05-1126bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly SUPREM CRT RUL 12b6

l (SII OInIon) OCTOII! TI!
M, 2006
SyIInbus
OTI: Whoro If Is fonsIbIo, n syIInbus (hondnofo) wIII bo roIonsod, ns Is
boIng dono In connocfIon wIfh fhIs cnso, nf fho fImo fho oInIon Is Issuod.
Tho syIInbus consfIfufos no nrf of fho oInIon of fho Courf buf hns boon
ronrod by fho !oorfor of ocIsIons for fho convonIonco of fho rondor.
Soo Ini/eJ S/o/ee v. De/roi/ TinIer & LunIer Co., 200 !. S. 32l, 33?.
6835(0(&28572)7+(81,7('67$7(6
SyIInbus
II!! AT!ATIC CO!I. IT A!. t. TWOMI!Y IT A!.
CI!TIO!A!I TO THI !ITI STATIS CO!!T OI AIIIA!S IO!
THI SICO CI!C!IT
o. 05ll26. Arguod ovombor 2?, 2006ocIdod Mny 2l, 200?
Tho l984 dIvosfIfuro of fho AmorIcnn ToIohono & ToIogrnh Com-
nny`s (AT&T) IocnI foIohono busInoss Ioff n sysfom of rogIonnI sor-
vIco monooIIos, somofImos cnIIod Incumbonf !ocnI Ixchnngo CnrrI-
ors (I!ICs), nnd n sonrnfo Iong-dIsfnnco mnrkof from whIch fho
I!ICs woro oxcIudod. Tho ToIocommunIcnfIons Acf of l996 wIfh-
drow nrovnI of fho I!ICs` monooIIos, fundnmonfnIIy rosfruc-
fur|Ing] IocnI foIohono mnrkofs nnd subjocf|Ing] |I!ICs] fo n hosf
of dufIos Infondod fo fncIIIfnfo mnrkof onfry. AT&T Corp. v. 1ouo
I/ili/iee BJ., 525 !. S. 366, 3?l. If nIso nufhorIzod fhom fo onfor fho
Iong-dIsfnnco mnrkof. ConfrnI fo fho |now] schomo |wns onch
I!IC`s] obIIgnfIon . . . fo shnro Ifs nofwork wIfh comofIfIvo IocnI ox-
chnngo cnrrIors (C!ICs). Vericon Connunico/ione 1nc. v. Lou Of-
ficee of Cur/ie V. Trin/o, LLP, 540 !. S. 398, 402.
!osondonfs (horoInnffor InInfIffs) rorosonf n cInss of subscrIbors
of IocnI foIohono nnd/or hIgh sood Infornof sorvIcos In fhIs ncfIon
ngnInsf ofIfIonor I!ICs for cInImod vIoInfIons of l of fho Shormnn
Acf, whIch rohIbIfs |o]vory confrncf, combInnfIon In fho form of
frusf or ofhorwIso, or consIrncy, In rosfrnInf of frndo or commorco
nmong fho sovornI Sfnfos, or wIfh foroIgn nnfIons. Tho comInInf nI-
Iogos fhnf fho I!ICs consIrod fo rosfrnIn frndo (l) by ongngIng In
nrnIIoI conducf In fhoIr rosocfIvo sorvIco nrons fo InhIbIf fho growfh
of usfnrf C!ICs; nnd (2) by ngrooIng fo rofrnIn from comofIng
ngnInsf ono nnofhor, ns IndIcnfod by fhoIr common fnIIuro fo ursuo
nffrncfIvo busInoss oorfunIfIos In confIguous mnrkofs nnd by n
sfnfomonf by ono I!IC`s chIof oxocufIvo offIcor fhnf comofIng In nn-
ofhor I!IC`s forrIfory dId nof soom rIghf. Tho IsfrIcf Courf dIs-
mIssod fho comInInf, concIudIng fhnf nrnIIoI busInoss conducf nIIo-
gnfIons, fnkon nIono, do nof sfnfo n cInIm undor l; InInfIffs musf
2 II!! AT!ATIC CO!I. t. TWOMI!Y
SyIInbus
nIIogo nddIfIonnI fncfs fondIng fo oxcIudo Indoondonf soIf-Inforosfod
conducf ns nn oxInnnfIon for fho nrnIIoI ncfIons. !ovorsIng, fho
Socond CIrcuIf hoId fhnf InInfIffs` nrnIIoI conducf nIIognfIons woro
suffIcIonf fo wIfhsfnnd n mofIon fo dIsmIss bocnuso fho I!ICs fnIIod
fo show fhnf fhoro Is no sof of fncfs fhnf wouId ormIf InInfIffs fo
domonsfrnfo fhnf fho nrfIcuInr nrnIIoIIsm nssorfod wns fho roducf
of coIIusIon rnfhor fhnn coIncIdonco.
HelJ.
l. SfnfIng n l cInIm roquIros n comInInf wIfh onough fncfunI
mnffor (fnkon ns fruo) fo suggosf fhnf nn ngroomonf wns mndo. An
nIIognfIon of nrnIIoI conducf nnd n bnro nssorfIon of consIrncy wIII
nof suffIco. I. 6l?.
(n) Iocnuso l rohIbIfs onIy rosfrnInfs offocfod by n confrncf,
combInnfIon, or consIrncy, CopperuelJ Corp. v. 1nJepenJence TuIe
Corp., 46? !. S. ?52, ??5, |f]ho crucInI quosfIon Is whofhor fho chnI-
Iongod nnfIcomofIfIvo conducf sfom|s] from Indoondonf docIsIon or
from nn ngroomonf, Tleo/re 1n/erprieee, 1nc. v. Poronoun/ Iiln
Die/riIu/ing Corp., 346 !. S. 53?, 540. WhIIo n showIng of nrnIIoI
busInoss bohnvIor Is ndmIssIbIo cIrcumsfnnfInI ovIdonco from whIch
ngroomonf mny bo Inforrod, If fnIIs shorf of concIusIvoIy osfnb-
IIsh|Ing] ngroomonf or . . . IfsoIf consfIfuf|Ing] n Shormnn Acf of-
fonso. 1J., nf 54054l. Tho Inndoquncy of showIng nrnIIoI conducf
or Infordoondonco, wIfhouf moro, mIrrors fho bohnvIor`s nmbIguIfy:
consIsfonf wIfh consIrncy, buf jusf ns much In IIno wIfh n wIdo
swnfh of rnfIonnI nnd comofIfIvo busInoss sfrnfogy unIInfornIIy
romfod by common orcofIons of fho mnrkof. Thus, fhIs Courf
hns hodgod ngnInsf fnIso Inforoncos from IdonfIcnI bohnvIor nf n
numbor of oInfs In fho frInI soquonco, e.g., nf fho summnry judg-
monf sfngo, soo Mo/eueli/o 1lec. 1nJue/riol Co. v. Zeni/l IoJio
Corp., 4?5 !. S. 5?4. I. 6?.
(b) ThIs cnso rosonfs fho nnfocodonf quosfIon of whnf n InInfIff
musf Iond In ordor fo sfnfo n l cInIm. IodornI !uIo of CIvII Iroco-
duro 8(n)(2) roquIros onIy n shorf nnd InIn sfnfomonf of fho cInIm
showIng fhnf fho Iondor Is onfIfIod fo roIIof, In ordor fo gIvo fho do-
fondnnf fnIr nofIco of whnf fho . . . cInIm Is nnd fho grounds uon
whIch If rosfs, Conle, v. GiIeon, 355 !. S. 4l, 4?. WhIIo n comInInf
nffnckod by n !uIo l2(b)(6) mofIon fo dIsmIss doos nof nood dofnIIod
fncfunI nIIognfIons, iIiJ., n InInfIff`s obIIgnfIon fo rovIdo fho
grounds of hIs onfIfIo|monf] fo roIIof roquIros moro fhnn InboIs
nnd concIusIons, nnd n formuInIc rocIfnfIon of n cnuso of ncfIon`s oIo-
monfs wIII nof do. IncfunI nIIognfIons musf bo onough fo rnIso n
rIghf fo roIIof nbovo fho socuInfIvo IovoI on fho nssumfIon fhnf nII
of fho comInInf`s nIIognfIons nro fruo. AIyIng fhoso gonornI sfnn-
dnrds fo n l cInIm, sfnfIng n cInIm roquIros n comInInf wIfh onough
3 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
SyIInbus
fncfunI mnffor fo suggosf nn ngroomonf. AskIng for InusIbIo
grounds doos nof Imoso n robnbIIIfy roquIromonf nf fho IondIng
sfngo; If sImIy cnIIs for onough fncf fo rnIso n ronsonnbIo oxocfnfIon
fhnf dIscovory wIII rovonI ovIdonco of IIIognI ngroomonf. Tho nood nf
fho IondIng sfngo for nIIognfIons InusIbIy suggosfIng (nof moroIy
consIsfonf wIfh) ngroomonf rofIocfs !uIo 8(n)(2)`s fhroshoId roquIro-
monf fhnf fho InIn sfnfomonf ossoss onough hoff fo sho|w] fhnf
fho Iondor Is onfIfIod fo roIIof. A nrnIIoI conducf nIIognfIon gofs
fho l comInInf cIoso fo sfnfIng n cInIm, buf wIfhouf furfhor fncfunI
onhnncomonf If sfos shorf of fho IIno bofwoon ossIbIIIfy nnd Inu-
sIbIIIfy. Tho roquIromonf of nIIognfIons suggosfIng nn ngroomonf
sorvos fho rncfIcnI uroso of rovonfIng n InInfIff wIfh 'n InrgoIy
groundIoss cInIm` from 'fnk|Ing] u fho fImo of n numbor of ofhor
ooIo, wIfh fho rIghf fo do so rorosonfIng nn in /erroren Incromonf
of fho soffIomonf vnIuo.` Duro Plornoceu/icole, 1nc. v. BrouJo, 544
!. S. 336, 34?. If Is ono fhIng fo bo cnufIous boforo dIsmIssIng nn nn-
fIfrusf comInInf In ndvnnco of dIscovory, buf quIfo nnofhor fo forgof
fhnf rocoodIng fo nnfIfrusf dIscovory cnn bo oxonsIvo. Thnf ofon-
fInI oxonso Is obvIous horo, whoro InInfIffs rorosonf n ufnfIvo
cInss of nf Ionsf 90 orconf of subscrIbors fo IocnI foIohono or hIgh-
sood Infornof sorvIco In nn ncfIon ngnInsf AmorIcn`s Inrgosf foIo-
communIcnfIons fIrms for unsocIfIod Insfnncos of nnfIfrusf vIoIn-
fIons fhnf nIIogodIy occurrod ovor n ?-yonr orIod. If Is no nnswor fo
sny fhnf n cInIm jusf shy of InusIbIo onfIfIomonf cnn bo woodod ouf
onrIy In fho dIscovory rocoss, gIvon fho common Inmonf fhnf fho suc-
coss of judIcInI suorvIsIon In chockIng dIscovory nbuso hns boon
modosf. IInInfIffs` mnIn nrgumonf ngnInsf fho InusIbIIIfy sfnndnrd
nf fho IondIng sfngo Is Ifs osfonsIbIo confIIcf wIfh n IIfornI rondIng of
Conle,`s sfnfomonf consfruIng !uIo 8: n comInInf shouId nof bo
dIsmIssod for fnIIuro fo sfnfo n cInIm unIoss If nonrs boyond doubf
fhnf fho InInfIff cnn rovo no sof of fncfs In suorf of hIs cInIm
whIch wouId onfIfIo hIm fo roIIof. 355 !. S., nf 4546. Tho no sof of
fncfs Inngungo hns boon quosfIonod, crIfIcIzod, nnd oxInInod nwny
Iong onough by courfs nnd commonfnfors, nnd Is bosf forgoffon ns nn
IncomIofo, nognfIvo gIoss on nn nccofod IondIng sfnndnrd: onco n
cInIm hns boon sfnfod ndoqunfoIy, If mny bo suorfod by showIng
nny sof of fncfs consIsfonf wIfh fho nIIognfIons In fho comInInf.
Conle, doscrIbod fho brondfh of oorfunIfy fo rovo whnf nn ndo-
qunfo comInInf cInIms, nof fho mInImum sfnndnrd of ndoqunfo
IondIng fo govorn n comInInf`s survIvnI. I. ?l?.
2. !ndor fho InusIbIIIfy sfnndnrd, InInfIffs` cInIm of consIrncy In
rosfrnInf of frndo comos u shorf. IIrsf, fho comInInf Ionvos no
doubf fhnf InInfIffs rosf fhoIr l cInIm on doscrIfIons of nrnIIoI
conducf, nof on nny Indoondonf nIIognfIon of ncfunI ngroomonf
SyIInbus
nmong fho I!ICs. Tho nub of fho comInInf Is fho I!ICs` nrnIIoI
bohnvIor, nnd Ifs suffIcIoncy furns on fho suggosfIons rnIsod by fhIs
conducf whon vIowod In IIghf of common oconomIc oxorIonco. ofh-
Ing In fho comInInf Invosfs oIfhor fho ncfIon or InncfIon nIIogod wIfh
n InusIbIo consIrncy suggosfIon. As fo fho I!ICs` suosod ngroo-
monf fo dIsoboy fho l996 Acf nnd fhwnrf fho C!ICs` nffomfs fo
comofo, fho IsfrIcf Courf corrocfIy found fhnf nofhIng In fho com-
InInf InfImnfos fhnf rosIsfIng fho usfnrfs wns nnyfhIng moro fhnn
fho nnfurnI, unIInfornI roncfIon of onch I!IC Infonf on rosorvIng Ifs
rogIonnI domInnnco. Tho comInInf`s gonornI coIIusIon romIso fnIIs
fo nnswor fho oInf fhnf fhoro wns no nood for joInf oncourngomonf
fo rosIsf fho l996 Acf, sInco onch I!IC hnd ronson fo fry nnd nvoId
donIIng wIfh C!ICs nnd wouId hnvo frIod fo koo fhom ouf, rognrd-
Ioss of fho ofhor I!ICs` ncfIons. IInInfIffs` socond consIrncy fhoory
rosfs on fho comofIfIvo rofIconco nmong fho I!ICs fhomsoIvos In
fho wnko of fho l996 Acf fo onfor Info fhoIr comofIfors` forrIforIos,
IonvIng fho roIovnnf mnrkof hIghIy comnrfmonfnIIzod googrnhI-
cnIIy, wIfh mInImnI comofIfIon. ThIs nrnIIoI conducf dId nof sug-
gosf consIrncy, nof If hIsfory fonchos nnyfhIng. MonooIy wns fho
norm In foIocommunIcnfIons, nof fho oxcofIon. Iocnuso fho I!ICs
woro born In fhnf worId, doubfIoss IIkod If, nnd suroIy know fho nd-
ngo nbouf hIm who IIvos by fho sword, n nnfurnI oxInnnfIon for fho
noncomofIfIon Is fhnf fho formor Covornmonf-snncfIonod monoo-
IIsfs woro sIffIng fIghf, oxocfIng fhoIr noIghbors fo do fho snmo. An-
fIfrusf consIrncy wns nof suggosfod by fho fncfs ndducod undor oI-
fhor fhoory of fho comInInf, whIch fhus fnIIs fo sfnfo n vnIId l
cInIm. ThIs nnnIysIs doos nof run counfor fo Suier/ieuicc v. Soreno
A. A., 534 !. S. 506, 508, whIch hoId fhnf n comInInf In nn om-
Ioymonf dIscrImInnfIon InwsuIf |nood] nof confnIn socIfIc fncfs os-
fnbIIshIng n rImn fncIo cnso of dIscrImInnfIon. Horo, fho Courf Is
nof roquIrIng hoIghfonod fncf IondIng of socIfIcs, buf onIy onough
fncfs fo sfnfo n cInIm fo roIIof fhnf Is InusIbIo on Ifs fnco. Iocnuso
fho InInfIffs horo hnvo nof nudgod fhoIr cInIms ncross fho IIno from
concoIvnbIo fo InusIbIo, fhoIr comInInf musf bo dIsmIssod. I. l8
24.
425 I. 3d 99, rovorsod nnd romnndod.
SO!TI!, J., doIIvorod fho oInIon of fho Courf, In whIch !OII!TS,
C. J., nnd SCA!IA, KIIY, THOMAS, I!IYI!, nnd A!ITO, JJ., joInod.
STIVIS, J., fIIod n dIssonfIng oInIon, In whIch CISI!!C, J., joInod,
oxcof ns fo Inrf IV.
_________________
_________________
l CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
OInIon of fho Courf
OTICI: ThIs oInIon Is subjocf fo formnI rovIsIon boforo ubIIcnfIon In fho
roIImInnry rInf of fho !nIfod Sfnfos !oorfs. !ondors nro roquosfod fo
nofIfy fho !oorfor of ocIsIons, Suromo Courf of fho !nIfod Sfnfos, Wnsh-
Ingfon, . C. 20543, of nny fyogrnhIcnI or ofhor formnI orrors, In ordor
fhnf corrocfIons mny bo mndo boforo fho roIImInnry rInf goos fo ross.
6835(0(&28572)7+(81,7('67$7(6
o. 05ll26
II!! AT!ATIC CO!IO!ATIO, IT A!., IITI-
TIOI!S t. WI!!IAM TWOMI!Y IT A!.
O W!IT OI CI!TIO!A!I TO THI !ITI STATIS CO!!T OI
AIIIA!S IO! THI SICO CI!C!IT
|Mny 2l, 200?]
J!STICI SO!TI! doIIvorod fho oInIon of fho Courf.
!InbIIIfy undor l of fho Shormnn Acf, l5 !. S. C. l,
roquIros n confrncf, combInnfIon . . . , or consIrncy, In
rosfrnInf of frndo or commorco. Tho quosfIon In fhIs
ufnfIvo cInss ncfIon Is whofhor n l comInInf cnn sur-
vIvo n mofIon fo dIsmIss whon If nIIogos fhnf mnjor foIo-
communIcnfIons rovIdors ongngod In corfnIn nrnIIoI
conducf unfnvornbIo fo comofIfIon, nbsonf somo fncfunI
confoxf suggosfIng ngroomonf, ns dIsfIncf from IdonfIcnI,
Indoondonf ncfIon. Wo hoId fhnf such n comInInf shouId
bo dIsmIssod.
I
Tho ushof of fho l984 dIvosfIfuro of fho AmorIcnn
ToIohono & ToIogrnh Comnny`s (AT&T) IocnI foIohono
busInoss wns n sysfom of rogIonnI sorvIco monooIIos
(vnrIousIy cnIIod !ogIonnI IoII OornfIng ComnnIos,
Inby IoIIs, or Incumbonf !ocnI Ixchnngo CnrrIors
(I!ICs)), nnd n sonrnfo, comofIfIvo mnrkof for Iong-
dIsfnnco sorvIco from whIch fho I!ICs woro oxcIudod.
Moro fhnn n docndo Infor, Congross wIfhdrow nrovnI of
fho I!ICs` monooIIos by onncfIng fho ToIocommunIcn-
OInIon of fho Courf
fIons Acf of l996 (l996 Acf), ll0 Sfnf. 56, whIch fundn-
monfnIIy rosfrucfuro|d] IocnI foIohono mnrkofs nnd
subjocf|od] |I!ICs] fo n hosf of dufIos Infondod fo fncIII-
fnfo mnrkof onfry. AT&T Corp. v. 1ouo I/ili/iee BJ., 525
!. S. 366, 3?l (l999). In rocomonso, fho l996 Acf sof
condIfIons for nufhorIzIng I!ICs fo onfor fho Iong-
dIsfnnco mnrkof. Soo 4? !. S. C. 2?l.
ConfrnI fo fho |now] schomo |wns onch I!IC`s] obIIgn-
fIon . . . fo shnro Ifs nofwork wIfh comofIfors, Vericon
Connunico/ione 1nc. v. Lou Officee of Cur/ie V. Trin/o,
LLP, 540 !. S. 398, 402 (2004), whIch cnmo fo bo known
ns comofIfIvo IocnI oxchnngo cnrrIors (C!ICs), Iof. for
Corf. 6, n. l. A C!IC couId mnko uso of nn I!IC`s nof-
work In nny of fhroo wnys: by (l) urchns|Ing] IocnI foIo-
hono sorvIcos nf whoIosnIo rnfos for rosnIo fo ond usors,
(2) Ions|Ing] oIomonfs of fho |I!IC`s] nofwork 'on nn
unbundIod bnsIs,` or (3) Inforconnocf|Ing] Ifs own fncIII-
fIos wIfh fho |I!IC`s] nofwork. 1ouo I/ili/iee BJ., eupro,
nf 3?l (quofIng 4? !. S. C. 25l(c)). OwIng fo fho consId-
ornbIo oxonso nnd offorf roquIrod fo mnko unbundIod
nofwork oIomonfs nvnIInbIo fo rIvnIs nf whoIosnIo rIcos,
Trin/o, eupro, nf 4l0, fho I!ICs vIgorousIy IIfIgnfod fho
scoo of fho shnrIng obIIgnfIon Imosod by fho l996 Acf,
wIfh fho rosuIf fhnf fho IodornI CommunIcnfIons Com-
mIssIon (ICC) fhroo fImos rovIsod Ifs roguInfIons fo nnr-
row fho rnngo of nofwork oIomonfs fo bo shnrod wIfh fho
C!ICs. Soo CotoJ Connunico/ione Co. v. ICC, 450 I. 3d
528, 533534 (CAC 2006) (summnrIzIng fho l0-yonr-Iong
roguInfory sfruggIo bofwoon fho I!ICs nnd C!ICs).
!osondonfs WIIIInm TwombIy nnd !nwronco Mnrcus
(horoInnffor InInfIffs) rorosonf n ufnfIvo cInss consIsf-
Ing of nII subscrIbors of IocnI foIohono nnd/or hIgh sood
Infornof sorvIcos . . . from Iobrunry 8, l996 fo rosonf.
Amondod ComInInf In o. 02 CIV. l0220 (CI!) (SY)
53, A. 28 (horoInnffor ComInInf). In fhIs ncfIon
3 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
OInIon of fho Courf
ngnInsf ofIfIonors, n grou of I!ICs,
l
InInfIffs sook
frobIo dnmngos nnd docInrnfory nnd InjuncfIvo roIIof for
cInImod vIoInfIons of l of fho Shormnn Acf, ch. 64?, 26
Sfnf. 209, ns nmondod, l5 !. S. C. l, whIch rohIbIfs
|o]vory confrncf, combInnfIon In fho form of frusf or ofh-
orwIso, or consIrncy, In rosfrnInf of frndo or commorco
nmong fho sovornI Sfnfos, or wIfh foroIgn nnfIons.
Tho comInInf nIIogos fhnf fho I!ICs consIrod fo ro-
sfrnIn frndo In fwo wnys, onch suosodIy InfInfIng chnrgos
for IocnI foIohono nnd hIgh-sood Infornof sorvIcos.
IInInfIffs sny, fIrsf, fhnf fho I!ICs ongngod In nrnIIoI
conducf In fhoIr rosocfIvo sorvIco nrons fo InhIbIf fho
growfh of usfnrf C!ICs. ComInInf 4?, A. 2326.
ThoIr ncfIons nIIogodIy IncIudod mnkIng unfnIr ngroomonfs
wIfh fho C!ICs for nccoss fo I!IC nofworks, rovIdIng
InforIor connocfIons fo fho nofworks, ovorchnrgIng, nnd
bIIIIng In wnys dosIgnod fo snbofngo fho C!ICs` roInfIons
wIfh fhoIr own cusfomors. 1IiJ. AccordIng fo fho com-
InInf, fho I!ICs` comoIIIng common mofIvnfIo|n] fo
fhwnrf fho C!ICs` comofIfIvo offorfs nnfurnIIy Iod fhom
fo form n consIrncy; |h]nd nny ono |I!IC] nof soughf fo
rovonf C!ICs . . . from comofIng offocfIvoIy . . . , fho
rosuIfIng gronfor comofIfIvo Inronds Info fhnf |I!IC`s]
forrIfory wouId hnvo rovonIod fho dogroo fo whIch comofI-
fIvo onfry by C!ICs wouId hnvo boon succossfuI In fho
ofhor forrIforIos In fho nbsonco of such conducf. 1J., 50,
A. 262?.

