers away. Demerits Roof top rain water harvesting system can not supply water if there is no rain fall over the catchments or the water is not stored in the storage tank, in the preceding rainy season. References Books 1. Pani Sarvansathi, Pradeep Bhalge 2. Aaj bhee khare hai talab, Anupam Misra 3. Bharatiya Jal Sanskriti Sawarup Ani Vyapti, Dr. R.S.Morawanchikar 4. Param vaibhavacha tappa ala, Prof. R.M.Pandav Papers and Articles 1. Glimpses of Water History of India, Dr. D.M. More 2. Few Glimpses of Indian water Culture, Dr. R. S. Morawancikar 3. Sankalan Pauspanyache, Pradeep Bhalge

90

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

15. Additional Ground Water Storage Potential for Artificial Recharge in Phreatic Aquifers of Yavatmal District, Maharashtra, India
*Pandith Madhnure **Sunil Kumar Jain
ABSTRACT Yavatmal district is mainly underlained by varied geological formations consisting of Penganga Group, Gondwana Group, Deccan Traps and Quaternary sediments. Post monsoon depth to water level and lithological logs of exploratory wells in shallow aquifers down to 20 m depth have been studied and analysed in detailed. The average tahsil wise depth to water level varies from 6 to 9 m m bgl and the available porous space for artificial recharge in unsaturated zone in phreatic aquifers varies from 0.4 to 6 m. The potential of ground water storage by recharging the phreatic unsaturated zone is estimated to be 951.6 MCM. The drinking needs of 1,44,200 people during the 4 months of summer season can be met or additional 1,29,500 hectors of land can be brought under assured irrigation from this augmented ground water resources. The undue withdrawal of ground water from the deeper aquifers containing excessive fluoride causing fluorosis can be checked in the area. KEY WORDS: Shallow aquifer, Storage potential, Depth to water level Yavatmal, Artificial recharges potential. 1. INTRODUCTION Ground water is basically a renewable resource, but the volume of water actually stored may vary greatly from place to place depending on physiography, climate, hydrogeology and rate of ground water withdrawal used for various purposes. The ground water development has to be optimised considering the demand and supply factors. Under utilization of available resources is not desirable as it deprives the economic development of the human beings. On the other hand overexploitation of ground water leads to depletions of water resources and scarcity in future. Available ground water resources and potential for its augmentation needs to be assessed scientifically and understood holistically for planning the water resources management. This study has been done for Yavatmal district on scientific lines as follows. 2. LOCATION The Yavatmal district lies between 19026 N to 20042 N Latitude and between 77018 E to 79009 E Longitude (Maharashtra State Gazetteer, 1974) and covers an area of 13584 km2, which is 4.41% of the Maharashtra state (Socio Economic Review, 2003-04). It is one of the economically backward district of Vidarbha regions of the state. As per the 2001 census the district has got a population of 24,58,271 with a density of 181/ km2 (Census of India, 2001). Location of the area is given in Fig 1. 3. HYDRO-GEOLOGICAL SETUP 3.1 Physiography and Climate Physiographically the area is mostly undulatory dissected plateau with isolated hills excluding the eastern part of the district, which is plain. The district is well drained by the rivers Penganga, Wardha and their tributaries namely Pus, Bembla, Aran, Arunavati, Waghadi, Khuni, Vaidharbha and Nirguda. The climate of the district is characterized by hot summer and general dryness except during

* Scientist B, **Scientist D 2Central Ground Water Board, Central Region, Civil lines, Nagpur 440001 For correspondence (email: Pandith_m@rediffmail.com or sunilkumar_jain@ rediffmail.com) 91

the SW monsoon. The normal annual rainfall varies from about 850 to 1150 mm and it increases from NW to SE direction in the district. The temperature varies from minimum of 15.1 0C in winter and maximum of 41.80C in summer. 3.2 Geology Archaean rocks from the basement and are covered by Penganga and Vindhyan group of rocks. The Gondwana group of rocks overlays these rocks. Deccan trap is spread all over the area. Finally the action of atmosphere eroded the Deccan traps in parts, exposing the other older formations at surface. The thickness of these formations therefore varies from place to place and thus hydrogeology of the area is influenced accordingly (Deshmukh, 1994). The contact between Penganga Group of rocks and Deccan traps is marked by unconformity. The contact between Gondwana and Deccan trap is mostly undulatory. The eastern part of the district is traversed by numerous faults; therefore rocks of different groups are met at different altitude in the area owing to differential subsidence or upheaval events. The lithological geometry of the phreatic aquifers is generated exclusively based on the exploratory drilling at 51 wells is given in Table 1 and plotted in Fig 2. 3.3 Hydrogeology The Deccan traps are the predominant water bearing formations with variations in hydro geological properties over horizontal and vertical space. It is followed by Gondwana formations having sandstone and shales sequence. The Penganga and Quaternary alluvium aquifers are spread in limited areas but have significant role wherever they are found. Archaean aquifers are limited and have less significance in the area. 3.3.1 Phreatic Aquifers: Phreatic aquifers are most productive and occur at shallow depth, which are developed by dug wells up to 20 m depth. Ground water occurs in the weathered zone, fractures in Archaean rocks, Penganga formations, Vindhyan formation and Gondwana formations and weathered zone, fractures and vesicular part in the basaltic formations. A comprehensive depiction of depth to water level is made by using the data of the 317
92

dug wells for the year 2005 (CGWB, 2006). The depth to water level in the phreatic aquifers varies between to 1.80 mbgl to 16.80 mbgl during the pre monsoon season and between 0.30 m bgl to 15.15 mbgl during the post monsoon season in the district. The tahsil wise average depth to water level in the area during post monsoon season of the year 2005 varies from 6 m bgl to 9 mbgl with an average of 6.96 m bgl. Deep water levels are observed in Wani, Kelapur and Ghatanji tahsils. Hydrogeological map of the district along with depth to water level (November, 2005) is given in Fig 1. 4. GROUND WATER RESOURCES The CGWB and GSDA estimated the ground water resources of the district based on Ground Water Estimation (GEC) Methodology 1997. The net annual available ground water resources are 1278.34 MCM and the ground water draft is 314.35 MCM. Overall the stage of ground water development is 24.6 % in the district (GSDA & CGWB, 2005). The tahsil wise ground water resources of the district are given in Table 2. Ground water development scenario varies in the district, while eastern part consisting of Wani, Maregaon, Kelapur, Ghatanji and Jhari Jamni tahsils are the least developed tashils from ground water resources point of view having less than 15% of the development. The Ralegaon, Yavatmal, Babulgaon, Kalamb and Arni are the next developed tahsils with the stage of development between 15 to 25%. There is better ground water development in Darwah, Ner, Digras, Pusad and Umarkhed tashils where the stage of ground water development is 25 to 40%. Maximum development of ground water is 45% and is observed in Mahagaon tahsil. As per the GEC norms all the tahsils and 64 watersheds falls in safe category. 5. SCOPE OF GROUND WATER AUGMENTATION THROUGH ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE The ground water development scenario of the district is favorable for further ground water development in years to come. However, as the development of ground water resources proceeds with increasing ground water withdrawal, the depletion of water table will accelerate resulting into drying or deepening of existing wells. There are

many pockets in the district where water levels have deepened and also certain areas lack adequate natural replenishment. Therefore, artificial recharge measures would be required simultaneously so as to augment the ground water resources of the area. There is a need for assessing the scope and extent of artificial recharge potential available at present in the area so as to make a comprehensive management plans for the district. The artificial recharge potential has been assessed accordingly on the scientific pattern and methodology in this study. 6. IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL AREAS FOR ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE (PHREATIC AQUIFER) The base map of Yavatmal district on 1: 250,000 scale is prepared by demarcating district, tahsils boundary and major drainage. The lithological logs of the phreatic aquifers down to the depth of 20 meters below ground level (m bgl) are compiled and plotted on the base map (Fig. 2), as the area is developed by dug wells up to 20 m depth. Data of 51 exploratory wells drilled by CGWB is specifically analyzed in detail for the phreatic part although their depth ranges from 17 m bgl to 470 m bgl. This is superimposed on the base map so as to account for storage potential of different strata more precisely. The aquifer geometry is also reflected from this data source. The depth to water level data of post monsoon season for the year 2005 is used to assess the unsaturated space availability in phreatic zone. These are superimposed and transferred on the base map to generate a comprehensive map (Fig. 2). Based on the above-mentioned information, the tahsilwise potential for artificial recharge to ground water is worked out. The summarized results of lithology, depths to water levels are given in Table 3. The disposition of impervious layers below the ground water surface has decisive role to facilitate or to retard the recharge from rainfall or storage tanks. A perusal of the Table 3 indicates that the depth of impervious formation varies from 0. 75 m bgl (Darwah tahsil) to 5.6 m bgl (Digras & Arni tahsil).The unsaturated thickness of porous zone availability varies from 0.4 m (Digras and Arni
93

tahsil) to 6 m (Kelapur tahsil) with an average of 3.16 m. It is found that only some percentage of total thickness of the unsaturated zone is porous and the remaining is non porous for ground water storage. The percentage varies from 7% (Digras & Arni tahsil) to 67% (Kelapur tahsil) with an average of 48%. The area having maximum thickness of porous strata in unsaturated zone is most potential for ground water recharge through artificial measures. The artificial recharge is targeted to raise the depth to water level up to 3 m bgl so as to avoid the danger of water logging. The column 7 of Table 3 is worked out by subtracting column 5 from column 4 of Table 3 or the actual top impervious layer or 3 m whichever is more. 7. STORAGE POTENTIAL OF UNSATURATED PHREATIC AQUIFERS The volume of water for recharging the unsaturated (dry) zone of phreatic aquifers is estimated by multiplying the tahsilwise area with the available unsaturated thickness and the average specific yield of the particular strata. Thus, the total storage potential of phreatic unsaturated aquifer varies from 9.04 MCM in Digras & Arni tahsils to 142.56 MCM in Wani tahsil. The total potential of ground water resources augmented through artificial recharge is estimated in the district is 951.61 MCM. The tahsilwise details of estimated sub surface storage potential of phreatic aquifers through artificial recharge to ground water are given Table 4. 8. GROUND WATER AVAILABILITY VIS A VIS AUGMENTATION POTENTIAL The ground water resources of the district are 1278.34 MCM and possibility of further ground water augmentation is 951.61 MCM or the actual non-commuted surplus runoff. Thus, the overall ground water resources can be made available is 2230 MCM (Table 4) depending up on the available surplus water. However, there are variations in the tahsilwise scenario of ground water availability and augmentation potential. RECOMMENDATIONS The additional storage potential of the phreatic aquifers may be harnessed appropriately

considering the drinking water scarcity and irrigation needs of the area. It will generate many fold benefits to ameliorate the suffering of underprivileged regions and economic upliftment of the local populations. The recommendations follow. 1. Efforts may be made to utilise the maximum volume of water from the available potential of 951.6 MCM or the actual non-commuted surplus runoff, which will cater the drinking needs of rural people even during the 4 summer months. 2. The existing rural ground water supply schemes will be strengthened by ground water augmentation measures. 3. Alternately, the additional irrigation potential can be generated from 951.61 MCM to the extent of 1,29,500 hectors considering the crop requirement of 0.65 m prevailing in the area. Both these requirement may also be managed by suitable appropriation of the augmented resources. 4. Stress on ground water withdrawals from deeper aquifers will be reduced which shall be used in exigency and emergency for the future water needs. 5. Parts of the district is affected by high fluoride concentration in ground water resources and therefore the utilization of water from phreatic aquifers will minimize the fluorosis in the endemic areas as deeper aquifers are discharging fluoride rich ground waters. 6. Appropriate recharge schemes best suited in the area may be identified on the basis of local and site-specific surveys and terrain conditions. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank Shri Dinesh Prakash, Regional Director CGWB; CR, Nagpur for providing necessary guidelines and valuable suggestions in carrying out the studies. Auther expresses their sincere thanks to Shri P.K.Parchure, Sc D for his constructive comments valuable

suggestions and encouragement while preparing the paper. Sincere thanks are due to S/Sh. Bhushan Lamsoge, Binoy Ranjan, D.N.Mandal, B.N.Warke, S.K.Bhatnagar, scientists, CGWB, CR who have collected the valuable data from the district. REFERENCES 1. Census of India (2001): District census, Yavatmal (Un published). 2. CGWB (2006): Report on Groundwater management studies in parts of Yavatmal district, Maharashtra. Un published Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India report for A.A.P.; 2005-06. 3. Deshmukh A.B. (1994): Ground water resources and development potential of Yavatmal district, Maharashtra. Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, report no 629/DIS. p. 62. 4. GSDA and CGWB (2005): Dynamic ground water resources of Maharashtra as on March 2004. Groundwater Surveys and Development Agency, Govt of Maharashtra and Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, p.332. 5. GSI (2001): District resource map of Yavatmal district, Maharashtra. Geological Survey of India. 6. Maharashtra State Gazetteers (1974): Gazetteers of India, Maharashtra state, Yeotmal district, Second Edition (Revised), p. 872. 7. Socio Economic Review and District Statistical Abstract (2003-04): Yavatmal District, Maharashtra. Subramanian P.R. (1998): Ground water exploration in Maharashtra State and Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India. p. 294.

94

Fig. 1

Fig. 2
95

Table 1: Lithology of shallow aquifers based on the results of exploratory drilling in Yavatmal district

contd....

96

Table 1: Lithology of shallow aquifers based on the results of exploratory drilling in Yavatmal district

97
TS=Tope Soil, C=Clay, VB=Vesicular Basalt, WVB= Weathered Vesicular Basalt, FVB= Fractured Vesicular Basalt, WFVB= Weathered Fractured Vesicular Basalt, MB= Massive Basalt, WMB= Weathered Massive Basalt, FMB=Fractured Massive Basalt, WFMB= Weathered Fractured Massive Basalt, SS=Sandstone, SHS= Shale & Sandstone

Table 2: Ground water resources of the district as on March 2005 (After GEC-97)

98

Table 3: Summarized results of the lithology, depth to water level of the phreatic aquifers in the area

99

Table 4: Estimated sub surface storage potential of phreatic aquifer through Artificial Recharge to ground water in Yavatmal district, Maharashtra (Post monsoon season 2005).

100

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

16. Appropriate Technique of Rainwater Management to Enhance Soil Moisture and Higher Productivity of Rainfed Bt Cotton
*Jagvir Singh *D. Blaise *M.R.K. Rao *B. M. Khadi *N.R. Tandulkar
ABSTRACT In Central part of India, 70 % of arable land is rainfed without assured irrigation and cotton occupy major area of 60 lakh ha under rainfed in 2005. Rainfed cotton production per unit ha is very low as compared to irrigated cotton. Higher production can be achieved if soil moisture conservation technique is to be adopted during growing season of Bt cotton. Sowing of Bt and non Bt cotton hybrids was done on flat system. Two different land configuration systems viz. ridges and furrow and flat bed system were compared in rainfed Bt hybrids at different fertilizer levels in Vertisols. Significant higher yield of seed cotton was received by adopting ridges and furrow method over flat bed system. An additional yield of 550 to 600 Kg/ha was obtained by utilizing run-off rain water in cotton field. Biomass accumulation and number of bolls in Bt hybrids by moisture conservation technique was higher compared to flat bed system in medium deep soil. The technique of soil moisture conservation through ridges and furrow was found superior over flat bed system in terms of increasing in moisture content by 4-5% and NUE during peak boll development stage when rainfall is scanty. Foliar application of Zn and B (@ 0.5%) improved fibre quality of Bt hybrids marginally. Higher dose of fertilizer was found non significant. Higher yield was observed in medium spacing (90x45cm) as compared to recommended spacing (90x60cm) adopted in medium deep soils.

INTRODUCTION Bt cotton is available in India only in the form of hirsutum hybrids and now occupying an area of 33% to the total area of cotton while in Maharashtra it is about 80% area in Bt cotton. Production in the rainfed land is a very difficult task due to uncertainty and uneven distribution of rainfall. Hybrid cotton is a long duration crop requires more water and nutrients as compared to soybean or sorghum. It also has capacity to tolerant excess water conditions for 4-5 days or dry conditions for 20 to 25 days. Higher production of cotton can be achieved at assured rainfall of 650 to 700 mm with proper distribution of rainfall during growing season. Rain water harvesting through tanks, ponds and reservoirs, though an age old practice but use of harvested rain water for supplementary irrigation in the stress

period as increase productivity of rainfed agro ecoregions (Venkateswarlu, 1981). Inspite of water harvesting on watershed, an appropriate technique to conserve soil moisture through management of run-off water during scanty rainfall and active growth period of cotton has been successfully developed for conventional hybrids at CICR, Nagpur. The efforts have been made for maximization of transgenic Bt cotton production through run-off water management during scanty rainfall under rainfed conditions. MATERIAL AND METHODS Field trials on Bt cotton was laid out at Central Institute for Cotton Research, farm, Nagpur during 2001-06, to achieve higher production through runoff water management by making a ridges and

*Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur 440 010 101

furrows when rainfall recedes during September month. Two field trials on Mahyco Bt cotton viz. MECH 184, 162 & 12 with different fertilizers levels 75, 100 & 125% RDF and different spacing (90x60cm, 90x45cm in medium deep soil and 90x60cm & 60x60cm in shallow soil) were evaluated for two years during 2001-03. Second field experiment on bunny Bts viz. NCS 913 and NCS 138 with non Bt bunny was conducted in medium deep soil with different fertilizers levels coupled with flat bed and ridges & furrows systems. Sowing of cotton was done in the last week of June on flat bed system. Fertilizer dose of NPK 90:45:45(F1), 100:60:80(F2) and 150: 80:100 (F3) to all hybrids were given as per recommended practices. Only one spray of sucking pests was given to all hybrids and 2 sprays of insecticides for controlling bollworms were given in non Bt only. Cotton was picked thrice in Bt and twice in non-Bt. Rainfall distribution and temperature data during the crop season from 25 June to 31 December is presented in table 1. RESULTS AND DISSCUTION Effect of rainfall distribution on growth of cotton : Rainfall data for the year 2002 and 2005 was interpreted in the paper where soil moisture content of surface soil was measured at 80, 95 and 110 days after sowing (DAS). Total rainfall during the crop season was 1018, 651 and 1012 mm in 2003, 2004 and 2005, respectively. In 2002, there was a good distribution (32 rainy days) of rainfall of 661 mm during active growth period upto first fortnight of September and there after very few amount of rainfall was received. Ridges and furrows ware made on third September, 2002 which has saved run-off rain-water of first week of September. After second week of September there was a scanty rainfall of 30 mm. In 2005, precipitation during the active growth period of cotton i.e. from 25 June to 15 August was 673 mm and for the period from 16 August to 30 September, it was 370 mm. Rainfall distribution was uneven at initial growth period of cotton. Ridges and furrows were made across the slope on 22 August, 2005 when rainfall recedes. In the first fortnight of September, there was heavy rainfall of 280 mm resulting in large proportion of run-off water. If ridges and furrows made before the rainfall of September it could have been better to save run102

off water and enhance soil moisture. Thus run-off water was saved by above mentioned technique. It enhanced the soil moisture and nutrient utilization in cotton. Rainfall of 80 mm received in the middle of October had beneficial effects in conservation of soil moisture through ridges and furrows system. Soil conditions effect on yield and yield attributing characters : Biomass accumulation at maturity stage (110 DAS) in Bt cotton was significantly lower than conventional hybrids. Higher Harvest index (%) was observed in Bt cotton because Bt cotton had higher bolls as compared to leaves. Higher seed cotton yield and number of bolls in Bt was recorded in medium deep soil as compared to shallow soil. No yield difference was observed in shallow soil by applying higher dose of fertilizer (125% RDF) while in medium deep soil, higher dose of fertilizer gave higher yield as compared to RDF but no significant increase in yield was recorded due to higher dose of fertilizer. Hence, the recommended dose of fertilizer to hybrid cotton Bt or conventional hybrid was sufficient for getting optimum seed cotton yield. Fibre quality of Bt cotton was also improved when Bt was grown in medium deep soils. Spacing effect on yield and conservation of soil moisture : In shallow soils medium spacing (90x45 cm or 60x60 cm) for hybrid cotton was found superior over higher spacing viz. 90x60 cm or 90x75 cm. sowing of cotton rows across the slope was also a good to protect soil erosion and run-off rainwater. At maturity stage there was higher soil moisture by 3-4% in lower spacing as compared to higher spacing in shallow soils resulted in higher nutrient utilization by cotton and higher seed cotton yield. In spacing trial with Bt hybrids viz. NCS 138 and NCS 913, data indicated that higher seed cotton yield of 25q/ha in Bt cotton was obtained at medium spacing (90cm x 45cm) as compared to 21q/ha in lower spacing (90cm x 30cm) and 22.5q/ha in recommended spacing (90cm x 60cm), it might be due to protection of soil erosion and run-off rain water. Additional yield in medium spacing system may also be attributed by more plant population per unit area.

Effect of soil moisture conservation technique: Significant higher yield of seed cotton was obtained at ridges & furrows system over flat bed system. Both the Bt hybrids gave an additional yield of about 600 kg by utilizing run-off water through land configuration as ridges & furrows system over flat bed system. Higher seed cotton was recorded in both the Bt hybrids as compared to non-Bt Bunny. No significant difference in yield was observed due to higher dose of fertilizers. However, the increase in yield by 20-25% at ridges and furrows system was noticed at higher dose of fertilizer.

CONCLUSION Therefore, to make this technique a viable and successful one in rainfed Agro-ecoregions, ridges and furrows are to be made across the slope and when rainfall recedes and demand of water is more for development of bolls in cotton. The maximum conservation of run-off of scanty rainwater and its prudent utilization practice is worth for maximization of cotton production under rainfed condition. REFERENCE : Venkateshwarlu J. (1981). Maximization of crop production in dry lands. J. Soil Cons. 9: 124-40.

