ANALYSIS AND MODELING OF

PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSFORMERS

Ehson Muhammad Syed

A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements

for the degree of Masters of Applied Sciences Graduate Department of Electrical and Cornputer Engineering University of Toronto

O Copyright by Ehson Muhammad Syed 2001

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ANALYSIS AND MODELING OF PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSFORMERS

Master of Applied Science 200 1 Ehson Muhammad Syed Graduate Department of Elecical and Compter Engineering University of Toronto

Abstract

This thesis presents an equivalent circuit rnodel for a Rosen type piezoelectric transformer. Transmission line equations for various vibration modes with a clamped boundary condition on one end of each section are developed. The partial expansion theorem is used to convert the transmission line model into an equivalent circuit model. Losses are introduced in a pst-processing step using the experimental value of mechanical quality factor. L'Hospitals mle is used to simplifi the circuit near a desired resonance fiequency. Experimental results confirm the existence of multimode resonance and anti-resonance behavior. The modeling methodology is then extended to multi-

layered rectangular and circular geometries.

The applicability of two DC-DC converter topologies in connection with a

piezoelectric transformer i.e. Class-E and an Asymrnetrical converter are discussed. Also, experiments on a three winding multi-layered device connected to an asymmetrical converter are performed. Results indicate that the third winding cannot be used to provide a feedback voltage since the voltage does not track the secondary output voltage.

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to...............

my beloved parents and siblings

and
al1 of my hardworking teachers and professors

(iii)

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the following individuals:

Professor Dr. Francis P. Dawson for his intensive guidance, encouragement, instructive suggestions and full support throughout the work and for providing necessary information for pursuing this work efficiently.

a Mr. Brian Whitnell and Mr. Michel Gagne of Agilent Technologies for helping

out with the measurements with the HP's Network Analyzer at the University of Toronto and at their place.

Mr. Jack Goldstein fiom the Power Labs at the University of Toronto for his help in ordering the parts and cornponents.

Philippe Blanchard, a Ph.D. student and Edward Chen, an undergraduate student

for their help with the converter design.

Finally, 1 would like to thank my wonderful and ever loving parents for their continuous support, encouragement and confidence.

Table of Contents
List of Symbols .................................................................................................................. ix List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi

List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xvi Chapter: 1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................. 1

1-1

Background .............................................................................................................. 2 ThesisObjectives ..................................................................................................... 5 Thesis O u t h e .......................................................................................................... 6

1.2
1.3

Chapter: 2 BASIC THEORY.............................................................................................. 7

2. 1
2. 2
2. 3

Poling of a Piezoelectric Matenal ............................................................................. 7 Definition of FieId and Material Properties ..............................................................8 Piezoelectric Effect ................................................................................................. IO 2.3.1 Polarity of Piezoelectric Effect ................................................................... 11

2.4

Shapes and Vibrational Modes ............................................................................... 12

2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3

Transverse (length) Vibration Mode ............................................. 13 Thickness Vibration Mode ...................................................... 14

Shear Thickness Mode .......................................................... 14

2. 5

Velocity of Propagation .......................................................................................... 15 Piezoelectnc Material .............................................................................................16 Multi-layered Structures ......................................................................................... 19 Piezoelectric Transfomers .................................................................................... -20 2.8.1 Applications....................................................................-20 Properties...................................................................... ..2O Structure of a Single Rosen-type Transformer .............................2 1 Stress and Displacement distributions....................................... 22

2. 6 2. 7
2. 8

. .

2.8.2 2.8.3
2.8.4

Chapter: 3 MODELING ................................................................................................. -24

3.1

Basic Piezoelectric (Tensor) Equations .................................................................. 24 Piezoelectric Constants and Coefficients ..............................................................
-29

3.2
3.3

Equivalent Circuit Modeling................................................................................... 31

3.3.1

. .

Equivalent circuit of a transducer in Thickness vibration mode........... 32 Equivalent Circuit Under Mechanical Stress ........................................ 41 Equivalent Circuit of a Transducer in Longitudinal vibration Mode...54 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer........................................ 57 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer.................................59 Process Flow Chart...................................................... 60

3.3.2
3.3.3 3.3.4

3.3.4.1
3.3.4.2

3.4 Extension Of The Mode1 to a Three Section Rosen-type Piezoelectric Transformer....................................................................................................................... 60

3.4.1

Modeling .............................................................................................. 61

3.4.2 Chapter: 4
4.1 4.2 4.3

Lumped Circuit Mode1......................................................................... 63

EXPERIMENT AND RESULTS ...............................................................-64

Testing Procedure .................................................................................................. -64 Testing of 3-layered Rosen-type Transformer ........................................................ 66 Testing of multi-layered Circutar Transformer....................................................... 71 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 76

4.4

Chapter: 5 CONVERTER DESIGN ................................................................................. 77

5.1

A DC-DC Class E ZVS Converter Design ..............................................................77

5.1.1 5.1.2

Description ........................................................................ 78 Equations and Mathematical Modeling ................................................... 79 Class E converter Design using the Piezoelectric Transformer..............-86 Simulation Results ................................................................................... 89

5.1.3

5.1.4

5 -2

Asymmetrical Converter Design ............................................................................. -91 5.2.1 Asyrnmetrical Converter Design using a Piezoelectric Transformer ......92 Simulation Results ................................................................................... 94

5.2.2
5.2.3 5.2.4

Expenmental Analysis ............................................................................. 96

Conclusion ........................................................................................... 1 0 3

Chapter: 6 THESIS CONCLUSION .......................................................................... 0 4 1 Proposed Future Work ..................................................................... 105 APPENDIX: A 1 APPENDIX: A2 APPENDIX: A3 Piezoelectric Equations in Cartesian Coordinate System .......
A l. 1

Piezoelectric Equations in Cy lindrical Coordinate System ......... A2-1 Equivalent circuit of a transducer in Longitudinal vibration modeA3- 1

APPENDIX: A4 Determination of off-resonance equivalent impedance using L'Hospital's Rule .......................................................................................................... A4-1 A4.1
A4.2

For tanh fnction .............................................................................................. A4-1

A4.3

...................................................... 4 4 A For cosech h c t i o n .......................................................................................... A4-8

For coth fnction ................................... .. Flow Chart ................................................................................... A5-1 Pre-processing Stage ........................................................................................ A5-1 Processing Stage .............................................................................................. AS-2 Post Processing Stage...................................................................................... AS-4

APPENDIX: A5
A5.1

A5.2
A5.3

Equivalent Circuit Modeling of a Circular Disc type Piezoelectric APPENDIX: A6 Transformer assuming a radial vibration ...................................................................... A6-1 A6.1 A64 Equivalent Circuit Modeling of a Circulas Disc in a radial vibration .............