l
Tho l984 dIvosfIfuro of AT&T`s IocnI foIohono sorvIco cronfod sovon
!ogIonnI IoII OornfIng ComnnIos. Through n sorIos of morgors nnd
ncquIsIfIons, fhoso sovon comnnIos woro consoIIdnfod Info fho four
I!ICs nnmod In fhIs suIf: IoIISoufh CorornfIon, Qwosf CommunIcn-
fIons InfornnfIonnI, Inc., SIC CommunIcnfIons, Inc., nnd VorIzon
CommunIcnfIons, Inc. (succossor-In-Inforosf fo IoII AfInnfIc Cororn-
fIon). ComInInf 2l, A. l6. Togofhor, fhoso I!ICs nIIogodIy confroI
90 orconf or moro of fho mnrkof for IocnI foIohono sorvIco In fho 48
confIguous Sfnfos. 1J., 48, A. 26.
OInIon of fho Courf
Socond, fho comInInf chnrgos ngroomonfs by fho I!ICs
fo rofrnIn from comofIng ngnInsf ono nnofhor. Thoso nro
fo bo Inforrod from fho I!ICs` common fnIIuro monnIng-
fuIIy |fo] ursu|o] nffrncfIvo busInoss oorfunIf|Ios] In
confIguous mnrkofs whoro fhoy ossossod subsfnnfInI
comofIfIvo ndvnnfngos, iJ., 404l, A. 2l22, nnd
from n sfnfomonf of !Ichnrd ofobnorf, chIof oxocufIvo
offIcor (CIO) of fho I!IC Qwosf, fhnf comofIng In fho
forrIfory of nnofhor I!IC 'mIghf bo n good wny fo furn n
quIck doIInr buf fhnf doosn`f mnko If rIghf,` iJ., 42, A.
22.
Tho comInInf couchos Ifs uIfImnfo nIIognfIons fhIs wny:
In fho nbsonco of nny monnIngfuI comofIfIon bo-
fwoon fho |I!ICs] In ono nnofhor`s mnrkofs, nnd In
IIghf of fho nrnIIoI courso of conducf fhnf onch on-
gngod In fo rovonf comofIfIon from C!ICs wIfhIn
fhoIr rosocfIvo IocnI foIohono nnd/or hIgh sood
Infornof sorvIcos mnrkofs nnd fho ofhor fncfs nnd
mnrkof cIrcumsfnncos nIIogod nbovo, IInInfIffs nIIogo
uon InformnfIon nnd boIIof fhnf |fho I!ICs] hnvo on-
forod Info n confrncf, combInnfIon or consIrncy fo
rovonf comofIfIvo onfry In fhoIr rosocfIvo IocnI
foIohono nnd/or hIgh sood Infornof sorvIcos mnrkofs
nnd hnvo ngrood nof fo comofo wIfh ono nnofhor nnd
ofhorwIso nIIocnfod cusfomors nnd mnrkofs fo ono nn-
ofhor. 1J., 5l, A. 2?.
2

2
In soffIng forfh fho grounds for l roIIof, fho comInInf roonfs
fhoso nIIognfIons In subsfnnfInIIy sImIInr Inngungo:
IogInnIng nf Ionsf ns onrIy ns Iobrunry 6, l996, nnd confInuIng fo fho
rosonf, fho oxncf dnfos boIng unknown fo IInInfIffs, ofondnnfs nnd
fhoIr co-consIrnfors ongngod In n confrncf, combInnfIon or consIrncy
fo rovonf comofIfIvo onfry In fhoIr rosocfIvo IocnI foIohono nnd/or
hIgh sood Infornof sorvIcos mnrkofs by, nmong ofhor fhIngs, ngrooIng
nof fo comofo wIfh ono nnofhor nnd fo sfIfIo nffomfs by ofhors fo
comofo wIfh fhom nnd ofhorwIso nIIocnfIng cusfomors nnd mnrkofs fo
ono nnofhor In vIoInfIon of SocfIon l of fho Shormnn Acf. 1J., 64,
5 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
OInIon of fho Courf
Tho !nIfod Sfnfos IsfrIcf Courf for fho Soufhorn Is-
frIcf of ow York dIsmIssod fho comInInf for fnIIuro fo
sfnfo n cInIm uon whIch roIIof cnn bo grnnfod. Tho Is-
frIcf Courf ncknowIodgod fhnf InInfIffs mny nIIogo n
consIrncy by cIfIng Insfnncos of nrnIIoI busInoss bohnv-
Ior fhnf suggosf nn ngroomonf, buf omhnsIzod fhnf
whIIo '|c]IrcumsfnnfInI ovIdonco of conscIousIy nrnIIoI
bohnvIor mny hnvo mndo honvy Inronds Info fho frndI-
fIonnI judIcInI nffIfudo fownrd consIrncy|, . . .] conscIous
nrnIIoIIsm hns nof yof rond consIrncy ouf of fho
Shormnn Acf onfIroIy.` 3l3 I. Su. 2d l?4, l?9 (2003)
(quofIng Tleo/re 1n/erprieee, 1nc. v. Poronoun/ Iiln
Die/riIu/ing Corp., 346 !. S. 53?, 54l (l954); nIfornfIons
In orIgInnI). Thus, fho IsfrIcf Courf undorsfood fhnf
nIIognfIons of nrnIIoI busInoss conducf, fnkon nIono, do
nof sfnfo n cInIm undor l; InInfIffs musf nIIogo nddI-
fIonnI fncfs fhnf fon|d] fo oxcIudo Indoondonf soIf-
Inforosfod conducf ns nn oxInnnfIon for dofondnnfs` nrnI-
IoI bohnvIor. 3l3 I. Su. 2d, nf l?9. Tho IsfrIcf Courf
found InInfIffs` nIIognfIons of nrnIIoI I!IC ncfIons fo
dIscourngo comofIfIon Inndoqunfo bocnuso fho bohnvIor
of onch I!IC In rosIsfIng fho IncursIon of C!ICs Is fuIIy
oxInInod by fho I!IC`s own Inforosfs In dofondIng Ifs
IndIvIdunI forrIfory. 1J., nf l83. As fo fho I!ICs` su-
osod ngroomonf ngnInsf comofIng wIfh onch ofhor, fho
IsfrIcf Courf found fhnf fho comInInf doos nof nIIog|o]
fncfs . . . suggosfIng fhnf rofrnInIng from comofIng In
ofhor forrIforIos ns C!ICs wns confrnry fo |fho I!ICs`]
nnronf oconomIc Inforosfs, nnd consoquonfIy |doos] nof
rnIs|o] nn Inforonco fhnf |fho I!ICs`] ncfIons woro fho
rosuIf of n consIrncy. 1J., nf l88.
Tho Courf of AonIs for fho Socond CIrcuIf rovorsod,
hoIdIng fhnf fho IsfrIcf Courf fosfod fho comInInf by fho
wrong sfnndnrd. If hoId fhnf Ius fncfors nro nof requireJ

A. 303l.
OInIon of fho Courf
fo bo Iondod fo ormIf nn nnfIfrusf cInIm bnsod on nrnI-
IoI conducf fo survIvo dIsmIssnI. 425 I. 3d 99, ll4 (2005)
(omhnsIs In orIgInnI). AIfhough fho Courf of AonIs
fook fho vIow fhnf InInfIffs musf Iond fncfs fhnf IncIudo
consIrncy nmong fho ronIm of 'InusIbIo` ossIbIIIfIos In
ordor fo survIvo n mofIon fo dIsmIss, If fhon snId fhnf fo
ruIo fhnf nIIognfIons of nrnIIoI nnfIcomofIfIvo conducf
fnII fo suorf n InusIbIo consIrncy cInIm, n courf wouId
hnvo fo concIudo fhnf fhoro Is no sof of fncfs fhnf wouId
ormIf n InInfIff fo domonsfrnfo fhnf fho nrfIcuInr nrnI-
IoIIsm nssorfod wns fho roducf of coIIusIon rnfhor fhnn
coIncIdonco. 1IiJ.
Wo grnnfod corfIornrI fo nddross fho roor sfnndnrd for
IondIng nn nnfIfrusf consIrncy fhrough nIIognfIons of
nrnIIoI conducf, 54? !. S. ___ (2006), nnd now rovorso.
II
A
Iocnuso l of fho Shormnn Acf doos nof rohIbIf |nII]
unronsonnbIo rosfrnInfs of frndo . . . buf onIy rosfrnInfs
offocfod by n confrncf, combInnfIon, or consIrncy, Cop-
peruelJ Corp. v. 1nJepenJence TuIe Corp., 46? !. S. ?52,
??5 (l984), |f]ho crucInI quosfIon Is whofhor fho chnI-
Iongod nnfIcomofIfIvo conducf sfom|s] from Indoondonf
docIsIon or from nn ngroomonf, fncIf or oxross, Tleo/re
1n/erprieee, 346 !. S., nf 540. WhIIo n showIng of nrnIIoI
busInoss bohnvIor Is ndmIssIbIo cIrcumsfnnfInI ovIdonco
from whIch fho fncf fIndor mny Infor ngroomonf, If fnIIs
shorf of concIusIvoIy osfnbIIsh|Ing] ngroomonf or . . . IfsoIf
consfIfuf|Ing] n Shormnn Acf offonso. 1J., nf 54054l.
Ivon conscIous nrnIIoIIsm, n common roncfIon of fIrms
In n conconfrnfod mnrkof |fhnf] rocognIz|o] fhoIr shnrod
oconomIc Inforosfs nnd fhoIr Infordoondonco wIfh rosocf
fo rIco nnd oufuf docIsIons Is nof In IfsoIf unInwfuI.
Broo/e Group L/J. v. Broun & Willioneon ToIocco Corp.,
509 !. S. 209, 22? (l993); soo 6 I. Aroodn & H. Hovonk-
? CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
OInIon of fho Courf
nm, AnfIfrusf !nw l433n, . 236 (2d od. 2003) (horoIn-
nffor Aroodn & Hovonknm) (Tho courfs nro nonrIy
unnnImous In snyIng fhnf moro Infordoondonf nrnIIoI-
Ism doos nof osfnbIIsh fho confrncf, combInnfIon, or con-
sIrncy roquIrod by Shormnn Acf l); Turnor, Tho ofInI-
fIon of Agroomonf !ndor fho Shormnn Acf: ConscIous
InrnIIoIIsm nnd !ofusnIs fo onI, ?5 Hnrv. !. !ov. 655,
6?2 (l962) (|M]oro Infordoondonco of bnsIc rIco docI-
sIons Is nof consIrncy).
Tho Inndoquncy of showIng nrnIIoI conducf or Infordo-
ondonco, wIfhouf moro, mIrrors fho nmbIguIfy of fho
bohnvIor: consIsfonf wIfh consIrncy, buf jusf ns much In
IIno wIfh n wIdo swnfh of rnfIonnI nnd comofIfIvo busI-
noss sfrnfogy unIInfornIIy romfod by common orco-
fIons of fho mnrkof. Soo, e.g., AII-IrookIngs JoInf Confor
for !oguInfory SfudIos, IsfoIn, MofIons fo IsmIss AnfI-
frusf Cnsos: SonrnfIng Incf from Innfnsy, !oInfod IubII-
cnfIon 0608, . 34 (2006) (dIscussIng robIom of fnIso
osIfIvos In l suIfs). AccordIngIy, wo hnvo rovIousIy
hodgod ngnInsf fnIso Inforoncos from IdonfIcnI bohnvIor nf
n numbor of oInfs In fho frInI soquonco. An nnfIfrusf
consIrncy InInfIff wIfh ovIdonco showIng nofhIng boyond
nrnIIoI conducf Is nof onfIfIod fo n dIrocfod vordIcf, soo
Tleo/re 1n/erprieee, eupro, roof of n l consIrncy musf
IncIudo ovIdonco fondIng fo oxcIudo fho ossIbIIIfy of
Indoondonf ncfIon, soo Moneon/o Co. v. Spro,-Ii/e Ser-
tice Corp., 465 !. S. ?52 (l984); nnd nf fho summnry
judgmonf sfngo n l InInfIff`s offor of consIrncy ovIdonco
musf fond fo ruIo ouf fho ossIbIIIfy fhnf fho dofondnnfs
woro ncfIng IndoondonfIy, soo Mo/eueli/o 1lec. 1nJue-
/riol Co. v. Zeni/l IoJio Corp., 4?5 !. S. 5?4 (l986).
I
ThIs cnso rosonfs fho nnfocodonf quosfIon of whnf n
InInfIff musf Iond In ordor fo sfnfo n cInIm undor l of
fho Shormnn Acf. IodornI !uIo of CIvII Irocoduro 8(n)(2)
OInIon of fho Courf
roquIros onIy n shorf nnd InIn sfnfomonf of fho cInIm
showIng fhnf fho Iondor Is onfIfIod fo roIIof, In ordor fo
gIvo fho dofondnnf fnIr nofIco of whnf fho . . . cInIm Is nnd
fho grounds uon whIch If rosfs, Conle, v. GiIeon, 355
!. S. 4l, 4? (l95?). WhIIo n comInInf nffnckod by n !uIo
l2(b)(6) mofIon fo dIsmIss doos nof nood dofnIIod fncfunI
nIIognfIons, iIiJ., Sonjuon v. Anericon BJ. of Pe,clio/r,
onJ Aeurolog,, 1nc., 40 I. 3d 24?, 25l (CA? l994), n InIn-
fIff`s obIIgnfIon fo rovIdo fho grounds of hIs onfI-
fIo|monf] fo roIIof roquIros moro fhnn InboIs nnd concIu-
sIons, nnd n formuInIc rocIfnfIon of fho oIomonfs of n cnuso
of ncfIon wIII nof do, soo Popoeon v. Alloin, 4?8 !. S. 265,
286 (l986) (on n mofIon fo dIsmIss, courfs nro nof bound
fo nccof ns fruo n IognI concIusIon couchod ns n fncfunI
nIIognfIon). IncfunI nIIognfIons musf bo onough fo rnIso n
rIghf fo roIIof nbovo fho socuInfIvo IovoI, soo 5 C. WrIghf
& A. MIIIor, IodornI IrncfIco nnd Irocoduro l2l6, .
235236 (3d od. 2004) (horoInnffor WrIghf & MIIIor)
(|T]ho IondIng musf confnIn somofhIng moro . . . fhnn
. . . n sfnfomonf of fncfs fhnf moroIy cronfos n susIcIon |of]
n IognIIy cognIznbIo rIghf of ncfIon),
3
on fho nssumfIon
fhnf nII fho nIIognfIons In fho comInInf nro fruo (ovon If

3
Tho dIssonf gronfIy ovorsImIIfIos mnffors by suggosfIng fhnf fho
IodornI !uIos somohow dIsonsod wIfh fho IondIng of fncfs nIfogofhor.
Soo poe/, nf l0 (oInIon of STIVIS, J.) (IondIng sfnndnrd of IodornI
!uIos doos nof roquIro, or ovon InvIfo, fho IondIng of fncfs). WhIIo,
for mosf fyos of cnsos, fho IodornI !uIos oIImInnfod fho cumborsomo
roquIromonf fhnf n cInImnnf sof ouf in Je/oil fho fncfs uon whIch ho
bnsos hIs cInIm, Conle, v. GiIeon, 355 !. S. 4l, 4? (l95?) (omhnsIs
nddod), !uIo 8(n)(2) sfIII roquIros n showIng, rnfhor fhnn n bInnkof
nssorfIon, of onfIfIomonf fo roIIof. WIfhouf somo fncfunI nIIognfIon In
fho comInInf, If Is hnrd fo soo how n cInImnnf couId snfIsfy fho ro-
quIromonf of rovIdIng nof onIy fnIr nofIco of fho nnfuro of fho cInIm,
buf nIso grounds on whIch fho cInIm rosfs. Soo 5 WrIghf & MIIIor
l202, nf 94, 95 (!uIo 8(n) confomInfo|s] fho sfnfomonf of cIrcum-
sfnncos, occurroncos, nnd ovonfs In suorf of fho cInIm rosonfod nnd
doos nof nufhorIzo n Iondor`s bnro nvormonf fhnf ho wnnfs roIIof nnd
Is onfIfIod fo If).
9 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
OInIon of fho Courf
doubffuI In fncf), soo, e.g., Suier/ieuicc v. Soreno A. A.,
534 !. S. 506, 508, n. l (2002); Aei/c/e v. Willione, 490
!. S. 3l9, 32? (l989) (!uIo l2(b)(6) doos nof counfonnnco
. . . dIsmIssnIs bnsod on n judgo`s dIsboIIof of n comInInf`s
fncfunI nIIognfIons); Scleuer v. IloJee, 4l6 !. S. 232, 236
(l9?4) (n woII-Iondod comInInf mny rocood ovon If If
nonrs fhnf n rocovory Is vory romofo nnd unIIkoIy).
In nIyIng fhoso gonornI sfnndnrds fo n l cInIm, wo
hoId fhnf sfnfIng such n cInIm roquIros n comInInf wIfh
onough fncfunI mnffor (fnkon ns fruo) fo suggosf fhnf nn
ngroomonf wns mndo. AskIng for InusIbIo grounds fo
Infor nn ngroomonf doos nof Imoso n robnbIIIfy roquIro-
monf nf fho IondIng sfngo; If sImIy cnIIs for onough fncf
fo rnIso n ronsonnbIo oxocfnfIon fhnf dIscovory wIII rovonI
ovIdonco of IIIognI ngroomonf.
4
And, of courso, n woII-
Iondod comInInf mny rocood ovon If If sfrIkos n snvvy
judgo fhnf ncfunI roof of fho fncfs nIIogod Is ImrobnbIo,
nnd fhnf n rocovory Is vory romofo nnd unIIkoIy. 1IiJ.
In IdonfIfyIng fncfs fhnf nro suggosfIvo onough fo rondor n
l consIrncy InusIbIo, wo hnvo fho bonofIf of fho rIor
ruIIngs nnd consIdorod vIows of IondIng commonfnfors,
nIrondy quofod, fhnf InwfuI nrnIIoI conducf fnIIs fo bo-

4
Commonfnfors hnvo offorod sovornI oxnmIos of nrnIIoI conducf
nIIognfIons fhnf wouId sfnfo n l cInIm undor fhIs sfnndnrd. Soo, e.g., 6
Aroodn & Hovonknm l425, nf l6?l85 (dIscussIng nrnIIoI bohnvIor
fhnf wouId robnbIy nof rosuIf from chnnco, coIncIdonco, Indoondonf
rosonsos fo common sfImuII, or moro Infordoondonco unnIdod by nn
ndvnnco undorsfnndIng nmong fho nrfIos); IIochmnn, ConscIous
InrnIIoIIsm, SIgnnIIIng nnd IncIIIfnfIng ovIcos: Tho IrobIom of TncIf
CoIIusIon !ndor fho AnfIfrusf !nws, 24 . Y. !. S. !. !ov. 88l, 899
(l9?9) (doscrIbIng conducf |fhnf] IndIcnfos fho sorf of rosfrIcfod froo-
dom of ncfIon nnd sonso of obIIgnfIon fhnf ono gonornIIy nssocInfos wIfh
ngroomonf). Tho nrfIos In fhIs cnso ngroo fhnf comIox nnd hIsforI-
cnIIy unrocodonfod chnngos In rIcIng sfrucfuro mndo nf fho vory
snmo fImo by muIfIIo comofIfors, nnd mndo for no ofhor dIscornIbIo
ronson wouId suorf n InusIbIo Inforonco of consIrncy. IrIof for
!osondonfs 3?; soo nIso !oIy IrIof for IofIfIonors l2.
l0 II!! AT!ATIC CO!I. t. TWOMI!Y
OInIon of fho Courf
sonk unInwfuI ngroomonf. If mnkos sonso fo sny, fhoro-
foro, fhnf nn nIIognfIon of nrnIIoI conducf nnd n bnro
nssorfIon of consIrncy wIII nof suffIco. WIfhouf moro,
nrnIIoI conducf doos nof suggosf consIrncy, nnd n con-
cIusory nIIognfIon of ngroomonf nf somo unIdonfIfIod oInf
doos nof suIy fncfs ndoqunfo fo show IIIognIIfy. Honco,
whon nIIognfIons of nrnIIoI conducf nro sof ouf In ordor fo
mnko n l cInIm, fhoy musf bo Incod In n confoxf fhnf
rnIsos n suggosfIon of n rocodIng ngroomonf, nof moroIy
nrnIIoI conducf fhnf couId jusf ns woII bo Indoondonf
ncfIon.
Tho nood nf fho IondIng sfngo for nIIognfIons InusIbIy
suggosfIng (nof moroIy consIsfonf wIfh) ngroomonf rofIocfs
fho fhroshoId roquIromonf of !uIo 8(n)(2) fhnf fho InIn
sfnfomonf ossoss onough hoff fo sho|w] fhnf fho Iondor
Is onfIfIod fo roIIof. A sfnfomonf of nrnIIoI conducf, ovon
conducf conscIousIy undorfnkon, noods somo soffIng sug-
gosfIng fho ngroomonf nocossnry fo mnko ouf n l cInIm;
wIfhouf fhnf furfhor cIrcumsfnnco oInfIng fownrd n
moofIng of fho mInds, nn nccounf of n dofondnnf`s com-
morcInI offorfs sfnys In noufrnI forrIfory. An nIIognfIon of
nrnIIoI conducf Is fhus much IIko n nnkod nssorfIon of
consIrncy In n l comInInf: If gofs fho comInInf cIoso fo
sfnfIng n cInIm, buf wIfhouf somo furfhor fncfunI on-
hnncomonf If sfos shorf of fho IIno bofwoon ossIbIIIfy
nnd InusIbIIIfy of onfIfIo|monf] fo roIIof. Cf. DM Ie-
eeorcl, 1nc. v. College of An. Po/lologie/e, l?0 I. 3d 53, 56
(CAl l999) (|T]orms IIko 'consIrncy,` or ovon 'ngroomonf,`
nro bordor-IIno: fhoy mIghf woII bo suffIcIonf In conjunc-
fIon wIfh n moro socIfIc nIIognfIonfor oxnmIo, IdonfI-
fyIng n wrIffon ngroomonf or ovon n bnsIs for InforrIng n
fncIf ngroomonf, . . . buf n courf Is nof roquIrod fo nccof
such forms ns n suffIcIonf bnsIs for n comInInf).
5