Table 1 : Rainfall (mm) distribution pattern during crop season

Period Rainfall No. of rainy days Year-2002 25 Jun to 15 Sept 16 Sept to 30 Sept 1 Oct to 15 Oct 661 7 13 32 (Jun-3, Jul-3, Aug-19, Sept-7) 2 1 Year-2005 25 Jun to 15 Sept 16 Sept to 30 Sept 1 Oct to 15 Oct 437 315 33 16 340C (Jun-38, Jul-30, Aug-31,Sept-31) 320C 320C 330 C (June- 36, Jul -34, Aug- 30, Sept- 32) 320 C 340C Max Temp. (Mean)

Table-2 : Effect of fertilizer levels at different run-off water management on Seed cotton yield (q/ha) Hybrids Seed cotton yield Flat Bed Bt NCS 138 Bt NCS 913 Non Bt (Bunny)
17.28 15.99 9.34

F1:90:45:45 Flat Bed

15.95 15.91 9.03

F2-100:60:80 Flat Bed

16.6 16.06 9.65

Ridge & furrows

22.06 21.72 12.06

Ridge & furrows

21.62 20.55 12.08

Ridge & furrows

23.31 20.88 12

103

Table -3 Surface soil moisture content of different DAS in 2002 Growth period At 100% RDF treatment 80 DAS 95 DAS 110 DAS At 125% RDF 80 DAS 95 DAS 110 DAS
Ridg.& furr.-Ridges & Furrows

Shallow soil Flat bed 20 16 10.5 20 15 9.5 Ridg.& Furr. 24.5 20 12.5 24 18.5 12

Medium soil Flat bed 22 20 11 22 19.5 10.5 Ridg.& Furr. 27 24.5 13.5 26 24 11.5

NCS 138
30
26.52

NCS 913

Bunny non-Bt

25
2 1. 8 6

24.94

24 .69

24.3 22.88 2 1. 5 2

24.42 2 1. 9 6

Seed cotton yield (q/ha)

20.8

20
14 . 9 6 13 . 9 5 13 . 7 1

15
12 . 4 3

14 . 0 8

10

0 90x30 90x45 90x60 Spacing x Fertilizer 100:60:80 150:80:100

Fig 2: Effect of Spacing and Fertilizers on Bt cotton yield

104

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

17. Rain Water Harvesting An ultimate need in 21st Century

Er. L. K.Bisoyi
Introduction : Rainwater harvesting (RWH) refers to collection of rain falling on earth surfaces for beneficial uses before it drains away as run-off. The concept of RWH has a long history. Evidences indicate domestic RWH having been used in the Middle East for about 3000 years and in other parts of Asia for at least 2000 years. Collection and storages of rainwater in earthen tanks for domestic and agricultural uses is very common in India since historical times. The traditional knowledge and practice of RWH has largely been abandoned in many parts of India after the implementation of dam and irrigation projects However, since the early 90s, there has been a renewed interest in RWH projects in India and elsewhere. Rainwater harvesting can be done at individual household level and at community level in both urban as well as rural areas. At household level, harvesting can be done through roof catchments, and at community level through ground catchments. Depending on the quantity, location and the intended use, harvested rainwater, it can be utilized immediately or after storage. Other than as a water supply, RWH can be practiced with the objectives of flood control and soil erosion control. The total water resources, comprising surface water (1953 bcm) and ground water (423 bcm) are not uniformly distributed, in the sense, roughly 67 percent of the resources are reported to be available in the Indo-Gangetic alluvial basins covering 33 percent of the geographical area of the country as against 33 percent of the potential in the hard rock regions occupying 67 per cent of the geographical area. Components of RWH System : A RWH system has three components The catchments; The collection system; and The utilization system. Factors : The following factors are to be taken into consideration for RWH practices Location and topography of the area Whether plane or hilly area, rain fed, desert, steep slope, drought prone, flood prone, rural and urban area. Rain fall pattern Whether rain fall is distributed uniformly through out the year or intermittent. Intensity of rain fall- It varies from 100mm in western Rajsthan to 11,000 mm in Cherapunji (Meghalaya). Soil Characteristics- Whether the soil is permeable or impermeable to facilitate recharge of aquifers. Catchments area Whether barren land, Forest area, Agricultural land, Ice caps and desert area. Water Resources at a Glance (India) : Out of 100% water what we have. 97% as sea water, such a huge water source is of no use to us unless we treat it with highly expensive methods like Reverse osmosis or evaporation etc However water which we get by such techniques is not affordable by every individual. 2% water is in the form of ice and glaciers and is also not of any immediate use to us. 1% water is in the form of rivers, lakes, ground water etc. Which is the only source, readily available to whole world to satisfy their needs. This is represented in Fig-1. Now lets narrow down our focus to our country. Out of 1% available potable water source globally, only 4% is available in India. As compared to the world population, 17% population live in India. Because of this situation there

*FIE (India), ME (PH) (Committee Member, Env. Engg. divisionI.E (India), Orisssa state centre Bhubaneswar) Address : Plot no-759, Jayadev Vihar, Bhubaneswar (Orissa) 105

is a tremendous crisis on our Water demand and supply arrangements. Water resources
Available water in BCM Losses in BCM Unutilized water that can be harnessed in BCM

From all natural Sources 4000

Evaporation 700 Flow on ground 700 Flow to sea 1500

Remaining available water 1100 Out of which Ground water recharge 430 Present utilizable surface water 370 Unutilized water that can be harness 300

Per - capita availability of land/water in India : Year Availability of land ha/capita Year Availability water in Cum/yr. capita Projected water consumption :In BCM Irrigation 1997-98 2020 BAU 2020 BCS 560 640 602 Domestic 30 56 51 Manufacturing 30 57 57 Power 9 28 27 Total 629 781 737

1950 0.28 1947 6

2000 0.1 1998 2.2

2050 (prob.)

0.07 2005 1.6

2025 (prob.) 0.5

(Source Water resources division, planning commission Govt. of India) Harvesting potential(India) :
Potential of Water Harvesting to meet Indias Drinking Water Needs Assumptions Population: Average annual rainfall: Land area for which land-use records are available: Average household water requirement nationwide: Annual water requirements Water collection efficiency (% of rainfall collected) 1050 million 1,100mm 304 million hectares 100 litres/day/person Land requirement % of Indias land

38,325 billion litres 38,325 billion litres

100% 50%

3.50 million hectares 7.00 million hectares

1.15% 2.30%

Issues : A number of issues may affect the widespread adoption of RWH systems in India. Such as: Economics and Technology Research and design needs to improve the cost-effectiveness of RWH, like: Economically optimizing the size of system components Minimizing the quantity or quality of materials needed to create any given volume of water storage. Developing new designs for tanks, guttering and catchments Developing measuring instruments to assist RWH system management Establishing the environmental and economic benefits of reducing extraction of domestic water from distant point sources. Water Quality and Health : the impact of RWH on health such as : The likely causes of low RW quality (physical, chemical, biological) and assessing its impact on health
106

Actual RW quality as a function of user behaviors, system design and environmental conditions Devising new techniques for reducing turbidity and pathogens, and improving the taste Understanding the links between RWH and the prevalence of disease vectors like mosquitoes and identifying cost-effective and sustainable vector control measures. Water Policies, Regulations and Attitudes that affect taking-up of RWH projects on wider scales, including: Current policies, priorities, rules and concerns of key stakeholders RWH popularization and dissemination techniques. The optimal role of RWH alongside other water supplies in different regions of the country. Challenges / Strategies in 21st Century Challenges and Strategies for water in 21st century are as given below. Challenges Ground water depletion Water quality deterioration Low water use efficiency Expensive new water sources Resource degradation Water and health Massive subsidies and distorted incentives Development of new water sources

Strategies Rainwater harvesting Comprehensive water policy reform and demand management Secure water rights User management of irrigation systems. Reformed price incentives Appropriate technology Environment protection Tradable water rights International co-operation Need and Advantages of RWH : The need and advantages of RWH are as enumerated below Choice between Storage and Artificial Recharge of Rain Water (Fig. 2, 3 & 4) The decision whether to store or recharge water depends on the rainfall pattern of a particular region. For example, in places like Kerala and Mizoram, rain falls throughout the year, barring a few dry periods. In such places, one can depend on a small domesticsized water tank for storing rainwater, since the period between two spells of rain is short. On the other hand, in dry areas like Delhi, Rajasthan and Gujarat, the total annual rainfall occurs only during 3 to 4 months of monsoon. The water collected during the monsoon has to be stored throughout the year; which means that huge volumes of storage containers would have to be provided. In Delhi, it is

107

more feasible to use rainwater to recharge ground water aquifers than for storage. Rainwater Harvesting Practices(Fig.5-10) : There are two main practices of rainwater harvesting: Storage rainwater on surface for future use. It is a traditional practice and structures used are under ground tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs etc. Recharges of ground water: is a new concepts of rain water harvesting and the structures generally used are: Pits recharge pits are constructed for recharging the shallow aquifers. Trenches These are constructed when the permeable strata is available at shallow depths. Dug wells drainpipes to a filtration tank, from which it flows in to the dug well, divert rainwater

that is collected on the rooftop of the building Hand pumps The existing hand pump may be used for recharging the shallow / deep aquifers, if the availability of water is limited. Recharge wells recharges wells are generally constructed for recharging the deeper aquifer and water is passed through filter media to avoid choking of recharge wells. Recharge shafts for recharging the shallow aquifers, which are, located below clayey surface. Lateral shafts with bore wells- for recharging the upper as well as lengths. Deeper aquifers lateral shafts of 1.5 to 2-mt width and 10 to 30mt. Spreading techniques- when permeable strata start from top then this technique is used. Water is spread in streams/nalas by making check dams, cement plugs, gabion structures or a percolation pond may be constructed.

108

Is there Water Shortage ? Every village in India can meet its own water needs: Land area needed per village in different states of India to capture enough rainwater to meet drinking and cooking water needs

Note : Calculation based on the assumption that average village population in different meteorological sub-divisions is the same as that of the state. Source : India Meterological Department for normal rainfall data and based on Census of India data for 1981, 1991 & 2001 International Initiatives : In U.S. RWH practice in individual and small groups of Texas University through 3 cascade ponds to support aquatic life for biology laboratory fed by harvested rain water. In Mexico due to artificial recharge of aquifer 50% reduction cost of pumping of ground water achieved. In South Africa in 25 million hector one non-native weed consumed almost 7% more of countrys run
109

off and it was replaced by indigenous plants to save water remarkably. With active participation of NGOs, World Bank and Denmark Govt. a special type of grass planted in Denmark in slopes which reduced 70% rainwater run off and even strong roots of these grass penetrated hard rock and improved infiltration. Major initiatives(India) : Recommending schemes which will ensure availability of minimum 25 kiloliters of water per year for each citizen in the country. Water harvesting must be made mandatory for the buildings. Necessary legal provisions may be made in this regard. Appropriate legal provisions for making recycling of water mandatory in all buildings particularly larger hotels and industries where large amount of water is consumed are to be taken out. Since sustainability of the drinking water source is of paramount importance for smooth functioning of rural water supply, 25 per cent out of 20 per cent of the allocation under Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) has been earmarked exclusively for water harvesting schemes to make implementation of such schemes mandatory. Similarly, 25 percent out of the allocation under Prime Ministers Gramodaya Yojana has also been earmarked for funding schemes under submission on sustainability. MPs are to be requested to utilize Local Area Development Fund in their respective constituencies to take up water harvesting scheme. Besides feasibility studies alone with consultancy services for preparation of pilot projects on rainwater harvestings in select states have already been taken. Further, preparation of user friendly atlas type of document on traditional water harvesting structures in various parts of the country has been initiated for popularizing the concept of water harvesting amongst all concerned including the community. Conclusion : Rain harvesting is emerging as a viable long term strategy to tackle the increase pressure on fresh water resources of our country. In addition to water harvesting, water recycling is essential for large consumers such as hotels, public Institutions
110

and industries. The recycled water must be used for all usages including agricultural needs, except for drinking. This will reduce the per capital requirement of water to nearly 25% of the present consumption and enable larger number of population to get adequate potable water and for sanitation. Community managed in situ water harvesting interventions on watershed basis can better the quality of life of people be ensuring access to safe drinking water and increased productivity of natural resources. Unless some crucial measures are not taken in time then by 2025 India will be highly water stressed.. In view of this Rain water-harvesting system is the only alternative, which can provide good quality of water. Harvested rainwater if recharged in to the ground then problem of depletion of under ground water can be sorted out very easily. It has become very necessary to form certain regulations and laws for the effective utilization of available water source as well rain water harvesting systems implementations so that our coming future will be secured at least on Water front. Financial incentives also can be devised to over come the constraints. Selected Reading
Agarawal, A etall State Indias environment Centre for science and Environment New Delhi. 2001 edition Agarawal, A etall Making water every body business Practice and policy or water harvesting - do Bisoyi L.K. Rain water harvesting and Artificial recharge An innovative approach for crisis management and sustainable development An experiences of New Delhi- 21st National convention of Env. Engineers, 11-12 Nov. 2005, Bhubaneswar, Orissa. Concepts and practices for rain water harvesting CPCB-MOEF-10/2001, New Delhi. Kalam A.P.J- Integrated water mission - do Kulkarni M.K. Rain water harvesting Definite tool to win over water scarcity Integrated water and waste water management for sustainable urban development Modern trends I.E(India), Pune Local Centre 10-11 March-06. Nimbal F. Rain water harvesting Yojana 6/05 New Delhi Rain water harvesting Need of the MillenniumI.E.(India), Tamil Nadu State Center. Jointly with HUDCO and Anna University- 12/2000. Sahoo. N. Water harvesting in water sheds. Vigyan Diganta 12/05, Bhubaneswar. Yadupatty M.R. etall- Rain water harvesting A case study of in a College campus at Myosore Hydrology journal, quarterly IAH ISSN-0971-569X-vol-28- no3-4 Sept.2005.

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

18. Traditional Rainwater Harvesting Systems Our Field Experiences

DHAN Foundation

SYNOPSIS Traditional rainwater harvesting systems comprise mainly tanks, ponds and Ooranis (drinking water ponds). Considering the erratic rainfall obtaining in our country, they have been constructed by our ancestors over the past centuries, to capture the monsoon rains and store them for later use when required. During the past few decades they are getting degraded and even extinct due to various reasons, which has resulted in alarming water scarcity, over exploitation of ground water and environmental hazards. DHAN Foundations study, approach and efforts made to renovate these small scale water bodies with community participation are described. The achievements and experiences of these efforts are explained, with particular reference to the role of these renovated water bodies in augmenting storage capacity, stabilizing tankfed & rainfed agriculture, increasing crop production and most importantly improving the groundwater potential through recharge. In conclusion, formulation of a massive programme of tank renovation & its implementation with some priority criteria, and only through the user groups is recommended.

INTRODUCTION Rainwater harvesting is undertaken mainly to capture the run off from the seasonal rains and store it for use in times of need. The storage is made on the ground surface or underground, depending upon the topography of the land, the types of surface and sub surface soils and the underground geological formations. Storage cisterns, check dams, farm ponds, percolation ponds, Ooranis (drinking water ponds), irrigation tanks and reservoirs comprise the surface storage systems, Rain water stored in the soil profile upto its field capacity, sub surface dams constructed in deep sandy beds across rivers and streams, sumps, dug wells, filter point wells, tube wells and aquifers constitute the underground storage systems. The source of supply for all these storages is the rainfall which is highly variable. The rainwater which is not harvested and stored, mostly runs off the land surface and gets wasted without proper use. Where the rains are intense and continuous over some days, the run off

turns into flood inundating vast tracts of land and damages life and property. When the rainfall is scanty, part of it gets lost by interception by tree canopy, evaporation and run off leaving very little of it for storage and future use. Although water is renewable, it is a finite commodity. Therefore rainwater harvesting and storage becomes imperative in either case, for effective use by people, livestock and nature. While in the urban areas rainwater harvesting is practiced for drinking, domestic, gardening, and ground water recharge purposes, in rural areas it is undertaken more extensively for irrigation, dryland agriculture, horticulture, ground water recharge, domestic, livestock, inland fisheries, duck rearing and for multifarious other similar purposes. Each form of storage has its specific merits and uses, although from the efficiency point of view, underground storage is the best as evaporation and other losses are eliminated.

18, Pillaiyar Koil Street, S.S.Colony, Madurai 625010, Tamilnadu 111

Table 1 : Merits, demerits & uses of different forms of rainwater harvesting and storage

DHAN FOUNDATIONS APPROACH TO RAINWATER HARVESTING IN RURAL AREAS DHAN Foundation is a grassroots development organisation working mainly in rural areas with a focus on water resources development and their local management. More specifically, it has been concentrating on the restoration of small scale water resources like minor irrigation tanks and watershed development, and the revival of local initiatives like the maintenance and management of the water
112

resources as a means to increase productivity of tank fed and rainfed agriculture. These rainwater harvesting structures of one form or the other, benefit predominantly the large number of livestock, small and marginal farmers and the rural folk who have no access to large and medium reservoirs. The organisation comprises highly motivated, well qualified and/or experienced professionals, who live in and work from the villages, with a deep concern for poverty alleviation through developmental activities, and build people to become self reliant.

STUDY In order to gain a good understanding of the traditional rainwater harvesting systems like tanks and ponds DHAN Foundation first took up detailed study of the location, design and construction features, the water management practices and the maintenance of the systems. It found that those rain water harvesting structures were ideally located, ingenious but simple in design, constructed with locally available materials and maintained by the local communities. However due to various reasons, the foremost among them being the decline of community management, these rainwater harvesting structures have been steadily getting dilapidated and in some cases even extinct. The government taking control of the water bodies during the colonial rule has triggered the decline of community management of them. Massive groundwater programmes like the construction of dug wells and tube wells, aggressively promoted by government organisations and banking institutions with inducements in the form of liberal loans and subsidies, technological innovations like electrical pumpsets, provision of subsidised and in many cases free supply of electricity to agriculturists for lifting water from the wells - all these had contributed to the neglect of the tanks. This neglect has set in motion, other intrusions like encroachments, weed infestation and sedimentation of feeder channels and tank beds, erosion of earthen embankments of tanks, loss of sluice shutters, leaky sluices and damaged surplus weirs, all of which have further compounded the degradation process of the water bodies. Instead of repairing or restoring the water resources through community action, the people began looking upto the government to undertake the works. The governments attention was focussed more on construction of massive dams and large scale irrigation facilities across the country, terming them as the new temples of modern India. It perhaps felt that these small scale water bodies are too small to provide any spectacular benefit and too scattered to have an effective impact on the people, to initiate any activity for their restoration. For a country which at the time of independence was in a hurry to catch up with the rest of the world and where millions of people had to be literally hauled up above the poverty line, this was considered to be the way out. But
113

successive governments failed or did not care enough to study and revive the old methods of water harvesting, which would have once again made the rural communities self reliant with regard to irrigation and drinking water. Inspite of the large number of large and small dams constructed across many rivers in the country, irrigation facilities are still woefully inadequate and people continue to depend upon erratic rainfall conditions. In a country where many regions are arid, semi arid or prone to monsoon floods, this dependence has proved costly. Where the rainfall is unseasonal, in excess or inadequate, the price paid is heavy in terms of destroyed crops, mounting debts and uprooted human lives. The most cost effective way by which the water resources can hence forth be developed, at least in Tamilnadu and the adjacent peninsular states, is by rehabilitating the thousands of traditional irrigation tanks which are centuries old and which are still functioning well where the local community is cohesive and enlightened, instead of investing in new structures and systems. Further there are no more hydrologically appropriate sites available for forming new tank systems. After the detailed study and analysis of the reasons for the decline of the small scale water resources, DHAN Foundation has ventured to restore these tanks to their original design standard and performance efficiency; and more importantly, to undertake the programme by organising the concerned people, enlisting their active participation, building their capacity and making them contribute a part of the cost of restoration and thus become stakeholders and then facilitating them to implement the rehabilitation works. These processes would ensure proper timely maintenance and management of the water resources and make them sustainable over the years, so that the future generations would continue to enjoy the benefits derived. History confirms that a community is the best protector of its own resources. ACHIEVEMENTS During the past thirteen years DHAN Foundation has undertaken rehabilitation works of more than 750 minor irrigation tanks and Ooranis with peoples participation, in the five districts of Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Theni, Tiruvallur and Kancheepuram in Tamil Nadu; in two districts of Chittoor and Nalgonda in Andhra Pradesh and in