Equivalent Circuit Modeling of a Circular Piezoelectric Transformer in a radial A6.2 vibration ........................................................................................................................ A6-9 Equivalent Circuit Modeling of a multi-layered Circular Disc type APPENDIX: A7 Piezoelectric Transformer under thickness vibration .................................................. A7-1
A7.1

Modeling .......................................................................................................... A7-3 (vii)

APPENDIX: A8 Asymmetrical Converter design and circuit.. ...........................A8- 1

APPENDIX: A9 Simulation Programs. ........................................................... A9- 1 ...

List of References.. ..................................................................- ..............RI

(viii)

List of Symbols

Radius ( m )

Thickness ( m ) Width ( m )
Area (m;)

Surface Area (m'l) Dens ity (kg/mL) Frequency (Hz)

Angular frequency (radians/'.)

Impedance (R) Resistance (a) Capacitance Vmads) Current (A) Voltage (0 Resonant frequency (Hz) Anti-resonant fiequency (Hz) Stress (i= 1-6) reduced form of

7, j = I - 6 ) (

(~/rn~)

Dielectric Displacement (i=I-3) (C/m2) Electric field (i=l-3) (V/m) Strain (i=l-3) reduced form of S, (j=1-6) ( d m )

Displacement (i=I-3) ( m ) Displacement Velocity (i=1-3) ( d s ) Position (m) Piezoelectric charge coefficient (i= 1-3), reduced form of duk .k= 1-6) Piezoelectric voltage coefficient (i= 1-3), reduced form of g Thickness electromechanical coupling constant Planar electromechanical coupling constant Thickness Shear electromechanical coupling constant Length Thickness electromechanical coupling constant Length electromechanical coupling constant Radial electromechanical coupling constant Free permittivity (constant stress) (ij=f -3) (F/m) Clamped permittivity (constant strain) (iJ=1-3)(F/m) Permittivity, a combination as defined in radial mode. Piezoelectric coeffiecient as defined in radial mode. Elastic Sti ffness (~/m') Elastic Cornpliance (constant field), reduced form of Poisson's ratio (radial mode) Static Capacitance (F) Mechanical Quality factor

(Cm
- -

, .k=f -6) ( ,

Y ,

SC (ij.k=I-6)

(rn2mc)

List of Figures
Figure

Description
Polarization of Ceramic material to generate Piezoelectric Effect Examples of Piezoelectric Effect Different Shapes of a PZT Transverse Vibration Mode Thickness Vibration Mode Shear Vibration Mode Admittance versus frequency of a PZT ceramic Admittance versus frequency of a PbTiO, ceramic

X- and Y-Poled Multilayered Stacking

A simplified representation of a Rosen Type Piezoelectric Transformer Dimensions (in mm) of a Piezoelectric Transformer Displacernent and Stress Utilization Axis Representation A simplified representation of a Piezoelectric Transformer Rosen type Resonator in the Thickness Vibration mode Equivalent Circuit Representation of a Piezoelectric Resonator Piezoelectric Resonator under Stress Electromechanical equivalent circuit of a resonator under thickness vibration Equivalent circuit with terminal short circuited Redrawn equivalent circuit with tenninal short circuit Equivalence of an L-Type network plus a transformer to an L-Type network reversed in direction

3.10
L

Equivalent circuit represenbtion after ernploying the simplification technique Equivalent circuit representation after referring the middle branch to the secondary

3.11

side in figure 3.1 1

3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15

Simplified equivalent circuit without losses Equivalent circuit of a resonator for thickness vibration with al1 the circuit parameters Representation of Strain and Strain Velocity Cornplete equivalent circuit model with losses

1 3.16
3.1 7
3.18

1 A transversely vibrated piezoelectric resonator under stress

Electromechanical equivalent circuit for the longitudinal vibration section Simplified equivalent circuit without losses Equivalent circuit of a resonator assuming thickness vibration with al1 the circuit

3.19

parameters
3-20 3.21

1 Simplified equivalent circuit of a Rosen type piezoelectric transformer

I

Detailed equivalent circuit of a Rosen type piezoelectric transformer

1 3.22
3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26

1 Simplification of off resonance branches

Outline of a three section altemately poled piezoelectric transformer Equivalent circuit representation of the middle section Complete equivalent circuit model of a piezoelectric transformer shown in figure 3.24 Equivalent circuit representation of a three section alternately poled piezoelectric transformer Detailed equivalent circuit representation of a three section a fternately poled

3.27

piezoelectric transformer in terms of lumped parameters

4.1 4.2 4.3

Setup for Measuring Zin Setup for measuring V 2 ' N I Measured Input Admittance vs. Frequency Characteristics of the 3-layered Rosen-type

(xii)

transformer Measured and simulated input admittance Input Admittance vs. Frequency Characteristics of the 3-layered Rosen-type transformer Measured and simulated Input Admittance vs. Frequency Characteristics of the 3layered Rosen-type transformer, afier correction in material parameters is made Best fit equivalent circuit model near the 3" resonance mode Comparison of Detailed and Simplified (near 3" resonance) Input Admittance vs. Frequency Simulation of the 3-layered Rosen-type transforrner Measured Voltage Ratio vs. Frequency of the 3-layered Rosen-type transformer Measured Input Admittance vs. Frequency Characteristics of multi-layered Circular Disc transformer with an open circuit at the auxiliary winding Input Admittance vs. Frequency Characteristics of multi-layered Circular Disc transformer. Comparison of simuiated and measured results Best fit equivalent circuit model of a multi-layered PT near the resonance frequency Input Admittance vs. Frequency Characteristics of multi-layered Circular Disc transformer. Comparison of simplified and detailed simulation Measured Output and Input Voltage Ratio vs. Frequency of the multi-layered Circular transformer Basic Class E Converter A parallel RC network Class E converter with the an equivalent R and C Class E converter with the a parallel capacitance across the load resistance Approximate Equivalent Circuit Class E Converter based on Piezoelectric Transformer Waveforms for a Class-E converter using a multi-layered Piezoelectric Transformer

(xiii)

Class-E Converter using a multi-layered Piezoelectric Transformer with different

5.8

values of Choke Inductance

5.9

Asymmetrical Converter with an input inductance Simulated waveforms of an Asymmetrical Converter with different input inductance

5.10

values
5.11
L

Simulated waveforms of an Asymmetrical Converter (Li=250uH)

Measured voltage and current waveforms at the input terminais of a PT, when used
S. 12

with an asymmetrical converter (Li4OOuH)

1 5.13
5.14 5.15

1 Voltage Transformation ratio (output/input) versus Frequency at different loads

Voltage Transformation ratio (auxiliary/input) vs. Frequency at different loads Temperature rise (AT) vs. Frequency versus the at different loads The Voltage Transformation ratio (output/input) versus Frequency at 100 ohms for