5
Tho bordor In DM Ieeeorcl wns fho IIno bofwoon fho concIusory nnd
fho fncfunI. Horo If IIos bofwoon fho fncfunIIy noufrnI nnd fho fncfunIIy
ll CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
OInIon of fho Courf
Wo nIIudod fo fho rncfIcnI sIgnIfIcnnco of fho !uIo 8
onfIfIomonf roquIromonf In Duro Plornoceu/icole, 1nc. v.
BrouJo, 544 !. S. 336 (2005), whon wo oxInInod fhnf
somofhIng boyond fho moro ossIbIIIfy of Ioss cnusnfIon
musf bo nIIogod, Iosf n InInfIff wIfh 'n InrgoIy groundIoss
cInIm` bo nIIowod fo 'fnko u fho fImo of n numbor of
ofhor ooIo, wIfh fho rIghf fo do so rorosonfIng nn in
/erroren Incromonf of fho soffIomonf vnIuo.` 1J., nf 34?
(quofIng Blue Clip S/onpe v. Monor Drug S/oree, 42l
!. S. ?23, ?4l (l9?5)). So, whon fho nIIognfIons In n com-
InInf, howovor fruo, couId nof rnIso n cInIm of onfIfIomonf
fo roIIof, 'fhIs bnsIc dofIcIoncy shouId . . . bo oxosod nf
fho oInf of mInImum oxondIfuro of fImo nnd monoy by
fho nrfIos nnd fho courf.` 5 WrIghf & MIIIor l2l6, nf
233234 (quofIng Dotee v. Houoiion DreJging Co., ll4
I. Su. 643, 645 (Hnw. l953)); soo nIso Duro, eupro, nf
346; Aeoli Gloee Co. v. Pen/ecl Plornoceu/icole, 1nc., 289
I. Su. 2d 986, 995 ( III. 2003) (Iosnor, J., sIffIng by
dosIgnnfIon) (|S]omo fhroshoId of InusIbIIIfy musf bo
crossod nf fho oufsof boforo n nfonf nnfIfrusf cnso shouId
bo ormIffod fo go Info Ifs InovIfnbIy cosfIy nnd rofrncfod
dIscovory hnso).
Thus, If Is ono fhIng fo bo cnufIous boforo dIsmIssIng nn
nnfIfrusf comInInf In ndvnnco of dIscovory, cf. Poller v.
ColunIio BrooJcoe/ing S,e/en, 1nc., 368 !. S. 464, 4?3
(l962), buf quIfo nnofhor fo forgof fhnf rocoodIng fo
nnfIfrusf dIscovory cnn bo oxonsIvo. As wo IndIcnfod ovor
20 yonrs ngo In Aeeocio/eJ Gen. Con/roc/ore of Col., 1nc. v.
Corpen/ere, 459 !. S. 5l9, 528, n. l? (l983), n dIsfrIcf
courf musf rofnIn fho owor fo InsIsf uon somo socIfIcIfy
In IondIng boforo nIIowIng n ofonfInIIy mnssIvo fncfunI
confrovorsy fo rocood. Soo nIso Cor Corriere, 1nc. v.
IorJ Mo/or Co., ?45 I. 2d ll0l, ll06 (CA? l984) (|T]ho

suggosfIvo. Inch musf bo crossod fo onfor fho ronIm of InusIbIo
IInbIIIfy.
OInIon of fho Courf
cosfs of modorn fodornI nnfIfrusf IIfIgnfIon nnd fho In-
cronsIng cnsoIond of fho fodornI courfs counsoI ngnInsf
sondIng fho nrfIos Info dIscovory whon fhoro Is no ron-
sonnbIo IIkoIIhood fhnf fho InInfIffs cnn consfrucf n cInIm
from fho ovonfs roInfod In fho comInInf); ofo, ModoIIng
fho Iffocf of Ono-Wny Ioo ShIffIng on Iscovory Abuso In
IrIvnfo AnfIfrusf !IfIgnfIon, ?8 . Y. !. !. !ov. l88?,
l898l899 (2003) (dIscussIng fho unusunIIy hIgh cosf of
dIscovory In nnfIfrusf cnsos); MnnunI for ComIox !IfIgn-
fIon, Iourfh, 30, . 5l9 (2004) (doscrIbIng oxfonsIvo
scoo of dIscovory In nnfIfrusf cnsos); Momornndum from
InuI V. Iomoyor, ChnIr, AdvIsory CommIffoo on CIvII
!uIos, fo Hon. Anfhony J. ScIrIcn, ChnIr, CommIffoo on
!uIos of IrncfIco nnd Irocoduro (Mny ll, l999), l92
I. !. . 354, 35? (2000) (roorfIng fhnf dIscovory nccounfs
for ns much ns 90 orconf of IIfIgnfIon cosfs whon dIscov-
ory Is ncfIvoIy omIoyod). Thnf ofonfInI oxonso Is obvI-
ous onough In fho rosonf cnso: InInfIffs rorosonf n
ufnfIvo cInss of nf Ionsf 90 orconf of nII subscrIbors fo
IocnI foIohono or hIgh-sood Infornof sorvIco In fho confI-
nonfnI !nIfod Sfnfos, In nn ncfIon ngnInsf AmorIcn`s Inrg-
osf foIocommunIcnfIons fIrms (wIfh mnny fhousnnds of
omIoyoos gonornfIng ronms nnd gIgnbyfos of busInoss
rocords) for unsocIfIod (If nny) Insfnncos of nnfIfrusf
vIoInfIons fhnf nIIogodIy occurrod ovor n orIod of sovon
yonrs.
If Is no nnswor fo sny fhnf n cInIm jusf shy of n InusIbIo
onfIfIomonf fo roIIof cnn, If groundIoss, bo woodod ouf
onrIy In fho dIscovory rocoss fhrough cnrofuI cnso mnn-
ngomonf, poe/ nf 4, gIvon fho common Inmonf fhnf fho
succoss of judIcInI suorvIsIon In chockIng dIscovory nbuso
hns boon on fho modosf sIdo. Soo, e.g., Insforbrook, Is-
covory ns Abuso, 69 I. !. !. !ov. 635, 638 (l989) (Judgos
cnn do IIffIo nbouf ImosIfIonnI dIscovory whon nrfIos
confroI fho IognI cInIms fo bo rosonfod nnd conducf fho
dIscovory fhomsoIvos). And If Is soIf-ovIdonf fhnf fho
l3 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
OInIon of fho Courf
robIom of dIscovory nbuso cnnnof bo soIvod by cnrofuI
scrufIny of ovIdonco nf fho summnry judgmonf sfngo,
much Ioss IucId InsfrucfIons fo jurIos, poe/, nf 4; fho
fhronf of dIscovory oxonso wIII ush cosf-conscIous dofon-
dnnfs fo soffIo ovon nnomIc cnsos boforo ronchIng fhoso
rocoodIngs. IrobnbIy, fhon, If Is onIy by fnkIng cnro fo
roquIro nIIognfIons fhnf ronch fho IovoI suggosfIng con-
sIrncy fhnf wo cnn hoo fo nvoId fho ofonfInIIy onor-
mous oxonso of dIscovory In cnsos wIfh no 'ronsonnbIy
foundod hoo fhnf fho |dIscovory] rocoss wIII rovonI roIo-
vnnf ovIdonco` fo suorf n l cInIm. Duro, 544 !. S., nf
34? (quofIng Blue Clip S/onpe, eupro, nf ?4l; nIfornfIon
In Duro).
6

6
Tho dIssonf fnkos honrf In fho ronssurnncos of InInfIffs` counsoI
fhnf dIscovory wouId bo ' hnsod ` nnd IImIfod fo fho oxIsfonco of
fho nIIogod consIrncy nnd cInss corfIfIcnfIon. Poe/, nf 24. Iuf dofor-
mInIng whofhor somo IIIognI ngroomonf mny hnvo fnkon Inco bofwoon
unsocIfIod orsons nf dIfforonf I!ICs (onch n muIfIbIIIIon doIInr
corornfIon wIfh IogIons of mnnngomonf IovoI omIoyoos) nf somo oInf
ovor sovon yonrs Is n srnwIIng, cosfIy, nnd hugoIy fImo-consumIng
undorfnkIng nof onsIIy suscofIbIo fo fho kInd of IIno drnwIng nnd cnso
mnnngomonf fhnf fho dIssonf onvIsIons. Iorhns fho bosf nnswor fo
fho dIssonf`s ofImIsm fhnf nnfIfrusf dIscovory Is oon fo offocfIvo
judIcInI confroI Is n moro oxfonsIvo quofnfIon of fho nufhorIfy jusf cIfod,
n judgo wIfh n bnckground In nnfIfrusf Inw. CIvon fho sysfom fhnf wo
hnvo, fho hoo of offocfIvo judIcInI suorvIsIon Is sIIm: Tho fImIng Is nII
wrong. Tho InInfIff fIIos n skofchy comInInf (fho !uIos of CIvII
Irocoduro dIscourngo fuIsomo documonfs), nnd dIscovory Is Inunchod.
A judIcInI offIcor doos nof know fho dofnIIs of fho cnso fho nrfIos wIII
rosonf nnd In fhoory conno/ know fho dofnIIs. Iscovory Is usod fo
fInd fho dofnIIs. Tho judIcInI offIcor nIwnys knows Ioss fhnn fho nrfIos,
nnd fho nrfIos fhomsoIvos mny nof know vory woII whoro fhoy nro
goIng or whnf fhoy oxocf fo fInd. A mngIsfrnfo suorvIsIng dIscovory
doos nofcnnnofknow fho oxocfod roducfIvIfy of n gIvon roquosf,
bocnuso fho nnfuro of fho roquosfor`s cInIm nnd fho confonfs of fho fIIos
(or hond) of fho ndvorso nrfy nro unknown. JudIcInI offIcors cnnnof
monsuro fho cosfs nnd bonofIfs fo fho roquosfor nnd so cnnnof IsoInfo
ImosIfIonnI roquosfs. !oquosfors hnvo no ronson fo dIscIoso fhoIr own
osfImnfos bocnuso fhoy gnIn from ImosIng cosfs on rIvnIs (nnd mny
Ioso from nn Imrovomonf In nccurncy). Tho orfIons of fho !uIos of
OInIon of fho Courf
IInInfIffs do nof, of courso, dIsufo fho roquIromonf of
InusIbIIIfy nnd fho nood for somofhIng moro fhnn moroIy
nrnIIoI bohnvIor oxInInod In Tleo/re 1n/erprieee, Mon-
eon/o, nnd Mo/eueli/o, nnd fhoIr mnIn nrgumonf ngnInsf
fho InusIbIIIfy sfnndnrd nf fho IondIng sfngo Is Ifs osfon-
sIbIo confIIcf wIfh nn onrIy sfnfomonf of ours consfruIng
!uIo 8. JusfIco IInck`s oInIon for fho Courf In Conle, v.
GiIeon soko nof onIy of fho nood for fnIr nofIco of fho
grounds for onfIfIomonf fo roIIof buf of fho nccofod ruIo
fhnf n comInInf shouId nof bo dIsmIssod for fnIIuro fo
sfnfo n cInIm unIoss If nonrs boyond doubf fhnf fho
InInfIff cnn rovo no sof of fncfs In suorf of hIs cInIm
whIch wouId onfIfIo hIm fo roIIof. 355 !. S., nf 4546.
ThIs no sof of fncfs Inngungo cnn bo rond In IsoInfIon ns
snyIng fhnf nny sfnfomonf rovonIIng fho fhoory of fho
cInIm wIII suffIco unIoss Ifs fncfunI ImossIbIIIfy mny bo
shown from fho fnco of fho IondIngs; nnd fho Courf of
AonIs nonrs fo hnvo rond Conle, In somo such wny
whon formuInfIng Ifs undorsfnndIng of fho roor Iond-
Ing sfnndnrd, soo 425 I. 3d, nf l06, ll4 (InvokIng Conle,`s
no sof of fncfs Inngungo In doscrIbIng fho sfnndnrd for
dIsmIssnI).
?

CIvII Irocoduro cnIIIng on judgos fo frIm bnck oxcossIvo domnnds,
fhoroforo, hnvo boon, nnd nro doomod fo bo, hoIIow. Wo cnnnof rovonf
whnf wo cnnnof dofocf; wo cnnnof dofocf whnf wo cnnnof dofIno; wo
cnnnof dofIno 'nbusIvo` dIscovory oxcof In fhoory, bocnuso In rncfIco
wo Inck ossonfInI InformnfIon. Insforbrook, Iscovory ns Abuso, 69 I.
!. !. !ov. 635, 638639 (l989).
?
Tho Courf of AonIs nIso roIIod on ChIof Judgo CInrk`s suggosfIon
In Aogler v. AJnirol Corp., 248 I. 3d 3l9 (CA2 l95?), fhnf fncfs IndI-
cnfIng nrnIIoI conducf nIono suffIco fo sfnfo n cInIm undor l. 425
I. 3d, nf ll4 (cIfIng Aogler, eupro, nf 325). Iuf Aogler gnvo no oxIn-
nnfIon for cIfIng Tleo/re 1n/erprieee (whIch uhoId n donInI of n dI-
rocfod vordIcf for InInfIff on fho ground fhnf roof of nrnIIoIIsm wns
nof roof of consIrncy) ns nufhorIfy fhnf IondIng nrnIIoI conducf
suffIcod fo Iond n Shormnn Acf consIrncy. ow fhnf Moneon/o Co. v.
Spro,-Ii/e Sertice Corp., 465 !. S. ?52 (l984), nnd Mo/eueli/o 1lec.
1nJue/riol Co. v. Zeni/l IoJio Corp., 4?5 !. S. 5?4 (l986), hnvo mndo If
l5 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
OInIon of fho Courf
On such n focusod nnd IIfornI rondIng of Conle,`s no sof
of fncfs, n whoIIy concIusory sfnfomonf of cInIm wouId
survIvo n mofIon fo dIsmIss whonovor fho IondIngs Ioff
oon fho ossIbIIIfy fhnf n InInfIff mIghf Infor osfnbIIsh
somo sof of |undIscIosod] fncfs fo suorf rocovory. So
horo, fho Courf of AonIs socIfIcnIIy found fho rosocf
of unonrfhIng dIrocf ovIdonco of consIrncy suffIcIonf fo
rocIudo dIsmIssnI, ovon fhough fho comInInf doos nof sof
forfh n sIngIo fncf In n confoxf fhnf suggosfs nn ngroomonf.
425 I. 3d, nf l06, ll4. If sooms fnIr fo sny fhnf fhIs n-
ronch fo IondIng wouId dIsonso wIfh nny showIng of n
'ronsonnbIy foundod hoo` fhnf n InInfIff wouId bo nbIo
fo mnko n cnso, soo Duro, 544 !. S., nf 34? (quofIng Blue
Clip S/onpe, 42l !. S., nf ?4l); Mr. MIcnwbor`s ofImIsm
wouId bo onough.
SooIng fhIs, n good mnny judgos nnd commonfnfors hnvo
bnIkod nf fnkIng fho IIfornI forms of fho Conle, nssngo ns
n IondIng sfnndnrd. Soo, e.g., Cor Corriere, ?45 I. 2d, nf
ll06 (Conle, hns novor boon Inforrofod IIfornIIy nnd,
|I]n rncfIco, n comInInf . . . musf confnIn oIfhor dIrocf or
InforonfInI nIIognfIons rosocfIng nII fho mnforInI oIomonfs
nocossnry fo susfnIn rocovory undor eone vInbIo IognI
fhoory (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod; omhnsIs nnd
omIssIon In orIgInnI); Aecon Proper/iee, 1nc. v. MoIil Oil
Co., 866 I. 2d ll49, ll55 (CA9 l989) (fonsIon bofwoon
Conle,`s no sof of fncfs Inngungo nnd Ifs ncknowIodgmonf
fhnf n InInfIff musf rovIdo fho grounds on whIch hIs
cInIm rosfs); O`Brien v. DiGrocio, 544 I. 2d 543, 546, n. 3
(CAl l9?6) (|W]hon n InInfIff . . . suIIos fncfs fo su-
orf hIs cInIm, wo do nof fhInk fhnf Conle, Imosos n dufy
on fho courfs fo conjuro u unIondod fncfs fhnf mIghf

cIonr fhnf noIfhor nrnIIoI conducf nor conscIous nrnIIoIIsm, fnkon
nIono, rnIso fho nocossnry ImIIcnfIon of consIrncy, If Is fImo for n
frosh Iook nf ndoquncy of IondIng whon n cInIm rosfs on nrnIIoI
ncfIon.
OInIon of fho Courf
furn n frIvoIous cInIm of unconsfIfufIonnI . . . ncfIon Info n
subsfnnfInI ono); McGregor v. 1nJue/riol 1xceee LonJfill,
1nc., 856 I. 2d 39, 4243 (CA6 l988) (quofIng O`Brien`s
nnnIysIs); Hnznrd, Irom Whom o Socrofs Aro HId, ?6
Tox. !. !ov. l665, l685 (l998) (doscrIbIng Conle, ns hnvIng
furnod !uIo 8 on Ifs hond); Mnrcus, Tho !ovIvnI of Incf
IIondIng !ndor fho IodornI !uIos of CIvII Irocoduro, 86
CoIum. !. !ov. 433, 463465 (l986) (nofIng fonsIon bo-
fwoon Conle, nnd subsoquonf undorsfnndIngs of !uIo 8).
Wo couId go on, buf fhoro Is no nood fo IIo u furfhor
cIfnfIons fo show fhnf Conle,`s no sof of fncfs Inngungo
hns boon quosfIonod, crIfIcIzod, nnd oxInInod nwny Iong
onough. To bo fnIr fo fho Conle, Courf, fho nssngo
shouId bo undorsfood In IIghf of fho oInIon`s rocodIng
summnry of fho comInInf`s concrofo nIIognfIons, whIch
fho Courf quIfo ronsonnbIy undorsfood ns nmIy sfnfIng n
cInIm for roIIof. Iuf fho nssngo so offon quofod fnIIs fo
monfIon fhIs undorsfnndIng on fho nrf of fho Courf, nnd
nffor uzzIIng fho rofossIon for 50 yonrs, fhIs fnmous
obsorvnfIon hns onrnod Ifs rofIromonf. Tho hrnso Is bosf
forgoffon ns nn IncomIofo, nognfIvo gIoss on nn nccofod
IondIng sfnndnrd: onco n cInIm hns boon sfnfod ndo-
qunfoIy, If mny bo suorfod by showIng nny sof of fncfs
consIsfonf wIfh fho nIIognfIons In fho comInInf. Soo
Sonjuon, 40 I. 3d, nf 25l (onco n cInIm for roIIof hns boon
sfnfod, n InInfIff rocoIvos fho bonofIf of ImngInnfIon, so
Iong ns fho hyofhosos nro consIsfonf wIfh fho comInInf);
nccord, Suier/ieuicc, 534 !. S., nf 5l4; Ao/ionol Orgoni-
co/ion for Wonen, 1nc. v. ScleiJler, 5l0 !. S. 249, 256
(l994); H. J. 1nc. v. Aor/luee/ern Bell Teleplone Co., 492
!. S. 229, 249250 (l989); Hielon v. King & SpolJing, 46?
!. S. 69, ?3 (l984). Conle,, fhon, doscrIbod fho brondfh of
oorfunIfy fo rovo whnf nn ndoqunfo comInInf cInIms,
nof fho mInImum sfnndnrd of ndoqunfo IondIng fo govorn
l? CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
OInIon of fho Courf
n comInInf`s survIvnI.
8