Tumkur district of Karnataka. Besides, it has also undertaken sixty tankbased watershed development works with peoples participation and contribution in Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Virudhunagar, Tuticorin and Chittoor districts. Twenty five community wells were also constructed in Madurai, Ramanathapuram and Tiruvallur districts. The funds to carry out these works came mainly from the District Rural Development Agencies (DRDA), Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) and Sir Ratan Tata Trust (SRTT) while the International funding agencies like the Ford Foundation and NOVIB, met the overhead charges of DHAN Foundation. While the funding agencies came forward with 100 percent of the cost of works as grant, DHAN Foundation availed only 75 percent of the works cost, and successfully mobilised the remaining 25 percent from the beneficiaries, right from the initiation of this programme in early 1992. We are happy to find that since 1997, the government also has changed their financing policy from 100 percent grant to 75 percent and insists on 25 percent peoples contribution and full participation in many of their development programmes. DHAN Foundation organised about 950 water users (WUAs) and watershed development associations with 60,000 members in order to enable them to carry out the development works mentioned above and to manage them thereafter. It also organised tank farmers federations at the Panchayat Union and district levels to guide and assist the WUAs in their work, ensure the quality of work, mobilise funds towards peoples contribution and liaise with funding agencies for speedy disbursement of funds. While the members of the general bodies of the various associations were the actual water users, in the selection of office bearers of the Executive Councils of these associations DHAN Foundation focussed their attention and assisted the members to make the right choice with great care. It was these peoples organisation which did the planning, implementation, quality control and systematic accounting of the works, DHAN Foundation providing only the required technical and managerial support to them. DHAN also held several discussions at the tank and village levels to motivate the people and organise them, assisted them in drafting byelaws and registering the associations
114

and federations to provide credibility to them. DHAN organised several exposure visits to the people to other areas where the tank rehabilitation works were undertaken, for them to see and share the experience of their counterparts in those areas. Several training programmes were conducted to the members of the Associations, Executive Councils and Federations, on leadership, organising people, construction technology, improved water management and crop production techniques, accounting procedures and the like, to build their capacity, motivation and confidence. All these efforts paid dividends to DHAN workers who could build a good rapport with the villagers and instill confidence in them. During the initial years, with DHAN workers living in the villages and the nearest small towns, it took about six to nine months to form one association. Presentily with the experience gained over the years it takes only a month or two to do this. The process adopted to form WUAs has also been refined and improved so that the farmers federations themselves organize new WUAs and undertake the activities that DHAN has been carrying out, in order to upscale the programme in a big way in the future. It is this effort that makes people committed to their roles and responsibilities which we believe would result in sustained community management of the water resources. EXPERIENCES DHAN Foundation itself gained considerable experience in these thirteen years of its involvement in small scale water resources development. In its pilot (first) phase of three years, the focus of work was on rehabilitation of tank irrigation systems, wherein the emphasis was on restoring the tank structures like tank storage capacity, bunds, sluice outlets, and surplus weirs to their original design standard. This effort has resulted in greater acquisition and increased storage of rain water over longer periods. Additional storage capacity ranged from 100 to 200 percent. In the second phase of three years, the emphasis was on regeneration of farmers management in addition to rehabilitation. This effort resulted in communities participation with active involvement, reduced wastage and equitable distribution of water among the users. This was made possible by the users regulating the water use through their local management. During the third

phase, tankfed agriculture was the focus beside rehabilitation and farmers management. This effort resulted in provision of appropriate inputs at the right time, improved water management and increased crop production ranging from 30 to 100%. And in the fourth phase sustainability of the rehabilitated tank systems in given importance by organising Micro Finance Groups & facilitating them to periodically maintain and manage those traditional small scale water resources. This has resulted in greater cohesion among the user groups and their concern to maintain and manage the tank systems with their own initiative and ensure the sustainability and thus become self reliant. Similarly, from taking up isolated tanks for renovation, the planning and implementation was made taking a cascade of tanks as a unit, so as to capture and store the entire run off flowing down the micro watershed. The feeder channel cleaning and restructuring (removal of wild growth of vegetation and desilting) and removal of encroachments formed an important component of tank rehabilitation. This work was found to be the most cost effective component for augmenting tank storage, next to provision of plug and rod shutters to sluice outlets for preventing leakage and conserving the harvested rain water. The philosophy has been a drop saved is equal to a drop added to storage. Another component of work added to tank renovation was the provision of silt traps on the front side of sluice opening to prevent the choking up the vent way (pipe or barrel). Tree planting on the foreshore of tank bed in the belt of land bound by the FTL contour of the tank upto the government boundary has been introduced, to provide additional income to the people through usufructs and to minimise silt accretion into the tank waterspread. Incidentally tree planting also serves to identify the encroachments if any and to remove them promptly. Yet another innovation made is provision of dead storage within the tank bed to hold water in a selected pocket to facilitate aquaculture, to serve the drinking water needs of livestock and/ or to provide life irrigation to withering crops in times of water scarcity. The community wells sunk in the tank complex get much of their recharge from the tank itself and from the water applied for the crops raised in the tank command and provide supplemental or life irrigation to the crops after the tank gets emptied.
115

This has been a boon to the small and marginal land holders who could not have their own individual wells to practice conjunctive use. All these water conservation measures are introduced either on the initiative or with the consent of the users of the water resource and in accordance with their priorities. When the people get involved intensely in every activity of tank rehabilitation planning, decision making and implementation, they take good care to prevent wastage, preserve the stored water, and distribute it equitably among themselves. They maintain the structures themselves with their own funds mobilised for the purpose. In times of disaster like a tank bund getting breached due to unprecedented rains, the people themselves undertake breach closing and bund strengthening work collectively, when every able bodied villager joins in the team work. This attitudinal change occurs mainly through each member of the WUA finding strength and confidence in unity. This is the most important and gratifying experience that has happened. TANKS AS RECHARGE STRUCTURES Although the primary use of tanks is irrigation, they contribute as much as 40 percent of their storage to augment groundwater resources through recharge. According to a study report by the National Geophysical Research Institute (ICAR), Hyderabad, measurements carried out in about 20 river basins well distributed over the various climatic and geomorphic zones in India, 5 to 10 percent of the seasonal rainfall is contributed as annual recharge in the peninsular hard rock regions, whereas in alluvial areas, about 15 to 20 percent of the rainfall contributes to groundwater. The Central Ground Water Board in its manual on Groundwater resources of India (1995) accounted nearly 30 to 40 percent of applied irrigation water as seepage return from irrigated fields and field channels. Irrigated fields also contribute to augmentation of groundwater resources. The average infiltration rate from paddy fields is reported to be generally higher than that from tanks. The paddy field infiltration ratio (that is, the ratio between the water infiltrated underground to water applied) varied between 55 and 88 percent. Paddy fields can be used as ground water recharge basins by harvesting the rainfall effectively. Water spreading as a recharge method

is practiced on an increasing scale all over the world in areas where the aquifer is shallow. Our experience of the effectiveness of rehabilitated irrigation tanks & Ooranis as groundwater recharge structures in Theni and Ramanathapuram districts is that there is a perceptible rise in the water table ranging from 4 to 6 metres (m). Before restoration of the tanks, the water table in the wells was between 30 to 45 m below ground level. After the desilting of the feeder channel & tank bed, the tanks filled up in the next rains and within a few weeks the water table in 169 dug wells situated close to Silamalai tank in Theni district rose by 5 to 6 m. In the wells situated in the zone of influence of Kurinjiappagoundan tank in Theni district, the water table in twenty out of fifty wells rose by five metres from 40 to 35 m below ground level, while in the remaining thirty wells the rise ranged from 2 to 4 metres. In the next year, the water table rose still further, with many dried wells getting rejuvenated and providing adequate water supply for irrigated crops. The area under well irrigation in this region has expanded by 50 to 100 percent and ground water became a dependable source of supply. A new well 22 m deep excavated downstream of a renovated tank has 9 m depth of storage & provides drinking water for the entire village of Silamalai. In most of the wells under the renovated tanks, people no more resort to deepening of the wells, which they were doing earlier, as they have adequate supply. Similarly in Ramanathapuram district after the reclamation of Ooranis, the water stored in them is available for drinking purposes almost round the year as against hardly 3 to 4 months availability earlier, as the storage capacity is increased three to four times by deepening the Ooranis. Besides, the quality of water in the surrounding wells has also improved as confirmed by tests carried out in water testing laboratory as well as by the local villagers. Above all, the womenfolk are saved from the drudgery of fetching water from distant places and the time spent for the purpose. Since the Oorani reclamation works also have been carried out with peoples contribution of 25 to 30 percent and their participation, the beneficiaries take good care to preserve them from pollution and use the Oorani water without wastage.

OTHER BENEFITS In quite a few tanks renovated in the rural areas of Madurai district, inland fish culture has been introduced in tank water which fetches the water users a sizable income ranging from ten to fifty thousand rupees a year per tank, depending upon the period of tank storage and the efforts taken by the local people to raise fish. Usufructs from trees planted on the tank bunds and in tank beds have generated additional income upto Rs 75000/- over a six year period to the water user group. In some tanks and Ooranis desilted under the tank rehabilitation programme, the excavated tank silt was applied to their agricultural lands, thereby improving the texture and fertility status of the soils. CONCLUSIONS The Institute of Remote Sensing (IRS) Anna University has prepared micro watershed maps Panchayat Union wise, delineating therein the revenue village boundaries; and identifying favourable areas for ground water recharge using remote sensing and GIS. We therefore suggest that the tanks situated in such favourable tracts may be taken up for rehabilitation on a priority basis, so that the people of those regions will get the benefits of tankfed agriculture and groundwater recharge as well and also augment the storage of the existing wells in the concerned tank commands. We also strongly recommend that a ten year plan for the period from 2006 to 2016 be prepared to rehabilitate all the existing tanks and ooranis; initiate tankbased watershed programme in all the districts of Tamilnadu to include farm ponds, drainage line treatment and tree planting on a massive scale. We believe that this effort will strengthen peoples participation and provide lasting benefits to the rural communities through tankfed agriculture and groundwater recharge. All existing encroachments in the water bodies may be summarily evicted and future encroachments be strictly prohibited in order to preserve these gifts of our forefathers and can be passed on to our future generations to go along Natures path. Here it will be appropriate to conclude this paper with a quotation from Gandhiji. The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by the way people treat the environment.

116

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

19. Importance of Rain Water Harvesting in Current Senario

*S. R. Asati **Abhijit Deshpande
Abstract In the last few decades, rapid growth in urbanization and industrialization trends, and dependence on ground water for domestic and agricultural purposes by rural community altogether have resulted in to exploitation of ground water without much focus on its recharge. Thus there is urgent need to search suitable methods to replenish the cause. In this context rainwater harvesting has been the crucial factor for sustaining the fast depleting surface and sub surface water resources. Rainwater harvesting is the traditional technique has been in use in hilly areas such as Forts and desert areas such as Rajasthan to conserve the water in the dry periods. Ground water is the main source and being exploited since the days of Mahabharata. The current paper focuses on the per capita water availability, critical ground water deficit problems in India and the various water harvesting techniques suitable for the Indian conditions. Each and every belt now faces the problem of depletion of ground water. This is the time to collect the people so as to solve the problem collectively, traditionally, economically, qualitatively so as to fulfill the minimum demand for the long time. Government policies and economic incentives have also determined how and how much of Indias water can be used. Introduction The unequal distribution of water resources over the time and geographic area and its constant exploitation, especially the ground water resources has arisen the severe ground water problems mainly due to its large dependence on ground water by the rapid growth in urban, rural and industrial establishments. This has resulted in decrease in ground water levels without much focus on its recharge and has thus necessitated the development of water harvesting systems. Government policies and economic incentives have also determined how and how much of Indias water can be used. The following discusses some of the major characteristics of water in India: where it comes from, where it goes and how it is currently being managed. A portion of the total precipitation of the total water is absorbed by the soil and is stored in underground aquifers. A much smaller percentage is stored in inland water bodies both natural (lakes and ponds) and man-made (tanks and reservoirs). India receives a total precipitation of 4000 cu.km of fresh water in the form of rain and snowfall out of which only1869 cu.km is available as annual surface runoff and only an estimated 1122 cu.km can be exploited due to topographic constraints and distribution effects. Groundwater represents one of the most important water sources in India and accounts for over 400 cu.km of the annual utilizable resource in the country. Due to the highly variable nature of the climate, groundwater has become a popular alternative for irrigation and domestic water use across India. Reliance on groundwater resources is particularly strong where dry season surface water levels are low or where wet season flows are too disruptive to be easily tapped. In addition to being accessible, groundwater quality is generally excellent in most areas and presents a relatively safe

*Lecturer-Selection Grade **Lecturer Deptt. of Civil Engg., MIET, Gondia- 441 614 (M.S) 117

source of drinking water for Indians in rural and urban centers. The presence and availability of groundwater varies greatly with changes in topography, subsurface geology and the prevailing climate in the region. In some areas, groundwater exists in deep aquifers while in others the water is stored near the surface. The location of the aquifer also affects its recharge rate and its susceptibility to pollution and overuse. Water Harvesting Systems Water harvesting structures have been designed to help capture and store rainwater during the monsoon season and serve as a source of drinking and irrigation water during the rest of the year. In India, tanks, ponds and reservoirs cover a total of 5 million hectares, the majority of which lies in the southern portion of the country (MOWR, 2001). Although they do not make a significant contribution to the total freshwater water resource in India, water harvesting systems do have a strong impact in terms of drinking water and irrigation provision on a local scale. Many of the water harvesting structures used in India are based on ancient models, mainly due to the potential of these systems to supply freshwater adequate to all areas and sectors and therefore highly adapted to the prevailing climatic and hydrologic conditions of the area. However, since colonial times, these systems have been increasingly abandoned and neglected in favor of large dam and canal irrigation projects. So far, these modern structures have been successful in providing water to portions of rural and urban India, yet high economic, social and environmental costs have reduced their overall benefit. As a result, development and civil society organizations have been advocating the return to local water harvesting systems for domestic and irrigation purposes. As awareness and public opinion continue to grow, water-harvesting systems will become increasingly more important source of water in India. In the past several decades, industrial production has increased in India owing to an increasingly open economy and greater emphasis on industrial development and international trade. Water consumption for this sector has consequently risen and will continue growing at a rate of 4.2%
118

per year (World Bank, 1999). According to the World Bank, demand for industrial, energy production and other uses will rise from 67 billion m3 to 228 billion Demand from the domestic sector has remained low and accounts for only 5% of the annual freshwater withdrawals in India (World Resources Institute, 2000). Domestic water use will increase as the population continues to grow and access to water is improved. Recent data from the World Bank indicates that demand over the next twenty years will double from 25 billion m3 to 52 billion m3. Only 85% of the urban and 79% of the rural population has access to safe drinking water and fewer still have access to adequate sanitation facilities (World Resources Institute, 2000). The central government made a commitment to improve access to water in rural and urban areas in the National Water Policy adopted in 1987. The original goal of providing water to 100% of all citizens of India by 1991 had to be revised and now stands at 90% access to urban and 85% access to rural areas, respectively. Drinking water and sanitation nevertheless remain high priorities on the government agenda. Groundwater Depletion : facts and figures Following findings focuses on the critical scenario of ground water depletion : As per the findings in 1955 the availability of fresh water in India was 5277 cum while in 2001 it has depleted to 1820 cum. Out of 650 BCM around 231 BCM water is pumped from ground water. Around 575 liters of ground water per capita per day is in demand, of which only 46 liters is used for domestic and industrial purposes while the rest is consumed for irrigation. The ground water is depleting at the rate of 2 to 3 mts.per year. Finally Meherana in Gujarat and Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu have lost their entire ground water resources. The state wise ground water deficit (cu.km/ year) in India is depicted in following Table

State Rajasthan Maharashtra Gujarat Haryana Karnataka Punjab Other Total

Deficit (cu.km/ year) 32.6 22.0 16.0 14.2 12.7 4.0 2.8 104.3

Forth-coming Problems In the Indus basin as a whole, groundwater pumping is estimated to exceed recharge by 50%. India is one of the leading countries in total irrigated area and the third-largest grain producer, the number of shallow tube wells used to draw groundwater was 3000 in 1960, and 6 million in 1990. Water Constraints on Irrigation : The eventual lack of water for irrigation could cut Indias grain production by 25%. 25% of Indias grain harvest could be in jeopardy. Pumped underground water is double the rate of aquifer recharge from rainfall. Following are the critical ground water deficit problems observed in various states of India The ground water availability and the projected deficit in India are shown in Fig.-1. It can be seen from the figure that since 1951 the per capita water availability has rapidly decreased almost three times in fifty years in the year 2001, while the future projected availability is expected to be 1140 cu.m which is almost twice less than observed in 2001. However, this would much depend on increase/ decrease in pumping and our earnestness to implement the water harvesting methods. Presented below are the ground water deficit problems observed in the various states of India: Indias use of ground water in 1973-74 was 120-130 cu.km / year (80% for irrigation). 65% of Haryana in India sits over salty groundwater. In southern India, groundwater levels are falling 2.5-3 m/ years and between 1946-86; the water table in parts of Karnataka dropped 40 m while in the state of Tamil Nadu, ground-water levels have
119

dropped 25-30 m. in a decade. The major utilization is for agriculture in Tamil Nadu, which has caused the water table to drop close to 30 meters in a decade. While it is estimated that Delhi will run out of groundwater by 2015 at current rates. In Ludhiana district of Punjab, the water table is dropping nearly 1 m annually; water tables are dropping by under one to several meters per year in much of northern Indias Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. The position of most of the villages in India is more pathetic where the major dependence of water supply for the domestic and irrigation purposes is the dependence on ground water Indias irrigation water came from less than 30 % groundwater in 1951 but over 40 % in 1980. Indias potential surface water resource = 700800 cu.km / year. Indias potential utilizable ground-water resource = 350 cu.km / year. Indias rainfall = 110 cm / year. Ave. surface flow = 1800 cu.km / year. Inflow from neighboring countries accounts for 200-cu.km / year of this 1800. Storage capacity (mid-1970s) = 160 cu.km. Indias water utilization = 250 cu.km / year (1974). 100 cu.km of this was from storage; 150 from rivers and streams. Irrigation accounted for 240-cu.km / year of this utilization. (95 cu.km were used in 1951) Estimated surface water utilization in 2000 = 500 cu.km / year, including 420 cu.km / year for irrigation. Of 1.33 million km2 of land being cropped, 240,000 km2 are irrigated, but only 50% of this has an assured supply of water. 90,000 dug wells, 30,000 shallow tube wells, and 9500 deep wells have been installed in the past 15 years. The limited water supply encourages inadequate leaching of land and a resultant increase in soil salinity. Indian per-capita water supplies fell by roughly half during 1955-90. Sugarcane growers in the state of Maharashtra take 50% of available irrigation water supplies, even though they occupy only 10% of cropped land. Water shortages plagued 17,000 villages in the northern Indian state of Uttar- Pradesh in the 1960s. By 1985 that figure had risen to 70,000. Similarly, in Madhya-Pradesh, more than 36,400 villages lacked sufficient water in 1980; in 1985 the number totaled more than 64,500. In the western state of Gujarat, the number of villages short of water tripled between 1979 and 1986, from 3,840 to 12,250 and

over-pumping by irrigators caused saltwater to invade the aquifer. Why Rain Water Harvesting Unavailability and inadequacy of surface water and to meet our demands, we have to depend on ground water. Due to rapid urbanization and concrete covering over the land the infiltration of rainwater into the sub-soil has decreased drastically and recharging of ground water has diminished. Over-exploitation of ground water resource has resulted in decline in water levels. To avoid the situation of temporary floods or stagnation of water in urban areas even for a short duration of rainfall. To enhance availability of ground water at a specific place and time. To arrest saline water intrusion. Improvement of the water quality, conservation and augmentation of the ground water aquifers. Sustaining the moisture content in the subsoil so as to minimize the cracks during dry periods. To improve the vegetation cover. To raise the water levels in dug wells and bore wells that are drying up. Different methods of Roof Top Rain water Harvesting. There are two main techniques of rainwater harvesting a) Storage of rainwater on surface for future use. b) Recharge to ground water.

Following are the structures generally used for the rainwater harvesting 1. Recharge Pits: Recharge pits are constructed for recharging the shallow aquifers. These are constructed 1 2 m. wide and 2 - -3 m. deep which are backfilled with boulders, gravels and coarse sand. 2. Recharge Trench: These are constructed when the permeable strata are available at shallow depths. Trench may be 0.5 to 1 m. wide, 1 to 1.5 m. deep and 10 to 20 m long depending upon the availability of water. These are backfilled with filter materials. 3. Open wells: Existing open wells may be utilized as recharge structures and water should pass through filter media before putting it into open well. 4. Hand Pumps: The existing hand pumps may be used for recharging the shallow / deep aquifers, if the availability of water is limited. Water should pass through filter before diverting it into hand pumps. 5. Recharge Wells: Recharge wells of 100 to 300 mm. Diameter are generally constructed for recharging the deeper aquifers and water is passed through filter media to avoid choking of recharge wells. 6. Recharge Shafts: For recharging the shallow aquifers, which are located below clayey surface, recharge shafts of 0.5 to 3 m. diameter and 10 to 15 m. deep are constructed and back filled with boulders, gravels and coarse sand. 7. Lateral shafts with bore wells: For recharging the upper as well as deeper aquifers lateral shafts of 1.5 to 2 m. wide and 10 to 30 m. long depending

Rain Water Harvesting Techniques

Different methods of Roof Top Rain water Harvesting

Bore wells Deserted wells Open Wells Hand Pumps Recharge wells

Recharge shafts

Recharge pits

Recharge trenches

120

upon availability of water with one or two bore wells are constructed. The lateral shaft is back filled with boulders, gravels and coarse sand. 8. Deserted wells: Recharge water is guided through a canvas pipe of 100 mm diameter to the bottom of well or below the water level to avoid scouring. Ideal Conditions for Rain Water Harvesting and Artificial Recharge to Ground Water Most suitable for the urban areas where adequate space for surface storage is not available. Water level is deep enough (greater than 8m.) an adequate surface storage is available. Permeable strata is available at shallow / moderate depth. Where adequate quantity of surface water is available for recharge to ground water. Where there is possibility of intrusion of saline water especially in coastal areas. Where the evaporation rate is very high from surface water bodies. Where the ground water quality is bad. Conclusion and suggestions The current paper discusses the ground water availability, deficit and its future prediction for India. Also, importance and various harvesting techniques have been discussed. Thus in the current scenario of severe water crises implementation of rain water harvesting technique can be helpful in solving following problems : An ideal solution to water problems in areas having inadequate water resources. The ground water level will rise. Mitigates the effects of drought and achieves drought proofing. Rainwater harvesting can reduce storm drainage load and flooding in city streets. Flooding of roads is reduced. Rainwater is bacteriologically pure, free from organic matter and soft in nature, so can be utilized for drinking purposes. Soil erosion will be reduced. Saving of energy per well for lifting of ground water a one-meter rise in water level saves about 0.4 kwh of electricity.