5.16

di fferent samples
The Voltage Transformation ratio (auxiliary/input) versus Frequency at 100 ohms for
3.1 7

different samples.
5.18
I

The temperature rise (AT) versus Frequency at 100 ohms for different samples Electromechanical equivalent circuit for the longitudinal vibration section

A3. I

1 A6.1
A6.2
A6.3

Equivalent Circuit of a Piezoelectric Resonator (radial) Equivalent circuit of a radial resonator A radially vibrated Piezoelectric Transformer Equivalent circuit of a Piezoelectric Transformer under radial vibration Outline of a three section alternately poled piezoelectric transformer Details of the Input Section of a three section alternately poled piezoelectric

A6.4 A7.1 A7.2

(xiv)

- Details of the Output Section of a three section alternately poled piezoelectric

A7.3

transformer
A7.4

Equivalent circuit mode1 of a circular disc multi-layered piezoeiectric transformer Sirnplified equivalent circuit modef of a circular disc multi-layered piezoelectric

A7.5 transformer
L

A7.6

Simplifieci Model with Star-Delta Transformations Power Stage of a PT based Asymmetrical Converter Control Stage of a PT based Asymrnetrical Converter

A8. I
L

A8.2

Table
2.1 3.1
C

Description
Definition o f Symbols in this chapter Equivaient Matrix notation for Tensor Representation Design parameters-3 layered PT Comparison between the results for simulation and calculation Summary of Results @220VAC/300VDC Characteristics of Auxiliary Winding (sample#5) Characteristics of Auxiliary Winding (different samples)
-

3.2
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

A8.1

Component List-Power Stage Component List-Control Stage

A8.2

(xvi)

Chapter: 1
INTRODUCTION
There is an increasing interest in finding components or circuit architectures that will lead
to higher power densities in switched mode power supplies. Higher power densities are

achieved by (i) reducing the losses in components through the use of optirnized circuit architectures, (ii) utilizing materials with improved electricai and thermal properties, (iii) constmcting planar structures to increase the surface area for heat transfer, (iv) integrating components (v) increasing the switching fkequencies (vi) reducing the number

and size of components Il]. The minimum possible size is ultimately constrained by
losses and electromagnetic compatibility issues. In an effort to achieve the goal of miniaturization, various technologies, which integrate the fnctionality of a reactance and transformer in one device, are being investigated. Piezoelectric transformers (PT) have recently received attention as a possible alternative to magnetic based transformers since they are planar, have low losses (96% efficiency), incorporate a transformer and resonant structure in one package and transmit the energy

fiom prirnary to secondary by acoustic means [2]. Leakage fields are constrained to the
primary and secondary side and these stray fields can be minimized [3]. Piezo-transformers offer a potential advantage of a thimer profile compared to a magnetic transformer and a simpler manufacturing process due to the lack of windings. However there are other complexities such as geometries, polarization, mounting, which

need to be considered.

Page 1

At this time, the model for these devices is not well understood specifically from the point of view of how a transformer can be designed to meet a specific application requirement. Considering the lack of information available on modeling, this thesis

focuses on advancing our understanding of the model for a piezoelectric transformer. In addition, converter topologies suitable for use with piezoelectric transfomers are also discussed.

1.1 Background
Modeling of a simple resonator in terms of an electrical equivalent circuit has always been of interest to scientists.
S.

Butterworth gave a description of capacitive

electrornechanical systerns and he concluded that any physical system codd be presented

as an electrical network consisting of a capacitance in parallel with a series LCR network

[4]. It was W.P. Mason, who was credited with developing an electromechanical model

for a loss-less rectangular piezoelectric resonator [5, 63. After Mason, many scientists worked on the modeling of single segmented or multiple segmented systems. A detailed circuit analysis for a segmented electromechanical system that extends the approach

7. presented in [5] was docurnented in [ ] The behavior of al1 segments was described in
terms of general boundary conditions at either end of the system. Due to the smaller size and high resonant Iiequency, xnulti-layered transducers, i.e. stacking of ceramic filters on top of each other, have always been attractive to scientists.

The modeling of these devices is more complex.

The theoretical treatrnent of stacked

resonators has been reported in [8] and a simplified electromechanical circuit model has been developed for a ferro-electric cylindrical tube consisting of any nurnber of

Page 2

longitudinally polarized coaxial segments. composite resonators in a transducer design.

This has made it possible to analyze

In 1956, T. Tanaka manufactured various types of mechanical filters to prove the

usefulness of piezoelectric devices as actuators. He revealed the importance of specific vibration modes and coupling methods for resonators.

The discovery of multiple

segmented transducers and their applications gave birth to piezoelectric transfomers

(PTs).
Studies of Piezoelectric transfomers began in 1957 in the US and in 1961 in Japan [9]. PTs did not become comrnercially successful due to the use of poor materials and the existence of a competing magnetic technology. Researchers in Japan have made

additional efforts to produce efficient and compact PTs for portable applications e.g. laptop displays since the 1990s. Effkiencies from 85% [IO] to 92% [ I l ] have been reported.
It was not until the development of piezoelectric ceramics with large

electromechanical coupling coefficients, that the opportunity for their practical use was

realized.
C.A. Rosen proposed [12] a PT operating in the length vibration mode. The device was

rectangular in shape and was named after him (Rosen-type PT). This invention opened the doors for M e r investigations. In [13]-[15], a PT operating in the thickness

extensional vibration mode was proposed. This discovery lead to m e r reductions in the size of the device. Fundamental limits of energy density and power throughput for a PT have been discussed in [16]. The fundamental limitations are imposed by a maximum electric field strength,

Page 3

maximum surface charge density, maximum stress and maximum strain for the piezoelectric material. Recently a Rosen type PT was analyzed [17] using a finite element method. An electrical equivalent circuit mode1 was developed fiom this analysis and was used to validate the analysis. The calcuiated and experimental results were in good agreement but some differences in resonant fiequency, transformation ratio and power were observed. In al1 the cases the models were assumed to be linear but in reality the device is far fiom being iinear. PTs are advantageous in some DC-DC converter applications for instance cold cathode florescent lamp divers. This device is cheaper to produce compared to an

electromagnetic transformer due to the PT'S inherent high voltage isolation charactenstic. In [ 141, a multi-layered piezoelectric cerarnic transformer for switching power supplies is described. This PT operates in the second rcsonant mode (at IMHz)and al1 segments operate in the thickness vibration mode. In [18], development of a PT converter is

combined with a zero-voltage switching converter. This PT operates in the thickness extensional mode, and it is claimed that this design eliminates capacitive turn-on losses. The losses are due to the low input impedance of large input capacitance in a Rosen-type design. A inodel of a PT designed for high voltage step-up applications is presented in 1191. The combination of a PT and a DC-DC class-E converter for a low profile application is described in [20]. The paper shows that the loss of the PT depends on the load and switching frequency. A matching network is presented and designed to provide

maximum output power. It is also shown that the impedance mismatch in the matching
networks for a PT and the conduction losses of the matching components cause a

significant loss. A PT based converter with pulse width modulation (PWM) is presented in [10]. RecentIy many applications of PTs in power converters for cold cathode

fluorescent larnp and miniature battery charger have been reported in [21-251, and an asymmetncal converter design with series input capacitance is investigated in 1261. A new control PWM with PT is presented in [27] and it is shown that stable voltage regulation and ZVS over a wide range of input power is achievable by selecting an appropriate value of input inductor. However, a new modeling approach is reported in