8
Iocnuso Conle,`s 'no sof of fncfs` Inngungo wns ono of our onrIIosf
sfnfomonfs nbouf IondIng undor fho IodornI !uIos, If Is no surrIso
fhnf If hns sInco boon cIfod ns nufhorIfy by fhIs Courf nnd ofhors.
Poe/, nf 8. AIfhough wo hnvo nof rovIousIy oxInInod fho cIrcum-
sfnncos nnd rojocfod fho IIfornI rondIng of fho nssngo ombrncod by fho
Courf of AonIs, our nnnIysIs comorfs wIfh fhIs Courf`s sfnfomonfs In
fho yonrs sInco Conle,. Soo Duro, 544 !. S., nf 34? (quofIng Blue Clip
S/onpe v. Monor Drug S/oree, 42l !. S. ?23, ?4l (l9?5); (roquIrIng
'ronsonnbIy foundod hoo fhnf fho |dIscovory] rocoss wIII rovonI
roIovnnf ovIdonco` fo suorf fho cInIm (nIfornfIon In Duro)); Aeeoci-
o/eJ Gen. Con/roc/ore of Col., 1nc. v. Corpen/ere, 459 !. S. 5l9, 526
(l983) (If Is nof . . . roor fo nssumo fhnf |fho InInfIff] cnn rovo
fncfs fhnf If hns nof nIIogod or fhnf fho dofondnnfs hnvo vIoInfod fho
nnfIfrusf Inws In wnys fhnf hnvo nof boon nIIogod); Wileon v. Sclne/-
/ler, 365 !. S. 38l, 383 (l96l) (In fho nbsonco of . . . nn nIIognfIon |fhnf
fho nrrosf wns mndo wIfhouf robnbIo cnuso] fho courfs boIow couId
nof, nor cnn wo, nssumo fhnf rosondonfs nrrosfod ofIfIonor wIfhouf
robnbIo cnuso fo boIIovo fhnf ho hnd commIffod . . . n nnrcofIcs of-
fonso). or nro wo ronchIng ouf fo docIdo fhIs Issuo In n cnso whoro
fho mnffor wns nof rnIsod by fho nrfIos, soo poe/, nf l0, sInco bofh fho
I!ICs nnd fho Covornmonf hIghIIghf fho robIoms sfommIng from n
IIfornI InforrofnfIon of Conle,`s no sof of fncfs Inngungo nnd sook
cInrIfIcnfIon of fho sfnndnrd. IrIof for IofIfIonors 2?28; IrIof for
!nIfod Sfnfos ns Anicue Curioe 2225; soo nIso IrIof for !osondonfs
l? (doscrIbIng |]ofIfIonors nnd fhoIr nmIcI ns mounfIng nn nffnck on
Conle,`s 'no sof of fncfs` sfnndnrd).
Tho dIssonf fInds roIovnnco In Courf of AonIs rocodonfs from fho
l940s, whIch nIIogodIy gnvo rIso fo Conle,`s no sof of fncfs Inngungo.
Soo poe/, nf lll3. Ivon InduIgIng fhIs IIno of nnnIysIs, fhoso cnsos do
nof chnIIongo fho undorsfnndIng fhnf, boforo rocoodIng fo dIscovory, n
comInInf musf nIIogo fncfs suggosfIvo of IIIognI conducf. Soo, e.g.,
Leiner v. S/o/e Mu/. Life Aeeur. Co., l08 I. 2d 302, 305 (CA8 l940)
( '|I]f, In vIow of whnf Is nIIogod, If cnn ronsonnbIy bo concoIvod fhnf fho
InInfIffs . . . couId, uon n frInI, osfnbIIsh n cnso whIch wouId onfIfIo
fhom fo . . . roIIof, fho mofIon fo dIsmIss shouId nof hnvo boon
grnnfod` ); Con/inen/ol Collieriee, 1nc. v. SloIer, l30 I. 2d 63l, 635
(CA3 l942) (o mnffor how IIkoIy If mny soom fhnf fho Iondor wIII bo
unnbIo fo rovo hIs cnso, ho Is onfIfIod, uon nvorrIng n cInIm, fo nn
oorfunIfy fo fry fo rovo If). !nfhor, fhoso cnsos sfnnd for fho
unobjocfIonnbIo roosIfIon fhnf, whon n comInInf ndoqunfoIy sfnfos n
cInIm, If mny nof bo dIsmIssod bnsod on n dIsfrIcf courf`s nssossmonf
OInIon of fho Courf
III
Whon wo Iook for InusIbIIIfy In fhIs comInInf, wo
ngroo wIfh fho IsfrIcf Courf fhnf InInfIffs` cInIm of
consIrncy In rosfrnInf of frndo comos u shorf. To bogIn
wIfh, fho comInInf Ionvos no doubf fhnf InInfIffs rosf
fhoIr l cInIm on doscrIfIons of nrnIIoI conducf nnd nof
on nny Indoondonf nIIognfIon of ncfunI ngroomonf nmong
fho I!ICs. Supro, nf 4. AIfhough In form n fow sfrny
sfnfomonfs sonk dIrocfIy of ngroomonf,
9
on fnIr rondIng
fhoso nro moroIy IognI concIusIons rosfIng on fho rIor
nIIognfIons. Thus, fho comInInf fIrsf fnkos nccounf of fho
nIIogod nbsonco of nny monnIngfuI comofIfIon bofwoon
|fho I!ICs] In ono nnofhor`s mnrkofs, fho nrnIIoI courso
of conducf fhnf onch |I!IC] ongngod In fo rovonf como-
fIfIon from C!ICs, nnd fho ofhor fncfs nnd mnrkof
cIrcumsfnncos nIIogod |onrIIor]; In IIghf of fhoso, fho
comInInf concIudos fhnf |fho I!ICs] hnvo onforod Info n
confrncf, combInnfIon or consIrncy fo rovonf comofIfIvo
onfry Info fhoIr . . . mnrkofs nnd hnvo ngrood nof fo com-
ofo wIfh ono nnofhor. ComInInf 5l, A. 2?.
l0
Tho

fhnf fho InInfIff wIII fnII fo fInd ovIdonfInry suorf for hIs nIIognfIons
or rovo hIs cInIm fo fho snfIsfncfIon of fho fncffIndor. Cf. Scleuer v.
IloJee, 4l6 !. S. 232, 236 (l9?4) (n dIsfrIcf courf woIghIng n mofIon fo
dIsmIss nsks nof whofhor n InInfIff wIII uIfImnfoIy rovnII buf
whofhor fho cInImnnf Is onfIfIod fo offor ovIdonco fo suorf fho
cInIms).
9
Soo ComInInf 5l, 64, A. 2?, 303l (nIIogIng fhnf I!ICs on-
gngod In n confrncf, combInnfIon or consIrncy nnd ngrood nof fo
comofo wIfh ono nnofhor).
l0
If fho comInInf hnd nof oxInInod fhnf fho cInIm of ngroomonf
rosfod on fho nrnIIoI conducf doscrIbod, wo doubf fhnf fho comInInf`s
roforoncos fo nn ngroomonf nmong fho I!ICs wouId hnvo gIvon fho
nofIco roquIrod by !uIo 8. Anrf from IdonfIfyIng n sovon-yonr snn In
whIch fho l vIoInfIons woro suosod fo hnvo occurrod (i.e.,
|b]ogInnIng nf Ionsf ns onrIy ns Iobrunry 6, l996, nnd confInuIng fo fho
rosonf, iJ., 64, A. 30), fho IondIngs monfIonod no socIfIc fImo,
Inco, or orson InvoIvod In fho nIIogod consIrncIos. ThIs Inck of nofIco
confrnsfs shnrIy wIfh fho modoI form for IondIng nogIIgonco, Iorm 9,
l9 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
OInIon of fho Courf
nub of fho comInInf, fhon, Is fho I!ICs` nrnIIoI bohnvIor,
consIsfIng of sfos fo koo fho C!ICs ouf nnd mnnIfosf
dIsInforosf In bocomIng C!ICs fhomsoIvos, nnd Ifs suffI-
cIoncy furns on fho suggosfIons rnIsod by fhIs conducf
whon vIowod In IIghf of common oconomIc oxorIonco.
ll
Wo fhInk fhnf nofhIng confnInod In fho comInInf In-
vosfs oIfhor fho ncfIon or InncfIon nIIogod wIfh n InusIbIo
suggosfIon of consIrncy. As fo fho I!ICs` suosod
ngroomonf fo dIsoboy fho l996 Acf nnd fhwnrf fho C!ICs`
nffomfs fo comofo, wo ngroo wIfh fho IsfrIcf Courf fhnf
nofhIng In fho comInInf InfImnfos fhnf fho rosIsfnnco fo
fho usfnrfs wns nnyfhIng moro fhnn fho nnfurnI, unIInf-
ornI roncfIon of onch I!IC Infonf on kooIng Ifs rogIonnI
domInnnco. Tho l996 Acf dId moro fhnn jusf subjocf fho
I!ICs fo comofIfIon; If obIIgod fhom fo subsIdIzo fhoIr
comofIfors wIfh fhoIr own oquImonf nf whoIosnIo rnfos.
Tho oconomIc InconfIvo fo rosIsf wns oworfuI, buf rosIsf-
Ing comofIfIon Is roufIno mnrkof conducf, nnd ovon If fho
I!ICs fIoufod fho l996 Acf In nII fho wnys fho InInfIffs
nIIogo, soo iJ., 4?, A. 2324, fhoro Is no ronson fo Infor
fhnf fho comnnIos hnd ngrood nmong fhomsoIvos fo do
whnf wns onIy nnfurnI nnywny; so nnfurnI, In fncf, fhnf If

whIch fho dIssonf snys oxomIIfIos fho kInd of bnro nIIognfIon fhnf
survIvos n mofIon fo dIsmIss. Poe/, nf 6. Whorons fho modoI form
nIIogos fhnf fho dofondnnf sfruck fho InInfIff wIfh hIs cnr whIIo
InInfIff wns crossIng n nrfIcuInr hIghwny nf n socIfIod dnfo nnd fImo,
fho comInInf horo furnIshos no cIuo ns fo whIch of fho four I!ICs
(much Ioss whIch of fhoIr omIoyoos) suosodIy ngrood, or whon nnd
whoro fho IIIIcIf ngroomonf fook Inco. A dofondnnf wIshIng fo ronro
nn nnswor In fho sImIo fncf nfforn InId ouf In Iorm 9 wouId know
whnf fo nnswor; n dofondnnf sookIng fo rosond fo InInfIffs` concIusory
nIIognfIons In fho l confoxf wouId hnvo IIffIo Idon whoro fo bogIn.
ll
Tho dIssonf`s quofnfIons from fho comInInf Ionvo fho ImrossIon
fhnf InInfIffs dIrocfIy nIIogo IIIognI ngroomonf; In fncf, fhoy rocood
oxcIusIvoIy vIn nIIognfIons of nrnIIoI conducf, ns bofh fho IsfrIcf
Courf nnd Courf of AonIs rocognIzod. Soo 3l3 I. Su. 2d l?4, l82
(SY 2003); 425 I. 3d 99, l02l04 (CA 2005).
OInIon of fho Courf
nIIogIng nrnIIoI docIsIons fo rosIsf comofIfIon woro
onough fo ImIy nn nnfIfrusf consIrncy, IondIng n l
vIoInfIon ngnInsf nImosf nny grou of comofIng busI-
nossos wouId bo n suro fhIng.
Tho comInInf mnkos Ifs cIososf nss nf n rodIcnfo for
consIrncy wIfh fho cInIm fhnf coIIusIon wns nocossnry
bocnuso succoss by ovon ono C!IC In nn I!IC`s forrIfory
wouId hnvo rovonIod fho dogroo fo whIch comofIfIvo
onfry by C!ICs wouId hnvo boon succossfuI In fho ofhor
forrIforIos. 1J., 50, A. 262?. Iuf, Ifs IogIc nsIdo, fhIs
gonornI romIso sfIII fnIIs fo nnswor fho oInf fhnf fhoro
wns jusf no nood for joInf oncourngomonf fo rosIsf fho
l996 Acf; ns fho IsfrIcf Courf snId, onch I!IC hns ron-
son fo wnnf fo nvoId donIIng wIfh C!ICs nnd onch I!IC
wouId nffomf fo koo C!ICs ouf, rognrdIoss of fho nc-
fIons of fho ofhor I!ICs. 3l3 I. Su. 2d, nf l84; cf.
Kroner v. Polloc/-Kroener IounJo/ion, 890 I. Su. 250,
256 (SY l995) (whIIo fho InInfIff mny boIIovo fho
dofondnnfs consIrod . . . , fho dofondnnfs` nIIogodIy
consIrnforInI ncfIons couId oqunIIy hnvo boon romfod
by InwfuI, Indoondonf gonIs whIch do nof consfIfufo n
consIrncy).
l2
IInInfIffs` socond consIrncy fhoory rosfs on fho com-
ofIfIvo rofIconco nmong fho I!ICs fhomsoIvos In fho
wnko of fho l996 Acf, whIch wns suosodIy nssod In fho
'ho|o] fhnf fho Inrgo Incumbonf IocnI monooIy comn-
nIos . . . mIghf nffnck fhoIr noIghbors` sorvIco nrons, ns

l2
Irom fho nIIognfIon fhnf fho I!ICs boIong fo vnrIous frndo nssocIn-
fIons, soo ComInInf 46, A. 23, fho dIssonf InyfuIIy suggosfs fhnf
fhoy consIrod fo rosfrnIn frndo, nn Inforonco snId fo bo buffrossod by
fho common sonso of Adnm SmIfh. Poe/, nf 22, 2526. If Adnm SmIfh
Is oorIng down fodny, ho mny bo surrIsod fo Ionrn fhnf hIs fonguo-In-
chook romnrk wouId bo nufhorIfy fo forco hIs fnmous Inmnkor fo
dovofo fInnncInI nnd humnn cnIfnI fo hIro Inwyors, ronro for doosI-
fIons, nnd ofhorwIso fond off nIIognfIons of consIrncy; nII fhIs jusf
bocnuso ho boIongod fo fho snmo frndo guIId ns ono of hIs comofIfors
whon fhoIr Ins cnrrIod fho snmo rIco fng.
2l CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
OInIon of fho Courf
fhoy nro fho bosf sIfunfod fo do so.` ComInInf 38, A.
20 (quofIng Consumor IodornfIon of AmorIcn, !ossons
from l996 ToIocommunIcnfIons Acf: oroguInfIon Ioforo
MonnIngfuI ComofIfIon SoIIs Consumor Isnsfor, . l2
(Iob. 2000). Confrnry fo hoo, fho I!ICs docIInod 'fo
onfor onch ofhor`s sorvIco forrIforIos In nny sIgnIfIcnnf
wny,` ComInInf 38, A. 20, nnd fho IocnI foIohono
nnd hIgh sood Infornof mnrkof romnIns hIghIy comnrf-
monfnIIzod googrnhIcnIIy, wIfh mInImnI comofIfIon.
Insod on fhIs sfnfo of nffnIrs, nnd orcoIvIng fho I!ICs fo
bo bIossod wIfh osocInIIy nffrncfIvo busInoss oorfunI-
fIos In surroundIng mnrkofs domInnfod by ofhor I!ICs,
fho InInfIffs nssorf fhnf fho I!ICs` nrnIIoI conducf wns
sfrongIy suggosfIvo of consIrncy. 1J., 40, A. 2l.
Iuf If wns nof suggosfIvo of consIrncy, nof If hIsfory
fonchos nnyfhIng. In n frndIfIonnIIy unroguInfod Indusfry
wIfh Iow bnrrIors fo onfry, snrso comofIfIon nmong Inrgo
fIrms domInnfIng sonrnfo googrnhIcnI sogmonfs of fho
mnrkof couId vory woII sIgnIfy IIIognI ngroomonf, buf horo
wo hnvo nn obvIous nIfornnfIvo oxInnnfIon. In fho docndo
rocodIng fho l996 Acf nnd woII boforo fhnf, monooIy wns
fho norm In foIocommunIcnfIons, nof fho oxcofIon. Soo
Vericon Connunico/ione 1nc. v. ICC, 535 !. S. 46?, 4??
4?8 (2002) (doscrIbIng foIohono sorvIco rovIdors ns
frndIfIonnI ubIIc monooIIos). Tho I!ICs woro born In
fhnf worId, doubfIoss IIkod fho worId fho wny If wns, nnd
suroIy know fho ndngo nbouf hIm who IIvos by fho sword.
Honco, n nnfurnI oxInnnfIon for fho noncomofIfIon
nIIogod Is fhnf fho formor Covornmonf-snncfIonod mo-
nooIIsfs woro sIffIng fIghf, oxocfIng fhoIr noIghbors fo
do fho snmo fhIng.
In fncf, fho comInInf IfsoIf gIvos ronsons fo boIIovo fhnf
fho I!ICs wouId soo fhoIr bosf Inforosfs In kooIng fo
fhoIr oId furf. AIfhough fho comInInf snys gonornIIy fhnf
fho I!ICs nssod u osocInIIy nffrncfIvo busInoss oor-
funIf|Ios] by docIInIng fo comofo ns C!ICs ngnInsf ofhor
OInIon of fho Courf
I!ICs, ComInInf 40, A. 2l, If doos nof nIIogo fhnf
comofIfIon ns C!ICs wns ofonfInIIy nny moro IucrnfIvo
fhnn ofhor oorfunIfIos boIng ursuod by fho I!ICs
durIng fho snmo orIod,
l3
nnd fho comInInf Is roIofo
wIfh IndIcnfIons fhnf nny C!IC fncod nonrIy Insurmounf-
nbIo bnrrIors fo rofIfnbIIIfy owIng fo fho I!ICs` fIngrnnf
rosIsfnnco fo fho nofwork shnrIng roquIromonfs of fho
l996 Acf, iJ., 4?; A. 2326. of onIy fhnf, buf ovon
wIfhouf n monooIIsfIc frndIfIon nnd fho ocuIInr dIffIcuIfy
of mnndnfIng shnrod nofworks, |f]Irms do nof oxnnd
wIfhouf IImIf nnd nono of fhom onfors ovory mnrkof fhnf
nn oufsIdo obsorvor mIghf rognrd ns rofIfnbIo, or ovon n
smnII orfIon of such mnrkofs. Aroodn & Hovonknm
30?d, nf l55 (Su. 2006) (commonfIng on fho cnso nf
bnr). Tho ushof Is fhnf Congross mny hnvo oxocfod
somo I!ICs fo bocomo C!ICs In fho Iogncy forrIforIos of
ofhor I!ICs, buf fho dIsnoInfmonf doos nof mnko con-
sIrncy InusIbIo. Wo ngroo wIfh fho IsfrIcf Courf`s
nssossmonf fhnf nnfIfrusf consIrncy wns nof suggosfod by
fho fncfs ndducod undor oIfhor fhoory of fho comInInf,

l3
Tho comInInf quofod n roorfod sfnfomonf of Qwosf`s CIO, !Ich-
nrd ofobnorf, fo suggosf fhnf fho I!ICs docIInod fo comofo ngnInsf
onch ofhor dosIfo rocognIzIng fhnf If 'mIghf bo n good wny fo furn n
quIck doIInr.` 42, A. 22 (quofIng ChIcngo TrIbuno, Ocf. 3l, 2002,
IusInoss SocfIon, . l). ThIs wns onIy nrf of whnf ho roorfodIy snId,
howovor, nnd fho IsfrIcf Courf wns onfIfIod fo fnko nofIco of fho fuII
confonfs of fho ubIIshod nrfIcIos roforoncod In fho comInInf, from
whIch fho fruncnfod quofnfIons woro drnwn. Soo Iod. !uIo IvId. 20l.
ofobnorf wns nIso quofod ns snyIng fhnf onforIng now mnrkofs ns n
C!IC wouId nof bo n susfnInnbIo oconomIc modoI bocnuso fho C!IC
rIcIng modoI Is jusf . . . nufs. ChIcngo TrIbuno, Ocf. 3l, 2002, IusI-
noss SocfIon, . l (cIfod nf ComInInf 42, A. 22). Anofhor sourco
cIfod In fho comInInf quofos ofobnorf ns snyIng ho fhoughf If un-
wIso fo bnso n busInoss Inn on fho rIvIIogos nccordod fo C!ICs
undor fho l996 Acf bocnuso fho roguInfory onvIronmonf wns foo unsfn-
bIo. ChIcngo TrIbuno, oc. l9, 2002, IusInoss SocfIon, . 2 (cIfod nf
ComInInf 45, A. 23).
CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?) 23
OInIon of fho Courf
whIch fhus fnIIs fo sfnfo n vnIId l cInIm.
l4
IInInfIffs sny fhnf our nnnIysIs runs counfor fo
Suier/ieuicc v. Soreno A. A., 534 !. S. 506, 508 (2002),
whIch hoId fhnf n comInInf In nn omIoymonf dIscrImI-
nnfIon InwsuIf |nood] nof confnIn socIfIc fncfs osfnbIIsh-
Ing n rImn fncIo cnso of dIscrImInnfIon undor fho frnmo-
work sof forfh In McDonnell Dougloe Corp. v. Green, 4ll
!. S. ?92 (l9?3). Thoy nrguo fhnf jusf ns fho rImn fncIo
cnso Is n fIoxIbIo ovIdonfInry sfnndnrd fhnf shouId nof
bo frnnsosod Info n rIgId IondIng sfnndnrd for dIscrImI-
nnfIon cnsos, Suier/ieuicc, eupro, nf 5l2, frnnsos|Ing]
'Ius fncfor` summnry judgmonf nnnIysIs woodonIy Info n
rIgId !uIo l2(b)(6) IondIng sfnndnrd . . . wouId bo un-
wIso, IrIof for !osondonfs 39. As fho IsfrIcf Courf
corrocfIy undorsfood, howovor, Suier/ieuicc dId nof
chnngo fho Inw of IondIng, buf sImIy ro-omhnsIzod . . .
fhnf fho Socond CIrcuIf`s uso of n hoIghfonod IondIng
sfnndnrd for TIfIo VII cnsos wns confrnry fo fho IodornI
!uIos` sfrucfuro of IIbornI IondIng roquIromonfs. 3l3
I. Su. 2d, nf l8l (cIfnfIon nnd foofnofo omIffod). Ivon
fhough SwIorkIowIcz`s IondIngs dofnIIod fho ovonfs
IondIng fo hIs formInnfIon, rovIdod roIovnnf dnfos, nnd
IncIudod fho ngos nnd nnfIonnIIfIos of nf Ionsf somo of fho
roIovnnf orsons InvoIvod wIfh hIs formInnfIon, fho Courf