The structures required for rainwater harvesting are simple and economical. Also suit in any environment. Rainwater harvesting provides a water supply buffer for use in times of emergency or breakdown of the public water supply system. References
Artificial Recharge in India, A Publication of National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad. Asati S.R., A case study on Rooftop rainwater Harvesting, Proceedings in National Conference and sustainable Development, L.A.D. and Smt.R.P.College for women, Nagpur dated 16-17 Dec.2005. Asati S.R., and Sharma N.S.Roof top Rainwater Harvesting: A case study,proceedings in 38th Annual Convention of I.W.W.A. hold at Jaipur (Rajasthan), 0608 Jan2006. Ashtankar T, Kelkar P and Nanoti M, ., Rainwater Harvesting in Urban Areas- A Review , proceedings in 38th Annual Convention of I.W.W.A. hold at Jaipur (Rajasthan), 06-08 Jan2006. C.G.W.B., Manual on Artificial Recharge of Ground water, March 1994, Technical Series M.No-3. Dainik Bhaskar-News Paper, 28th June 2004. Development of Monomolecular Film to Act as Evaporation Retardant and Prevent Water from Evaporating from large Water Bodies Economically, Project No. ID/17/95 sponsored by Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India. Husiman L. & Olsthoorn T.N., Artificial Groundwater Recharge, Pitman Advanced Publishing Program. IWWA proceeding of 33rd Annual Convention Theme, Water for New Millennium. Mahajan G., Ground Water Recharge, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi. Pingle S.S. Water Harvesting- The Need of the Hour, Proceedings in National Conference and sustainable Development, L.A.D. and Smt.R.P.College for women, Nagpur dated 16-17 Dec.2005. National Drinking Water Mission, Water Harvesting System Reference manual. Rainwater Harvesting, A Publication of national Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee Todd D. K., Ground Water Hydrology, John Wiley & sons Trivedi S.H and Bhavnani H. V., Artificial Ground Water Recharge through Roof top Rainwater Harvesting: A case study, proceedings in 38th Annual Convention of I.W.W.A. hold at Jaipur (Rajasthan), 06-08 Jan2006.

121

122

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

20. Rain Water Harvesting : A Viable Solution To Conserve Water

*Rishab Mahajan **Prof. Shakti Kumar ***Dr. R. K. KhitoIiya

Abstract : The problem of water shortage in arid and semi-arid regions is one due to low rainfall and uneven distribution through out the season, which makes rain fed agriculture a risky enterprise. Rain water harvesting for dry-land agriculture is a traditional water management technology to ease future water scarcity in many arid and semi-arid regions of world. The paper discusses the use of water harvesting as an effective tool for water management. The various forms of water harvesting have been elucidated. The common goal of all forms is to secure water supply for annual crops, pastures, trees and animals in dry areas without tapping groundwater or river-water sources. As the appropriate choice of technique depends on the amount of rainfall and its distribution, land topography, soil type and soil depth and local socio-economic factors, these systems tend to be very site specific. The water harvesting methods applied strongly depend on local conditions and include such widely differing practices as bunding, pitting, micro catchments water harvesting, flood water and ground water harvesting. Introduction Rain water harvesting is defined as the collection of runoff and its use for the irrigation of crops, pastures and trees, and for livestock consumption. As long as mankind has inhabited semi-arid areas and cultivated agricultural crops, it has practiced some kind of water harvesting. Based on natural water harvesting the use, of the waters of ephemeral streams was already the basis of livelihood in the arid and semi-arid areas many thousands of years ago, allowing the establishment of cities in the desert .The European expansion, especially the technological development since 1850, lead to a steady increase in area under classical irrigation techniques with preference to large schemes. The classical sources of irrigation water are often at the break of overuse and therefore untapped sources of (irrigation) water have to be sought for increasing agricultural productivity and providing sustained economic base. Water harvesting for dry-land agriculture is a traditional water management technology to ease future water scarcity in many arid and semi-arid regions of world. 1. Basic Concept 1.1 General concept Water harvesting is applied in arid and semiarid regions where rainfall is either not sufficient to sustain good crop and pasture growth or where, due to the erratic nature of precipitation, the risk of crop failure is very high. Water harvesting can significantly increase plant production in drought prone areas by concentrating the rainfall/runoff in parts of the total area. The intermittent character of rainfall and runoff and the ephemerality of floodwater flow requires some kind of storage. There might be some kind of interim storage in tanks, cisterns or reservoirs or soil itself serves as a reservoir for a certain period of time. Water harvesting is based on the utilization of surface runoff; therefore it requires runoff producing and runoff receiving areas. In most cases, with the exception of floodwater harvesting from far away catchments, water harvesting utilizes the rainfall from the same location or region. It do not include its conveyance over long distances or its use after enriching the groundwater reservoir. Water

*Pre-final Year **Professor ***Professor & Head, Post Graduate Environmental Engineering Department Deptt. of Civil Engineering, Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh 160 012 123

harvesting projects are generally local and small scale projects. 1.2 Necessities The main goals of water harvesting are: 1. Restoring the productivity of land which suffers from inadequate rainfall. 2. Increasing yields of rain fed farming 3. Minimizing the risk in drought prone areas 4. Combating desertification by tree cultivation 5. Supplying drinking water for animals. 2 Techniques of Rain Water Harvesting The various rain water harvesting techniques can be broadly classified into following six categories. 1. Rooftop water harvesting 2. Water harvesting for animal consumption 3. Inter-row water harvesting 4. Microcatchment water harvesting 5. Medium-sized catchment water harvesting 6. Large catchment water harvesting.

2.1 Roof top water harvesting Rain harvested from the roofs of buildings including greenhouses is, in many locations, a very valuable resource being used mainly for drinking and domestic purposes. Fig. 2 shows a typical roof top harvesting system. The various types of roof top rain water harvesting are as follows : 2.1.1 Component System This system enables custom building from separate components giving great flexibility enabling the system to be adapted for many situations regardless of location of storage tank realative to building. 2.1.2 Module System This type of system differs in that they do not replenish the storage tank with main water. Instead there is an integral main water cistern which the pump draws from when there is insufficient water in storage tank. 2.1.3 Hybrid System Hybrid system comprises a module unit with an additional submersible pump located in underground storage tank. 2.2 Water harvesting for animal consumption Ancient dwellers harvested rain water for human and animal consumption by redirecting the water running down hill slopes into cisterns. Presently, this tradition is still practiced in many regions, but where the means are available, surfaces used for rainwater collection are usually either physically compacted, chemically treated or covered to increase runoff volume: (i) Clay soils are well suited for compaction. The surfaces are shaped, smoothened and then compacted e.g. by tractor and rubber-tired rollers. (ii) Sodium salts, wax, latexes, asphalt, bitumen, fiberglass and silicones can be used as sealants on soils which do not swell with moisture (Frasier 1994). Plots treated with sun-melted granulated paraffin-wax yielded about 90 percent of the rainfall as runoff, compared to 30 percent from untreated plots. (iii) Concrete, plastic sheeting, butyl rubber and metal foil can also be used to cover the soil for
124

Fig. 1 : Annual precipitation ranges for different forms of water harvesting in summer rainfall areas

Fig. 2 : Roof top rain water harvesting

rainwater harvesting. Gravel may protect the underlying membrane against radiation and wind damage. The runoff water is collected in lined or unlined pits down the slope of the catchment area (Fig. 2),

Matuta (East Africa). The ridges of about 0.40 m height are built 2 to 20 m apart, depending on slope, soil surface treatment, general CCR and type of crop to be grown. The catchment area should be weeded and compacted; the crops are either grown in the furrow, along the upper side of the bund or on top of the bund. On sloping land, this system is recommended only for areas with a known regular rainfall pattern; very high rainfall intensities may cause breakages of the bunds. Crops cultivated in row water harvesting systems are maize, beans, millet, rice or (in the USA) grapes and olives (Pacey and Cullis 1986, Finkel and Finkel 1986, Tobby 1994). The preparation of the land for inter-row water harvesting can be fully mechanized. 2.4 Microcatchment systems Microcatchment water harvesting (MC-WH) is a method of collecting surface runoff from a small catchment area and storing it in the root zone of an adjacent infiltration basin. This infiltration basin may be planted with a single tree, bush or with annual crop. Fig 4. Illustrates a microcatchment system. The water collected from different parts of the catchment area in stored as shown in the figure.

Fig 3. Rainwater harvesting system for animal consumption

2.3 Inter-row water harvesting Inter-row water harvesting is applied either on flat land or on gentle slopes of up to 5 % having soil at least 1 m deep. The annual rainfall should not be less than 200 mm/year. On flat terrain (0-1 % inclination) bunds are constructed, compacted and, under higher-input conditions, treated with chemicals to increase runoff. The aridity of the location determines the catchment to cropping ratio (CCR), which varies from 1:1 to 5:1 (Fig. 3). On sloping land (1 - 20% inclination) these systems are called contour ridges (USA) or

Fig 5 : Negarin type Microcathment system

Fig. 4. Various forms of flat-land inter-row water harvesting increasing CCR/aridity of location. 125

The system shown in the Fig was given by BenAshler [1] and has the following parameters. 1. Catchment Area = 3 - 250 sq. m 2. Cropping Area= 1 - 10 sq. m 3. Catchment: Cropping Ratio = 3: 1 -25:1 4. Precipitation =150- 600 mm/a 5. Slope = 1 - 20%

2.5 Medium-sized catchment water harvesting Water harvesting from medium-sized catchments (1,000 m2 - 200 ha) is also known as water harvesting from long slopes, as macrocatchment water harvesting or as harvesting from external catchment systems. The various characteristics of this type of system are 1. A CCR of 10:1 to 100:1; the catchment being located outside the arable areas. 2. The predominance of turbulent runoff and channel flow of the catchment water in comparison with sheet or rill flow of micro catchments. 3. The partial area contribution phenomenon which is not relevant for micro catchments. 4. The catchment area may have an inclination of 5 to 50 %; the cropping area is either terraced or located in flat terrain. Fig. 6 shows a hillside conduit type system which is adopted in areas having a precipitation of 100-600 m.

2.5.2 Floodwater diversion Floodwater diversion means forcing the wadi water to leave its natural course and conveying it to nearby areas suitable for arable cropping. Floodwater diversion techniques were already applied several thousand years ago.

Fig. 7 : Flood Diversion Technique

3. PARAMETERS FOR IDENTIFICATION OF SUITABLE RAIN AREAS. The selection of suitable areas and techniques for rain water harvesting is of utmost importance to derive the maximum benefits from the scheme.
Fig 6. Hill Type Conduit System

The most important parameters to be considered in identifying areas suitable for rain and floodwater harvesting are as follows: 3.1 Rainfall The knowledge of rainfall characteristics (intensity and distribution) for a given area is one of the pre-requisites for designing a water harvesting system. The availability of rainfall data series in space and time and rainfall distribution are important for rainfall-runoff process and also for determination of available soil moisture. A threshold rainfall events (e.g. of 5 mm/event) is used in many rainfall runoff models as a start value for runoff to occur. The intensity of rainfall is a good indicator of which rainfall is likely to produce runoff. Useful rainfall factors for the design of a rain- or floodwater harvesting system include: (1) Number of days in which the rain exceeds the threshold rainfall of the catchment, on a weekly or monthly basis.
126

2.5 Large catchment water harvesting Large catchment water harvesting comprises systems with catchments being many square kilometers in size, from which runoff water flows through a major wadi (bed of an ephemeral stream), necessitating more complex structures of dams and distribution networks. Two types are mainly distinguished: 1. Floodwater harvesting within the stream bed. 2. Floodwater diversion. 2.5.1 Floodwater harvesting within the stream bed Floodwater harvesting within the stream bed means blocking the water flow to inundate the valley bottom of the entire flood plain, to force the water to infiltrate and use the wetted area for crop production or pasture improvement.

(2) Probability and occurrence (in years) for the mean monthly rainfall. (3) Probability and reoccurrence for the minimum and maximum monthly rainfall. (4) Frequency distribution of storms of different specific intensities. 3.2 Land use or vegetation cover Vegetation is an infiltration rates which consequently decrease the volume of runoff. Vegetation density can be characterized by the size of the area covered under vegetation. There is a high degree of congruence between density of vegetation and suitability of the soil to be used for cropping. 3.3 Topography and terrain profile The land form along with slope gradient and relief intensity is other parameters to determine the type of water harvesting. The terrain analysis can be used for determination of the length of slope, a parameter regarded of very high importance for the suitability of an area for macro-catchments water harvesting. With a given inclination, the runoff volume increases with the length of slope. The slope length can be used to determine the suitability for macro or micro- or mixed water harvesting systems decision making. 3.4 Soil type & soil depth The suitability of a certain area either as catchments or as cropping area in water harvesting depend strongly on its soils characteristics viz. (1) Surface structure; which influence the rainfallrunoff process (2) The infiltration and percolation rate; which determine water movement into the soil and within the soil matrix, and (3) The soil depth incl. soil texture; which determines the quantity of water which can be stored in the soil. e) Hydrology and water resources The hydrological processes relevant to water harvesting practices are those involved in the production, flow and storage other important parameter that affects the surface runoff. Various studies have shown that an increase in the vegetation density results in a corresponding increase in interception losses, retention and of runoff from
127

rainfall within a particular project area. The rain falling on a particular catchment area can be effective (as direct runoff) or ineffective (as evaporation, deep percolation). The quantity of rainfall which produces runoff is a good indicator of the suitability of the area for water harvesting. 3.5 Socio-economic & infrastructure conditions The socio-economic conditions of a region being considered for any water harvesting scheme are very important for planning, designing and implementation. The chances for success are much greater if resource users and community groups are involved from early planning stage onwards. The farming systems of the community, the financial capabilities of the average farmer, the cultural behaviour together with religious belief of the people, attitude of farmers towards the introduction of new farming methods, the farmers knowledge about irrigated agriculture, land tenure and property rights and the role of women and minorities in the communities are crucial issues. 3.6 Environmental and ecological impacts Dry area ecosystems are generally fragile and have a limited capacity to adjust to change [3]. If the use of natural resources (land and water), is suddenly changed by water harvesting, the environmental consequences are often far greater than foreseen. Consideration should be given to the possible effect on natural wetlands as on other water users, both in terms of water quality and quantity. New water harvesting systems may intercept runoff at the upstream part of the catchment, thus depriving potential down stream users of their share of the resources. Water harvesting technology should be seen as one component of a regional water management improvement project. Components of such integrated plans should be the improvement of agronomic practices, including the use of good plant material, plant protection measures and soil fertility management. 4. Conclusions Substantial amounts of rainfall in semi-arid areas are lost (e.g. by evaporation from soil surfaces), which could be utilized for agricultural production. This could be achieved through water

harvesting. Rainwater Harvesting have the potential to increase the productivity of arable and grazing land by increasing the yields and by reducing the risk of crop failure. They also facilitate re- or afforestation, fruit tree planting or agroforestry. With regard to tree establishment, rainwater and floodwater harvesting can contribute to the fight against desertification. Most of these techniques are relatively cheap and can therefore be a viable alternative where irrigation water from other sources is not readily available or too costly. Unlike pumping water, water harvesting saves energy and maintenance costs. Using harvested rainwater helps in decreasing the use of other valuable water sources like groundwater. Remote sensing and Geographical Information Systems can help in the determination of areas suitable for water harvesting. The decision making process concerning the best method

applicable in particular environmental and geophysical conditions depends on kind of crop to be grown and prevalent socio-economic and cultural factors. References 1. Ben-Asher, J. (1988). A Review of Water Harvesting in Israel. World Bank Working Paper 2. WorldBank Sub-Saharan Water Harvesting Study, p. 47-69. 2. Boers, T. M. and Ben-Asher, J. (1982). A review of rainwater harvesting. Agric. Water Management. 3. Oweis, T., A. Hachum, and J. Kijne. 1999. Water harvesting and supplementary irrigation for improved water use efficiency in dry areas. 4. Prinz, D., S. Wolfer.1999. Traditional techniques of Water Management.

128

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

21. Technology to Effectively Utilize Rain and River Water through Advanced Ground Water Recharging Technique without Interlinking of Rivers
*Chetan Hari Sharma

Abstract The technology to effectively utilize rain and river water through advanced ground water recharging technique is a system which club together nearly every engineering aspect related to it and utilizes them in the best possible way to serve the humanity. It channelizes the floodwater and the water, which would otherwise mix with the sea, as a ground water reserve, so that it can be made available, to the whole country during non-monsoon months. As the pure water free from all impurities is stored under-ground therefore a very huge percentage of water, which would have been evaporated if it had been stored on the surface, can be saved. In addition to all these capabilities the technology proves to be the gods blessing by generating electricity, through pollution free hydroelectric power plant in between the journey of this harnessed water from the surface location to under-ground aquifers, extracting all the additional energy which the water initially possess due to its potential head.

1.

INTRODUCTION Water is an excellent resource of nature, and it can be made to serve various functions. Properly planned use of water may nourish our farms and forests, may run our turbines for generation of hydroelectric power, may help in preparing modern medicines for cure of various ailments and diseases, may help in beautifying our surroundings and environments, etc. Besides, fulfilling the basic necessities of life, properly harnessed and developed water can enable us to lead an effluent and a luxurious life. It is in fact, an amazing fluid and can lead to an overall prosperity of a nation and that of the entire community as a whole. But, if not properly harnessed or planned, the same useful servant may become wild or an enemy in the form of severe storms, floods, hurricanes, etc bringing disasters, devastations and catastrophes. Proper planning is, therefore, absolutely

necessary so as to obtain from this servant, as many benefits as possible, with minimum expenditure. Hence, the proposed proposal in this paper had been invented by me considering all the aspects of the behavior of water resource and present engineering capabilities which ensures that the proposal is the best one, and any other possible alternative will not be better then the proposed one. The purpose of the plan to effectively utilize rain and river water through advanced ground water recharging technique is to : [a] Reduce the extent of annual flooding at the flood prone areas, mainly of the Ganga and Brahmaputra Basin. [b] Solve the ground water related problems, such as ground water depletion, pollution and quality deterioration, through rechargement of large amount of pure water, which would otherwise get wasted. [c] Boost agricultural productivity, as ground

Krishna Mandir, Cement Road, Sadar, Gandhi Chowk, Nagpur - 440 001 India Email: chetan hari Sharma@indiatimes.com 129

water irrigations contribution to agricultural productivity is some 45% higher then that made by the surface irrigation in India. [d] Prevent seawater intrusion in the costal area aquifers, which is mostly caused because of ground water over exploitation. [e] Provide water for drought prone areas, and the regions where ground water level is depleting due to over exploitation. [f] Generate additional hydroelectric power, approximately 50% more then the present countrys hydroelectric power capacity. [g] Harness maximum possible amount of 1500 BCM of floodwater, 700 BCM of water which presently gets evaporated and 300 BCM of balance water, which presently remains unutilized. 2. PRESENT HYDROLOGICAL SCENARIO The rapid growth in the demand of fresh water driven by growth in the global population and of the economies has lead to this natural resources becoming scarce in many parts of the world. As a result, the ratio between the number of the people and the available water resource is worsening day by day. By 2020, the global population is projected to touch 7.9 billion, which is 50 percent longer than that in 1990. Because of this rapid growing population the world may see more then six fold increase in the number of people living in the condition of water stress from 470 million today to 3 billion in 2025. In the global picture, India is identified as a country where water scarcity is expected to grow considerably in the coming decades further drought conditions resulting from climatic variability cause considerable human suffering in many parts of the country in the form of scarcity of water for both satisfaction of domestic needs and for crop protection. Unlike the precipitation patterns in the temperate regions of the world, precipitation in India is characterized by acute variation in both space and time. In our country 80 percent of the annual run off is limited to brief monsoon period generally less than 100 days. In total, country receives about 4000 BCM of water as precipitation annually out of which 700 BCM are lost in evaporation and another 700 BCM are lost during the flow on the ground. Also, the large part of the water namely 1500 BCM flows into
130

the sea due to the floods, thus, the remaining available water is only 1100 BCM out of this ground water recharge accounts for 430 BCM per year and the present utilized surface water is 370 BCM the balance unutilized water which can be harnessed is 300 BCM. A large part of the precipitation on the country is received in the Himalayan Catchments of the Ganga- Brahmaputra- Meghna (GBM) basis. The distribution of precipitation over the India is predominately governed by the monsoon as a result of which the north eastern water of the country receives substantially large precipitation in comparison with the north western, western and southern parts for example, the eastern part of GBM basin Cherrapunji receives an annual precipitation of about 11,000mm while Ajmer just outside the western boundary of the GBM basin may receive only 200 mm of annual rainfall. 3. INDIAS GROUND WATER SOCIOECOLOGY The groundwater socio-ecology of India has been at the heart of their agrarian boom; and this socio-ecology is under siege. Much concern about the problems of groundwater depletion, pollution and quality deterioration is fueled by worries about their environmental consequences. These are indeed serious; however, equally serious are their consequences for the sustenance of agrarian economies and millions of rural livelihoods that are precariously dependent upon groundwater irrigation. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and China account for the bulk of the worlds groundwater use in agriculture. Indeed, while much public investment has been devoted to the creation of surface irrigation, the reality of India is that the bulk of its agrarian growth in recent decades has been energized by a rapid rise in groundwater irrigation through small pumps and wells financed mostly through private farmer investments. A new analysis of Indian agriculture suggests that based on an Indian data set offering the tentative macro-level test, groundwater irrigation may contribute more to Indian agricultural growth than even surface irrigation development. The model results support the hypothesis that groundwater irrigation contributes nearly 50 % more to rural wealth creation than surface irrigation; for a 1,000 ha increase in the area under groundwater

irrigation increases a districts average agricultural productivity by Rs 23/ha, whereas adding 1,000 ha to surface water irrigated area increases it only by Rs 16/ha. Table below provides an alternative mode of comparing Agricultural Productivity and Ground Water Irrigation in India. In the average district with 102,730 ha under groundwater and 79,230 ha under surface irrigation, Rs 2,363/ha of the average productivity, of Rs 10,460 is contributed by groundwater irrigation, while only Rs 1,258 is explained by surface irrigation. Table -1 : Comparison of Agricultural Productivity and Ground Water Irrigation in India

All in all, the analysis of Indian data explores that in the recent decades, of the agricultural productivity of a representative (or typical) hectare, the portion contributed by groundwater irrigation is very nearly twice that contributed by surface irrigation. It also shows that groundwater

development has tended to be more democratic; it has responded more to peoples needs and demand rather than to hydrological opportunity; it is linked more to population density than to the occurrence of the resource. Finally, groundwater has proven more amenable to poverty targeting than have large surface irrigation systems; governments can design pump subsidies or build public tube wells, but not large canal systems, exclusively for the poorer segments. Thats why groundwater economy of India is the backbone of its increasingly productive agriculture and rural livelihood systems. Throughout India, however, regions that have sustainable groundwater balances are shrinking day by day. Three problems dominate groundwater use: depletion due to overdraft; water logging and salinization due mostly to inadequate drainage and insufficient conjunctive use; and pollution due to agricultural, industrial and other human activity. Groundwater depletion has major environmental consequences; but it has important economic consequences too. Declining water tables raise the energy and capital costs of accessing groundwater to prohibitive levels; in such regions, like North Gujarat, entire agrarian economies face serious threat of extinction from the decline of groundwater socio-ecologies. Water quality and health problems - such as very high fluoride and arsenic contents have similarly immiserizing social impacts in India.