1281. This approach is towards understanding a multi-layered PT, but it is not based on
material and geometrical parameters. Unfortunately, the design of these devices for a specific application is problematic for the following reasons: an equivalent circuit based model derived fiom physical principles does not exist in the literature; no research to date has demonstrated how losses can be incorporated into the equivalent circuit model; existing circuit models are complex and do not predict multi resonance or anti-resonance behavior.

1.2 Thesis Objectives

This thesis advances the state of the art by developing a circuit -based model that can predict multimode resonance and anti-resonance behavior of different types of piezoelectric transformers. Moreover, the proposed design approach makes a direct link between the equivalent circuit components and the mechanical dimensions and material properties. The approach is systematic and relies on the following assumptions: the system is considered to be linear and loss-less, although the non-linearity issue is beyond the scope of this thesis. Non-linearities can be considered as a perturbation to the circuit

Page 5

parameters of the first order and can be incorporated as part of a post-processing step. A detailed analysis of a selected number of devices is presented. The simulation results are validated for a number of devices using an HP Network Analyzer (4395A). Finally, converters suitable for use with a piezoelectric transformer are identified and described in the context of the application environment.

1.2 Thesis Outline

Chapter: 2 reviews the fundarnentals of piezoelectricity. Different types of vibration

modes and geometries are discussed along with the stress and displacement distribution in a PT. A brief description of piezoelectnc material properties is also given. Chapter: 3 presents the methodology for modeling a PT. A general introduction to the basic piezoelectric equations is given. The chapter begins by considering a single resonator under no mechanical stress. The analysis is later extended to include the case of a single resonator operating in the thickness mode with a mechanical stress applied. Then a complete transformer mode1 is presented and a detailed description of the simplification techniques employed are described. Finally. the application of these equations for a specific device is discussed. Chapter: 4 consists of results and the analysis for different geometnes. Simulation results
are analyzed and compared with experimental data.

Chapter: 5 briefly discusses the application of a PT in a DC-DC converter based on a Class-E converter topology. Experimentd results for an asyrnmetrical bridge configuration are also given.

Page 6

Chapter: 2 BASIC THEORY

Piezoelectricity is the property held by some materials in which a mechanical deformation of the material results in an interna1 electric field or vice versa. The piezoelectric effect is found in crystals that have no center of symmetry like quartz, Rochelle salt and many synthetic crystalline ceramics [29]. The most widely used piezoelectric materials are polycrystalline composite ceramics of lead zicronate titanate

b g h coupling factors, high piezoelectric and dielectric constants and wide operating
range for temperature and stress) and barium titanate (widely used for tramducers with moderate power levels and sensitivity). Specific additives are included to give each composition specific dielectric, piezoelectric and physical properties.

2.1 Poling of a Piezoelectric Material

Any polycrystalline ceramic is composed of a multitude of randomly oriented crystals (dipoles) and the bulk properties are the sum of the properties of these crystallites. Figure: 2. la illustrates this concept, where arrows indicate the direction of polarization.

In the manufacturing of piezoelectric ceramics, a suitable ferroelectric material is first

fabricated into a desired shape and electrodes are applied. The piezoelectric element is then heated to a temperature referred to as the Curie temperature: the temperature above,

which the spontaneous polarization and piezoelectric effect cease to exist. The heating is
performed in the presence of a strong DC field. This polarizes the ceramic (Le. aligns the molecular dipoles of the ceramic in the direction of an applied field), as shown in figure:

2.lb. The polarization field remains fkozen in place when the temperature is reduced

Page 7

below the Curie point and the field is removed (figure: 2. lc). The greater the number of

domains aligned, the greater the piezoeiectric effect [29,30].

Figure: 2.1 Polarization of Ceramic material to generate Piezoelectric Effect [29)

The polarization (poling) of piezoelectric materials is permanent. However when

working with the materiais, the temperature of the material should be kept well below the Curie point. Therefore, the material should not be exposed to very strong alternating

current, as this will give nse to an increase in temperature and hence depoling will result
[30]. Also in order to avoid cracking in the materiai, the stress imposed should not exceed specific limits. This stress could be caused by temperature gradients, excessive mechanical stress, or fabrication flaws.

2.2 Definition of Field and Material Properties

Before any M e r discussion, it is necessary to have some basic knowledge about the material and field properties of the chosen material. These are summarized below:

Stress (T): applied force per cross-sectional area. Strain (S): the ratio of change in dimension to the actual dimension.

Page 8

Electric Field (E): the ratio of the voltage applied or generated to the distance between the electrodes. Electric Disphcement (D): permittivity. Dielectrie Permittivity (E): the proportionality factor that relates electrical displacement the product of electric field intensity (E) and the

(D) to an electric field (E) under a constant stress (T). It is given as follows:

Piezoelectric Distortion Constant (d): it relates the mechanical strain (S) developed in response to an applied electric field (E) with no stress (T) applied. In a general form it is given as:

Piezoelectric Elasticity Constant or Cornpliance (E: it relates strain due to an applied S) stress, in the presence of a constant electric field. In a general form it is given as:

Where

E ,

is the compliance given a constant electric field (E).

The inverse of compliance is referred to as Young's Modulus. Electromechanical Coupling Coefficient (k): it is defined as the ability of a

piezoelectric material to transform electrical energy into mechanical energy, and vice versa. It is also referred to as the piezoelectric efficiency of a piezoelectric ceramic and is given by:

Page 9

EIectriculStored Energy Mechanical Input energy

The value of a coupling coefficient is unique for each vibration mode. It is expressed as a number less than unity. It can also be related to the other piezoelectric coefficients in the following form:

Deositv: is related tc the mass and volume of a piezoelectric material by the following
expression:
P=

muss volume

Mechanical Qualitv Factor: It determines the sharpness of the resonant peak.