l4
In ronchIng fhIs concIusIon, wo do nof nIy nny hoIghfonod
IondIng sfnndnrd, nor do wo sook fo brondon fho scoo of IodornI !uIo
of CIvII Irocoduro 9, whIch cnn onIy bo nccomIIshod 'by fho rocoss of
nmondIng fho IodornI !uIos, nnd nof by judIcInI InforrofnfIon.`
Suier/ieuicc v. Soreno A. A., 534 !. S. 506, 5l5 (2002) (quofIng
Leo/lernon v. Torron/ Coun/, Aorco/ice 1n/elligence onJ CoorJino/ion
Ini/, 50? !. S. l63, l68 (l993)). On corfnIn subjocfs undorsfood fo
rnIso n hIgh rIsk of nbusIvo IIfIgnfIon, n InInfIff musf sfnfo fncfunI
nIIognfIons wIfh gronfor nrfIcuInrIfy fhnn !uIo 8 roquIros. Iod. !uIos
CIv. Iroc. 9(b)(c). Horo, our concorn Is nof fhnf fho nIIognfIons In fho
comInInf woro InsuffIcIonfIy nrfIcuInr|Izod], iIiJ., rnfhor, fho
comInInf wnrrnnfod dIsmIssnI bocnuso If fnIIod in /o/o fo rondor
InInfIffs` onfIfIomonf fo roIIof InusIbIo.
OInIon of fho Courf
of AonIs dIsmIssod hIs comInInf for fnIIIng fo nIIogo
corfnIn nddIfIonnI fncfs fhnf SwIorkIowIcz wouId nood nf
fho frInI sfngo fo suorf hIs cInIm In fho nbsonco of dIrocf
ovIdonco of dIscrImInnfIon. Suier/ieuicc, 534 !. S., nf
5l4. Wo rovorsod on fho ground fhnf fho Courf of AonIs
hnd ImormIssIbIy nIIod whnf nmounfod fo n hoIghf-
onod IondIng roquIromonf by InsIsfIng fhnf SwIorkIowIcz
nIIogo socIfIc fncfs boyond fhoso nocossnry fo sfnfo hIs
cInIm nnd fho grounds showIng onfIfIomonf fo roIIof. 1J.,
nf 508.
Horo, In confrnsf, wo do nof roquIro hoIghfonod fncf
IondIng of socIfIcs, buf onIy onough fncfs fo sfnfo n cInIm
fo roIIof fhnf Is InusIbIo on Ifs fnco. Iocnuso fho InInfIffs
horo hnvo nof nudgod fhoIr cInIms ncross fho IIno from
concoIvnbIo fo InusIbIo, fhoIr comInInf musf bo dIsmIssod.
* * *
Tho judgmonf of fho Courf of AonIs for fho Socond
CIrcuIf Is rovorsod, nnd fho cnuso Is romnndod for furfhor
rocoodIngs consIsfonf wIfh fhIs oInIon.
1/ ie eo orJereJ.
_________________
_________________
l CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
STIVIS, J., dIssonfIng
6835(0(&28572)7+(81,7('67$7(6
o. 05ll26
II!! AT!ATIC CO!IO!ATIO, IT A!., IITI-
TIOI!S t. WI!!IAM TWOMI!Y IT A!.
O W!IT OI CI!TIO!A!I TO THI !ITI STATIS CO!!T OI
AIIIA!S IO! THI SICO CI!C!IT
|Mny 2l, 200?]
J!STICI STIVIS, wIfh whom J!STICI CISI!!C joIns
oxcof ns fo Inrf IV, dIssonfIng.
In fho fIrsf nrngrnh of Ifs 24-ngo oInIon fho Courf
sfnfos fhnf fho quosfIon fo bo docIdod Is whofhor nIIogn-
fIons fhnf mnjor foIocommunIcnfIons rovIdors ongngod
In corfnIn nrnIIoI conducf unfnvornbIo fo comofIfIon
suffIco fo sfnfo n vIoInfIon of l of fho Shormnn Acf. An/e,
nf l. Tho nnswor fo fhnf quosfIon hns boon soffIod for
moro fhnn 50 yonrs. If fhnf woro Indood fho Issuo, n
summnry rovorsnI cIfIng Tleo/re 1n/erprieee, 1nc. v.
Poronoun/ Iiln Die/riIu/ing Corp., 346 !. S. 53? (l954),
wouId ndoqunfoIy rosoIvo fhIs cnso. As Tleo/re 1n/er-
prieee hoId, nrnIIoI conducf Is cIrcumsfnnfInI ovIdonco
ndmIssIbIo on fho Issuo of consIrncy, buf If Is nof IfsoIf
IIIognI. 1J., nf 540542.
Thus, fhIs Is n cnso In whIch fhoro Is no dIsufo nbouf
fho subsfnnfIvo Inw. If fho dofondnnfs ncfod Indoond-
onfIy, fhoIr conducf wns orfocfIy InwfuI. If, howovor, fhnf
conducf Is fho roducf of n horIzonfnI ngroomonf nmong
ofonfInI comofIfors, If wns unInwfuI. IInInfIffs hnvo
nIIogod such nn ngroomonf nnd, bocnuso fho comInInf
wns dIsmIssod In ndvnnco of nnswor, fho nIIognfIon hns
nof ovon boon donIod. Why, fhon, doos fho cnso nof ro-
cood oos n judIcInI oInIon fhnf fho chnrgo Is nof Inu-
sIbIo rovIdo n IognIIy nccofnbIo ronson for dIsmIssIng
fho comInInf I fhInk nof.
!osondonfs` nmondod comInInf doscrIbos n vnrIofy of
cIrcumsfnnfInI ovIdonco nnd mnkos fho sfrnIghfforwnrd
nIIognfIon fhnf ofIfIonors
onforod Info n confrncf, combInnfIon or consIrncy fo
rovonf comofIfIvo onfry In fhoIr rosocfIvo IocnI
foIohono nnd/or hIgh sood Infornof sorvIcos mnrkofs
nnd hnvo ngrood nof fo comofo wIfh ono nnofhor nnd
ofhorwIso nIIocnfod cusfomors nnd mnrkofs fo ono nn-
ofhor. Amondod ComInInf In o. 02 CIV. l0220
(CI!) (SY) 5l, A. 2? (horoInnffor ComInInf).
Tho comInInf oxInIns fhnf, confrnry fo Congross` oxoc-
fnfIon whon If onncfod fho l996 ToIocommunIcnfIons Acf,
nnd consIsfonf wIfh fhoIr own oconomIc soIf-Inforosfs,
ofIfIonor Incumbonf !ocnI Ixchnngo CnrrIors (I!ICs)
hnvo nssIduousIy nvoIdod InfrIngIng uon onch ofhor`s
mnrkofs nnd hnvo rofusod fo ormIf nonIncumbonf com-
ofIfors fo nccoss fhoIr nofworks. Tho comInInf quofos
!Ichnrd ofobnorf, fho formor CIO of ono such I!IC, ns
snyIng fhnf comofIng In n noIghborIng I!IC`s forrIfory
mIghf bo n good wny fo furn n quIck doIInr buf fhnf
doosn`f mnko If rIghf. 1J., 42, A. 22. Moroovor, ro-
sondonfs nIIogo fhnf ofIfIonors communIcnfo nmongsf
fhomsoIvos fhrough numorous Indusfry nssocInfIons. 1J.,
46, A. 23. In sum, rosondonfs nIIogo fhnf ofIfIonors
onforod Info nn ngroomonf fhnf hns Iong boon rocognIzod
ns n cInssIc per ee vIoInfIon of fho Shormnn Acf. Soo !o-
orf of fho Affornoy ConornI`s nfIonnI CommIffoo fo
Sfudy fho AnfIfrusf !nws 26 (l955).
!ndor ruIos of rocoduro fhnf hnvo boon woII soffIod
sInco woII boforo our docIsIon In Tleo/re 1n/erprieee, n
judgo ruIIng on n dofondnnf`s mofIon fo dIsmIss n com-
InInf, musf nccof ns fruo nII of fho fncfunI nIIognfIons
confnInod In fho comInInf. Suier/ieuicc v. Soreno
A. A., 534 !. S. 506, 508, n. l (2002); soo Otere/ree/ v.
3 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
Aor/l Slore Corp., 3l8 !. S. l25, l2? (l943). Iuf Insfond
of roquIrIng knowIodgonbIo oxocufIvos such ns ofobnorf
fo rosond fo fhoso nIIognfIons by wny of sworn doosI-
fIons or ofhor IImIfod dIscovorynnd Indood wIfhouf so
much ns roquIrIng ofIfIonors fo fIIo nn nnswor donyIng
fhnf fhoy onforod Info nny ngroomonffho mnjorIfy or-
mIfs ImmodInfo dIsmIssnI bnsod on fho nssurnncos of
comnny Inwyors fhnf nofhIng unfownrd wns nfoof. Tho
Courf ombrncos fho nrgumonf of fhoso Inwyors fhnf fhoro
Is no ronson fo Infor fhnf fho comnnIos hnd ngrood nmong
fhomsoIvos fo do whnf wns onIy nnfurnI nnywny, on/e, nf
l9; fhnf fhoro wns jusf no nood for joInf oncourngomonf fo
rosIsf fho l996 Acf, on/e, nf 20; nnd fhnf fho nnfurnI
oxInnnfIon for fho noncomofIfIon nIIogod Is fhnf fho
formor Covornmonf-snncfIonod monooIIsfs woro sIffIng
fIghf, oxocfIng fhoIr noIghbors fo do fho snmo fhIng,
on/e, nf 2l.
Tho Courf nnd ofIfIonors` IognI fonm nro no doubf
corrocf fhnf fho nrnIIoI conducf nIIogod Is consIsfonf wIfh
fho nbsonco of nny confrncf, combInnfIon, or consIrncy.
Iuf fhnf conducf Is nIso onfIroIy consIsfonf wIfh fho pree-
ence of fho IIIognI ngroomonf nIIogod In fho comInInf.
And fho chnrgo fhnf ofIfIonors ngrood nof fo comofo
wIfh ono nnofhor Is nof jusf ono of n fow sfrny sfnfo-
monfs, on/e, nf l8; If Is nn nIIognfIon doscrIbIng unInwfuI
conducf. As such, fho IodornI !uIos of CIvII Irocoduro,
our IongsfnndIng rocodonf, nnd sound rncfIco mnndnfo
fhnf fho IsfrIcf Courf nf Ionsf roquIro somo sorf of ro-
sonso from ofIfIonors boforo dIsmIssIng fho cnso.
Two rncfIcnI concorns rosumnbIy oxInIn fho Courf`s
drnmnfIc donrfuro from soffIod rocodurnI Inw. IrIvnfo
nnfIfrusf IIfIgnfIon cnn bo onormousIy oxonsIvo, nnd
fhoro Is n rIsk fhnf jurors mny mIsfnkonIy concIudo fhnf
ovIdonco of nrnIIoI conducf hns rovod fhnf fho nrfIos
ncfod ursunnf fo nn ngroomonf whon fhoy In fncf moroIy
mndo sImIInr Indoondonf docIsIons. Thoso concorns
morIf cnrofuI cnso mnnngomonf, IncIudIng sfrIcf confroI of
dIscovory, cnrofuI scrufIny of ovIdonco nf fho summnry
judgmonf sfngo, nnd IucId InsfrucfIons fo jurIos; fhoy do
nof, howovor, jusfIfy fho dIsmIssnI of nn ndoqunfoIy
Iondod comInInf wIfhouf ovon roquIrIng fho dofondnnfs
fo fIIo nnswors donyIng n chnrgo fhnf fhoy In fncf ongngod
In coIIocfIvo docIsIonmnkIng. Moro ImorfnnfIy, fhoy do
nof jusfIfy nn InforrofnfIon of IodornI !uIo of CIvII Iro-
coduro l2(b)(6) fhnf sooms fo bo drIvon by fho mnjorIfy`s
nrnIsnI of fho InusIbIIIfy of fho uIfImnfo fncfunI nIIogn-
fIon rnfhor fhnn Ifs IognI suffIcIoncy.
I
!uIo 8(n)(2) of fho IodornI !uIos roquIros fhnf n com-
InInf confnIn n shorf nnd InIn sfnfomonf of fho cInIm
showIng fhnf fho Iondor Is onfIfIod fo roIIof. Tho ruIo dId
nof como nbouf by hnonsfnnco nnd Ifs Inngungo Is nof
Inndvorfonf. Tho IngIIsh oxorIonco wIfh IyznnfIno
socInI IondIng ruIosIIIusfrnfod by fho hyorfochnIcnI
HIInry ruIos of l834
l
mndo obvIous fho nonI of n Iond-
Ing sfnndnrd fhnf wns onsy for fho common IIfIgnnf fo
undorsfnnd nnd suffIcod fo uf fho dofondnnf on nofIco ns
fo fho nnfuro of fho cInIm ngnInsf hIm nnd fho roIIof
soughf. SfnfosIdo, nvId udIoy IIoId dovoIood fho
hIghIy InfIuonfInI ow York Codo of l848, whIch roquIrod
|n] sfnfomonf of fho fncfs consfIfufIng fho cnuso of ncfIon,
In ordInnry nnd concIso Inngungo, wIfhouf roofIfIon, nnd
In such n mnnnor ns fo onnbIo n orson of common undor-
sfnndIng fo know whnf Is Infondod. An Acf fo SImIIfy
nnd AbrIdgo fho IrncfIco, IIondIngs nnd IrocoodIngs of
fho Courfs of fhIs Sfnfo, ch. 3?9, l20(2), l848 . Y. !nws
. 49?, 52l. SubsfnnfInIIy sImIInr Inngungo nonrod In
fho IodornI IquIfy !uIos ndofod In l9l2. Soo Iod. Iq-
uIfy !uIo 25 (roquIrIng n shorf nnd sImIo sfnfomonf of

l
Soo 9 W. HoIdsworfh, HIsfory of IngIIsh !nw 32432? (l926).
5 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
fho uIfImnfo fncfs uon whIch fho InInfIff nsks roIIof,
omIffIng nny moro sfnfomonf of ovIdonco).
A dIffIcuIfy nroso, howovor, In fhnf fho IIoId Codo nnd
Ifs rogony roquIrod n InInfIff fo Iond fncfs rnfhor fhnn
concIusIons, n dIsfIncfIon fhnf rovod fnr onsIor fo sny
fhnn fo nIy. As commonfnfors hnvo nofod,
If Is vIrfunIIy ImossIbIo IogIcnIIy fo dIsfInguIsh
nmong 'uIfImnfo fncfs,` 'ovIdonco,` nnd 'concIusIons.`
IssonfInIIy nny nIIognfIon In n IondIng musf bo nn
nssorfIon fhnf corfnIn occurroncos fook Inco. Tho
IondIng socfrum, nssIng from ovIdonco fhrough uI-
fImnfo fncfs fo concIusIons, Is InrgoIy n confInuum
vnryIng onIy In fho dogroo of nrfIcuInrIfy wIfh whIch
fho occurroncos nro doscrIbod. WoInsfoIn & IsfIor,
Commonfs on IrocodurnI !oform: rnffIng IIondIng
!uIos, 5? CoIum. !. !ov. 5l8, 52052l (l95?).
Soo nIso Cook, Sfnfomonfs of Incf In IIondIng !ndor fho
Codos, 2l CoIum. !. !ov. 4l6, 4l? (l92l) (horoInnffor
Cook) (|T]horo Is no IogIcnI dIsfIncfIon bofwoon sfnfo-
monfs whIch nro grouod by fho courfs undor fho hrnsos
'sfnfomonfs of fncf` nnd 'concIusIons of Inw` ). !uIo 8 wns
dIrocfIy rosonsIvo fo fhIs dIffIcuIfy. Ifs drnffors Infon-
fIonnIIy nvoIdod nny roforonco fo fncfs or ovIdonco or
concIusIons. Soo 5 C. WrIghf & A. MIIIor, IodornI Irnc-
fIco nnd Irocoduro l2l6, . 20? (3d od. 2004) (horoInnffor
WrIghf & MIIIor) (Tho subsfIfufIon of 'cInIm showIng fhnf
fho Iondor Is onfIfIod fo roIIof` for fho codo formuInfIon of
fho 'fncfs` consfIfufIng n 'cnuso of ncfIon` wns Infondod fo
nvoId fho dIsfIncfIons drnwn undor fho codos nmong 'ovI-
donfInry fncfs,` 'uIfImnfo fncfs,` nnd 'concIusIons` . . .).
!ndor fho roInxod IondIng sfnndnrds of fho IodornI
!uIos, fho Idon wns nof fo koo IIfIgnnfs ouf of courf buf
rnfhor fo koo fhom In. Tho morIfs of n cInIm wouId bo
sorfod ouf durIng n fIoxIbIo rofrInI rocoss nnd, ns nro-
rInfo, fhrough fho crucIbIo of frInI. Soo Suier/ieuicc, 534
!. S., nf 5l4 (Tho IIbornI nofIco IondIng of !uIo 8(n) Is
fho sfnrfIng oInf of n sImIIfIod IondIng sysfom, whIch
wns ndofod fo focus IIfIgnfIon on fho morIfs of n cInIm).
ChnrIos I. CInrk, fho rIncInI drnffsmnn of fho IodornI
!uIos,
2
uf If fhus:
IxorIonco hns shown . . . fhnf wo cnnnof oxocf fho
roof of fho cnso fo bo mndo fhrough fho IondIngs,
nnd fhnf such roof Is ronIIy nof fhoIr funcfIon. Wo
cnn oxocf n gonornI sfnfomonf dIsfInguIshIng fho
cnso from nII ofhors, so fhnf fho mnnnor nnd form of
frInI nnd romody oxocfod nro cIonr, nnd so fhnf n
ormnnonf judgmonf wIII rosuIf. Tho ow IodornI
!uIos of CIvII Irocoduro: Tho !nsf Ihnso!ndorIyIng
IhIIosohy ImbodIod In Somo of fho InsIc IrovIsIons
of fho ow Irocoduro, 23 A. I. A. J. 9?6, 9?? (l93?)
(horoInnffor CInrk, ow IodornI !uIos).
Tho IondIng nrndIgm undor fho now IodornI !uIos wns
woII IIIusfrnfod by fho IncIusIon In fho nondIx of Iorm 9,
n comInInf for nogIIgonco. As roIovnnf, fho Iorm 9 com-
InInf sfnfos onIy: On Juno l, l936, In n ubIIc hIghwny
cnIIod IoyIsfon Sfroof In Iosfon, Mnssnchusoffs, dofon-
dnnf nogIIgonfIy drovo n mofor vohIcIo ngnInsf InInfIff
who wns fhon crossIng snId hIghwny. Iorm 9, ComInInf
for ogIIgonco, Iorms A., Iod. !uIos CIv. Iroc., 28
!. S. C. A., . 829 (horoInnffor Iorm 9). Tho comInInf
fhon doscrIbos fho InInfIff`s InjurIos nnd domnnds judg-
monf. Tho nssorfod ground for roIIofnnmoIy, fho dofon-
dnnf`s nogIIgonf drIvIngwouId hnvo boon cnIIod n 'con-
cIusIon of Inw` undor fho codo IondIng of oId. Soo, e.g.,
Cook 4l9. Iuf fhnf bnro nIIognfIon suffIcos undor n sys-
fom fhnf rosfrIcf|s] fho IondIngs fo fho fnsk of gonornI
nofIco-gIvIng nnd Invosf|s] fho doosIfIon-dIscovory roc-

2
Gulfe/reon Aeroepoce Corp. v. Mo,oconoe Corp., 485 !. S. 2?l, 283
(l988).
? CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
oss wIfh n vIfnI roIo In fho ronrnfIon for frInI.
3
Hic/-
non v. To,lor, 329 !. S. 495, 50l (l94?); soo nIso
Suier/ieuicc, 534 !. S., nf 5l3, n. 4 (cIfIng Iorm 9 ns nn
oxnmIo of 'fho sImIIcIfy nnd brovIfy of sfnfomonf whIch
fho ruIos confomInfo` ); Tloneon v. Woeling/on, 362
I. 3d 969, 9?0 (CA? 2004) (Iosnor, J.) (Tho fodornI ruIos
roIncod fncf IondIng wIfh nofIco IondIng).
II
If Is In fho confoxf of fhIs hIsfory fhnf Conle, v. GiIeon,
355 !. S. 4l (l95?), musf bo undorsfood. Tho Conle,
InInfIffs woro bInck rnIIrond workors who nIIogod fhnf
fhoIr unIon IocnI hnd rofusod fo rofocf fhom ngnInsf
dIscrImInnfory dIschnrgos, In vIoInfIon of fho nfIonnI
!nIIwny !nbor Acf. Tho unIon soughf fo dIsmIss fho
comInInf on fho ground fhnf Ifs gonornI nIIognfIons of
dIscrImInnfory fronfmonf by fho dofondnnfs Inckod suffI-
cIonf socIfIcIfy. WrIfIng for n unnnImous Courf, JusfIco
IInck rojocfod fho unIon`s cInIm ns forocIosod by fho Inn-
gungo of !uIo 8. 1J., nf 4?48. In fho courso of doIng so,
ho nrfIcuInfod fho formuInfIon fho Courf rojocfs fodny: In
nrnIsIng fho suffIcIoncy of fho comInInf wo foIIow, of
courso, fho nccofod ruIo fhnf n comInInf shouId nof bo
dIsmIssod for fnIIuro fo sfnfo n cInIm unIoss If nonrs
boyond doubf fhnf fho InInfIff cnn rovo no sof of fncfs In
suorf of hIs cInIm whIch wouId onfIfIo hIm fo roIIof.
1J., nf 4546.
ConsIsfonf wIfh fho dosIgn of fho IodornI !uIos,
Conle,`s no sof of fncfs formuInfIon ormIfs oufrIghf
dIsmIssnI onIy whon rocoodIng fo dIscovory or boyond