131

Unlike India countries like the US and Australia, the presence of a small number of large users and low population density creates uniquely favorable conditions for some institutional approaches to work; but these break down in India, with its high population density and multitude of tiny users. For instance, a stringent groundwater law that is enforced in Australia would come unstuck in India because of prohibitive enforcement costs. Europe has a high population density; but it is much more comfortable than India in its overall water balance. Moreover, ground water is a little Importance in south East Asia, which has abundant surface water. Therefore, it is obligatory that like surface water, the groundwater resource too needs to be planned and managed for maximum basin-level efficiency. 4. FLOOD AND DROUGHT SITUATION The vast variation both in space and time in the availability of water in different region of the country has created what is normally referred to as food drought flood syndrome with some area suffering from flood damages and other facing acute water shortage, flood and drought affects vast area of country transcending state boundaries. As per record after independence 70 droughts occurred in country. Land over 80% of our country goes under drought if there is a short fall of 5% rain in monsoon. Jodhpur, Banner, Charu district of Rajasthan is drought hited for 31 out of 38 years. Floods normally affects, 8 major rivers valleys spread over 40 million hectare of area in the entire country affecting nearly 260 million people, similarly the drought affect 86 million people who are spread in 14 states covering a total 116 districts. This flood comes from the 1500 BCM of water every year flowing during the monsoon season. If we have to prevent the damage due to the flood and reduce the severity of drought, we have to harness this 1500 BCM of water and distribute it to the drought-affected areas. If we succeed in doing this, we will save Rs. 150 billion per annum which is spend on drought relief and Rs.300 billion per annum which is spend on flood relief by our country. The question that arises is how to harness the floodwater? And how to regulate the out flow of floodwater so that it does not go into sea and it is converted as useful water for the mankind. The answer is, through the project for technology
132

to effectively utilized rain and river water through advanced ground water recharging technique, which emanates to bring a permanent solution to the negative impacts or drought and floods. Such a desire must be considered without question, worthy of applause because satisfaction of domestic water needs should be considered as a human right and be given the top priority. 4. ABOUT MY TECHNOLOGY My proposal envisages the withdrawal of flowing water through the river with the help of river intake structure. It is necessary to construct such river intakes because when water is withdrawn through a conduit, from a river independently, and as such the entrance of the conduit is not an integral part of the dam or any other related structure than an intake structure is used for safe withdrawal of water from the river over a predetermined range of pool levels and thus to protect the conduit from being damaged, trash, debris, waves, etc. The most suitable intake structures for this technology are: [a] Wet intake tower [b] Dry intake tower However, the dry intake towers are useful and beneficial in the sense that water can be withdrawn from any selected level of the river by opening the port at that level. Since, the rain is uniformly distributed over the entire basin therefore the run off goes on increasing while making its way towards sea. Hence, these river intakes can be installed at such spacing that the withdrawal of water through these intake maintains the desired level of flow throughout the river. The water coming out from the conduit is send to the water purification plant to improve the quality of the water, in such plants water is passed through number of treatments so that the water coming out of the plant when consumed for domestic purposes it would not result in any health hazard. The quality of water can be defined and estimated by studying its 1. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS : Turbidity, colour, taste, odour and specific conductivity of water. 2. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS : Total solids and suspended solids PH value of water, hardness of water, sodium content of water. 3. BACTERIAL AND MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERISTICS : Aerobic bacteria, faultative

bacteria, plankton (algae), protozoa, etc. It is necessary to purify water because through this technology I had planned to preserve this water in the ground water aquifers, so that whenever and wherever required this water can be extracted with the help of pumps for domestic and other uses. Also, in the process of natural ground water recharging, the water while percolating below the ground surface passes through the voids of the rocks, and join water table, which makes it automatically purified along its passage. But, in this artificial recharging technique water is directly passed to the underground location. Hence it most be purified first. Depending upon the capacity of water purification plants water may be supplied to a single plant from the number of river intake structure via, conduit pipe or water may be supplied to the plant from a single river intake structure. The water released from the purification plant is impounded by a reservoir having a dam constructed over it. The construction of such reservoir may hand out in many ways. [a] Store a portion of the flood flows in such a way as to play down the flood peaks at the areas to be protected downstream. [b] To prevent difficulties to carry out the operation, during high flows. [c] Fulfill the demand of hydroelectric power plant. [d] Direct water supply to the city, etc.

The reservoir is further connected to the waterways, which acts as a passage through which the water is carried from the storage reservoir to the powerhouse where electricity is generated, utilizing the power of water. The water has two_forms of energy while flowing through the penstock, kinetic and potential. The kinetic depends upon the mass of water flowing and its velocity, while the forms of energy while flowing through the penstock, kinetic and potential. The kinetic depends upon the mass of water flowing and its velocity, while the potential energy exists as a result of difference in the water level between the two points, which is known as head the hydraulic turbine convent kinetic and potential energies possessed by the water into mechanical power. The hydraulic turbine is thus a prime mover which when coupled to a generator produces electric power. Since, in this technology our aim is to prevent floods and deliver maximum possible mass of water underground to enhance the ground water level, therefore there is no limitation, in the amount of water to be used. Hence, we are provided with the ample mass of water with us, which can produce very high kinetic energy. Also since we have to transmit water under ground therefore high heads can be attained resulting in tremendous amount of power generation.

FIG : MODIFIED HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

133

As such, it is a matter of concern that 59 years after independence, more than fifty percent of all rural house hold in India do not have electricity and use kerosene for lighting. Even for those rural areas, which are electrified, there is a tremendous shortage of power supply. Thus it is not uncommon for those areas to have 10-15 hours of black outs every day. There is a short fall of about 20,000 MW of electricity in the country and we require about 1,40,000 MW of additional capacity by 2010. This project will give a major contribution to overcome such energy crisis; it will be helpful to meet out energy demands, by a 40-45% contribution in national power grids through, hydroelectric generation by 35,000-40,000 MW. The water coming out from the draft tube of the hydroelectric power plant is discharged to the artificial underground reservoirs. Such reservoirs are created because of varying amount of valid spaces in the bedrocks where ground water accumulates. The rocks below the earths surface is the bedrock consisting of many types of rocks, such as sand stones, granite, and limestone. Bed rocks can also become broken and fractured, creating spaces that can be fill with water. And some bedrock, such as limestone, is dissolved by water, which results in large cavities that fill with water. In many places, considering vertical crosssection of the earth the rock is laid down in layers especially in areas of sedimentary rocks. Some layers have rocks that are more porous than others, and here water moves more freely in the horizontal manner through the earth deep, in the bedrock there are rock layers made of dense material such as granite or materials that water has a hard time penetration, such as clay. These layers may be underneath the porous rock layers and thus, act as a confining layer to retard the vertical movement of water. Since, it is more difficult for the water to go any deeper it tends to pool in the porous layers and flow in more horizontal direction across the aquifer towards regions having there aquifer with low water level. In this way the aquifer in which the water is stored shall itself be act as the distribution system for carrying water from one place to another with or without any minor modification in its flow pattern and so such necessity of constructing pipelines or canals (as required in the project of interlinking of rivers) is completely eliminated, therefore cost due
134

to huge distribution network and the large area of land which would be utilized in constructing such canals is saved. Therefore through my technology of artificial ground water storage the following benefits can be obtained. [a] The present ground water decline rate is as high as 1.5 meters per year in some parts, has not only destroyed many wells but also resulted increased cost from water pumping, this problem can be rectified only through my technique. [b] Since, in India some 60% of total agricultural water comes from the ground water, which accounts of over half of total irrigated area, increase in the water table can give new boost to agricultural growth. [c] This type of ground water management requires no or sometimes very minor modification in the aquifer to distribute the water to the drought affected regions such as Rajasthan and Gujarat which are under havoc and misery. [d] The water lost in evaporation from an underground reservoir of this technology is much less than the water lost from a surface reservoir. [e] My technology will prove to be more amenable to poverty targeting than have large surface irrigation system, since government can design pump subsidies or build public tube wells but not large canal system exclusively for the poorer segments. [f] The ground water development as tented to be more democratic; it can respond more to peoples needs and demand rather than hydrological opportunity; it is linked more to population density than to occurrence of the resource. [g] More than 65% of Indias total ground water is affected by excessive fluoride content, resulting in fluorine related diseases, excess fluoride in drinking water also causes bone related problems and ground water of West Bengal has high arsenic content, this has become a major water quality and health issue effecting huge areas of population, through this technology such problems can be solved by keeping the concentration of fluoride, arsenic and other chemicals get diluted and much purer water can be made available. [h] The sea water intrusion on Indias coasts, specially Gujarats Savrashtra region, Tamil Nadus Minjur aquifer, coastal areas of Indus basin is threatening the ecology of important wet lands, including Mangrove forests of over 1,30,000 ha,

ground water over-exploitation is the main cause of these sea-water intrusion. The raising of water table by this artificial recharging method may help in building pressure barriers to prevent seawater intrusion in the coastal areas. [i] No space is required to build such reservoir. In another form of such type of project, the reservoir can be constructed directly across the river. The water from the reservoir is extracted and send to water purification plant and this water after the purification is send to another reservoir which is further connected to the same system of hydroelectric power plant and ground water aquifer as discussed above. In such types of construction there is no need to build river intake structure and are suitable for implementation in the region where there is high probability of sudden rise in the run off due to very heavy precipitation. As, in the previous method we where sending the water at the water purification plant with the help of conduit and then transmitting this purified plant would do not be able to manage their operation due to devastating floods, as they could not work above their capacity. This could result in little higher flood peaks, all these problems can be avoided by building a reservoir fitted with dam over it, directly over the river. The water from the reservoir is extracted according to the capacity of water purification plant and the requirement of hydel power plant and then after purification is send to a closed large tank from where it can be supplied to the power plant and so on. 5. MOST SUITABLE LOCATIONS India is blessed with the wonderful gift by the nature in the form of Himalayan Mountain in the north, which plays a very significant role in providing the supplies of water the human societies needs. The Himalayas is the source of many large rivers like Yangtse, Irrawadi, Yarlung, Tsangpo, Brahmaputra, Ganga, Indus, Amu Darya, etc. Indeed the Himalayas can be called the water tower of Asia the amount of water that India receives because of such geographical conditions is capable to satisfy its presents and future water needs comfortably if harassed effectively. Indeed, it is true that nature had given us the solution of each and every problem, now it is the duty, of we engineers and scientists to
135

explore the ways through which the available resources can be utilized in the best possible manner to fulfill our needs. In total India has as many as 12 major rivers whose total catchment area is 252.8 million hectare (mha) of the major rivers; the GangaBrahmaputra-Meghna system is the biggest with the catchments area of about 110 mha which is more than 43 percent of the catchment area of all the major rivers in the country. The other major rivers with catchment area more then 10 mha are Indus (32.1 mha), Godavari (31.3mha), Krishna (25.9mha), and Mahanadi (14.2mha). The catchment area of medium rivers is about 25 mha and Subernarekha with 1.9mha catchment area is the largest river among the medium rivers in the country. About 40 percent of utilizable surface water resources are presently in Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system. The distribution of water resources potential in the country shows that as against the national per capita annual availability of water as 2,208 cubic meters, the average availability in Brahmaputra and Barak is as high as 16,589 cubic metres while it is low as 360 cubic meters in Sabarmati Basin. Brahmaputra and Barak basin with 7.3 percent of geographical area 4.2 % of population of the country has 31% of the annual water resources per capita annual availability for rest of the country excluding Brahmaputra and Barak basin works out to about 1,583 cubic meters. Any situation of availability of less than 1,000 cubic meters per capita is considered by international agencies as scarcity condition Cauvery, Pennar, Sabarmati, East flowing rivers and West flowing rivers are some of the basins which fall into this category. The technology to effectively utilize rain and river water through advanced ground water recharging technique can be implemented at the locations where, per capita annual availability of water is much greater than national per capita annual availability of water. At present, most of these locations are selected for the project of interlinking of Indian rivers. In this project 36 main dams had been planned to be constructed and hydropower of 34000 MW is estimated to be generated. At all the 30 locations where surplus river water is planned to be supplied to the rivers with low flow rate, my project can be implemented and instead of supplying such water to other rivers, the complete water can be stored in the ground water aquifer.

6. VARIOUS PROPOSALS INTERLINKING OF RIVERS

FOR

6.1 PENINSULAR RIVERS DEVELOPMENT It is planned by national water development agency to direct about 19 KM3 of surplus flow of Mahanadi River to the Godavari system and to further transfer 38 KM 3 from Godavari and its tributaries to the Krishna river downwards South. Another part of this proposal is to divert a part of the surplus water of West flowing rivers of Kerala to the East and generate hydropower. The third segment envisages construction, storage to interlink small rivers flowing along the West coast north of Mumbai and South of Tapi. The fourth part envisages interlinking of the Ken and the Chambal. The proposal of peninsular river development provides additional surface water in irrigation benefits of 13 mha and generation of 4000 MW of power. The addition, about the 3mha area could be irrigated with ground water. 6.2 HIMALAYAN RIVER DEVELOPMENT Out of the total water resource of the GBM basin of about l000 maft, less than 10% there of is being consumptively used at present. It is estimated that by providing large storage floods can be moderated providing substantial benefits of flood control in the downstream regions. About 600KM3 of storage is required to fully harness the water resources of the GBM basin, but through interlinking process only 215KM3 of storage could be provided in India, Nepal and Bhutan on the GBM system. It is proposed to divert the water from Brahmaputra, Ganga, and Subernarekha to River Mahanadi by five river links and then to the southern rivers. The second segment consists of interlinking tributaries of Ganga, as another part of the proposal is to Interlink Sharda, Yamuna, and Sabarmati River by canals. If the regional view is taken, India can get additional irrigation of 22 mha after fully meeting the needs of water in the other three countries. Besides, this hydropower generation of about 30000MW is possible. 7. BENEFITS OF TECHNOLOGY TO EFFECTIVELY UTILISE RAIN AND RIVER WATER THROUGH ADVANCED GROUND
136

WATER RECHARGING TECHNIQUE OVER INTERLINKING PROJECT : [a] The project of interlinking of rivers sounds good but involves a massive expenditure of about Rs. 5,60,000 crores, for a developing country like India if such a large amount is saved then it can be used for development in other areas, where as my projects cost would be negligible in front of it since cost of construction of large canals are eliminated. [b] For the construction of canals nearly 4.5 lakh people will be displayed from there homes, farmlands and offices and a large cost will be involved in there rehabilitation for the interlinking project, while such cost is not involve in my project. [c] Though, through this project water would be supplied to the rivers having low run off, but it would be of no use, because with the addition of sewage water and the water from the industrial waste the new water system will not remain fit for drinking and other domestic purposes for much time, but in my technology water can be extracted from any where, any time with the help of tube wells and can be consumed for domestic purposes, since it is completely purified. [d] Whenever it will become necessary to use the water through flow channel of the linked rivers, for the domestic needs it must be purified first, the purification cost of this water would be comparatively higher then what would be required in my project, since after flowing over a large distances, a huge percentage of impurities will mix with this water. [e] The major drought affected areas of India are Rajasthan and Gujarat, where there is extreme need to supply water as soon as possible, the interlinking project must have been planned to transmit most of the surplus flow to those regions, to prove itself beneficial to mankind, but no major steps are to be taken considering this aspects, while through my project sufficient water can be supplied to the ground water aquifer of each and every regions where ground water level is depleting. [f] India manages to loose more quantity of water then, what it needs to satisfy its annual domestic needs through evaporation. The interlinking involves construction of 30 links extending up to 10,880 KM occupying about 3.42 million KM 2 of the geographical area, through this project such a large amount of additional water surface area would be

exposed to atmosphere making evaporation of water a predominating problem. Indeed, it is a very wasteful way of supplying domestic water needs. While, evaporation looses are completely absent in my project. [g] Since, whole of the water even after interlink will ultimately merge into the sea; all the efforts utilized for digging such large holes to form canals and the large money employed in this project of interlinking will get ruined. Where as, through my project every single drop of water, which is harnessed and send underground can be utilized efficiently. [h] The period of implementation for the gigantic project of interlinking of rivers as given by Supreme Court order, is mere 12 years. But experts say that interlinking of rivers is highly complex process with huge backward and forward and inter-sectoral linkages that may be accomplished incrementally over to next 50-100 years. Where as, since my project is free from all such complexities, it can be implemented at much less time. [i] Interlinking project would not be cost effective option for domestic water security in Drought-Prone areas as it tries to supply domestic water through collection at far away points and distribution through long canals or existing river bed, with the help of heavy pumping machineries. However, it is quite clear that both financial cost and the amount of water lost, my technology would be much effective. [j] Ground water gets distributed equally in the regions where water level gets depleted therefore harnessing of water through my technique will not give birth to conflicts isolated to water which could result due to interlinking of rivers. [k] The submergence of forests due to interlinking project may lead to serious implications in terms of bio-diversity loss; there are no such problems with my project. 8. CONCLUSION The technology to effectively utilize rain and river water through advanced ground water recharging technique is a project that would provide

us with uncountable benefits. It is capable of solving all the water related problems not only through India but also from the whole world and in addition to this it would produce a large capacity of pollution free hydro electricity. I had tried to explain its every aspects briefly in this paper. As such, for a country like India, where one part is soaked in water, while other parts fears the problems of drought. This type of mega project is required in order to have uniform distribution of water. Our country with worlds second largest population and ever growing demand of food and water, my project is required. On the other hand the ambitious plan of inter basin transfer; as per the experience of other countries argumentation of water is a very wasteful and costly option. This project will have a large social, environmental ramification. Heavy pumping machinery required continuous energy supply. It is very difficulty to give constant power supply in the period of energy crisis. So it will be impossible to cover stage pumping. Also, remarkable change in eco-system will affect human and animal life. At last, a major part of this precious and scarce water resource will get wasted, unutilized due to evaporation and mixing into the sea. The project of interlinking of rivers is like a few lines drawn on the map of country and I am confident that it will remain the same even after implementation, with very less benefits then what can be achieved through my technology of artificial ground water recharging. I request the government, engineers, scientists and citizens of India to please take each and every point, which I had, mention in my paper, with little seriousness. As the project of interlinking of rivers may not effect most of us directly, and a few, of us will be displaced. However, everyone living in the country will be affected by the long-term consequences of the project. I hope that my project of technology effectively utilized rain and river water through advance ground water recharging technique would be appreciated by each and every community in India ad well as abroad with open mind and open heart as it is an essential requirement for the prosperity of the nation.

137

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

22. Rainwater Harvesting and Northeast India : A Simple and Cheapest Method
*Shukla Acharjee **Mangesh G. Waghmare

ABSTRACT The present drought like situation in the lower Assam Brahmaputra Valley compelled the people residing here to change their mindset that Northeast India wont experience drought. More than five lakhs farmers were affected by the unusual drought this year. Until recent past the valley was considered to be the most vulnerably affected by flood twice a year. However, due to global climatic change and other such factors now this region is also experiencing drought like situation. Therefore, it is high time that people should wake up and culture their mind to face any such situation in near future and use the resources judiciously and learn the concept of sustainable development to preserve the natural resource available to them for future generation. Here the authors have designed a simple model and the cheapest method of rainwater harvesting keeping in mind the amount of precipitation, topography, soil, depth, vegetation, cost of construction, storage and distribution system for the poor people of northeast India. As rainfall is the main source of surface water and its conservation is essential, therefore rainwater harvesting is one of the most promising techniques for collection of excess runoff. In this northeastern part, bamboo is considered the green gold. From storage to groundwater recharge in the present model bamboo has been used which is easily available here. This technique of rainwater harvesting would be very cheap for the farmers in particular and the masses in general living in the hilly regions as well as in the plains of northeast India. KEYWORDS : Rainwater harvesting, sustainable development, ground water recharge, bamboo. Corresponding Author: suklageo@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION Water is a key for sustainable watershed development and of all the natural resources; water plays a very vital role in lives of human beings. Presence and absence of water clearly determines the culture and growth of community and a healthy economy. Rain is the only natural source of fresh water in India. Over all the percentage of recharging of ground aquifers is 5-20% of total rain. It also depends on terrain, topsoil condition, sub- surface formation & rainfall pattern etc. Topsoil can hold

only fraction of water. Huge quantity of rainwater finds its way ultimately to sea through streams without much contribution to aquifer system. Hence, the only alternative is to harvest & conserve this precious gift of the nature by scientifically designed Rain Water Harvesting structure. Ground water is the water stored in sub surface level in soil or rock formation of earth. It is observed that the dense forest cover is reducing for last few decades. And hence, capacity of the soil to hold water is also reduced. In addition to this, heavy

*Department of Applied Geology, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh-786006, Assam, India **B.E (Civil), X83/14, Godrej Colony, Vikroli (E), Mumbai-400079, India 138

extraction of ground water is leading to an imbalance in ground water reserves, as the withdrawal of water is more than recharging of water. This is leading to depletion of ground water resources resulting in increasing depth of ground water table from surface. Though, according to recent studies by Assam State Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) after the current dry spell says that it have not affected much the ground water table but in future chances are there of major depletion of ground water table. However, time to time the scientists are giving warnings to the people that ground water table is going down every passing year in the northeastern cities because of high extraction of ground water. Several urban settlements of the different states of northeastern region are already facing a severe scarcity of potable water. In this backdrop, rainwater harvesting appears to be the only solution that could provide some reprieve during the scorching summer. The principle itself is very simple-collecting rainwater during wet season and using it in times of need. Another part of the collected water could be used to recharge the aquifers and restore the water level. THE STUDY AREA The North Eastern Region of India comprising the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Nagaland, is a huge sprawling landmass made up of extensive countless hills and mountainous terrain that rises in the north to snow-capped heights of the Himalaya, and is the playground of the mighty river Brahmaputra regarded as one of the largest rivers of the world and its tributaries (Fig:1). The climate of the region may be called Humid Mesothermal Brahmaputra type or Cwb type according to Mr. W. Koppen. It is humid sub-tropical, and high rainfall and high humidity are the main features thereof. The number of rainy days may sometimes equal three weeks in a month (Table:1). The climate influences soil types. The soils of the region are alluvium derived and are classified into old alluvial and forest soil. Soil profiles representing major soil orders are Entisol, Inceptisol, and Alfisol. The region also encounters the presence of poorly drenched soils. In addition, the mineralogy of soils, which includes sand, silt and clay mineralogy, is also equally important. The average annual rainfall in the lower Brahmaputra
139

valley is 213 cm while the in the northeastern foothill belt is 414 cm. The basin as a whole has the average annual rainfall of 230 cm with a variability of 1520 percent. The Himalayan sector receives 500 cm of rainfall per year, the lower ranges receiving more than the higher area (Goswami, 1985). The principal rocks of Meghalaya plateau are granite and gneisses. At the foot of hills are found beds of conglomerates. In between these two ranges lies the narrow Brahmaputra valley, which is alluvial in origin and consists of sand, sandstones, pebbles, clay and sometimes a mixture of sand and clay with decomposed vegetable matter. The fragile rocks of Arunachal Pradesh are prone to severe erosion.