2 3 Piezoelectric Effect .
A piezoelectric substance is one that produces or develops a surface electnc charge

(distributed) when a mechanical stress is applied i.e. the material is squeezed or stretched (direct effect). Conversely, a mechanical deformation (substance shnnks or expands) is produced when an electric field is applied (converse effect).

Figure: 2.2 describes the pictorial f o m of the piezoelectric effect. Figure: 2.2a shows the piezoelectric matenal without any stress or charge. If the matenal is compressed, a voltage of the same polarity will appear between the electrodes (figure: 2.2b).

Page 10

Figure: 2.2 Examples of Piezoelectric Effect (291

If the material is stretched then an opposite polarity of voltage will appear (figure: 2 . 2 ~ ) . Conversely if a voltage is applied, the material will deform. Voltage of opposite polarity to the polarity setup by the polarization field will cause matenal expansion (figure: 2.26). Applying a voltage wiIl cause the material to cornpress (figure: 2.2e). If an AC signal is applied to the piezo device xn the device will vibrate at the same fiequency as the signal assuming the electrical fiequency coincides with the mechanicd resonant fiequency of the piezoelectric material (Figure: 2.2n.

2.3.1 Polarity of Piezoelectric Effect

An electric field of the sarne polarity as the polarization field will cause an elongation

along the direction of polarization and a contraction in al1 directions perpendicular to the poiing axis. In contrast, a reverse field will cause contraction dong the poling axis and

Page 11

expansion in the transverse directions. The deformation remains as long as a field is maintained.

Similarly, a compressive force applied perpendicular to the poling axis produces an electric field of the sarne polarity as the poling axis. In contrast, an application of a reversed applied force would reverse the polarity of the generated electric field. The positive electrode on the finished ceramic is usuaily identified by a polarity mark. This is the electrode to which the positive voltage is applied during the poling operation [3 11.

2.4

Shapes and Vibrational Modes

The multi-resonant behavior of piezoelectric ceramics depends on their shape, orientation

of polarization and the direction of the electric field. The displacement pattern within a
piezo-device depends on the mechanical frequency excited. The type of displacement pattern or bending is referred to as the vibration mode. The piezo-device c m be made into various shapes to achieve different vibration modes or alternatively the vibration mode required will dictate the basic shape of the resonator.

The vibration mode used is dictated by the target frequency of the resonator and the desired stress distribution. Resonators have been designed for fiequencies fiom several

kHz to several MHz. Figure: 2.3 shows the various shapes of piezoelectric ceramics.

Page 12

Figure: 2.3 Different Shapes of a PZT (30)

The modes are described as k i n g transverse, thickness or shear thickness. A description
of each of these modes follows:

2.4.1 Transverse (length) Vibration Mode

For this mode the direction of vibration is oriented orthogonal to the direction of polarization. Figure: 2.4 shows a rectangular plate shape vibrating in this mode. The length in the direction of propagation for this mode is much greater than its thickness and width. nie resonant frequency depends on the length, hence a large length irnplies a low resonant fiequency drive, and a large surface area of the electrodes irnplies a higher input impedance. Since, the electromechanical coupling factors associated with the other

modes are very small as compared to that of the transverse mode, this mode generates single resonant frequency, and/or the other resonant points are very far apart.

Figure: 2.4 Transverse Vibration Mode

Page 13

Where P= Direction of Polarization E= Direction of Electric Field Arrows indicate direction of vibration

2.4.2 Thickness Mode

For this mode, the vibration is oriented along the direction of polarization. Figure: 2.5 shows that disk and rectangular plate shapes are employed in this mode, where the thickness (length of propagation) is much smaller as compared to its width, length, or diameter. The resonant fiequency depends on the thickness of the device hence a thin device implies a high fiequency drive and a small surface area of the electrodes implies a low intemal impedance. This structure exhibits multiple points of resonance, as the electromechanical coupling factors associated with the other modes are also present.
Wav

1Motion

Wav

4 Motion

Figure: 2.5 Thickness Vibration Mode

2.4.3 Shear Thickness Mode

In this mode the piezoelectric ceramic expands in thickness as well as diagonaily. Figure: 2.6 shows that rectangular plate shapes are employed in this mode and the length in the direction of propagation is much smaller than the surface area of the electrodes. The electric field is orthogonal to the direction of polarization, causing a shear vibration along the surface. The resonant fiequency is determined by the thickness of the device.

Page 14

Figure: 2.6 Shear Vibration Mode

2.5

Velocity of Propagation

The velocity of propagation through a piezoelectric ceramic has a specific value for each vibration mode. For a piezoelectric ceramic with a certain shape and vibration mode, the relationship between wavelength h of a vibration and the propagation length I at a resonant point is given by:

The sound velocity is given by:

s = f,.A
wheref, is the resonant fiequency. Therefore

Where N, the fiequency constant (see also Table: 2 . l ) , depends on the vibration mode
and material properties [29].

Page 15

TABLE 2.1 Definition of Symbols Used in this cbapter

Frequency constants, when the; poling axis is perpendicular to that of stress or strain; poling axis is in the same direction as stress and strain; poling axis is perpendicular
I

to that of stress or strain and to electric field; and poling as well as strain or stress are al 1 in the same direction Electromechanical Coupling Coeficient indicates that the poling is in the direction of the 3-mis, and the stress or strain is along the 1-axis. Electromechanical Coupling Coefficient indicates that the poling as well as strain or stress is al1 in the direction of the 3-ais. (also referred as a planar mode) Electromechanical Coupling CoefTacient indicates that the poling is in the direction of the 3-axis, and the stress or strain is along the f -axis (also referred as a thickness mode)

The fiequencies for the specific modes are listed below:

Transverse mode: f, = -;I = length of the resonator N33

1

N3 Thickness mode: f , = -; 1 t = thickness of the resonator

f

N I Shear mode: f, = -; 5 t = thickness of the resonator

t

NP Radial mode: f, = -;d = diameter of the resonator d

2.6

Piezoelectric Material

Many applications use the resonance point, since the cerarnic has a very hi&
electrornechanical transfonning eficiency at this point. When piezoelectnc ceramics are molded in different shapes they can possess multi resonance behavior depending on their operating vibration modes. For exarnple, for the piezoelectric device operating in the

Page 16

thickness vibration mode, a piezoelectric materiai, with a large electromechanical coupling factor kt (see also Table: 2 4 , is advantageous. In general, lead zicronatetitanate solid solution (PZT) family ceramics not only have a large coupling factor kt, but also a large electromechanical coupling factor k3/ and k Therefore, when an AC voltage , . is applied to a resonator made fiom PZT ceramics that is desired to support the thickness extensional vibration mode, the high order modes of length andor width extensional vibrations could cause undesirable vibrations. For this reason it is extremely difficult to suppress these undesired vibrations caused by the other modes (Le. k3/). Thus, to reaiize a resonator, which has a resonant response due only to the thickness extensional vibration mode without spurious vibrations, piezoelectric materials with large anisotropy between
k&

are required [13,14].