3
Tho IodornI !uIos do Imoso n nrfIcuInrIfy roquIromonf on nII
nvormonfs of frnud or mIsfnko, Iod. !uIo CIv. Iroc. 9(b), noIfhor of
whIch hns boon nIIogod In fhIs cnso. Wo hnvo rocognIzod fhnf fho cnnon
of expreeio uniue ee/ exclueio ol/eriue nIIos fo !uIo 9(b). Soo Leo/ler-
non v. Torron/ C/,. Aorco/ice 1n/elligence onJ CoorJino/ion Ini/, 50?
!. S. l63, l68 (l993).
wouId bo fufIIo. Onco If Is cIonr fhnf n InInfIff hns sfnfod
n cInIm fhnf, If fruo, wouId onfIfIo hIm fo roIIof, mnffors of
roof nro nrorInfoIy roIognfod fo ofhor sfngos of fho
frInI rocoss. Todny, howovor, In Ifs oxInnnfIon of n
docIsIon fo dIsmIss n comInInf fhnf If rognrds ns n fIshIng
oxodIfIon, fho Courf scrns Conle,`s no sof of fncfs
Inngungo. ConcIudIng fhnf fho hrnso hns boon quos-
fIonod, crIfIcIzod, nnd oxInInod nwny Iong onough, on/e,
nf l6, fho Courf dIsmIssos If ns cnroIoss comosIfIon.
If Conle,`s no sof of fncfs Inngungo Is fo bo Inforrod, Iof
If nof bo wIfhouf n ouIogy. Thnf oxncf Inngungo, whIch fho
mnjorIfy snys hns uzzI|od] fho rofossIon for 50 yonrs,
iIiJ., hns boon cIfod ns nufhorIfy In n dozon oInIons of
fhIs Courf nnd four sonrnfo wrIfIngs.
4
In nof ono of fhoso
l6 oInIons wns fho Inngungo quosfIonod, crIfIcIzod, or
oxInInod nwny. Indood, fodny`s oInIon Is fho fIrsf by
nny Mombor of fhIs Courf fo oxross on, doubf ns fo fho
ndoquncy of fho Conle, formuInfIon. TnkIng fhoIr cuos
from fho fodornI courfs, 26 Sfnfos nnd fho IsfrIcf of Co-
IumbIn ufIIIzo ns fhoIr sfnndnrd for dIsmIssnI of n com-
InInf fho vory Inngungo fho mnjorIfy roudInfos: whofhor
If nonrs boyond doubf fhnf no sof of fncfs In suorf

4
S1C v. ZonJforJ, 535 !. S. 8l3, 8l8 (2002); Dotie v. Monroe Coun/,
BJ. of 1J., 526 !. S. 629, 654 (l999); Hor/forJ Iire 1ne. Co. v. Colifor-
nio, 509 !. S. ?64, 8ll (l993); Brouer v. Coun/, of 1n,o, 489 !. S. 593,
598 (l989); Huglee v. Ioue, 449 !. S. 5, l0 (l980) (per curion), McLoin
v. Ieol 1e/o/e BJ. of Aeu Orleone, 1nc., 444 !. S. 232, 246 (l980);
1e/elle v. GonIle, 429 !. S. 9?, l06 (l9?6); Hoepi/ol BuilJing Co. v.
True/eee of Iex Hoepi/ol, 425 !. S. ?38, ?46 (l9?6); Scleuer v. IloJee,
4l6 !. S. 232, 236 (l9?4); Cruc v. Be/o, 405 !. S. 3l9, 322 (l9?2) (per
curion), Hoinee v. Kerner, 404 !. S. 5l9, 52l (l9?2) (per curion),
Jen/ine v. McKei/len, 395 !. S. 4ll, 422 (l969) (IurnIIfy oInIon); soo
nIso CletelonJ BJ. of 1J. v. LouJernill, 4?0 !. S. 532, 554 (l985)
(Ironnnn, J., concurrIng In nrf nnd dIssonfIng In nrf); Hooter v.
Ionuin, 466 !. S. 558, 58? (l984) (STIVIS, J., dIssonfIng); Ini/eJ Air
Linee, 1nc. v. 1tone, 43l !. S. 553, 56l, n. l (l9??) (MnrshnII, J.,
dIssonfIng); Sinon v. 1oe/ern K,. Welfore Iigl/e Orgonico/ion, 426
!. S. 26, 55, n. 6 (l9?6) (Ironnnn, J., concurrIng In judgmonf).
9 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
of fho cInIm wouId onfIfIo fho InInfIff fo roIIof.
5

5
Soo, e.g., 1B 1nte., LLC v. A/lon/ie Detelopnen/, 1nc., 930 So. 2d
502, 50? (AIn. 2005); Depor/nen/ of Heol/l & Sociol Serte. v. Ao/ite
Villoge of Cur,ung, l5l I. 3d 388, 396 (AInskn 2006); Aeunon v.
Moricopo C/,., l6? ArIz. 50l, 503, 808 I. 2d l253, l255 (A. l99l),
PuIlic Sert. Co. of Colo. v. Von W,/, 2? I. 3d 3??, 385386 (CoIo. 200l)
(on bnnc); Cloueon v. S/. Louie Poe/-Diepo/cl, LLC, 906 A. 2d 308, 3l2
(. C. 2006); Hillnon Cone/r. Corp. v. Woiner, 636 So. 2d 5?6, 5?8 (IIn.
A. l994); Koplon v. Koplon, 266 Cn. 6l2, 6l3, 469 S. I. 2d l98, l99
(l996); Wrigl/ v. Hone Depo/ I. S. A., lll Hnw. 40l, 406, l42 I. 3d
265, 2?0 (2006); To,lor v. Moile, l42 Idnho 253, 25?, l2? I. 3d l56, l60
(2005); Iin/ v. Br,on/, 200lCC098?, . 4 (!n. ll/28/0l), 80l So. 2d
346, 349; Gogne v. CionIro Corp., 43l A. 2d l3l3, l3l8l3l9 (Mo.
l98l); Goeior v. Moeeocluee//e Gen. Hoepi/ol, 446 Mnss. 645, 64?, 846
. I. 2d ll33, ll35 (2006); Iolpl Wol/er, 1nc. v. Gollogler, 926 So. 2d
890, 893 (MIss. 2006); Jonee v. Mon/ono Init. S,e/en, 33? Monf. l, ?,
l55 I. 3d l24?, ____ (200?); Jolne/on v. AeIroe/o Dep/. of Correc/ionol
Serte., 2?0 ob. 98?, 989, ?09 . W. 2d 32l, 324 (2006); Bloc/joc/
BonJing v. Loe Vegoe Munic. C/., ll6 ov. l2l3, l2l?, l4 I. 3d l2?5,
l2?8 (2000); SleporJ v. Ocuen IeJ. Bon/, 36l . C. l3?, l39, 638 S. I.
2d l9?, l99 (2006); Ioee v. Ini/eJ 1qui/oIle 1ne. Co., 200l l54,
l0, 632 . W. 2d 429, 434; S/o/e ex rel. Turner v. Hou/, ll2 OhIo Sf.
3d 56l, 562, 200?OhIo8l4, 5, 862 . I. 2d l04, l05 (per curion),
Mone,penne, v. Doueon, 2006 OK 53, 2, l4l I. 3d 549, 55l; Gognon v.
S/o/e, 5?0 A. 2d 656, 659 (!. I. l990); OeloonJ v. Iorrier, 2003 S 28,
4, 659 . W. 2d 20, 22 (per curion), Sni/l v. Lincoln Broee Wor/e,
1nc., ?l2 S. W. 2d 4?0, 4?l (Tonn. l986); Aeeocio/ion of Ho,e/oc/
Proper/, Ounere v. Sprogue, l45 Vf. 443, 446, 494 A. 2d l22, l24
(l985); 1n re CoJo,, l56 Wnsh. 2d 485, 49?, l30 I. 3d 809, 8l5 (2006)
(on bnnc); Hoinee v. Honpelire C/,. Conn`n, 2l6 W. Vn. 499, 502, 60?
S. I. 2d 828, 83l (2004); Worren v. Hor/, ?4? I. 2d 5ll, 5l2 (Wyo.
l98?); soo nIso MolpieJe v. Touneon, ?80 A. 2d l0?5, l082l083 (oI.
200l) (ormIffIng dIsmIssnI onIy whoro fho courf doformInos wIfh
ronsonnbIo corfnInfy fhnf fho InInfIff couId rovnII on no sof of fncfs
fhnf mny bo Inforrod from fho woII-Iondod nIIognfIons In fho com-
InInf (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod)); Conel v. Topin/o, 2l2 III.
2d 3ll, 3l8, 8l8 . I. 2d 3ll, 3l? (2004) (roIncIng nonrs boyond
doubf In fho Conle, formuInfIon wIfh Is cIonrIy nnronf); 1n re
Young, 522 . I. 2d 386, 388 (Ind. l988) (per curion) (roIncIng n-
onrs boyond doubf wIfh nonrs fo n corfnInfy); Bor/eno v. Wil-
lione Pipeline Co., 666 . W. 2d 6l2, 6l4 (Iown 2003) (hoIdIng fhnf n
mofIon fo dIsmIss shouId bo susfnInod onIy whon fhoro oxIsfs no
IofIfIonors hnvo nof roquosfod fhnf fho Conle, formuIn-
fIon bo rofIrod, nor hnvo nny of fho sIx onici who fIIod
brIofs In suorf of ofIfIonors. I wouId nof rowrIfo fho
nfIon`s cIvII rocoduro foxfbooks nnd cnII Info doubf fho
IondIng ruIos of mosf of Ifs Sfnfos wIfhouf fnr moro In-
formod doIIbornfIon ns fo fho cosfs of doIng so. Congross
hns osfnbIIshod n rocossn ruIomnkIng rocossfor
rovIsIons of fhnf ordor. Soo 28 !. S. C. 20?220?4 (2000
od. nnd Su. IV).
Todny`s mnjorIfy cnIIs Conle,`s 'no sof of fncfs` Inn-
gungo nn IncomIofo, nognfIvo gIoss on nn nccofod Iond-
Ing sfnndnrd: onco n cInIm hns boon sfnfod ndoqunfoIy, If
mny bo suorfod by showIng nny sof of fncfs consIsfonf
wIfh fho nIIognfIons In fho comInInf. An/e, nf l6. ThIs
Is nof nnd cnnnof bo whnf fho Conle, Courf monnf. IIrsf,
ns I hnvo oxInInod, nnd ns fho Conle, Courf woII know,
fho IondIng sfnndnrd fho IodornI !uIos monnf fo codIfy
doos nof roquIro, or ovon InvIfo, fho IondIng of fncfs.
6
Tho

concoIvnbIo sof of fncfs onfIfIIng fho non-movIng nrfy fo roIIof);
Pioneer Villoge v. Bulli// C/,., l04 S. W. 3d ?5?, ?59 (Ky. 2003) (hoIdIng
fhnf judgmonf on fho IondIngs shouId bo grnnfod If If nonrs boyond
doubf fhnf fho nonmovIng nrfy cnnnof rovo nny sof of fncfs fhnf
wouId onfIfIo hIm/hor fo roIIof); Corle, v. De/roi/ BJ. of 1J., 4?0 MIch.
2?4, 2??, 68l . W. 2d 342, 345 (2004) (per curion) (hoIdIng fhnf n
mofIon for judgmonf on fho IondIngs shouId bo grnnfod onIy 'If no
fncfunI dovoIomonf couId ossIbIy jusfIfy rocovory` ); OIer/roner v.
1llietille, ?06 S. W. 2d 440, 44l (Mo. l986) (on bnnc) (omIffIng fho
words boyond doubf from fho Conle, formuInfIon); Colnon v. I/ol
S/o/e LonJ BJ., ?95 I. 2d 622, 624 (!fnh l990) (hoIdIng fhnf n mofIon
fo dIsmIss Is nrorInfo onIy If If cIonrIy nonrs fhnf |fho InInfIff]
cnn rovo no sof of fncfs In suorf of hIs cInIm); AIC Monogenen/
Serte. Corp. v. Iire/ Vo. Bon/-Sou/luee/, 63 Vn. CIr. 68, ?0 (2003)
(Tho VIrgInIn sfnndnrd Is IdonfIcnI |fo fho Conle, formuInfIon], fhough
fho Suromo Courf of VIrgInIn mny nof hnvo usod fho snmo words fo
doscrIbo If).
6
Tho mnjorIfy Is corrocf fo sny fhnf whnf fho IodornI !uIos roquIro Is
n 'showIng` of onfIfIomonf fo roIIof. An/e, nf 8, n. 3. Whofhor nnd fo
whnf oxfonf fhnf showIng roquIros nIIognfIons of fncf wIII doond on
fho nrfIcuInrs of fho cInIm. Ior oxnmIo, hnd fho nmondod comInInf
ll CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
IondIng sfnndnrd InboI fho mnjorIfy gIvos fo whnf If
ronds Info fho Conle, oInIonn sfnfomonf of fho ormIs-
sIbIo fncfunI suorf for nn ndoqunfoIy Iondod com-
InInfwouId nof, fhoroforo, hnvo Imrossod fho Conle,
Courf IfsoIf. !nfhor, fhnf Courf wouId hnvo undorsfood
fho mnjorIfy`s romodoIIng of Ifs Inngungo fo oxross nn
etiJen/ior, sfnndnrd, whIch fho Conle, Courf hnd noIfhor
nood nor wnnf fo oxIIcnfo. Socond, If Is oIIucIdIy cIonr
fhnf fho Conle, Courf wns Inforosfod In whnf n comInInf
nue/ confnIn, nof whnf If no, confnIn. In fncf, fho Courf
snId wIfhouf qunIIfIcnfIon fhnf If wns nrnIsIng fho
eufficienc, of fho comInInf. 355 !. S., nf 45 (omhnsIs
nddod). If wns, fo nrnhrnso fodny`s mnjorIfy, doscrIbIng
fho mInImum sfnndnrd of ndoqunfo IondIng fo govorn n
comInInf`s survIvnI, on/e, nf l6l?.
Wo cnn bo frIIy suro ns fo Conle,`s monnIng by oxnmIn-
Ing fho fhroo Courf of AonIs cnsos fho Conle, Courf
cIfod ns suorf for fho nccofod ruIo fhnf n comInInf
shouId nof bo dIsmIssod for fnIIuro fo sfnfo n cInIm unIoss
If nonrs boyond doubf fhnf fho InInfIff cnn rovo no sof
of fncfs In suorf of hIs cInIm whIch wouId onfIfIo hIm fo
roIIof. 355 !. S., nf 4546. In fho fIrsf cnso, Leiner v.
S/o/e Mu/. Life Aeeur. Co. of Worcee/er, Moee., l08 I. 2d
302 (CA8 l940), fho InInfIff nIIogod fhnf sho wns fho
bonofIcInry of n IIfo Insurnnco Inn nnd fhnf fho Insurnnco
comnny wns wrongfuIIy wIfhhoIdIng rocoods from hor.

In fhIs cnso nIIogod onl, nrnIIoI conducf, If wouId nof hnvo mndo fho
roquIrod showIng. Soo eupro, nf l. SImIInrIy, hnd fho IondIngs
confnInod onl, nn nIIognfIon of ngroomonf, wIfhouf socIfyIng fho
nnfuro or objocf of fhnf ngroomonf, fhoy wouId hnvo boon suscofIbIo fo
fho chnrgo fhnf fhoy dId nof rovIdo suffIcIonf nofIco fhnf fho dofon-
dnnfs mny nnswor InfoIIIgonfIy. OmIssIons of fhnf sorf Insfnnco fho
fyo of bnronoss wIfh whIch fho IodornI !uIos nro concornod. A
InInfIff`s InnbIIIfy fo orsundo n dIsfrIcf courf fhnf fho nIIognfIons
ncfunIIy IncIudod In hor comInInf nro InusIbIo Is nn nIfogofhor
dIfforonf kInd of fnIIIng, nnd ono fhnf shouId nof bo fnfnI nf fho Iond-
Ing sfngo.
In rovorsIng fho IsfrIcf Courf`s grnnf of fho dofondnnf`s
mofIon fo dIsmIss, fho IIghfh CIrcuIf nofod fhnf courf`s
own IongsfnndIng ruIo fhnf, fo wnrrnnf dIsmIssnI, 'If
shouId nonr from fho nIIognfIons fhnf n cnuso of ncfIon
doos nof oxIsf, rnfhor fhnn fhnf n cnuso of ncfIon hns boon
dofocfIvoIy sfnfod.` 1J., nf 305 (quofIng Winge/ v. Ioc/-
uooJ, 69 I. 2d 326, 329 (CA8 l934)).
Tho Leiner courf vIowod fho IodornI !uIossocIfIcnIIy
!uIos 8(n)(2), l2(b)(6), l2(o) (mofIon for n moro dofInIfo
sfnfomonf), nnd 56 (mofIon for summnry judgmonf)ns
roInforcIng fho nofIon fhnf fhoro Is no jusfIfIcnfIon for
dIsmIssIng n comInInf for InsuffIcIoncy of sfnfomonf,
oxcof whoro If nonrs fo n corfnInfy fhnf fho InInfIff
wouId bo onfIfIod fo no roIIof undor nny sfnfo of fncfs
whIch couId bo rovod In suorf of fho cInIm. l08 I. 2d,
nf 306. Tho courf rofufod In fho sfrongosf forms nny
suggosfIon fhnf fho unIIkoIIhood of rocovory shouId dofor-
mIno fho fnfo of n comInInf: o mnffor how ImrobnbIo
If mny bo fhnf sho cnn rovo hor cInIm, sho Is onfIfIod fo
nn oorfunIfy fo mnko fho nffomf, nnd Is nof roquIrod fo
nccof ns fInnI n doformInnfIon of hor rIghfs bnsod uon
Inforoncos drnwn In fnvor of fho dofondnnf from hor
nmondod comInInf. 1IiJ.
Tho ThIrd CIrcuIf roIIod on Leiner`s ndmonIfIon In
Con/inen/ol Collieriee, 1nc. v. SloIer, l30 I. 2d 63l (l942),
whIch fho Conle, Courf nIso cIfod In suorf of Ifs no sof
of fncfs formuInfIon. In n dIvorsIfy ncfIon fho InInfIff
nIIogod bronch of confrncf, buf fho IsfrIcf Courf dIs-
mIssod fho comInInf on fho ground fhnf fho confrncf
nonrod fo bo unonforconbIo undor sfnfo Inw. Tho Courf
of AonIs rovorsod, concIudIng fhnf fhoro woro fncfs In
dIsufo fhnf wonf fo fho onforconbIIIfy of fho confrncf, nnd
fhnf fho ruIo nf fho IondIng sfngo wns ns In Leiner. o
mnffor how IIkoIy If mny soom fhnf fho Iondor wIII bo
unnbIo fo rovo hIs cnso, ho Is onfIfIod, uon nvorrIng n
cInIm, fo nn oorfunIfy fo fry fo rovo If. l30 I. 3d, nf
l3 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
635.
Tho fhIrd cnso fho Conle, Courf cIfod nrovIngIy wns
wrIffon by Judgo CInrk hImsoIf. In DioguorJi v. Durning,
l39 I. 2d ??4 (CA2 l944), fho pro ee InInfIff, nn Imorfor
of fonIcs, chnrgod fho cusfoms Insocfor wIfh nucfIonIng
off fho InInfIff`s formor morchnndIso for Ioss fhnn wns bId
for Ifnnd Indood for nn nmounf oqunI fo fho InInfIff`s
own bIdnnd comInInod fhnf fwo cnsos of fonIcs wonf
mIssIng fhroo wooks boforo fho snIo. Tho Inforonco, hInfod
nf by fho nvormonfs buf novor sfnfod In so mnny words,
wns fhnf fho dofondnnf frnuduIonfIy donIod fho InInfIff
hIs rIghffuI cInIm fo fho fonIcs, whIch, If fruo, wouId hnvo
vIoInfod fodornI Inw. WrIfIng sIx yonrs nffor fho ndofIon
of fho IodornI !uIos ho hoId fho Iond roIn In drnffIng,
Judgo CInrk snId fhnf fho dofondnnf
couId hnvo dIscIosod fho fncfs from hIs oInf of vIow,
In ndvnnco of n frInI If ho choso, by nskIng for n ro-
frInI honrIng or by movIng for n summnry judgmonf
wIfh suorfIng nffIdnvIfs. Iuf, ns If sfnnds, wo do
nof soo how fho InInfIff mny roorIy bo dorIvod of
hIs dny In courf fo show whnf ho obvIousIy so fIrmIy
boIIovos nnd whnf for rosonf urosos dofondnnf
musf bo fnkon ns ndmIffIng. 1J., nf ??5.
As nny cIvII rocoduro sfudonf knows, Judgo CInrk`s oIn-
Ion dIsquIofod fho dofonso bnr nnd gnvo rIso fo n movo-
monf fo rovIso !uIo 8 fo roquIro n InInfIff fo Iond n
'cnuso of ncfIon.` Soo 5 WrIghf & MIIIor l20l, nf 868?.
Tho movomonf fnIIod, soo iIiJ., DioguorJi wns oxIIcIfIy
nrovod In Conle,, nnd |I]n rofrosocf fho cnso IfsoIf
sooms fo bo n roufIno nIIcnfIon of rIncIIos fhnf nro
unIvorsnIIy nccofod, 5 WrIghf & MIIIor l220, nf 284
285.
In IIghf of Leiner, Con/inen/ol Collieriee, nnd
DioguorJi, Conle,`s sfnfomonf fhnf n comInInf Is nof fo
bo dIsmIssod unIoss no sof of fncfs In suorf fhoroof
wouId onfIfIo fho InInfIff fo roIIof Is hnrdIy uzzIIng,
on/e, nf l6. If rofIocfs n hIIosohy fhnf, unIIko In fho
dnys of codo IondIng, sonrnfIng fho whonf from fho chnff
Is n fnsk nssIgnod fo fho rofrInI nnd frInI rocoss.
Conle,`s Inngungo, In shorf, cnfuros fho oIIcy choIco
ombodIod In fho IodornI !uIos nnd bIndIng on fho fodornI
courfs.
Wo hnvo consIsfonfIy ronffIrmod fhnf bnsIc undorsfnnd-
Ing of fho IodornI !uIos In fho hnIf confury sInco Conle,.
Ior oxnmIo, In Scleuer v. IloJee, 4l6 !. S. 232 (l9?4),
wo rovorsod fho Courf of AonIs` dIsmIssnI on fho Iond-
Ings whon fho rosondonfs, fho Covornor nnd ofhor offI-
cInIs of fho Sfnfo of OhIo, nrguod fhnf ofIfIonors` cInIms
woro bnrrod by sovoroIgn ImmunIfy. In n unnnImous
oInIon by fhon-JusfIco !ohnquIsf, wo omhnsIzod fhnf
|w]hon n fodornI courf rovIows fho suffIcIoncy of n
comInInf, boforo fho rocofIon of nny ovIdonco oIfhor
by nffIdnvIf or ndmIssIons, Ifs fnsk Is nocossnrIIy n
IImIfod ono. Tho Issuo Is nof whofhor n InInfIff wIII
uIfImnfoIy rovnII buf whofhor fho cInImnnf Is onfI-
fIod fo offor ovIdonco fo suorf fho cInIms. 1nJeeJ i/
no, oppeor on /le foce of /le pleoJinge /lo/ o recoter,
ie ter, reno/e onJ unli/el, Iu/ /lo/ ie no/ /le /ee/.
1J., nf 236 (omhnsIs nddod).
Tho IloJee InInfIffs hnd nIIogod gonornIIy nnd In con-
cIusory forms fhnf fho dofondnnfs, by cnIIIng ouf fho
nfIonnI Cunrd fo suross fho Konf Sfnfo !nIvorsIfy
sfudonf rofosfs, woro guIIfy of wnnfon, wIIfuI nnd nogII-
gonf conducf. Krouee v. IloJee, 4?l I. 2d 430, 433 (CA6
l9?2). Wo rovorsod fho Courf of AonIs on fho ground
fhnf |w]hnfovor fho InInfIffs mny or mny nof bo nbIo fo
osfnbIIsh ns fo fho morIfs of fhoIr nIIognfIons, fhoIr cInIms,
ns sfnfod In fho comInInfs, gIvon fho fnvornbIo rondIng
roquIrod by fho IodornI !uIos of CIvII Irocoduro, woro
nof bnrrod by fho IIovonfh Amondmonf bocnuso fhoy woro
CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?) l5
sfyIod ns suIfs ngnInsf fho dofondnnfs In fhoIr IndIvIdunI
cnncIfIos. 4l6 !. S., nf 238.
Wo ngnIn soko wIfh ono voIco ngnInsf offorfs fo oxnnd
IondIng roquIromonfs boyond fhoIr noInfod IImIfs In
Leo/lernon v. Torron/ Coun/, Aorco/ice 1n/elligence onJ
CoorJino/ion Ini/, 50? !. S. l63 (l993). WrIfIng for fho
unnnImous Courf, ChIof JusfIco !ohnquIsf robuffod fho
IIffh CIrcuIf`s offorf fo crnff n sfnndnrd for IondIng mu-
nIcInI IInbIIIfy fhnf nccounfod for fho onormous oxonso
InvoIvod fodny In IIfIgnfIon, Leo/lernon v. Torron/ C/,.
Aorco/ice 1n/elligence onJ CoorJino/ion Ini/, 954 I. 2d
l054, l05? (l992) (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod), by
roquIrIng n InInfIff fo sfnfo wIfh fncfunI dofnII nnd nr-
fIcuInrIfy fho bnsIs for fho cInIm whIch nocossnrIIy In-
cIudos why fho dofondnnf-offIcInI cnnnof succossfuIIy
mnInfnIn fho dofonso of ImmunIfy. Leo/lernon, 50?
!. S., nf l6? (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod). Wo
found fhIs Inngungo InconsIsfonf wIfh !uIos 8(n)(2) nnd
9(b) nnd omhnsIzod fhnf mofIons fo dIsmIss woro nof fho
Inco fo combnf dIscovory nbuso: In fho nbsonco of |nn
nmondmonf fo !uIo 9(b)], fodornI courfs nnd IIfIgnnfs musf
roIy on summnry judgmonf nnd confroI of dIscovory fo
wood ouf unmorIforIous cInIms soonor rnfhor fhnn Infor.
1J., nf l68l69.
Mosf roconfIy, In Suier/ieuicc, 534 !. S. 506, wo woro
fncod wIfh n cnso moro sImIInr fo fho rosonf ono fhnn fho
mnjorIfy wIII nIIow. In dIscrImInnfIon cnsos, our roco-
donfs roquIro n InInfIff nf fho summnry judgmonf sfngo
fo roduco oIfhor dIrocf ovIdonco of dIscrImInnfIon or, If
fho cInIm Is bnsod rImnrIIy on cIrcumsfnnfInI ovIdonco, fo
moof fho shIffIng ovIdonfInry burdons Imosod undor fho
frnmowork nrfIcuInfod In McDonnell Dougloe Corp. v.
Green, 4ll !. S. ?92 (l9?3). Soo, e.g., Trone WorlJ Air-
linee, 1nc. v. Tlure/on, 469 !. S. lll, l2l (l985).
SwIorkIowIcz nIIogod fhnf ho hnd boon formInnfod on
nccounf of nnfIonnI orIgIn In vIoInfIon of TIfIo VII of fho
CIvII !Ighfs Acf of l964. Tho Socond CIrcuIf dIsmIssod
fho suIf on fho IondIngs bocnuso ho hnd nof Iondod n
rImn fncIo cnso of dIscrImInnfIon undor fho McDonnell
Dougloe sfnndnrd.
Wo rovorsod In nnofhor unnnImous oInIon, hoIdIng fhnf
undor n nofIco IondIng sysfom, If Is nof nrorInfo fo
roquIro n InInfIff fo Iond fncfs osfnbIIshIng n rImn fncIo
cnso bocnuso fho McDonnell Dougloe frnmowork doos nof
nIy In ovory omIoymonf dIscrImInnfIon cnso.
Suier/ieuicc, 534 !. S., nf 5ll. Wo nIso obsorvod fhnf
!uIo 8(n)(2) doos nof confomInfo n courf`s nssIng on fho
morIfs of n IIfIgnnf`s cInIm nf fho IondIng sfngo. !nfhor,
fho sImIIfIod nofIco IondIng sfnndnrd of fho IodornI
!uIos roIIos on IIbornI dIscovory ruIos nnd summnry
judgmonf mofIons fo dofIno dIsufod fncfs nnd Issuos nnd
fo dIsoso of unmorIforIous cInIms. 1J., nf 5l2; soo IrIof
for !nIfod Sfnfos of nI. ns Anici Curioe In Suier/ieuicc v.
Soreno A. A., O. T. 200l, o. 00l853, . l0 (sfnfIng fhnf
n !uIo l2(b)(6) mofIon Is nof nn nrorInfo dovIco for
fosfIng fho frufh of whnf Is nssorfod or for doformInIng
whofhor n InInfIff hns nny ovIdonco fo bnck u whnf Is In
fho comInInf (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod)).
?
As In fho dIscrImInnfIon confoxf, wo hnvo dovoIood nn
ovIdonfInry frnmowork for ovnIunfIng cInIms undor l of
fho Shormnn Acf whon fhoso cInIms rosf on onfIroIy cIr-
cumsfnnfInI ovIdonco of consIrncy. Soo Mo/eueli/o 1lec.
1nJue/riol Co. v. Zeni/l IoJio Corp., 4?5 !. S. 5?4 (l986).