Fig: 1. North eastern Region :The study area

Table 1 : Annual Rainfall and Rainy days State Assam Arunachal Pradesh Manipur, Mizoram & Nagaland Meghalaya Rainfall & rainy days in a year 2262.95 mm with 144 rainy days 3000 mm with 200 rainy days 1927 mm 2050 mm with 200 rainy days

WHY RAIN WATER HARVESTING ? PROBLEMS WITH GROUND WATER 1) The current precious reserves of ground water are vanishing rapidly due to heavy extraction of ground water, which is more than recharge. Hence, ground water is reducing in quantity. 2) The other important factors for degrading the quality of ground water are heavy industrialization and contamination of surface & subsurface water with highly toxic pollutants. Already 21 districts of Assam have reported arsenic contamination of ground water, while five of the districts have reported fluoride contamination. 3) Unfortunately, we do not have system for protecting water from contamination to stop or reduce the contamination, even to treat these ground water reserves. Considering all the above conditions and problems of ground water, there must be some solution for it. It is our duty to find out some definite strategy on for solving the same; since we only have created the problem. Rainwater harvesting is the best, economic and feasible solution for water crisis in comparison with other technologies, which are very costly. BAMBOO-THE GREEN GOLD AND RAINWATER HARVESTING Bamboo, a fast growing, versatile woody grass is found across the country. It is an economic resource having immense potential for improving the quality of life of rural and urban communities with environment regeneration qualities like carbon sequestering. Bamboo provides raw material for large industries like paper and pulp as well as for cottage and handicrafts industry (Fig. 2). Some bamboo species can grow one metre in a day.
140

Fig. 2 : Bamboo the Green Gold of North East India SUBSYSTEM COMPONENTS OF RAINWATER HARVESTING A rainwater harvesting system consists of the following subsystems: catchment area (roof), conveyance system (guttering, downspouts, first flush and piping), filtration, storage and distribution. Catchment Subsystem : For domestic rainwater harvesting, the most common surface for collection of water is the roof of the dwelling. Many other surfaces can be used. Most dwellings, however, have a roof. Rainwater harvesting can be done with any roofing material if it is for non-drinking use only. For potable use of rainwater, the best roof materials are metal, clay, cementitious and thatch (from a variety of organic materials), provide a surface adequate for high quality water collection. In Northeast India, locally available grass thatched roof is very popular. Conveyance Subsystem : Guttering is used to transport rainwater from the roof to the storage

vessel. Guttering comes in a wide variety of shapes and forms, ranging from the factory made PVC type to home made guttering using bamboo (Fig:6) or folded metal sheet. Guttering is usually fixed to the building or bamboo hut just below the roof and it catches the water as it falls from the roof. Some common gutter shapes and fixing methods are shown in fig.3. Guttering could be installed on one grass roof that had been constructed with a plastic membrane beneath it this helps to prevent UV degradation of the plastic. The grass could be loosely thatched and found locally. The plastic sheet guttering that was installed is shown in Fig: 3. It should be designed to capture all the water falling on the thatch and passing through to the plastic sheet. It should be fixed using two long poles, one suspended below the eaves and one on top of the thatch. It can also be designed to be demountable from the upper surface, such that it can be put away under the eaves when there is no rain. Again, this helps prevent degradation due to sunlight.

First Flush System : Debris, dirt, dust and droppings will collect on the roof of a building or other collection area. When the first rains arrive, this unwanted matter will be washed into the tank. This will cause contamination of the water and the quality will be reduced. Many DRWH (Domestic Rain Water Harvesting) systems therefore incorporate a system for diverting this first flush water so that it does not enter the tank. There are a number of simple systems that are commonly used and also a number of other, slightly more complex, arrangements. The simpler ideas are based on a manually operated arrangement whereby the inlet pipe is moved away from the tank inlet and then replaced again once the initial first flush has been diverted. This method has obvious drawbacks in that there has to be a person present who will remember to move the pipe. Here we have designed the storage tank with a sand filter fitted on the lid of the tank itself so that when the water is diverted to the tank pipe it would filter the water first then goes inside the tank (Fig: 5). Filtration System : Again, there are wide varieties of systems available for treating water before, during and after storage. The level of sophistication also varies, from extremely high-tech to very rudimentary. The sand-charcoal-stone filter is often used for filtering rainwater entering a tank. This type of filter is only suitable, however, where the inflow is low to moderate, and will soon overflow if the inflow exceeds the rate at which the water can percolate through the sand. Settling tanks and partitions can be used to remove silt and other suspended solids from the water. Many systems found in the field rely simply on a piece of cloth or fine mosquito mesh to act as the filter (and to prevent mosquitoes entering the tank). Storage Subsystem : In larger prospective of storage system we can say; Natural storage system i.e. recharging ground water aquifers & another is man made that is storage tanks. They can be made of various locally available materials, in various sizes & shape. In addition, their cost varies according to that. DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY FOR
141

Fig. 3 : Bamboo hut & Plastic sheet guttering and the designs of Gutters & Fixings

NORTH EAST Average annual rainfall was calculated from the rainfall data collected from Indian Meteorological Department. For other related data, standard literature and methods have been followed. Methodology for rainwater harvesting are: for potable water - simply to collect water from the roof to a storage tank or to collect water from roof to recharge bore well, open well, hand pump etc. For groundwater recharge abandoned well, abandoned or running bore well, hand pump, recharge pit, recharge trench or recharge well could be used. To prevent surface runoff percolation ponds, check dams, sub-surface dyke, recharge pit, recharge trench could be constructed. The low-cost water tank to store rain water could be made of bamboo and plastic film. Villagers in North East use a large bamboo basket shaped like a silo, for storing grain. If this silo is internally lined with a good grade polythene film, it can be used as a water tank. The bamboo should be made non-biodegradable by soaking it in a solution containing 450g of sodium dichromate, 300g of copper sulphate and 150g of boric acid dissolved in 10litres of water. Such treated bamboo has an outside life of between 10 and 20 years. The distance between adjacent bamboo poles

To prevent algae infestation, the tanks must be kept closed without exposure to sunlight. Therefore, direct collection of rainwater is not safe for potable use. The cost of a tank having a capacity of 1500 litres is Rs.1000. If a larger tank is required, one could make a plinth of cement and stones having the desired diameter, and by using chemically treated bamboo poles, a palisade of bamboo is erected along the periphery of the plinth, like a fencing (Fig:4). A tank having a diameter and a height of 1.2m can store 23,000 litres of water, which ensures a daily supply of 60 80 litres of clean drinking water throughout the year. The cost of such a tank comes to about Rs.10,000. For ground water - recharge pits are with size varying from 1.5 3.0 meter wide and 2.0 3.0 meter deep could be constructed. It should be lined with brick / stone with openings (weep holes) at regular intervals. Top area of pit must be covered with grill. The recharge point allows percolation and

SLOW SAND FILTER FOR FILTERATION OF RAINWATER

Fig. 4 : Low Cost Bamboo Tank to Store Rain Water

OVER FLOW OUTLET
1200

should be about 50 60 cm. The plinth can have a diameter of up to 5 or 6m, but the height of the bamboo palisade should not exceed 120cm because the pressure exerted by the water column on the side walls is determined by the column height. Using the bamboo poles as a skeleton, the entire structure could be woven like wickerwork, using chemically treated bamboo strips. One can use it to collect run-off water from the roof, or one can even allow the rain to fall directly into the tank. Once the tank is full its top must be covered by another film of plastic, which keeps the water clean and prevents evaporation. Both sunlight and nutrients are needed for algae to grow.
142

OUTLET
DRAINOUT VA LVE

5000

BAMBOO WATER TANK OF CAPACITY 23000 lit

Fig. 5 : Simple design for rainwater harvesting, design for low cost percolation pit for ground water recharge and the design of bamboo tank with a capacity of 23,000 lt. for plain and hilly areas of North-Eastern India.

Fig. 6 : Bamboo pipes to transfer water from the stored rainwater tank for ground water recharge

electrical investigations). Therefore, the recharge points should be selected only after identifying permeable zone. If there is no permeable zone, the groundwater cannot move from one place to other and the water would come up through the recharge point and reach the surface. On the other hand, the ingress of water through the permeable zone should be checked, as the water reduces the shear and compressive strengths of the material of the foundation. It should be always kept in mind that Rainwater harvesting is a social responsibility involving the whole community. Tank size ideal tank size vs. affordability Tank sizing techniques usually only consider the optimum size for a tank based on the rainfall available, the size of the catchment area (Table:2), and the demand on the system. Little consideration is usually given to the affordability of the tank. It is assumed that the person will be looking at capturing all the water from the roof or enough to meet all their demand. In many cases, the person may not be able to afford a tank suitable for catching the optimum amount of water. In such cases, the tank size is determined by the tank cost and so, in this case, we need to maximize capacity for a given (low) cost. Below, in Table: 3 we have classified domestic tank sizes into three distinct groups small, medium and large scale. Affordability is a strong function of tank size

recharges the groundwater. Recharge points could be of various dimensions, depending upon physiographic and hydro geological conditions. Important considerations for successful rainwater harvesting are: (i) location of recharge points, (ii) hydrological properties responsible for recharging the aquifers, and (iii) Social responsibilities of the people. The location of the recharge point especially in the crystalline terrain should have a weathered material with sufficient porosity to hold substantial quantities of water and also fractures for storage of water. Porosity, which generates the hydrological properties, must be identified using groundwater exploration techniques (well inventory, landscape indicators, topographical features, geological set-up, structural controls, drainage conditions and geo-

Table - 2 : Showing availability of rainwater in Thousand litres

143

Table 3 : Tank scale classification

Scale of domestic tanks Small-scale Medium Large Description

Any tank or jar up to seven days storage or up to 1000 litres A tank up to several weeks storage or between 1000 and 20,000 litres storage Any tank with several months of storage or above 20,000 litres storage capacity

and tank design. The smaller the tank the cheaper it will be and the cheaper the construction materials and labour costs, the cheaper the tank will be. For increased affordability we are therefore looking at small-scale, locally produced RWH systems that use local materials like bamboo. Local manufacture and use of local skills are design issues. Affordability is a function of a number of socio-economic factors and is decided at the household level. Moreover, we know economies of scale show the cost per litre dropping as tank size increases. In addition, factory made tanks are generally more expensive than locally manufactured tanks. Value of water As with many other goods, water has a declining value with quantity. The first litre per day is worth more than the tenth. By examining the limited data available that relates household consumption per day to the effective unit cost of

water (i.e. cost per litre), we might construct a curve such as shown in Fig: 7. Each socio-economic group would have its own curve. The cost line on Fig: 7 is horizontal, which reasonably represents the situation where water is fetched, each successive litre requiring the same input of labour. Such a line does not fairly represent harvested roof water, where the effective cost general rises with daily consumption despite the economies of scale in tank construction. A typical cost vs volume characteristic for Rain Water Harvesting supply is shown in Fig 7. Sometimes we find examples of water purchase and use them to infer the value of water. Richer house holds, or those experiencing illness, may pay for water to be brought to the house. More usually, we have to infer costs indirectly through conversion of fetching distance/height into time and then time into money. Such costs, like the value of water discussed above, will be lower for poorer households than for richer ones. Some careful steps to be taken before implementation of rain water harvesting projects Convenient first flush device must be integrated. a good fitting, light-proof cover will prevent debris, animals or humans from entering the tank and prevent light from causing algae growth water quality can enhanced by putting water into the tank and taking it out of the tank at the correct location low-level tank entry and floating off-takes are devices designed to aid this approach good sanitary conditions around a tank will prevent

Fig. 7 : Showing value vs quantity and cost vs volume

144

disease being spread water extraction should be such that the water is not contaminated while being drawn Poorly managed water harvesting systems may cause soil erosion and soil instability. Therefore, water-harvesting catchments require maintenance to keep them in good condition. CONCLUSIONS The forest covers are decreasing. Hence, water and soil hold by roots, plants are degraded. And, it is affecting hydrological cycle badly. This is resulting in tremendous increase in depth of ground water level. It is high time to implement rainwaterharvesting projects in northeastern part of India. These technologies are simple to install and operate. Local people can be easily trained to implement such technologies, and construction materials are also readily available. It is convenient in the sense that it provides water at the point of consumption, and family members have full control of their own systems, which greatly reduces operation and maintenance problems. Although regional or other local factors can modify the local climatic conditions, rainwater can be a continuous source of water supply for both the rural and poor. The feasibility of rainwater harvesting in a particular locality is highly dependent upon the amount and intensity of rainfall. Other variables, such as catchment area and type of catchment surface, usually can be adjusted according to household needs. As rainfall is usually unevenly distributed throughout the year, rainwater collection methods can serve as only supplementary sources of household water. Rainwater harvesting appears to be one of the most promising alternatives for supplying freshwater in the face of increasing water scarcity and escalating demand in the urban as well as in the rural areas. The pressures on rural water supplies, greater environmental impacts associated with new projects, and increased opposition from NGOs to the development of new surface water sources, as well as deteriorating water quality in surface reservoirs already constructed, constrain the ability of communities to meet the demand for freshwater from traditional sources, and present an opportunity for augmentation of water supplies using this technology. May be with every rural and urban household participation in their unique small scale rainwater harvesting projects replenishes the
145

groundwater reserves because it is the only present state-of-art to replenishes the ground water table which would enable our dug wells and bore wells to yield in a sustained manner. A sustainable human community should use its resources without endangering the survival of future generations. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors gratefully acknowledges thanks to Prof. J.N.Sarma, Dept. of Applied Geology, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam for his valuable suggestion. Thanks to our friend Negul Devan K.R. (B.E) for timely help. REFERENCES
C-3 Report by IIT Delhi, July 2000, Water quality in domestic roof water harvesting systems (DRWH) & Bamboo reinforced concrete construction Gould, J.E. 1992. Rainwater Catchment Systems for Household Water Supply, Environmental Sanitation Reviews, No. 32, ENSIC, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok. Gould, J.E. and H.J. McPherson 1987. Bacteriological Quality of Rainwater in Roof and Groundwater Catchment Systems in Botswana, Water International, 12:135-138. Nissen-Petersen, E. 1982. Rain Catchment and Water Supply in Rural Africa: A Manual. Hodder and Stoughton, Ltd., London. Pacey, A. and A. Cullis 1989. Rainwater Harvesting: The Collection of Rainfall and Runoff in Rural Areas, WBC Print Ltd., London. Rao, N.S, Important considerations for the success of rainwater harvesting Hydrogeology Laboratory, Department of Geology, Andhra University, Rees, D.G, Nyakaana, S & Thomas, T.H, 2000, Development Technology Unit ,School of Engineering, University of Warwick, Domestic Rainwater Harvesting Research Programme VERYLOW-COST ROOFWATER HARVESTING IN EAST AFRICA (Based on a Feasibility Study performed in the Great Lakes Region during May July 2000) by Working Paper No. 55, pp. 8,9, 22,23,30,31. Schiller, E.J. and B. G. Latham 1987. A Comparison of Commonly Used Hydrologic Design Methods for Rainwater Collectors, Water Resources Development, 3. Singh, V.P, Sharma, N & Ojha, C.S.P 2004, Ed. The Brahmaputra Basin Water Resources, Vol. 47, Kluwer Academic Publishers, London. Singh, R.V. 2003, Ed. Watershed Planning and Management, Yash Publishing House, Bikaner-334003, India. UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) 1982. Rain and Storm water Harvesting in Rural Areas, Tycooly International Publishing Ltd., Dublin. Wall, B.H. and R.L. McCown 1989. Designing Roof Catchment Water Supply Systems Using Water Budgeting Methods, Water Resources Development, 5:11-18.

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management

11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

23. Rain Water Harvesting

*Shri S. K. Sinha
ABSTRACT A precious source of water availability has become scarce, hence the need for conservation. The development of water resources in the country is at cross roads. This sustainability of water resources has been endangered by vagaries of rainfall and unplanned development. An optimum development can be achieved by the conjuctive use of surface and ground waters. Rain water Harvesting is the concept, which includes a holistic approach to develop, augments, protect and conserve water resources. This concept is to be envisaged and practice in order to ensure the sustainability of ongoing groundwater development for multiple uses and to provide scope for further development of growing demand/population. To maintain the ground water resources indefinitely, a hydrologic equilibrium must exist between all water entering and leaving the water basin of the earth. Rain water Harvesting i.e Artificial Recharge of the ground water resources is the most commonly adopted and cost effective method of replenishing the ground water reserves. The Rain Water Harvesting are based on the different technique. The methods suggested for Rain Water Harvesting is water spreading, recharge through pils, trenches, wells, shafts and directly run off water into the existing wells. The choice/selection of any particular method is governed by local hydrogeological, soil condition etc and ultimate use. Rain water Harvesting needs to be implemented to avoid the paucity of water resources for present/future demands. Since the nature has showered enough potential to recharge our existing water bodies and also to conserve/preserve the waters for future needs/requirements.

1.0. INTRODUCTION A precious source of water availability has become scarce, hence the need for conservation. The development of water resources in the country is at cross roads. This sustainability of water resources has been endangered by vagaries of rainfall and unplanned development. An optimum development can be achieved by the conjuctive use of surface and ground waters. Rain water Harvesting is the concept, which includes a holistic approach to develop, augment, protect and conserve water resources. This concept is to be envisaged and practice in order to ensure the sustainability of ongoing groundwater development for multiple uses and to provide scope for further development of growing demand/

population. To maintain the ground water resources indefinitely, a hydrologic equilibrium must exist between all water entering and leaving the water basin of the earth. Rain Water Harvesting i.e Artificial Recharge of the ground water resources is the most commonly adopted and cost effective method of replenishing the ground water reserves. Army cantonments to a large scale depend on supply of water from civil bodies. And since the entire country is in high water stress situation, the total available water resources for various use sectors have decreased drastically. This has resulted in meager an erratic water supply to cantt thereby encouraging exploitation of ground and surface water available within the cantt by the MES. With a view to conserve the already depleting reservoirs,

*SE, ME, MIE, PG (PMIR), DIRECTOR (LIAISON), HQ EAC IAF, C/O 99 APO 146

judicious management of water in each cantt shall be undertaken. In this paper the various technological aspect of Rain Water Harvesting has been described with basic theory and with real ground conditions. 2.0 AIM The aim of the Rain Water Harvesting by virtue of suitable techniques/methods to conserve the already depleting reservoirs. Therefore, the local units/area/body are impressed upon to under take these feasible technique/methods through simple but lucid description, provide small budgetary estimates with time frame in which this can be achieved. Therefore, our aim is to improve the existing ground surface water through efficient rainwater harvesting management. 3.0 MANAGEMENT It is the technical methods, which manage the existing surface, and ground water potential of the catchments or water shed areas. So as to develop, augment and conserve them. Judicious harvesting management is most inevitable to the followings:3.1 Arrest ground water decline, improve ground water levels and availability. 3.2 Beneficiate water quality in acquirers. 3.3 Arrest seawater ingress. 3.4 Conserve surface water run off during monsoons. 3.5 Enhance availability of ground water at the specific place and time. 3.6 Reduce power consumption. 3.7 Consume unused wastewater. 3.8 Conserve energy. 3.9 Save environment from degradation. 4.0 ADVANTAGE OF RAIN WATER HARVESTING 4.1 Enhanced sustainability of water supply projects and structures; 4.2 Improved well yields and reduced pumping lifts and cost; 4.3 Improved water quality through dilution especially fluoride, nitrate and salinity. This is achieved with filtration and percolation. 4.4 Conservation of water lost to run off and evaporation.