The lead titanate (PbTi03) family of ceramics consists of materials with large
piezoelectric anisotropy, where k, is larger than 50% and k, is less than 5%. In consequence, it is possible to suppress the undesired vibrations fiom the resonator. The admittance versus fiequency characteristic of a PZT cerarnic plate and a PbTi03 plate, whose dimensions are 5Omm long, 25mm wide and Imm thick, are shown in figures: 2.7
and 2.8, respectively. The PbTi03 cerarnic plate operating in the thickness extension

vibration mode has a clearer resonant response compared with the PZT ceramic plate.

Page 17

Frequency (MHz)
Figure: 2.7 Admittance versus frequency of a PZT ceramic (141
This demonstrates why PbTi03 ceramics are used when the piezoelectric device is operated in the thickness extensional vibration mode. In figure: 2.7, the planar coupling factor k, denotes the coupling between the elecic field in the thickness direction (in , direction 3, as shown in figure: 2.5) and the simuItaneous mechanical actions (in the I

and/or 2 directions). The thickness coupling factor kt denotes the coupling between the
electric field in the thickness direction and the mechanical vibration in the same direction.

~. ~ 05

~1

'. ~ 15

'

"

Frequency (MHz)

Figure: 2.8 Admittance versus frequency of a PbTi03 ceramic [14)

The requirement of suppressing the undesired vibrations is very critical, as this will cause
loss of power due to the excitation of unwanted resonant modes.

Page 18

2.7

Multi-layered Structures

Any number of piezoelectric layers may be stacked on top of one another. Increasing the volume of piezo-ceramic increases the energy that may be delivered to a load. As the nurnber of layers grows, so does the diaculty of accessing and wiring a1 the layers. l Typically, more than 3 layers become impractical [32].

The co-fired stack is a practical way to assemble and wire a large nurnber of piezoelectric layers into one monolithic structure. The stack, which comprises a large number of piezoelectric iayers, is a very stiff structure. It also has a high capacitance since the plates making the structure are connected electricaliy in parallel. The device is suitable for handling high force and collecting a large volume of charge. The tiny motions of each layer contribute to the overall displacement. Stack motion on the order of microns to tens of microns, and a force from hundreds to thousands of Newtons is typical[32].

X-Poled refers to the case where the polarization vectors for each of the m o layers point
)~ in opposite directions (figure: 2 . 9 ~ specifically, towards each other. In contrast, Y-

Poled refers to the case where the polarization vectors for each of the rwo layers point in
the sarne direction (figure: 2. Pb).

(a)

(b)

Figure: 2.9 X- and Y-Poled Multilayered Stacking (321

Page 19

2.8

Piezoelectric Transformers

The direct and converse piezoelectric effects are used in a piezoelectric transformer, where power fiom one level to another is transfomed through a vibrating structure (acoustically). Depending on the geometry and material parameters of the piezoelectric resonators/crystais, desired voltage transformation(s) c m be obtained.

2.8.1 Applications
Piezoelectric Transformers are widely used in many industrial/commercial applications, such as power supplies for the back lighting of LCDs in notebooks or laptops and for high voltage power supplies for ring laser gyros, ozone generators, deflectors in Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT), copy/fax machines, air cleaners, image intensifiers, munitions fuses
[33] and power supplies that provide power to adaptive wing structures for helicopters.

At present, piezoelectric transformers are used for low power (up to 10 watt), large step

up transformation applications. Devices with power levels of 8 0 W are being developed

WI -

2.8.2 Properties
Piezoelectric transformers have the following properties: Higher power density compared to magnetic transformers [13]. Higher efficiency and a lighter weight compared to magnetic transfomiers. No stray leakage field between primary and secondary since energy is coupled fiom primary to secondary by acoustic means. Page 20

N o fire hazard.

Large step up voltages, since voltage isolation is provided between the primary and secondary, by a high dielectric constant material.

2 8 3 Structure of a Simple Rosen-type Transformer ..

The transformer consists of two piezoelectric cerarnic plates of equal cross-sections rigidly bonded together or made fiom one piece. The voltage ratio depends on the geometrical dimensions and the piezoelectric properties of the piezoelectric ceramic. Figure: 2.10 shows the layout of a specific piezoelectric transformer manufactured by Philips and figure: 2.11 shows the dimensions of the device.

Figure: 2.10 A simplified Rosen Type Piezoelectric Transformer (33 J

Figure: 2.1 1 Dimensions (in mm) of a Piezoelectric Transformer 1 3 31 (Shaded area is an electrode)
The transformer is operated by applying an AC signal between the electrodes of the first half (the input half). If the frequency matches that of the n a W vibrating frequency of

Page 2 1

the length vibration of the bar, then a voltage of signifiant amplitude will appear at the secondary (output) electrode.

2.8.4 Stress and Displacement distributions

The resonant behavior of a transformer is less obvious than a simple resonator because of the lack of symrnetry and the electrical independence of the two haives. As a result of a high mechanical quality factor, the particle displacement is nearly sinusoidal. The

displacement and stress distributions for a piezoelectric transformer are shown in figure:

2.12, where u (x)

= Displacement, s

( ) = stress. x

The first mode (A=2L) is the half wavelength mode or the fundamental mode, as the transformer length is equal to a half wavelength and the input and output layers expand and contract simultaneously. Since the generated charge quantity is in proportion to the stress value in the piezoelectric matenal, the part, to which the maximum stress is applied, should be used effectively i.e. the stress should be maximized between the end plates.

For the first mode, the interface between the input and output parts is exposed to the
greatest stress. This area is typicalIy a region in which the poling of the material changes and cracks could develop here. So, the vibration energy between the input and the output parts cannot be utilized effectively. On the other hand in the second mode (A=L) or one wavelength mode, the input and output layers expand and contract alternatively. The

second mode is superior to the first mode since the stress at the interface between the

Page 22

primary and secondary section is zero. The third mode (A=2/3L) results in the strain in

each section being bi-directional and the vibrational node is not in the center causing maximum stress at the interface between the primary and secondary sections 113,351.

Figure: 2.12 Displacement and Stress Utilation P5J

Page 23

Chapter: 3 MODELING

3.1 Basic Piezoelectric (Tensor) Equations

In their original state, ceramic materials are composed of a multitude of crystallites with random domain orientation (isotropic) and hence no piezoelectric properties [1,3,6]. By the application of a temporary high electric field (as explained earlier) they becorne anisotropic, retain the polarization and become piezoelectric. This is referred to as the poling operation, and the poling direction, by convention, defmes the 2-axis of a threedimensional orthogonal axis system [6]. In figure 3.1, the X, Y and Z-axes are represented as 1,2 and 3 respectively.