?
Soo nIso 5 WrIghf & MIIIor l202, nf 8990 (|I]IondIngs undor fho
ruIos sImIy mny bo n gonornI summnry of fho nrfy`s osIfIon fhnf Is
suffIcIonf fo ndvIso fho ofhor nrfy of fho ovonf boIng suod uon, fo
rovIdo somo guIdnnco In n subsoquonf rocoodIng ns fo whnf wns
docIdod for urosos of ros judIcnfn nnd coIInfornI osfooI, nnd fo
IndIcnfo whofhor fho cnso shouId bo frIod fo fho courf or fo n jury. o
moro Is domnndod of fho IondIngs fhnn fhIs; Indood, hIsfory shows
fhnf no moro cnn bo orformod succossfuIIy by fho IondIngs (foofnofos
omIffod)).
l? CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
!ndor Mo/eueli/o, n InInfIff`s nIIognfIons of nn IIIognI
consIrncy mny nof, nf fho summnry judgmonf sfngo, rosf
soIoIy on fho Inforoncos fhnf mny bo drnwn from fho nrnI-
IoI conducf of fho dofondnnfs. In ordor fo survIvo n !uIo
56 mofIon, n l InInfIff musf rosonf ovIdonco 'fhnf
fonds fo oxcIudo fho ossIbIIIfy` fhnf fho nIIogod consIrn-
fors ncfod IndoondonfIy.` 1J., nf 588 (quofIng Moneon/o
Co. v. Spro,-Ii/e Sertice Corp., 465 !. S. ?52, ?64 (l984)).
Thnf Is, fho InInfIff musf show fhnf fho Inforonco of
consIrncy Is ronsonnbIo In IIghf of fho comofIng Infor-
oncos of Indoondonf ncfIon or coIIusIvo ncfIon. 4?5 !. S.,
nf 588.
IvoryfhIng fodny`s mnjorIfy snys wouId fhoroforo mnko
orfocf sonso If If woro ruIIng on n !uIo 56 mofIon for
summnry judgmonf nnd fho ovIdonco IncIudod nofhIng
moro fhnn fho Courf hns doscrIbod. Iuf If shouId go
wIfhouf snyIng In fho wnko of Suier/ieuicc fhnf n hoIghf-
onod roducfIon burdon nf fho summnry judgmonf sfngo
doos nof frnnsInfo Info n hoIghfonod IondIng burdon nf
fho comInInf sfngo. Tho mnjorIfy rojocfs fho comInInf In
fhIs cnso bocnusoIn IIghf of fho fncf fhnf fho nrnIIoI
conducf nIIogod Is consIsfonf wIfh ordInnry mnrkof bohnv-
Iorfho cInImod consIrncy Is concoIvnbIo buf nof Inu-
sIbIo, on/e, nf 24. I hnvo my doubfs nbouf fho mnjorIfy`s
nssossmonf of fho InusIbIIIfy of fhIs nIIogod consIrncy.
Soo Inrf III, infro. Iuf ovon If fho mnjorIfy`s socuInfIon
Is corrocf, Ifs InusIbIIIfy sfnndnrd Is IrroconcIInbIo wIfh
!uIo 8 nnd wIfh our govornIng rocodonfs. As wo mndo
cIonr In Suier/ieuicc nnd Leo/lernon, fonr of fho burdons
of IIfIgnfIon doos nof jusfIfy fncfunI concIusIons suorfod
onIy by Inwyors` nrgumonfs rnfhor fhnn sworn donInIs or
ndmIssIbIo ovIdonco.
ThIs cnso Is n oor vohIcIo for fho Courf`s now IondIng
ruIo, for wo hnvo obsorvod fhnf In nnfIfrusf cnsos, whoro
'fho roof Is InrgoIy In fho hnnds of fho nIIogod consIrn-
fors,` . . . dIsmIssnIs rIor fo gIvIng fho InInfIff nmIo
oorfunIfy for dIscovory shouId bo grnnfod vory snr-
IngIy. Hoepi/ol BuilJing Co. v. True/eee of Iex Hoepi/ol,
425 !. S. ?38, ?46 (l9?6) (quofIng Poller v. ColunIio
BrooJcoe/ing S,e/en, 1nc., 368 !. S. 464, 4?3 (l962)); soo
nIso Knu/l v. 1rie-CrouforJ Doir, Coopero/ite Aeen., 395
I. 2d 420, 423 (CA3 l968) (Tho 'IIbornI` nronch fo fho
consIdornfIon of nnfIfrusf comInInfs Is Imorfnnf bocnuso
Inhoronf In such nn ncfIon Is fho fncf fhnf nII fho dofnIIs
nnd socIfIc fncfs roIIod uon cnnnof roorIy bo sof forfh
ns nrf of fho IondIngs). Moroovor, fho fncf fhnf fho
Shormnn Acf nufhorIzos fho rocovory of frobIo dnmngos
nnd nffornoy`s foos for succossfuI InInfIffs IndIcnfos fhnf
Congross Infondod fo oncourngo, rnfhor fhnn dIscourngo,
rIvnfo onforcomonf of fho Inw. Soo IoJoticl v. Ao/ionol
Ioo/Ioll Leogue, 352 !. S. 445, 454 (l95?) (Congross
IfsoIf hns Incod fho rIvnfo nnfIfrusf IIfIgnnf In n mosf
fnvornbIo osIfIon . . . . In fho fnco of such n oIIcy fhIs
Courf shouId nof ndd roquIromonfs fo burdon fho rIvnfo
IIfIgnnf boyond whnf Is socIfIcnIIy sof forfh by Congross
In fhoso Inws). If Is fhoroforo moro, nof Ioss, Imorfnnf In
nnfIfrusf cnsos fo rosIsf fho urgo fo ongngo In nrmchnIr
oconomIcs nf fho IondIng sfngo.
Tho snmo yonr wo docIdod Conle,, Judgo CInrk wrofo,
roscIonfIy,
I fonr fhnf ovory ngo musf Ionrn Ifs Iosson fhnf so-
cInI IondIng cnnnof bo mndo fo do fho sorvIco of frInI
nnd fhnf IIvo Issuos bofwoon ncfIvo IIfIgnnfs nro nof fo
bo dIsosod of or ovndod on fho nor IondIngs, I.o.,
fho formnIIsfIc cInIms of fho nrfIos. IxorIonco hns
found no quIck nnd onsy shorf cuf for frInIs In cnsos
gonornIIy onJ on/i/rue/ coeee in por/iculor. SocInI
IIondIng In fho IIg Cnso In IrocoduroTho
HnndmnId of JusfIco l4?, l48 (C. WrIghf & H. !on-
sonor ods. l965) (horoInnffor CInrk, SocInI IIondIng
In fho IIg Cnso) (omhnsIs nddod).
l9 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
In fhIs IIg Cnso, fho Courf succumbs fo fho fomfnfIon
fhnf rovIous Courfs hnvo sfondfnsfIy rosIsfod.
8
WhIIo fho
mnjorIfy nssuros us fhnf If Is nof nIyIng nny 'hoIghf-
onod` IondIng sfnndnrd, soo on/e, nf 23, n. l4, I shnII
now oxInIn why I hnvo n dIffIcuIf fImo undorsfnndIng Ifs
oInIon nny ofhor wny.
III
Tho Courf doos nof suggosf fhnf nn ngroomonf fo do
whnf fho InInfIffs nIIogo wouId bo ormIssIbIo undor fho
nnfIfrusf Inws, soo, e.g., Aeeocio/eJ Gen. Con/roc/ore of
Col., 1nc. v. Corpen/ere, 459 !. S. 5l9, 52652? (l983).
or doos fho Courf hoId fhnf fhoso InInfIffs hnvo fnIIod fo
nIIogo nn Injury onfIfIIng fhom fo suo for dnmngos undor
fhoso Inws, soo Bruneuic/ Corp. v. PueIlo Boul-O-Mo/,
1nc., 429 !. S. 4??, 489490 (l9??). !nfhor, fho fhoory on

8
Our docIsIon In Duro Plornoceu/icole, 1nc. v. BrouJo, 544 !. S. 336
(2005), Is nof fo fho confrnry. Thoro, fho InInfIffs fnIIod ndoqunfoIy fo
nIIogo Ioss cnusnfIon, n roquIrod oIomonf In n rIvnfo socurIfIos frnud
ncfIon. Iocnuso If nIIogod nofhIng moro fhnn fhnf fho rIcos of fho
socurIfIos fho InInfIffs urchnsod woro nrfIfIcInIIy InfInfod, fho Duro
comInInf fnIIod fo rovIdo fho dofondnnfs wIfh nofIco of whnf fho
roIovnnf oconomIc Ioss mIghf bo or of whnf fho cnusnI connocfIon mIghf
bo bofwoon fhnf Ioss nnd fho |nIIogod] mIsrorosonfnfIon. 1J., nf 34?.
Horo, fho fnIIuro fho mnjorIfy IdonfIfIos Is nof n fnIIuro of nofIcowhIch
nofIco IondIng rIghfIy condomnsbuf rnfhor n fnIIuro fo snfIsfy fho
Courf fhnf fho ngroomonf nIIogod mIghf InusIbIy hnvo occurrod. Thnf
boIng n quosfIon nof of no/ice buf of proof, If shouId nof bo nnsworod
wIfhouf fIrsf honrIng from fho dofondnnfs (ns nnrf from fhoIr Inwyors).
SImIInrIy, In Aeeocio/eJ Gen. Con/roc/ore of Col., 1nc. v. Corpen/ere,
459 !. S. 5l9 (l983), In whIch wo nIso found nn nnfIfrusf comInInf
wnnfIng, fho robIom wns nof fhnf fho InjurIos fho InInfIffs nIIogod
fnIIod fo snfIsfy somo fhroshoId of InusIbIIIfy, buf rnfhor fhnf fho
InjurIos oe ollegeJ woro nof fho fyo fhnf fho nnfIfrusf sfnfufo wns
Infondod fo forosfnII. 1J., nf 540; soo iJ., nf 526 (As fho cnso comos fo
us, wo musf nssumo fhnf fho !nIon cnn rovo fho fncfs nIIogod In Ifs
nmondod comInInf. If Is nof, howovor, roor fo nssumo fhnf fho
!nIon cnn rovo fncfs fhnf If hns nof nIIogod or fhnf fho dofondnnfs
hnvo vIoInfod fho nnfIfrusf Inws In wnys fhnf hnvo nof boon nIIogod).
whIch fho Courf ormIfs dIsmIssnI Is fhnf, so fnr ns fho
IodornI !uIos nro concornod, no ngroomonf hns boon
nIIogod nf nII. ThIs Is n mInd-boggIIng concIusIon.
As fho Courf oxInIns, rIor fo fho onncfmonf of fho
ToIocommunIcnfIons Acf of l996 fho Inw rohIbIfod fho
dofondnnfs from comofIng wIfh onch ofhor. Tho now
sfnfufo wns onncfod fo roInco n monooIIsfIc mnrkof wIfh
n comofIfIvo ono. Tho Acf dId nof moroIy roquIro fho
rogIonnI monooIIsfs fo fnko nffIrmnfIvo sfos fo fncIIIfnfo
onfry fo now comofIfors, soo Vericon Connunico/ione
1nc. v. Lou Officee of Cur/ie V. Trin/o, LLP, 540 !. S. 398,
402 (2004); If nIso ormIffod fho oxIsfIng fIrms fo comofo
wIfh onch ofhor nnd fo oxnnd fhoIr oornfIons Info rovI-
ousIy forbIddon forrIfory. Soo 4? !. S. C. 2?l. Inch of
fho dofondnnfs docIdod nof fo fnko fho Inffor sfo. Thnf
wns obvIousIy nn oxfromoIy Imorfnnf busInoss docIsIon,
nnd I nm wIIIIng fo rosumo fhnf onch comnny ncfod
onfIroIy IndoondonfIy In ronchIng fhnf docIsIon. I nm
ovon wIIIIng fo onforfnIn fho mnjorIfy`s boIIof fhnf nny
ngroomonf nmong fho comnnIos wns unIIkoIy. Iuf fho
InInfIffs nIIogo In fhroo Incos In fhoIr comInInf, 4,
5l, 64, A. ll, 2?, 30, fhnf fho I!ICs dId In fncf ngroo
bofh fo rovonf comofIfors from onforIng Info fhoIr IocnI
mnrkofs nnd fo forgo comofIfIon wIfh onch ofhor. And ns
fho Courf rocognIzos, nf fho mofIon fo dIsmIss sfngo, n
judgo nssumos fhnf nII fho nIIognfIons In fho comInInf
nro fruo (ovon If doubffuI In fncf). An/e, nf 89.
Tho mnjorIfy cIrcumvonfs fhIs obvIous obsfncIo fo dIs-
mIssnI by rofondIng fhnf If doos nof oxIsf. Tho Courf
ndmIfs fhnf In form n fow sfrny sfnfomonfs In fho com-
InInf sonk dIrocfIy of ngroomonf, buf dIsrognrds fhoso
nIIognfIons by snyIng fhnf on fnIr rondIng fhoso nro
moroIy IognI concIusIons rosfIng on fho rIor nIIognfIons
of nrnIIoI conducf. An/e, nf l8. Tho Courf`s dIchofomy
bofwoon fncfunI nIIognfIons nnd IognI concIusIons Is fho
sfuff of n bygono orn, eupro, nf 5?. Thnf dIsfIncfIon wns n
2l CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
dofInIng fonfuro of codo IondIng, soo gonornIIy CInrk, Tho
ComInInf In Codo IIondIng, 35 YnIo !. J. 259 (l925
l926), buf wns consIcuousIy nboIIshod whon fho IodornI
!uIos woro onncfod In l938. Soo Ini/eJ S/o/ee v. 1nplo,-
ing Ploe/erere Aeen. of Clicogo, 34? !. S. l86, l88 (l954)
(hoIdIng, In nn nnfIfrusf cnso, fhnf fho Covornmonf`s
nIIognfIons of offocfs on Inforsfnfo commorco musf bo
fnkon Info nccounf In docIdIng whofhor fo dIsmIss fho
comInInf |w]hofhor fhoso chnrgos bo cnIIod 'nIIognfIons
of fncf` or 'moro concIusIons of fho Iondor` ); Brounlee v.
Conine, 95? I. 2d 353, 354 (CA? l992) (Tho IodornI !uIos
of CIvII Irocoduro osfnbIIsh n sysfom of nofIco IondIng
rnfhor fhnn of fncf IondIng, . . . so fho hnonsfnnco fhnf
n comInInf Is 'concIusory,` whnfovor oxncfIy fhnf ovorusod
Inwyors` cIIcho monns, doos nof nufomnfIcnIIy condomn
If); Wol/er Die/riIu/ing Co. v. Luc/, Loger Breuing Co.,
323 I. 2d l, 34 (CA9 l963) (|O]no uroso of !uIo 8 wns
fo gof nwny from fho hIghIy fochnIcnI dIsfIncfIon bofwoon
sfnfomonfs of fncf nnd concIusIons of Inw . . .); Oil, Cleni-
col & A/onic Wor/ere 1n/`l Inion v. Del/o, 2?? I. 2d 694,
69? (CA6 l960) (!ndor fho nofIco sysfom of IondIng
osfnbIIshod by fho !uIos of CIvII Irocoduro, . . . fho nn-
cIonf dIsfIncfIon bofwoon IondIng 'fncfs` nnd 'concIusIons`
Is no Iongor sIgnIfIcnnf); 5 WrIghf & MIIIor l2l8, nf 26?
(|T]ho fodornI ruIos do nof rohIbIf fho IondIng of fncfs or
IognI concIusIons ns Iong ns fnIr nofIco Is gIvon fo fho
nrfIos). ofondnnfs onforod Info n confrncf Is no moro
n IognI concIusIon fhnn dofondnnf nogIIgonfIy drovo, soo
Iorm 9; eupro, nf 6. Indood If Is Ioss of ono.
9