4.4 Reduces flood hazard and soil erosion. 4.5 Treated urban effluent can be recharge and quality beneficiated by re-circulation through the aquifers. 5.0 SUGGESTED METHODS / TECHNIQUES Methods for local unit / area / body can be implemented in diverse hydro geological and varied climatic set-ups. Number of methods are available to achieve the sustainability of water through rain water Harvesting. The best method among the available methods depends on hydrology, available of source of water, available of land and physiography of the areas. The methods/techniques are broadly categorized are as under : 5.1 RECHARGE ON SURFACE This includes the following :5.1.1 Loading. 5.1.2 Basins or percolation tanks. 5.1.3 Stream augmentation. 5.1.4 Ditch and furrow. 5.1.5 Over irrigation. 5.1.6 Revival of village pond concept. 5.1.7 Recharge of secondary treated urban liquid effluents in identified aquifers. 5.2 DIRECT RECHARGE IN SUB SURFACE AQUIFERS This includes the following :- Injection wells are recharge well. In this the recharging in watershed is carried out by directing discharge of rainwater through a settling sump to the underground waterbed. These wells can be used both as percolation wells and recharge wells. The advantages of direct injection of rooftop run off water in the wells are :5.2.1 Harvesting from roof rain water. 5.2.2 Relatively high rate of recharge. 5.2.3 Utilisation of ground water during non rainy days. 5.3 OPEN WELL RECHARGE Direct recharge of the aquifer through open wells will be an easier and in expensive process in the shallow aquifer region. The rooftop run off water can be directed in to the open wells through pipes and settling pit to avoid possible turbidity. 5.4 RECHARGE PITS AND SHAFTS
147

TRENCHES 5.4.1 Recharge pits. Pits are dug depending upon available rooftop water from the buildings and are located inside the premise and away from foundation or concrete structures so as to have its sitting over pervious soil for better and faster absorption. The pits are preferably located near the precinct and thereafter filled with permeable material like pebbles, gravel and sand for better percolation and improved water quality through dilution during percolation. 5.4.2 Recharge shaft. Where the contour and topology of a large area permit flow in unidirectional and having step slopes, the shafts are dug. The average depth of 10 to 15 meters with width of 1 meter and length of 2 meters at places depending upon amount of water available from catchments. These are terminated above the aquifer level. The shafts are usually cased with PVC casing to prevent contamination and collapse. These are back filled with pervious soils, which facilities faster and efficient percolation and mitigates bio and chemical pollutions after filtration through the soil. 5.5 BORE HOLE FLOODING 5.6 NATURAL OPENINGS AND CAVITY FILLINGS Normally the topology of cantt is such that these openings are limited. 5.7 COMBINATION OF SURFACE AND SUB SURFACE 5.7.1 Following are the techniques usually adopted Basin/percolation tanks with pits/shaft or wells are constructed to collect subsurface and surface water. 5.7.2 Water treatment : In this technique the affluent/sewage/sullage is collected in a pit, filtered and then supplied to required place through gravity well or deep trenches in slope. 5.8 In this method induce recharge from surface water source is utilised for improving ground water potential. Another practice is to have aquifer modification. 5.9 GROUND WATER RECHARGE OF
148

EXISTING WELLS Ground water recharge of existing bore wells is one of the method of modifying the hydrological cycle and thereby providing ground water in excess of that available by natural processes. It is accomplished by augmenting the natural infiltration of precipitation or surface water in to underground formations by some method of construction, by providing or spreading of water or by artificially changing the natural conditions. 6.0 INDICATION OF DEPLETING WATER YIELD It has been observed from the post performances of the bore wells/shallow wells/open wells that the over exploitation has gradually diminished their yields. This was ascertain / evident from the observation and are as under. 6.1 Poor quality of water, occasionally muddy. 6.2 Frequent lowering of submersible pump in order to keep the later submerged. 6.3 Water output varying and found in spurts. 6.4 More draw out than natural recharge by rains etc. Bore wells being run continuously for hours without permitting recharge. 6.5 Sealing of natural recharge areas in and around bore wells with impervious side well, streets, parking lots and buildings. This diverts ground water flow direction and prevent recharge. 6.6 In real ground situation, sub surface water is diverted due to troughs and mounds, other Geological, Topological conditions. The above factors have caused overdraft from the bore wells and must be recharged immediately as the yield from these bore wells have been helping us to reduce dependence on outside agency for the deficient supply of water especially during peak summer when the catchments go dry and reduce available water. The wells which are near surface water bodies (such as ponds, Golf course, Dairy form and play grounds) continuing to give good yields and harvesting is naturally carried out. 7.0 COMPUTATION AND TOTAL POTENTIAL OF RECHARGE The potential through bore well harvesting will depend upon how big catchments is diverted for

percolation near bore wells, through trench/pit/shaft. The exact quantity is difficult to assess. 7.1 RECHARGE Exact computation of sub surface inflow and infiltration (Water entering the soil at the surface is called infiltration) need comprehensive geological investigation. The recharge of bore wells can be carried out through water shed approach while dried up dug well can be used directly for storing water of surround catchment. The rainwater harvesting to increase the water table should be graded so as to prevent the accumulation or retention of surface water within a radius of 15 meters from the bore well. An expensive proposition is not viable for Military stations where water quality can be improved with silt filtering pit alone. Hence it is being considered only at those locations to augment for potable water. The shallow wells were rainwater from surrounding catchments can be directed inside through silt filtering unit above as the water is soft and does not get surface impurities. To have economical and viable harvesting of rainwater in the water source, an area of approx 5,000 to 10,000 Sq m around bore well should be made ground water collection. The area should commence 15 meters away from bore well. Total water collection/recharge per bore well Average rainfall (Say) = 780 mm Available for harvesting = 390 mm (@ 50%) after evaporation To harvest 10% of above = 39 mm (0.039 M) Total water recharge for = 10,000 x 0.039 M 10,000 Sq M = 3,90,000 Liters This water is available in one year (90 days of rains) per bore well assuming unpaved area around bore well. 7.2 ROOFS HARVESTING The collection and storage of rain from rooftop run off has been practiced by man since ancient times. This may be particularly useful for domestic use in the residential, messes and offices. The collection of rain water from paved or GI corrugated roofs and court yards of houses is done either in storage tank or in ground water reservoir.

METHOD The water is led from the roof to the storage tank through a series of gutters and pipes. Conventional gutters are normally used, but for economy they can be made with V shaped lengths of tin sheet hang under the roof edge from wire or lengths of rigid PVC pipe at along the length and clamped to the edge of the roof. Rigid PVC pipes are considered as they are cheaper easier to maintain and will reduce contamination. 8.0 DESIGN OF TRENCHES AND PITS 8.1 TRENCHES Average rainfall = 780 mm Available for harvesting = 390 mm (50% of average) To be harvested in the water = 39 mm 10% available economically harvesting Economic width & Depth of trench = 1.5 M depth & 0.5 M Width For 1000 M2 roof top available water = 1000 X 0.039 M3 = 39 M3 Assuming 90 days rainfall per = 39M3 per rain fall rainfall average water 90 = 433 litter per day of rain PVC rigid pipe for 40mm can carry water to the required place. 8.2 SIZE OF PIT Average Rains yield = 3.05 M3 per shower Taking 100% extra for proper storage and percolation without contamination by surface water. Size of pit = 6 Cu M Taking 2 M Dia Pit Depth of pit (L) = 6X4 pX 4 = 6 p

1.91M Say 1.9 M depth Such pit can be easily & economically dug
149

without encountering hard rock with mechanical excavator if required. Size of Pit = 6 Cum (Dia 2.0M, Depth 1.9M) 15% of sand = 0.15 X 6 Cum 20% of 20 mm = 0.20 X 6 Cum aggregate 50% of 40 mm = 0.50 X 6 Cum aggregate 9.0 EXPLOITATION AND HARNESSING TOTAL POTENTIAL OF WATER HARVESTING Considering a defence land / area available for water shed is 9000 acres. Area / land = 9000 acres 1 acres = 4047 SQM Total SQM land = 36423000 SQM Average rainfalls (Say) = 780 mm (0.780M) Available for recharge after evaporation from soil & water surface (evaporation & percolation losses) = 390 mm (0.390 M) Total potential = 0.39 X 36423000 M3 = 14.20 Millions KL This indicates that the total potential of water harvest in one rainy season if exploited is sufficient to meet the requirement to the maximum/ full extent. This potential can be tapped from rooftop (most efficient use), road top (difficult to tap due to faulty slopes, berms and economics) and from water shed (catchment) through soils other than paved and roof top. 9.1 METHODS Artificial charge of water source can be managed and developed by planned extractions of ground and surface water during periods of low precipitation while subsequent replenishment can be made during periods of surplus surface supply. Such a coordinated operation of surface and ground water supplies is possible if there is sufficient ground water storage to meet the requirements for regulation of local water supplies and if the aquifers possesses sufficient transmissibility to permit the movement of recharged water to the area of extraction. The recharged storage constructed under watershed approach should be devoid of losses due to evaporation and quality deterioration due to pollution (which will make it useless for any application).
150

Method 5.1 for Recharge on surface are most suitable for water harvest. 10.0 PREFERABLE LOCATIONS TO DO IT 10.1 Cantt/Military Stations/Areas can be subdivided into smaller catchments / water shed and maintained under local units. These watersheds can be. 10.1.1 Ranges. 10.1.2 Training areas 10.1.3 Play fields 10.1.4 Open spaces and parks These above areas are normally situated at different locations in Defence establishment. Therefore method for smaller catchments area is more suitable and viable. The methods for smaller catchments area are as under. 10.2 METHODS FOR SMALLER AREA HARVESTING Assuming the followings Range Area = 500 Acres Training area (10 Pockets) = 1000 Acres (Total) Play fields (5 Pockets) = 50 Acres (Total) Open Spaces (40 Pockets) = 200 Acres (Total) 10.2.1 Check Dams : Ranges can be utilised for creating check dams at low laying area and storing water. The check dam may be ailed with cheaper option to prevent fall of human being and animals. The range area = 500 Acres = 2023500 (1 Acre = 4047 SQM) SQM With 390 MM of rainfall available for harvesting. Total water available from rains = 2023500 x 0.39 Cu M = 789165 Cu M To harness 10% of this water check dams of sizes 30m x 1mx1m may be constructed in natural slope directions 3 CHECK DAMS will be economically viable to cover the area. 10.2.2 STAGGERED CONTOUR TRENCHES (SCT) / PERCOLATION TRENCHES (PT) The training areas can be utilised for creating staggered contour trenches (SCT) and percolation trenches (PT). In general, the training areas are

scattered in defence established The training area is 1000 acres (Say) in Military/Cantt Station/Areas. Considering there are 10 Nos of pockets for training in various units. Total water potential in 100 acres = 100 (Acres) x 4047 SqM = 100 x 4047 x 0.39 M3 = 157833 M3 The staggered contour trenches (SCT) of dimension 3.0M x 1.0M x 1.0M (For average 20000 M3 of water potential area) can be created. These are to be created at the end of slope and properly protected to prevent accidental of human/others.

from all sides can be collected and allowed to drain away from sports fields to a location where storage can be made. Trenches dug should be covered with manhole cover arrangements. Average play field in Cantt Area = 10 Acres for each pocket. Total water potential from rain = 10 x 4047 x 0.39 M3 = 15783M3 To harvest 10% of it, trenches may be dug all round of size 0.5m x 0.5 m with manhole cover. The trench size is sufficient to carry per day rains water. Which is received in 90 to 100 days of rainfalls. The above proposal is however very expensive but will fetch a great deal of water. Total trench length = 1000 RM for on average 10 acres field. Total excavation Per site = 1000 x 0.5 x 0.5 = 250 CuM For 5 play field site = 250 x 5 CuM = 1250 CuM Manhole cover of 1 m x 0.6 m each = 1000 No x 5 = 50000 Nos for sites OPEN SPACES AND PARKS : At these places creation of ponds, tanks and shaft storage at deep low lying can be considered. Total open spaces at 40 pockets in station =200 Acres Average Area = 05 acres Water potential = 7891 CUM Trenches of size 0.5 x 0.5 m can be dug to carry rainwater to the storage spaces created in the form of tank/ponds. These structures may be properly fenced and treated with bleaching powder periodically approx 50 RM of trench 0.5 x 0.5 M to carry water to 40 different storage can be considered. Cu M of trench = 50 x 40 x 0.5 x 0.5 = 500 CUM Pond size can be 10 m dia at 40 locations with average 1 m depth properly fenced on all sides.
Note : The capacity of ponds created is of much smaller size than the water potential available for harvesting. This is kept to keep economic viability of these structures in the available space without hampering training/play activities. The depth has been kept as 1 M maximum so that if required the same can be achieved through troops labour. 151

The No of SCT = Nos of Pockets x Water Potential in M3 20000 = 10 x 157833 20000 = 78.92

= 79 Nos Therefore, in each pocket 7 or 8 Nos of SCT may be created. Percolation Trenches (PT) may be dug away from the training tools and located at fenced places. Percolation trench may be located at the down stream. The trench may be size 1m x 1m and all along the low stream at least 50 M and filled with impervious materials locally available and not specified provided for their purpose. Total trench length on four sides 50m (10) location = 500 RM of 1m x 1m. 10.2.3 PLAYFIELDS, OPEN SPEACES AND PARKS The play fields, open space and parks areas can be effectively utilised for rain water harvesting. Play fields : Considering 5 pockets with total 50 acres of play field in Defence Establishment have a total water potential of 86808 CUM. A lot of care has to be taken to create water-harvesting structures since play fields are common places for play activities, leisure walk and other activities. The play fields have natural slope duly leveled. This water

11.0 DRAWINGS The drawings showing composite plan for recharging structure, design details of Ferro cement storage tank capacity 12000 Ltr, plan for recharging structure, design and details of recharging structure, typical drawing details of roof water harvesting structure, roof top rain water harvesting structure and design of pits for rain water harvesting are attached as

Fig 1, Composite Plan. Fig - 2 ,Plan of Recharging. Fig 3.1, Typical Drawing Details. Fig 3.2, Typical Roof Top Harvesting Fig 3.3, Design of Storage Tank and ilters. Fig - 3.4, Type of Percolation Fig 4 and Details of Recharge Structure Fig 5 Design of Pit For understanding and execution of works.

COMPOSITE PLAN FOR RECHARGE STRUCTURE NO.1

Fig 1 : Composite Plan

152

Plan for Recharge Structure No.1

Inlet Pipe 6 dia pipe

3.0 m

3.0 m

Plan for Recharge Structure No.2

Inlet Pipe 6 dia pipe

3.0 m

3.0 m
Fig - 2 : Plan of Recharging

153

TYPICAL DRAWING DETAILS ROOF WATER HARVESTING STRUCTURE

Fig 3.1 : Typical Drawing Details

154

TYPICAL ROOF TOP RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM

DESIGN DETAILS OF FERRO CEMENT STORAGE TANK 12,000 Liters capacity

FILTERS USED FOR FILTERING RAIN WATER

Fig 3.2 Typical Roof Top Harvesting

155

Fig 3.3 Design of Storage Tank and ilters

Fig - 3.4 : Type of Percolation

156

Fig 4 : Details of Recharge Structure

157

Fig 5 : Design of Pit 12.0 CONTAMINATION Medical Authorities of civil area/SHO for Military station may object to open harvesting of water, since the harvesting surfaces being exposed through out the year and are subject to contamination by dust, insects and birds and those at ground level are also liable to be contaminated by animals and humans. The following precautionary measures are recommended:- Location from Contamination source Recommended distance of harvesting structure such as pit, trenches etc. from source of contamination. Building sewer 15 M Septic tanks Disposal filed 15 M Seepage pit 30 M Swimming pool 45 M If any bore well or shallow well is to be charged with water, which is at a distance less than above, should permit deeper trenches with silt-setting chamber following by silt-filtering pit. The bore
158

well water may contain faecal strap-to-coccid and should be used only for conservancy unless otherwise tested. 12.1 The trenches/pit so dug should be properly fenced and kept clean. The first flush of the new rains should be run to waste. 12.2 The storage tanks below ground should be fully enclosed to prevent evaporation. 12.3 All aperatures shall be screened to prevent the access to mosquitoes, rodents, lizards and other life etc. 13.0 CONCLUSION Rain Water Harvesting needs to be implemented in defence area/other places in order that the on going actives are not hampered due to paucity of water resources. Nature has showered enough potential to recharge our existing water bodies and also to store water for years to come and to meet the present/future demands.

National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

24. Review of Rain Water Harvesting in India

*R. M. Dhoble **Dr. A. G. Bhole

INTRODUCTION We have greatly hampered the natural ground water recharge by drawnif excessive water and covering / paving up all the available open land. Rainwater harvesting is merely putting back rainwater into the soil or in underground or above ground tank so that we can draw it whenever we need it. Less than 1% of worlds water is available in the form of river, pond and lake for human use. Out of total rainfall in India, run off is about 85 %, percolation is about 7%, evaporation is about 5% and human use is about is about 3%. Urbanization and increase in population in the recent decades have contaminated water bodies, thus making them unfit for drinking and use. This is coupled with mans growing needs and excessive tapping of groundwater through numerous bore wells and tube wells, which has depleted water table to great extent. Rain Water harvesting (RWH) will to some extend help to meet the increased demand. It has been estimated that the amount of rainwater that falls on the terrace of the houses can take care of the water requirement of an average family of four members for one year. RWH is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, the land surface or rock catchments using simple techniques such as underground check dams. RWH has gained tremendous interest among academicians, institutions and layman in the past few years. Roof top harvesting has a clearer definition as water collected from rooftop chiefly for domestic consumption. Rain Water Harvesting is a low cost solution to solve water crises. Need of RWH : In India there are 600000 villages and almost

70 % of population is rural and agriculture related. The rainfall pattern in India is highly irregular in space and time. Most of it is concentrated during just a few months of year and that too, in a few regions. Rainfall occurs about 70 % in about four months. So, even in a year of normal rainfall, some parts of a country face several droughts. RWH system benefits in many ways in rural and urban areas such as it develop improvements in infiltration and reduction in runoff, improvement in groundwater quality, reduces strain on specially village Panchayat / Municipal/Municipal corporation water supply, improvement in groundwater level and Yields etc. Advantages and Disadvantages : Advantages: 1) It gives high agriculture returns. 2) It is a potential solution to problems of rural poverty and unemployments, resulting in an overall improvement in the nations economy. 3) Local people can be easily trained to implement such technology and construction methods. RWH is a convenient in the sense that it provides water at the point of consumption, which greatly reduces the operation and maintenance problem. 4) It is sustainable due to decentralization and community participation. Disadvantages : This system mainly depends upon the limited supply and uncertainty of rainfall. Adoption of this technology requires a bottom up approach rather than top to bottom. This makes this system less attractive to some government agencies. If old roof is used as the catchment area, if it is under tree

*Sr. Lecturer,Civil Engg.Dept., G.H.Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur. **Retired Prof.Civil Engg.Dept., V.N.I.T. Nagpur 159

branches, if the building relies on wood heat, or if the air is too polluted, then there may be possibility of contamination of rain water. COMPONENTS OF RWH SYSTEM It consists of various stages, transporting rainwater through pipes or drains, filtration and storage in tanks for reuse or recharge. The common components of RWH system consists of three stages A) CATCHMENTS : The catchments of RWH system, the surfaces which directly receive the rainfall and provide water for system. It can be paved area like a terrace or courtyard of building or an unpaved area like a lawn or open ground. R.C.C., galvanized iron or corrugated sheets can also be used for R.W.H. Following Fig. shows elements of rain water system. As the rooftop is the main catchment area, the amount and quality of rainwater collected depends upon the area of catchment, intensity of rainfall and type of roofing materials. Galvanized corrugated iron, asbestos cement sheets and slate and tiles can collect reasonably pure water from the rooftops. Although thatched roof tiled with bamboo gutter, laid in proper slopes can produced almost the same amount of runoff less expensively (Gould, 1992). Because of possible health hazards, bamboo roofs are least suitable and roofs with metallic paints or other coating are not recommended as they may impart taste or colour to the collected water. To avoid entry of dust, leaves and bird dropping, the roof catchment should be cleaned regularly.

and on the mouth of inlet of drained pipe, mesh of 850 micron screen or coarse mesh 10mm x10mm should be provided to prevent the entry of derbies as shown in Fig No 2. The inlet of drained pipe should be provided on the sloping side of the roof.

Source: A water Harvesting manual for urban area

Course mesh on roof top (Fig 2.0) Gutter : Channels are provided all around the edge of sloping roof to collect and transport rainwater to the storage tank. It semicircular or rectangular and could be made using Locally available materials such as plain galvanized iron sheet (20 to 22 gauge), folded to the required shapes. Semicircular gutter of PVC material can be readily prepared by cutting those pipes into two equal semi- circular channels. Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half. The size of gutter should be accurate to flow water during highest intensity of rainfall and it is advisable to make them 10 to 15 % over size. Gutter need to be supported so they do not sag or fall off when loaded with water. The way, in which the gutters are fixed depending upon the construction of houses having wider eaves, some method of attachment to the rafter is necessary. Conduit : Theses are the pipelines or drains that carry rainwater from the catchments or rooftop area to the harvesting system called as down conduct can be of any materials that are commonly available. The following Table No 1.0 gives ideas about the diameter of pipe required for draining out rainfall based on rainfall intensity and roof area. The downpipe should be atleast 100 mm diameter with 850micron wire screen at the inlet to prevent dry leaves and derbies from entering into pipe.
160

Source A water-harvesting manual for Urban area

Fig. 1 Course mesh It should be provided at the roof to prevent the passage of derbies. It should be provided at the bottom of parapet wall as shown in figure

Table No 1.0 Diameter of pipe (mm) 50 50 65 75 100 125 150 13.4 24.1 40.8 85.4 -

Size of rainwater pipe for roof drainage Average rate of rainfall in mm/hour

75 8.9 16.0 27.0 57.0 -

100 6.6 12.0 20.4 42.7 80.5 -

125 5.3 9.0 16.3 34.2 64.3 -

150 4.4 8.0 13.6 28.5 53.5 83.6

200 3.3 6.0 10.2 21.3 40.0 62.7

mm/ h milliliter per hour

Source National Building Code.