Figure 3.1 : Axis Representation

The property of piezoelectricity is rnathematically described by a phenomenological model, derived fiom thermodynamic potentials. The derivations are not unique and the set of equations describing the piezoelectric effect depends on the choice of potential and the independent variables used [6].

When a piezoelectric substance has an electric field E applied across its electmdes and is maintained at a constant temperature at al1 points, it produces distortion (elongation) S that is a linear fnction of the electric field, if the field strength is not too large [l]. The

Page 24

tensor representation of this phenornenon of piezoelectricity under a constant temperature condition and small strain is:

where:

E, represents the electric field, first order tensor

qkrepresents the strain, second order tensor, and

dukrepresents the piezoelectric coefficient, third order tensor.

The dqktensor is composed of the following 3 layers of syrnmetrical matrices:

Ist.layer(i = 1)

A general third rank tensor has 33=27 independent components. Each matnx in the duk

tensor is syrnmetrical in j and k i.e. d123=d13t, d213=d231 Therefore, some of these etc. coefficients c m be simplified to a reduced form by noting that there is a redundancy in coefficients [6]. This reduction the stress and strain variables, leaving 18 independent dQk

Page 25

in coefficients is advantageous for matrix notation and can be represented in a new form

as shown in table: 3.1.

TABLE: 31 . Equivalent Mat& Notations for Tensor Representations

Tensor Representation

Matrix Notation

Therefore:

S j = c d , ~ , i, =1,2,3and j =1,2 ,....., 6

(3 4

The subscripts

and 6 refer to shear directions about the 1, 2 and 3 directions

respectively. The first subscript (i) refers to the electric field direction and the second subscript (j)gives the direction of mechanical stress or strain.

From Hooke's law we have strain proportional to stress and this proportionality is given as follows:

Page 26

where sE is the cornpliance or elasticity constant expressing the proportionality between the strain and stress, and the superscript E refers to the fact that the value of s is obtained under the condition of a constant electric field. In tensor form:

S, =

s;~,

; where j = k = 1,2, ..., 6

(3-8)

Hence, for a piezoelectric cerarnic, these relationships can be combined to give a complete relationship of strain S depending on the stress T with an electric field E applied across its electrodes as follows [6]:

S j = s ~ ~ + s- ~ -, ~ , + s ~ 3 ~ 3 + ~ f i ~ 4 + s f , ~ , + s f , ~ , + d , j E , + d 2 j E 2 + d 3 j E 3 J (3.9)

Where i = 1,2,3 and j = k = 1,2,.....,6 Similarly, a relationship exists for the electric displacement D as a inction of E and T, which is given as follows:

LI, =dilT,+d,,T, +d,,T, +d,,T, +d,,T, +di6T6 E ~ +&LE? + E ~ E ~ (3.1 1) - + E ~

or

Where i, I = 1,2,3; j =1,2,....., 6

E ;

is the dielectric constant, and the superscript T infers that the dielectric constant

is obtained under the condition of a constant stress.

Equations 3.10 and 3.12 are called the basic piezoelectric equations. Electric field E and

Page 27

electric displacement D are represented in vector form, while stress T and distortion S are represented in tensor form.

Three vibration modes are exploited in practice and are commonly referred to as the transverse mode, the thickness mode and the shear mode. The basic piezoelectric

equations for the three basic vibration modes are given as follows:

Transverse Length vibration

Consider figure: 2.5. The polarization is in the x-plane [l] therefore:

T2=T3=0
Also no shear stress exists, therefore

T5=T6=0
This implies from equations 3.9 and 3.11 that:

SI = s,lE Tl + d31 E3
0 3 = d31 TI +
E3

Thickness vibration

Consider figure: 2.4. The polarization is in the z-plane [1] therefore:

Tl =T2=0
Also no shear stress exists, therefore:

T5=Ta=0
This implies fiom equations 3.9 and 3.11 that:

S3 = ~

Tj+ ~ E3 3 d33
3 E3 3 ~

D3 = d 3 3 T 3 + ~

Page 28

Thickness shear vibration

Consider figure: 2.6. n i e polarization is in the shear-plane [l] therefore:

Tl=T2 =T3=0
Also shear stresses Tg (12 of 21, are not present but T5( I J ,
3.9 and 3.11:
311exists, therefore

fiom equations

Ss

= sssE T5 + dI5 El

(3.15 a)
(3.15 b)

DI = dis Ts + &llT El

3.2 Piezoelectric Constants and Coefficients

After deriving the basic piezoelectric equations and before modeling an equivalent circuit it is necessary to define certain constants. Let us consider the transverse length mode given by expressions 3.13a and 3.136. Expressing E3 as a function of D3 in equation

3.136 and substituting in equation 3. I3a we amve at the following expression:

Where g31, also called the voltage output coefficient, is the ratio of the piezoelectric strain constant dJ1and the dielectric constant
E&

. The voltage output coefficient refers to the

field strength, when a uniform stress is applied under the condition of no electrical field

[29,3 11. Its value for the different types of vibration modes is given as follows:
d 1 3 Transverse: g3,= -

Page 29

d3 3 Thickness: g,, = -

Shear: g,,= -

Equation 3.16 can be written as:

Where 41 (sometimes referred to as k) is the electromechanical coupling coefticient, as

defined in chapter: 2. Its value for the different types of the vibration modes is given as follows: Transverse: k,, =

,/m
41

d3 3

Thickness: k3,=

J s X
Shear:
k15=

,/m
E

45

The Young's modulus, as defined in chapter: 2, for the different vibration modes is given
as:

Transverse:

5,

=E
SI 1

Thickness:

Y,,"

=E

s3 3
Shear:

Y,,E

1 E

s5 5

Page 30

The piezoelectric distortion constant d , for different vibration modes is given as follows:

Transverse: d3,= k,,

/%

Thiekness:

= k33

,/%

Equivalent Circuit Modeling

The basic piezoelectric equations derived in section 3.1 will be used to develop an equivalent circuit model. It is also required to express these equations in diflerent

coordinate systems, so that they c m be employed for different geometries. Appendices

A l and A 2 present these equations in the Cartesian and Cylindrical coordinate systems

respective1y.

As explained earlier, a simple piezoelectric transformer is comprised of two piezoelectric resonatorslfilters as shown in figure: 3.2. In order to develop an equivalent circuit of a transformer, it is necessary to first develop the models of individual resonators.

Page 3 1

input half

output half

Figure: 3.2 A simplified representation of a Piezoelectric Transformer

3.3.1 Equivalent circuit of a transducer in Thickness vibration mode

Consider first the input half of a Rosen type resonator in the thickness vibration mode, as

shown in figure: 3.3.