9
Tho Courf suggosfs fhnf fho nIIognfIon of nn ngroomonf, ovon If
crodIfod, mIghf nof gIvo fho nofIco roquIrod by !uIo 8 bocnuso If Incks
socIfIcIfy. An/e, nf l8l9, n. l0. Tho romody for nn nIIognfIon InckIng
suffIcIonf socIfIcIfy fo rovIdo ndoqunfo nofIco Is, of courso, n !uIo
l2(o) mofIon for n moro dofInIfo sfnfomonf. Soo Suier/ieuicc v. Soreno
A. A., 534 !. S. 506, 5l4 (2002). IofIfIonors mndo no such mofIon nnd
Indood hnvo concodod fhnf |o]ur robIom wIfh fho curronf comInInf Is
Ivon If I woro IncIInod fo nccof fho Courf`s nnnchronIs-
fIc dIchofomy nnd Ignoro fho comInInf`s ncfunI nIIogn-
fIons, I wouId dIsufo fho Courf`s suggosfIon fhnf nny
Inforonco of ngroomonf from ofIfIonors` nrnIIoI conducf
Is ImInusIbIo. Mnny yonrs ngo n fruIy gronf oconomIsf
orcofIvoIy obsorvod fhnf |]ooIo of fho snmo frndo
soIdom moof fogofhor, ovon for morrImonf nnd dIvorsIon,
buf fho convorsnfIon onds In n consIrncy ngnInsf fho
ubIIc, or In somo confrIvnnco fo rnIso rIcos. A. SmIfh,
An InquIry Info fho nfuro nnd Cnusos of fho WonIfh of
nfIons, In 39 Cronf Iooks of fho Wosforn WorId 55 (!.
HufchIns & M. AdIor ods. l952). I nm nof so cynIcnI ns fo
nccof fhnf sonfImonf nf fnco vnIuo, buf I nood nof do so
horo. !osondonfs` comInInf oInfs nof onIy fo ofIfIon-
ors` numorous oorfunIfIos fo moof wIfh onch ofhor,
ComInInf 46, A. 23,
l0
buf nIso fo ofobnorf`s curIous
sfnfomonf fhnf oncronchIng on n foIIow Incumbonf`s forrI-
fory mIghf bo n good wny fo furn n quIck doIInr buf fhnf
doosn`f mnko If rIghf, iJ., 42, A. 22. Whnf dId ho
monn by fhnf Ono ossIbIo (Indood InusIbIo) Inforonco Is
fhnf ho monnf fhnf whIIo If wouId bo In hIs comnny`s

nof n Inck of socIfIcIfy, If`s quIfo socIfIc. Tr. of OrnI Arg. l4. Thus,
fho fncf fhnf fho IondIngs monfIonod no socIfIc fImo, Inco, or or-
sons InvoIvod In fho nIIogod consIrncIos, on/e, nf l8, n. l0, Is, for our
urosos, ncndomIc.
l0
Tho Courf doscrIbos my roforonco fo fho nIIognfIon fhnf fho dofon-
dnnfs boIong fo vnrIous frndo nssocInfIons ns InyfuIIy suggosfIng fhnf
fho dofondnnfs consIrod fo rosfrnIn frndo. An/e, nf 20, n. l2. QuIfo
fho confrnry: nn nIIognfIon fhnf comofIfors moof on n roguInr bnsIs,
IIko fho nIIognfIons of nrnIIoI conducf, Is consIsfonf wIfhfhough nof
suffIcIonf fo rovofho InInfIffs` onfIroIy sorIous nnd unoquIvocnI
nIIognfIon fhnf fho dofondnnfs onforod Info nn unInwfuI ngroomonf.
Indood, If If woro fruo fhnf fho InInfIffs rosf fhoIr l cInIm on doscrI-
fIons of nrnIIoI conducf nnd nof on nny Indoondonf nIIognfIon of
ncfunI ngroomonf nmong fho I!ICs, on/e, nf l8, fhoro wouId hnvo
boon no uroso In IncIudIng n roforonco fo fho frndo nssocInfIon
moofIngs In fho nmondod comInInf.
23 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
oconomIc soIf-Inforosf fo comofo wIfh Ifs brofhron, ho hnd
ngrood wIfh hIs comofIfors nof fo do so. AccordIng fo fho
comInInf, fhnf Is how fho IIIInoIs ConIIfIon for ComofI-
fIvo ToIocom consfruod ofobnorf`s sfnfomonf, iJ., 44,
A. 22 (cnIIIng fho sfnfomonf ovIdonco of ofonfInI coIIu-
sIon nmong rogIonnI IoII hono monooIIos fo nof comofo
ngnInsf ono nnofhor nnd kIII off ofonfInI comofIfors In
IocnI hono sorvIco), nnd fhnf Is how Mombors of Con-
gross consfruod hIs comnny`s bohnvIor, iJ., 45, A. 23
(doscrIbIng n Ioffor fo fho JusfIco onrfmonf roquosfIng
nn InvosfIgnfIon Info fho ossIbIIIfy fhnf fho I!ICs` vory
nnronf non-comofIfIon oIIcy wns coordInnfod).
Iorhns ofobnorf monnf Insfond fhnf comofIfIon
wouId bo sonsIbIo In fho shorf form buf nof In fho Iong
run. Thnf`s whnf hIs Inwyors foII us nnywny. Soo IrIof for
IofIfIonors 36. Iuf I wouId fhInk fhnf no ono wouId know
boffor whnf ofobnorf monnf fhnn ofobnorf hImsoIf.
Insfond of ormIffIng rosondonfs fo nsk ofobnorf, how-
ovor, fho Courf Iooks fo ofhor quofos from fhnf nnd ofhor
nrfIcIos nnd docIdos fhnf whnf ho monnf wns fhnf onforIng
now mnrkofs ns n C!IC wouId nof bo n 'susfnInnbIo
oconomIc modoI.` An/e, nf 22, n. l3. ovor mInd fhnfns
nnyono ovor InforvIowod knowsn nowsnor nrfIcIo Is
hnrdIy n vorbnfIm frnnscrIf; fho wrIfor soIocfs quofos fo
nckngo hIs sfory, nof fo rocord n subjocf`s vIows for os-
forIfy. Iuf moro ImorfnnfIy fho IsfrIcf Courf wns ro-
quIrod nf fhIs sfngo of fho rocoodIngs fo consfruo ofo-
bnorf`s nmbIguous sfnfomonf In fho InInfIffs` fnvor.
ll
Soo

ll
If Is IronIc fhnf fho Courf sooks fo jusfIfy Ifs docIsIon fo drnw fnc-
funI Inforoncos In fho dofondnnfs` fnvor nf fho IondIng sfngo by cIfIng
fo n ruIo of ovIdonco, on/e, nf 22, n. l3. !ndor IodornI !uIo of IvIdonco
20l(b), n judIcInIIy nofIcod fncf musf bo ono nof subjocf fo ronsonnbIo
dIsufo In fhnf If Is oIfhor (l) gonornIIy known wIfhIn fho forrIforInI
jurIsdIcfIon of fho frInI courf or (2) cnnbIo of nccurnfo nnd rondy
doformInnfIon by rosorf fo sourcos whoso nccurncy cnnnof ronsonnbIy
bo quosfIonod. Whofhor ofobnorf`s sfnfomonfs consfIfufo ovIdonco of
Allen v. Wrigl/, 468 !. S. ?3?, ?68, n. l (l984). Tho Infor-
onco fho sfnfomonf suorfsfhnf sImuIfnnoous docIsIons
by I!ICs nof ovon fo nffomf fo onch cusfomors from ono
nnofhor onco fho Inw nufhorIzod fhom fo do so woro fho
roducf of nn ngroomonfsIfs comforfnbIy wIfhIn fho
ronIm of ossIbIIIfy. Thnf Is nII fho !uIos roquIro.
To bo cIonr, If I hnd boon fho frInI judgo In fhIs cnso, I
wouId nof hnvo ormIffod fho InInfIffs fo ongngo In mns-
sIvo dIscovory bnsod soIoIy on fho nIIognfIons In fhIs com-
InInf. On fho ofhor hnnd, I suroIy wouId nof hnvo dIs-
mIssod fho comInInf wIfhouf roquIrIng fho dofondnnfs fo
nnswor fho chnrgo fhnf fhoy hnvo ngrood nof fo comofo
wIfh ono nnofhor nnd ofhorwIso nIIocnfod cusfomors nnd
mnrkofs fo ono nnofhor.
l2
5l, A. 2?. Ivon n sworn
donInI of fhnf chnrgo wouId nof jusfIfy n summnry dIs-
mIssnI wIfhouf gIvIng fho InInfIffs fho oorfunIfy fo
fnko doosIfIons from ofobnorf nnd nf Ionsf ono rosonsI-
bIo oxocufIvo rorosonfIng onch of fho ofhor dofondnnfs.
!osondonfs In fhIs cnso roosod n Inn of 'hnsod
dIscovory` IImIfod fo fho oxIsfonco of fho nIIogod consIr-
ncy nnd cInss corfIfIcnfIon. IrIof for !osondonfs 2526.
Two ofIfIonors rojocfod fho Inn. 1IiJ. Whofhor or nof
rosondonfs` roosod Inn wns sonsIbIo, If wns nn nro-
rInfo subjocf for nogofInfIon.
l3
CIvon fho chnrgo In fho

n consIrncy Is hnrdIy boyond ronsonnbIo dIsufo.
l2
Tho Courf worrIos fhnf n dofondnnf sookIng fo rosond fo fhIs con-
cIusory nIIognfIon wouId hnvo IIffIo Idon whoro fo bogIn. An/e, nf l9,
n. l0. A dofondnnf couId, of courso, bogIn by oIfhor donyIng or ndmIf-
fIng fho chnrgo.
l3
Tho ofonfInI for srnwIIng, cosfIy, nnd hugoIy fImo-consumIng
dIscovory, on/e, nf l3, n. 6, Is no ronson fo fhrow fho bnby ouf wIfh fho
bnfhwnfor. Tho Courf vnsfIy undorosfImnfos n dIsfrIcf courf`s cnso-
mnnngomonf nrsonnI. Ioforo dIscovory ovon bogIns, fho courf mny
grnnf n dofondnnf`s !uIo l2(o) mofIon; !uIo ?(n) ormIfs n frInI courf fo
ordor n InInfIff fo roIy fo n dofondnnf`s nnswor, soo CrouforJ-1l v.
Bri//on, 523 !. S. 5?4, 598 (l998); nnd !uIo 23 roquIros rIgorous
nnnIysIs fo onsuro fhnf cInss corfIfIcnfIon Is nrorInfo, Generol
25 CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
comInInfbuffrossod by fho common sonso of Adnm

Teleplone Co. of Sou/luee/ v. Iolcon, 45? !. S. l4?, l60 (l982); soo
1n re 1ni/iol PuIlic Offering Securi/iee Li/igo/ion, 4?l I. 3d 24 (CA2
2006) (hoIdIng fhnf n dIsfrIcf courf mny nof corfIfy n cInss wIfhouf
ruIIng fhnf onch !uIo 23 roquIromonf Is mof, ovon If n roquIromonf
ovorIns wIfh n morIfs Issuo). !uIo l6 Invosfs n frInI judgo wIfh fho
owor, bnckod by snncfIons, fo roguInfo rofrInI rocoodIngs vIn confor-
oncos nnd schoduIIng ordors, nf whIch fho nrfIos mny dIscuss, in/er
olio, fho oIImInnfIon of frIvoIous cInIms or dofonsos, !uIo l6(c)(l); fho
nocossIfy or dosIrnbIIIfy of nmondmonfs fo fho IondIngs, !uIo l6(c)(2);
fho confroI nnd schoduIIng of dIscovory, !uIo l6(c)(6); nnd fho nood
for ndofIng socInI rocoduros for mnnngIng ofonfInIIy dIffIcuIf or
rofrncfod ncfIons fhnf mny InvoIvo comIox Issuos, muIfIIo nrfIos,
dIffIcuIf IognI quosfIons, or unusunI roof robIoms, !uIo l6(c)(l2).
SubsoquonfIy, !uIo 26 confors brond dIscrofIon fo confroI fho combInn-
fIon of InforrognforIos, roquosfs for ndmIssIons, roducfIon roquosfs,
nnd doosIfIons ormIffod In n gIvon cnso; fho soquonco In whIch such
dIscovory dovIcos mny bo doIoyod; nnd fho IImIfnfIons Imosod uon
fhom. Soo 523 !. S., nf 598599. Indood, !uIo 26(c) socIfIcnIIy or-
mIfs n courf fo fnko ncfIons fo rofocf n nrfy or orson from nnnoy-
nnco, ombnrrnssmonf, orossIon, or unduo burdon or oxonso by, for
oxnmIo, dIsnIIowIng n nrfIcuInr dIscovory roquosf, soffIng nrorInfo
forms nnd condIfIons, or IImIfIng Ifs scoo.
In shorf, fho IodornI !uIos confomInfo fhnf rofrInI mnffors wIII
bo soffIod fhrough n fIoxIbIo rocoss of gIvo nnd fnko, of roffors,
sfIuInfIons, nnd sfonownIIs, nof by hnvIng frInI judgos scroon nIIogn-
fIons for fhoIr InusIbIIIfy tel non wIfhouf roquIrIng nn nnswor from fho
dofondnnf. Soo Socie/e 1n/erno/ionole pour Por/icipo/ione 1nJue/riellee
e/ Connerciolee, S. A. v. Iogere, 35? !. S. l9?, 206 (l958) (!uIo 34 Is
suffIcIonfIy fIoxIbIo fo bo ndnfod fo fho oxIgoncIos of nrfIcuInr IIfIgn-
fIon). And shouId If bocomo nnronf ovor fho courso of IIfIgnfIon fhnf
n InInfIff`s fIIIngs bosonk nn in /erroren suIf, fho dIsfrIcf courf hns nf
Ifs cnII Ifs own in /erroren dovIco, In fho form of n wIdo nrrny of !uIo ll
snncfIons. Soo !uIos ll(b), (c) (nufhorIzIng snncfIons If n suIf Is ro-
sonfod for nny Imroor uroso, such ns fo hnrnss or fo cnuso unnoc-
ossnry doIny or noodIoss Incronso In fho cosf of IIfIgnfIon); soo Bueineee
GuiJee, 1nc. v. Clrono/ic Connunico/ione 1n/erprieee, 1nc., 498 !. S.
533 (l99l) (hoIdIng fhnf !uIo ll nIIos fo n rorosonfod nrfy who
sIgns n IondIng, mofIon, or ofhor nors, ns woII ns fo nffornoys);
A//ine v. Iiecler, 232 I. !. . ll6, l26 (C 2005) (As ossIbIo snnc-
fIons ursunnf fo !uIo ll, fho courf hns nn nrsonnI of ofIons nf Ifs
dIsosnI).
SmIfhI cnnnof sny fhnf fho ossIbIIIfy fhnf joInf dIscus-
sIons nnd orhns somo ngroomonfs Inyod n roIo In ofI-
fIonors` docIsIonmnkIng rocoss Is so ImInusIbIo fhnf
dIsmIssIng fho comInInf boforo nny dofondnnf hns donIod
fho chnrgo Is rofornbIo fo grnnfIng rosondonfs ovon n
mInImnI oorfunIfy fo rovo fhoIr cInIms. Soo CInrk,
ow IodornI !uIos 9?? (|T]hrough fho wonons of dIscov-
ory nnd summnry judgmonf wo hnvo dovoIood now do-
vIcos, wIfh moro nrorInfo onnIfIos fo nId In mnffors of
proof, nnd do nof nood fo forco fho IondIngs fo fhoIr Ioss
nrorInfo funcfIon).
I fonr fhnf fho unforfunnfo rosuIf of fho mnjorIfy`s now
IondIng ruIo wIII bo fo InvIfo Inwyors` dobnfos ovor oco-
nomIc fhoory fo concIusIvoIy rosoIvo nnfIfrusf suIfs In fho
nbsonco of nny ovIdonco. If Is no surrIso fhnf fho nnfI-
frusf dofonso bnrnmong whom Inmonf ns fo Inndo-
qunfo judIcInI suorvIsIon of dIscovory Is mosf common,
soo on/e, nf l2shouId Iobby for fhIs sfnfo of nffnIrs. Iuf
wo musf rocnII fhnf fhoIr rImnry rosonsIbIIIfy Is fo wIn
cnsos for fhoIr cIIonfs, nof fo Imrovo Inw ndmInIsfrnfIon
for fho ubIIc. CInrk, SocInI IIondIng In fho IIg Cnso
l52. As wo dId In our rIor docIsIons, wo shouId hnvo
Insfrucfod fhom fhnf fhoIr romody wns fo sook fo nmond
fho IodornI !uIosnof our InforrofnfIon of fhom.
l4
Soo

l4
CIvon hIs bnckground In nnfIfrusf Inw, on/e, nf l3, n. 6, Judgo
Insforbrook hns rocognIzod fhnf fho mosf offocfIvo soIufIon fo dIscovory
nbuso IIos In fho IogIsInfIvo nnd ruIomnkIng nronns. Ho hns suggosfod
fhnf fho romody for fho IIIs ho comInIns of roquIros n rovoIufIon In fho
ruIos of cIvII rocoduro:
Iorhns n sysfom In whIch judgos nro nwny Issuos nnd focus on
InvosfIgnfIon Is foo rndIcnI fo confomInfo In fhIs counfrynIfhough If
rovnIIod horo boforo l938, whon fho IodornI !uIos of CIvII Irocoduro
woro ndofod. Tho chnngo couId nof bo nccomIIshod wIfhouf nbnndon-
Ing nofIco IondIng, IncronsIng fho numbor of judIcInI offIcors, nnd
gIvIng fhom moro nufhorIfy . . . . If wo nro fo ruIo ouf judgo-dIrocfod
dIscovory, howovor, wo musf bo ronrod fo ny fho Ior. Inrf of fho
rIco Is fho hIgh cosf of unnocossnry dIscovoryImosIfIonnI nnd
2? CIfo ns: 550 !. S. ____ (200?)
Suier/ieuicc, 534 !. S., nf 5l5; CrouforJ-1l v. Bri//on,
523 !. S. 5?4, 595 (l998); Leo/lernon, 50? !. S., nf l68.
IV
Jusf n fow wooks ngo somo of my coIIonguos oxInInod
fhnf n sfrIcf InforrofnfIon of fho IIfornI foxf of sfnfufory
Inngungo Is ossonfInI fo nvoId judIcInI docIsIons fhnf nro
nof fnIfhfuI fo fho Infonf of Congross. Zuni PuIlic Sclool
Die/. Ao. S9 v. Depor/nen/ of 1Juco/ion, 550 !. S. ___, ___
(200?) (SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng). I hnon fo boIIovo fhnf
fhoro nro cnsos In whIch ofhor fooIs of consfrucfIon nro
moro roIInbIo fhnn foxf, buf I ngroo of courso fhnf congros-
sIonnI Infonf shouId guIdo us In mnffors of sfnfufory In-
forrofnfIon. 1J., nf ___ (STIVIS, J., concurrIng). ThIs Is
n cnso In whIch fho InfonfIons of fho drnffors of fhroo
Imorfnnf sourcos of Inwfho Shormnn Acf, fho ToIo-
communIcnfIons Acf of l996, nnd fho IodornI !uIos of
CIvII IrocoduronII oInf unmIsfnknbIy In fho snmo
dIrocfIon, yof fho Courf mnrchos rosoIufoIy fho ofhor wny.
Whofhor fho Courf`s ncfIons wIII bonofIf onIy dofondnnfs
In nnfIfrusf frobIo-dnmngos cnsos, or whofhor Ifs fosf for
fho suffIcIoncy of n comInInf wIII Inuro fo fho bonofIf of
nII cIvII dofondnnfs, Is n quosfIon fhnf fho fufuro wIII
nnswor. Iuf fhnf fho Courf hns nnnouncod n sIgnIfIcnnf
now ruIo fhnf doos nof ovon urorf fo rosond fo nny
congrossIonnI commnnd Is gInrIngIy obvIous.
Tho frnnsnronf oIIcy concorn fhnf drIvos fho docIsIon
Is fho Inforosf In rofocfIng nnfIfrusf dofondnnfswho In
fhIs cnso nro somo of fho wonIfhIosf corornfIons In our
oconomyfrom fho burdons of rofrInI dIscovory. An/e, nf
lll3. Ivon If If woro nof nnronf fhnf fho IognI foos
ofIfIonors hnvo Incurrod In nrguIng fho morIfs of fhoIr
!uIo l2(b) mofIon hnvo fnr oxcoodod fho cosf of IImIfod
dIscovory, or fhnf fhoso dIscovory cosfs wouId burdon

ofhorwIso. Iscovory ns Abuso, 69 I. !. !. !ov. 635, 645 (l989).
rosondonfs ns woII ns ofIfIonors,
l5
fhnf concorn wouId
nof rovIdo nn ndoqunfo jusfIfIcnfIon for fhIs Inw-chnngIng
docIsIon. Ior In fho fInnI nnnIysIs If Is onIy n Inck of confI-
donco In fho nbIIIfy of frInI judgos fo confroI dIscovory,
buffrossod by noIInfo judgos` Indoondonf nrnIsnI of
fho InusIbIIIfy of rofoundIy sorIous fncfunI nIIognfIons,
fhnf couId nccounf for fhIs sfnrk bronk from rocodonf.
If fho nIIognfIon of consIrncy hnons fo bo fruo, fo-
dny`s docIsIon obsfrucfs fho congrossIonnI oIIcy fnvorIng
comofIfIon fhnf undorgIrds bofh fho ToIocommunIcnfIons
Acf of l996 nnd fho Shormnn Acf IfsoIf. Moro ImorfnnfIy,
ovon If fhoro Is nbundnnf ovIdonco fhnf fho nIIognfIon Is
unfruo, dIrocfIng fhnf fho cnso bo dIsmIssod wIfhouf ovon
IookIng nf nny of fhnf ovIdonco mnrks n fundnmonfnInnd
unjusfIfIodchnngo In fho chnrncfor of rofrInI rncfIco.
AccordIngIy, I rosocffuIIy dIssonf.

l5
If wouId bo quIfo wrong, of courso, fo nssumo fhnf dIsmIssnI of nn
nnfIfrusf cnso nffor dIscovory Is cosfIoss fo InInfIffs. Soo Iod. !uIo
CIv. Iroc. 54(d)(l) (|C]osfs ofhor fhnn nffornoys` foos shnII bo nIIowod
ns of courso fo fho rovnIIIng nrfy unIoss fho courf ofhorwIso dIrocfs).

05-1126bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly SUPREM CRT RUL 12b6

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