First flushing - First flushing device is the valve that insures that runoff from the first spell of the rain is flushed out and does not enter the system. This needs to be done since the first spell of rain carries a relatively large amount of pollutants from air and the catchments surface. There are several possible choices to collect clean water for the storage tanks. The most common is the down- pipe flap. With this flap it is possible to direct the first flush of water flow through the down pipe, while later rainfall is diverted to the storage tank. When it starts to rain, the flap is left in closed position, directing water to the down-pipe, and later, opened when relatively clean water can be collected (Refer Fig. No 3). A great disadvantage of using this type conveyance control system is necessarily to observe the runoff quality and manually operate the flap. An alternative approach would be to automate the opening of the flap. A funnel shaped insert is integrated in to the down-pipe system. Because the upper edge of the funnel is not direct contact with the sides of downpipe, and a small gap exist between the down-pipe walls and the funnel. When the rain starts, the volume of water passing down the pipe is very small and the contaminated water runs down the pipe, around the funnel and discharged directly to the recharged structure if available or over the ground. When the rainfall continues the volume of water increases and the clean and fresh water carried to the storage tank. The pipe used for collection of
161

rainwater, is generally made up of PVC or other inert substance to avoid corrosion of pipe due to the pH of rainwater can be low.

Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas manual for urban areas First flushing arrangement Fig. No 3

B)FILTER : The filter is used to remove suspended pollutants from rainwater collected over the roof. A filter unit is a chamber filled with filtering media such as fiber, course sand and gravel layer, to remove the debris and dirt from water from before it enters the storage tank or recharge structure. Charcoal can be added for additional filtration. (Refer fig. No. 4)

Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas Sand filter Fig. No 4

a) Sand Filter: Sand filter s have commonly available sand as a filter media. Sand filters are easy and inexpensive to construct. These filters can be employed for treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity, colour and microorganisms. In simple sand filter that can be constructed domestically, the top layer comprises course sand followed by 5-10 mm layer of gravel followed by another 5-25 cm layer of gravel and boulder. (Refer fig. No. 5)

c) Filter for large roof top: This system was designed by R. Jaykumar. When the rainwater is harvested in a large rooftop area, the filtering should be accumulating the excess flow. A system is designed with three concentric circular chambers in which the outer chamber is filled with sand, the middle one with course sand and inner most layer with pebbles. In this way the area of filtration is increased for sand, in relation to the course aggregate and pebbles. In this system the rainwater reaches to the center core and is collected in the sump where it is treated with few tablets of chlorine for consumption. Jayakumar (A builder by profession) (Refer fig. No. 7)

Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas Sand Filter Fig. No. 5

b) Dewas Filter : Most residents in Dewas in Madhya Pradesh, have wells in their houses. Formerly all that wells would do was exact groundwater but then, the district administrative of Dewas initiated the ground water recharge scheme. The rooftop water was collected and allowed to pass through fitter system called Dewas filter designedby Mohan Rao, District collector of Dewas. The water thus filtered is put into the small service tube well. The filter consist of Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 140 mm diameter and 1.2 m. long there are three chambers .the first purification chamber has pebbles varying between 2-6 mm and second chamber has slightly larger pebbles between 6-12 mm and third chamber has largest 12-20mm pebbles. There is mesh at the outflow side through which clean water flow out after passing through three chambers. (Refer fig. No. 6)

Source Jayakumar Rain Water Harvest Manual P- 21

Jayakumar Filter Fig. No. 7 d) Varun: S. Viswanath developed a filter named Varun for purifying rainwater. According to him, from a decently clean roof Varun can handled 50mm/hour intensity of rainfall from 50 sq. m. of a roof area. This means the product is relatively standardized. Varun is made from 90-liter high density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) drum. The lid is tumbuer and holes are punched in it. This is the first sieve, which keeps out larger leaves, twinges etc. rainwater coming out sieve then passes through the
162

Dewas Filter Fig No. 6

three layers of sponge and 150 mm of thick layer of course sand. Presence of sponge makes the cleaning process very easy. Remove the first layer of sponge and soak/ clean it in bucket of water. The sand needs no cleaning at all. e) Horizontal Roughing filter : The introduction of horizontal filter and slow sand filter to treat surface water has made safe drinking water available in coastal pocket of Orrisa. The major components are as follows. Filter channel: 1.0m2 in cross section and 8m.in length laid across the tank embankment, the filter channel consist of three uniform compartments, first pocket with broken bricks, second with course sand followed by fine sand in third compartment. The horizontal roughing filter usually consist of filter material like gravel and course sand that successively decreases in size from 25 mm to 4mm.(Refer Fig. No 8). The bulk of solids in the incoming water is separated by this course sand. At every outlet and inlet of channel, fine graded mesh is implanted to prevent the entry of finer materials into the sump. The length of channel varies accordingly to the nature of the site selected for sump. The HRF acts as a physical filter and is applied to retain the solid matter. Slow sand filter is a primary biological filter, used to kill microbes in the water. Both filter types area generally stable, making full use of the natural purification process of harvested surface water and do not require chemicals.

Various recharge structures are possible. Some of which promote the percolation of water through soil strata at shallow depth (recharge trenches, permeable pavement) where other conduct water to greater depths from where it joins the groundwater e.g. recharge well. At many locations, existing structures like wells, pits and tanks can be modified as recharged structures, eliminating the need to construct any structure a fresh. Methods and Techniques : Rooftop rain water Through : a) Recharge Pit : The recharge pit is generally 1.5to 3.0 m wide and 2.0m to 3.0 m deep. The excavated pit is lined with a brick/stone walls with weep holes at regular intervals. The top area of the pit can be covered with perforated cover. (Refer Fig. No 9)

Source- Centre of Science for Villages Recharge pit Fig. No. 9

b) Percolation Pit : Percolation pit is a easiest and most effective means of harvesting rainwater are generally not more than 60cm x 60cm x 60 cm pits filled with pebbles or bricks jelly and river sand covered with perforated concrete slab whenever necessary. (Refer Fig. No 10)
Horizontal Roughing filter Fig No. 8

C) RECHARGED STRUCTURES : Rainwater may be charged into ground water aquifer through any structure like dug well, bore well, recharge trenches and recharge pit.
163

Filter material in a soakaway

Source- Centre of Science for Village Soak pit (Fig No10) Source TWAD Board Percolation pit with bore hole Fig. No. 12

In areas where the soil is likely to be clayey upto say 15ft. and more, it is advisable to go in for a percolation well upto 10ft. or 15ft. and a hand bore pit within this well upto a depth of 10ft. to 15ft. from its bottom. A PVC pipe of 6in. diameter is inserted into the bore for the entire length. (Refer Fig. No 12)
Source TWAD Board Percolation Pit Fig No. 11 Note : 1. Above structures are meant for area with small catchment like individual houses. 2. RCC slab cover is optional. 3. Top (1') portion may be filled with sand.

A percolation / absorption pit is a hand bore made in the soil with the help of an augur and filled up with pebbles and river sand on top. The depth of these pits will be anywhere between 4 and 8 meters depending on the nature of the soil. If the soil is clayey, the pit has to be dug to a depth till a reasonably sandy stratum is reached. The diameter of these pits will be 25 cm (10 inches). A square / circular collection chamber with silt arrester is provided at the top. Constructed in the open space at required intervals. Size 1m x 1m x 1.5m (depth) Filled with broken bricks / pebbles Suitable for sandy sub - soil area One unit for 30 m2 area (approx.) (Refer Fig.No.11) c) PERCOLATION PIT WITH BORE METHOD A borehole to be drilled at the bottom of the percolation pit. Bore hole size should150 - 300 mm dia. with 10 -15 ft depth (approx.)filled with broken bricks and suitable for clay area.
164

d) Recharged Trenches : A recharge trench is a continuous trench excavated in the ground and refilled with porous material like boulder, pebbles or bricks. A recharge trench can be 0.5 m to 1.0 m wide and 1.0m to 1.5 m deep and length should in the range of 13-16 meter, which helps for good percolation. The length of recharge trench is decided as per the amount of runoff expected. The recharge trench should be periodically cleaned of accumulated derbies to maintain the intake capacity in term of recharge rate; recharge trenches are relatively less effective since soil strata at a depth of about 1.5 m is less permeable. For recharging through the recharging trenches fewer precautions have to be taken to maintain the quality of runoff. Runoff from both paved and unpaved can be tapped. e) Recharging of service tube well: In this case the rooftop runoff is not directly fed into the service

tube well, to avoid the chances of contamination of groundwater. Instead, rainwater is collected in a recharged well, which is a temporary storage tank (located near the service tub well) with a borehole, which is shallower than water table depth. This borehole has to be provided with a casing pipe to prevent the caving in of soil, if strata are loose. A filter chamber comparing of sand, gravel and boulder is provided to arrest impurities. f) Recharge of dug well and abandoned dug well: in alluvial and hard rock areas, there are thousands of wells which have either gone dry or whose water level has declined considerably. These can be recharged directly from roof top runoff. Rainwater that is collected on the roof top of the building is diverted by drainpipe to a settlement or filtration tank from which it flows into the recharge well (bore well or dug well) if the tube well is used as for recharging, then the causing outer pipe) should be preferably slotted or performed pipe so that more area is available for the to percolate. Developing a bore well would increases its recharge capacity (developing is the process where water or air is forced into well under pressure to loosen the soil strata surrounding the bore to make it more permeable) 1) If dug well used as a recharge then the well lining should have opening (weep holes) at regular interval to allow seepage of water through the sides. Dug well should be covered to prevent mosquitoes breeding and entry of leaves and derbies. The bottom of recharged well should be desilted annually to maintain the intake capacity. Providing the following elements in the system can ensure the quality of water entering the recharge wells. 1) Filter mesh at entrance point of roof catchments 2) Settlement chamber 3) Filter bed. g) Recharged Trough: To collect the runoff from the paved and unpaved areas draining out of a compound, recharged troughs are commonly placed at the entrance of residential / industrial complex. These structures are similar to the recharged trench except for the fact that the excavated portion is not
165

filled with layer materials. In order to facilate speedy recharged, boreholes are drilled at regular intervals in a trench. In design part there is no need of incorporating the influence of filler materials. (Refer Fig. No 13)

Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas Recharged Trough Fig. No 13

h) Modified Injection Well: In this method water is not pumped into the aquifer but allowed to percolate through filter bed, which comprises sand and gravel. The modified injection well is generally a borehole 500 mm diameter, which is drilled to the desired depth depending upon the geological condition, permeably 2-3.0 m below water table. Inside this hole a slotted pipe of 200 mm diameter is inserted. The annular space between the borehole and pipe is filled with gravel and developed with a compressor till it gives clear water. To stop the suspended solid from entering the recharge tube well, a filter mechanism is provided at top. (Refer Fig. No 14)

Modified injection well Fig. No 14

i) For Rural Area : (Rooftop Rain water harvesting) In rural areas most of the houses are having Mangalore tiles roof. In this gutters are provided along the periphery of the roof and get collected in a small tank as shown in fig. No 15.

k) RWH through Percolation Tank: This method percolation tanks are constructed to store the rain water which helps in various purpose such as improvement in ground water table, increasing crop production, increasing the prosperity of the country etc. (Refer Fig. No 17)

Rooftop Rain water harvesting (on Mangalore

Percolation Tank Fig No 17

Rooftop Rain water harvesting Fig. No 15

In this fig. the roof is covered with plastic which is used to collect maximum amount of rainwater from roof j) RWH through Continuous Contour Trenching: construction of trench on slope contour to detain water and sediments transported by water gravity down slope generally constructed by light equipments. These are also called as contour trench or contour furrows, lined with geotextile and filled with rock or placed in the form of erosion resisting structures. (Refer Fig. No 16) .

l) RWH Through Check Dam: In this small barrier built across the direction of water flow on shallow river or stream for the rain water harvesting purpose. The small dam retains excess water flow during monsoon rains in small catchment area behind structure which helps in various ways. Example : In Mahudi village, Dist.Dahod in Gujarat. Population of this village was 600. In 1992, the villagers constructed the first check dam on the seasonal river Machhan, with the help of N.M.Sadguru water and Development Foundation ( NMSWDF), a Dahod based NGO. In 2002 the villagers have constructed a pipeline system to bring drinking water on tap from the wells near check dam. Villagers also control the use of water through the local village institutions called lift irrigation committee. Due to the construction of check dam, the agriculture yield also increased, today formers irrigated about 100 acres of land during the drought season. Refer Fig 18.

RWH through Continuous Contour Trenching Fig No 16 166

Check Dam at Mahudi village, Dist.Dahod in Gujrat

Check Dam Fig No. 18

m) Open well Recharging by Soak Pit Method (Centre Of Science For Villages) :In this, it is mentioned that construct the slope for surrounded ground of well in such a way that total runoff should reached toward the well. Construct pits of size 5feet wide and 6.0 feet deep to the both sides of well by leaving 5.0 feet on both sides of well as shown in figure. The length of the pit should be slightly less than the half the perimeter of the well. The slope of the bottom of pit should be provided in opposite direction of well. By leaving the space of 6 inches above the bottom of pit, provide PVC pipe of 4 inches diameter from which water directly flow in to the well through the pits. Fill the pits with stones of size 12inch to 18 inches. While filling care is taken that the gap should remain in between the stones so that rainwater should pass through it. The bigger size of stones should be placed at bottom of pit and reduces the size gradually towards the top of pits. Place the course-graded sand above the top layer of stone. After completing, cover the pit with polyethylene (plastic) and cover the soil, which is excavated from the pit. During this, provide space in to polyethylene for entering the runoff water into the infiltration pits. Runoff water after passing through the filtration pits reaches to the well, which increases the level of water in the well. Refer Fig. No 19. DESIGN CONSIDERATION: The most important components which needs to be evaluated for designing rain water structures are

Source _Centre Of Science For Village Open well Recharging by Soak Pit Method s Fig No. 19

1) Hydrogeology of the area including nature and extent of aquifer, soil cover, topography, depth of water table and chemical quality of ground water. 2) Area contributing for runoff i.e. how much area and land use pattern, whether residential or garden belt and general built up pattern area. 3) Hydro metrological characteristics viz rainfall duration, intensity of rainfall and general pattern. Quantity of water harvested: The amount of water harvested depend up on 1) The frequency and intensity of rainfall 2) Catchments characteristics 3) Water demand Water Harvesting Potential = (Catchments area in Sq. m) X (collection efficiency) X (rainfall in mm) The collection efficiency accounts for the facts that all the rainwater falling over the area can not be effectively harvested, because of evaporation, spillage etc. general values are tabulated below ( Refer Table No 2 & 3) which are generally used for assessing the potential. Table No 2
No. Type of catchments Collection efficiency

1 2 3 4

Roof Top Paved area Bare land Green area

0.75-0.95 0.5-0.85 0.1-0.2 0.05-0.1

Runoff coefficients for various catchment surfaces

167

Table No 3
Type of Catchment Roof Catchments -Tiles - Corrugated metal sheets Ground surface coverings -Concrete - Brick pavement Untreated ground catchments - Soil on slopes less than 10 per cent - Rocky natural catchments Untreated ground catchments - Soil on slopes less than 10 per cent - Rocky natural catchments 1.0-0.3 0.2 - 0.5 0.0-0.3 0.2 - 0.5 0.6-0.8 0.5- 0.6 0.8-0.9 0.7- 0.9 Coefficients

cooking and drinking purpose is 10 liter/ cap/ day For family of six person = 60 liters. For 245 days = 245 X 60 = 14700 liters. As per the factor of safety the tank should be built 20 % larger than the requirement i.e. 17640 liters. This tank meets the basic water requirement for a family of six members for dry period. By fixing the height of the tank, the diameter can be calculated. Legislation of RWH. Kerala: The Kerala Municipality Building Rules, 1999 was amended by a notification dated January 12, 2004 issued by the Government of Kerala to include rainwater harvesting structures in new construction. 109. A Rooftop rainwater harvesting agreements.1) Unless otherwise stipulated specifically in a town planning scheme, workable roof top rainwater harvesting arrangements shall be provided as in integral part of all new building constructs for the following occupancies, namely i) Group A1 Residential (with floor area of 100 m2 or more and plot area 200 m2 or more) ii) Group A2 Special Residential. iii) Group B Educational. iv) Group C Medical / Hospital. v) Group D Assembly vi) Group E Office / Business. vii) Group G1 and Group G2 industrial (Only for workshop, assembly plant, laboratories, drycleaning plant, diaries food processing unit and any other occupancies noticed by the government from time to time).Provided that the floor area to be constructed shall be the total floor area in all floors: provided further that, the rainwater harvesting arrangement is not mandatory for thatched roofed building. 2) The components of workable rooftop rain water harvesting arrangements as stipulated in subrule (1) above, shall include i) Roof catchments area ii) Roof gutters iii) Down pipe and first flush pipe arrangement iv) Filter unit v) Storage tank with provision of drawing water and spillover 3) The minimum capacity of storage tank as stipulated in sub- rule (2) (v) of the roof top
168

Source : Pacey, Arnold and Cullis, Adrian 1989, Rainwater Harvesting: The collection of rainfall and runoff in rural areas, Intermediate Technology Publications, London.

Example : Area of terrace = 150 sq.m. Height of Rainfall = 500 mm (0.5m) Volume of rainfall = 150 x 0.5 = 7.5 m3 = 75000 Lit. Assuming that 70 80 % of the total rainfall is effectively harvested Volume of water harvested = 75000 X 0.7 = 52500 liters. Generally water required for drinking, cooking is 10 liter / capita/day Suppose the family of six people Total quantity of water required / family = 10 x 6 = 60 liters. For a year = 365 x 60 = 21900 liters. The water required for family for drinking and cooking purpose is less than the rain water harvested i.e. harvested water is double than the water required for main purpose. Design of Storage tank Tank capacity : Tank capacity is based on dry period i.e. the period between the two consecutive rainy seasons. Suppose monsoon is for four months i.e. 120 days , then the dry days are 245. We know that quantity of water required for

harvesting arrangement shall be at the rate given below Group A1 Group A2 Group B Group C Group D Group E Group F Group G1 and G2 Group H Group I 25 liters/ m2 25 liters/ m2 50 liters/ m2 50 liters/ m2 50 liters/ m2 50 liters/ m2 Nil 50 liters/ m2 25 liters/ m2 Nil

to construct rainwater harvesting structures is August 31, 2003. The ordinance cautions, Where the rain water harvesting structure is not provided as required, the Commissioner or any person authorized by him in this behalf may, after giving notice to the owner or occupier of the building, cause rain water harvesting structure to be provided in such building and recover the cost of such provision along with the incidental expense thereof in the same manner as property tax. It also warns the citizens on disconnection of water supply connection provided rainwater-harvesting structures are not provided. Haryana: Haryana Urban Development Authority (HUDA) has made rainwater-harvesting mandatory in all new buildings irrespective of roof area. In the notified areas in Gurgaon town and the adjoining industrial areas all the institutions and residential colonies have been asked to adopt water harvesting by the CGWA. This is also applicable to all the buildings in notified areas having a tubewell, deadline was for March 31, 2002. The CGWA has also banned drilling of tubewells in notified areas. Rajasthan: The state government has made rainwater harvesting mandatory for all public and establishments and all properties in plot covering more than 500 sq m in urban areas. Mumbai:The state government has made rainwaterharvesting mandatory for all buildings that are being constructed on plots that are more than 1,000 sq m in size. The deadline set for this was October 2002. Gujarat: The state roads and buildings department has made rainwater harvesting mandatory for all government buildings. Status of RWH in Nagpur District for the year of 2005-2006 (Mahatma Jotiba Fule Jal Bhomi Sandharan Abhiyan)(Refer Table No. 4) References :
1) Centre for Science and Environment ( CSE) 2) National building code. 3) A water-harvesting manual for urban area. 4) S. Vishwanath. Domestic Rainwater harvesting. Some application in Banglore, India 5) Centre of science for villages ( www.csvtech.org)

New Delhi :Since June 2001, the Ministry of Urban affairs and Poverty Alleviation has made rainwaterharvesting mandatory in all new buildings with a roof area of more than 100 sq m and in all plots with an area of more than 1000 sq m, that are being developed. The Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) has made rainwater harvesting mandatory in all institutions and residential colonies in notified areas (South and southwest Delhi and adjoining areas like Faridabad, Gurgaon and Ghaziabad). This is also applicable to all the buildings in notified areas that have tubewells. The deadline for this was for March 31, 2002. Indore (Madhya Pradesh): Rainwater harvesting has been made mandatory in all new buildings with an area of 250 sq m or more. A rebate of 6 per cent on property tax has been offered as an incentive for implementing rainwater-harvesting systems. Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh): Rainwater harvesting has been made mandatory in all new buildings with an area of 1000 sq m or more. Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh): Rainwater harvesting has been made mandatory in all new buildings with an area of 300 sq m or more. Tentative for enforcing this deadline was June 2001. Tamil Nadu: Through an ordinance titled Thailand Muncipal Laws ordinance, 2003, dated July 19, 2003, the government of Tamil Nadu has made rainwater harvesting mandatory for all the buildings, both public and private, in the state. The deadline
169

Table No 4 No. Well recharging (Target) Nagpur Kamthi Hingna Kalmeshwar Katol Narkhed Sawaner Parshivni Ramtek Mouda Kuhi Umared Bhivapur TOTAL 150 125 150 150 150 150 150 125 150 125 125 125 125 1800 Well recharging (Achieved) 32 58 39 176 70 48 20 0 14 457 Roof top rain water harvesting (Target) 150 125 150 150 150 150 150 125 150 125 125 125 125 1800 Roof top rain water harvesting (Achieved) 117 128 200 310 58 59 27 06 44 949

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Target of RWH in Nagpur District for the year of 2006-2007 ( Mahatma Jotiba Fule Jal Bhomi Sandharan Abhiyan) (Refer Table No5) No. Well recharging (Target) Roof top rain water harvesting (Target) 150 125 150 150 150 150 150 125 150 125 125 125 125 1800 Roof top rain water harvesting (Target) Government buildings 100 100 150 100 150 100 100 100 150 100 100 100 150 1500

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Nagpur Kamthi Hingna Kalmeshwar Katol Narkhed Sawaner Parshivni Ramtek Mouda Kuhi Umared Bhivapur TOTAL

150 125 150 150 150 150 150 125 150 125 125 125 125 1800

170