Figure: 3.3 Rosen type Resonator in the Thickness Vibration mode

The bar is long and thin with dimensions designated as I for length, w for width and r for thickness. I is much greater than w and r, and r-W. The bar is polarized in the thickness

(z-direction) and the x and y planes coincide with the planes of the electrodes [1,3,5]. The extensional vibration in the z-direction is given by Newton's law as:

Page 32

Where ul is the displacement in the cerarnic plate in the x-direction. The relations between stress, electric field (only E3 exists) and the induced strain is given by:

SI = S ~ T +SET, +&T, +d3,E3 ,

(3.19)

The assurnption in deriving the simplified equation of motion is a plane wave propagating along the length axis and a zero stress in the lateral direction. Thus the lateral inertia does not have to be considered and consequently [3,5]:

T2=T3=0.
Hence fiom equations 3.18 and 3.19, the equation of motion reduces to the following

fonn:

Therefore equation 3.19 can be written as;

SI = S ~ T +d3,E3 ,

where p is the density of the crystal and u, is the displacement of the crystal in the xdirection. Expressing Tl as a fnction of E3 and SI, we obtain

Differentiating equation 3.22, we obtain

Also fiom the basic piezoelectric equations we have: D, =d3,T,

+&LE,

Page 33

Substituting equation 3.22 into 3.24 gives us

where

It is assumed that the state of the body is uniform dong its Iength and the electric field is

constant i.e. independent of x [Il, therefore:

and thus

Hence equation 3.20 can be rewritten as:

PT--a2u, - 1
. Y ;

as,

ax

Since

Hence equation 3.29 c m be restated in the following way:

Page 34

Let
=psi

(3.32)

Where v is the velocity of the propagating wave in the piezoelectric medium. Then for a loss-less system:

For simple hannonic motion, the variation of u, with time can be written in phasor foxm
as [3,5]:

Substituting this in equation 3.33 results in the following expression

The solution of equation 3.35 with two arbitrary boundary conditions is:
u, = ACOS-+

OX

Bsin-

WX

To determine A and B, we differentiate equation 3.36 with respect to x:

From equation 3.21, we have:

At the boundaries, x=O and x=I (the crystal length), the stress is TI=O [l]. Under these

conditions:

Page 35

Let

d E 41 Asinyl = - a + c o s y l - E ,
and

-+-]
---

sinyl

tanyl

sinyx sinyx + cos yx sin yl tan yl

The current in the piezoelectric device is the rate of change of the surface charge with
respect to time and for a single harmonic voltage [3,6] it i given by: s

Where S is the surface area and dS = drdy Hence, equation 3.33 implies;
C

~ = j o J ~ , d jx = ow
O
O

Introducing SI from equation 3.42 and integrating fiom O to t ,we have:

Page 36

The admittance of the crystal is therefore:

Low frequency characteristics

At very low frequencies the admittance in (3.46) reduces to the following capacitance [6]:

where we have made use of equation 3.26. Therefore:

Resonance frequencies
A resonant fiequency is the fiequency at which the admittance is infinite or impedance is

zero (short circuit case). With reference to equation 3.16,if tan y - = m or altematively 2
4 ' 1.L y - = - then resonance will occur [5].

Equation 3.36 exhibits a multiple resonant behavior, defined as follows:

where:

n = h - I and m=I, 2, ...

The resonant fiequency

fi)is deiemined by the electrical cornpliance sllE,density p and

the length of the crystal. Therefore the resonant frequencies are:

Page 37

nie anti-resonance fiequency is the fiequency at which admittance is zero or impedance

is infinite (open circuit case). With reference to equation 3.16, it occurs when:

or altematively
yt -ot 2 Y[ 1 -= -- 4

s; ;1 .

We defined the electromechanical coupling coefficient in section: 3.2 as:

Now substituting the value of

gives :

EL fiom equation 3.26 into equation 3.496 and simplieing

Therefore, the anti-resonance fiequencies can be determined using equation 3 . 4 9 ~ .

Determination of circuit parameters

From equation 3.46,

Therefore:

Page 38

Let

Equation 3.51 then becomes:

where

and

ypie:o

G 1 - k, :

[- ] .
k, :

tan n

Now the electrical behavior can be investigated under a constant voltage condition, with

varying w .

Resonance occurs when a is equal to a,, defined as follows:

me 1 a,,= - = - n l r 2v 2

for n = 2 m - 1 ,

m=1,2,.....

The fnction

tan a -in equation 3.53 can be expanded in the following way

using the

partial fraction expansion [34] :

-=8[

tan a a

zZ -40'

9z2-4aZ

+ .......-.. =

] 2nais1

(ala. )2

Pn

Where p, is given by:

Page 39

P, = -- for n=2rn-1 n 2 n2
This means that the piezoelecvic impedance is expressed by a number of LC, series
circuits in parallel [3,6]. Hence:

u,,,=
From the equivalent circuit point of view, a series resonance of L and C,, in the piezoelectric branch gives rise to this resonance. On the other hand anti-resonance corresponds to a combined effect of al1 branches of LC, near the resonant fiequency and
Y,l,C,riCar represented

by the capacitor Co, as shown in figure 3.4 [3].

4
Figure: 3.4 Equivalent Circuit Representation of a Piezoelectric Resonator
Using the expressions 3.55, 3.56 and 3.54 we obtain the expression for capacitance and using

,we obtain:

Page 40

Hence :

From equation 3.55 and 3.57 we have:

This implies:

After simplification and substitution, we Obtain:

3 3 2 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT UNDER MECHANICAL ..

STRESS
The above representation (section: 3.3.1) of the thickness vibration equivalent circuit is derived under a stress-fiee mechanical condition at the end terminals. This is therefore not useful for treating extemal mechanical loads or cascaded sections. For this purpose, the inclusion of arbitrary mechanical boundaries is required [3].

The pieu>-device in figure: 3.5 is considered around the resonance point. Under fiee
conditions, when no force is applied to the end surfaces, the mechanical terminals are Page 4 1

considered short-circuited. In fact the mechanical action is delivered through both ends
of the transducer [3].

This equivalent circuit with six terminais (2 electrical and 4

mechanical) was developed by Mason [5,6].

Figure: 3.5 Piezoelectric Resonator under Stress

A compressive force is taken as an external mechanical variable (i.e. F = -T, wr ). Later

subscripts 1 and 2 are used to represent the mechanical ends at x= - 412 and x= + 472 respectively. From equation 3.22 we have:

Then fiom 3.22, we have:

In general form, we also have:

u = ueJN'

and the displacement velocity is

Page 42

Therefore:
u = ACOS-+
ry

WX
O

Bsin-

WX

In terms of velocity we have fiom equation 3.65:

It is desired to utilize the particle velocities at the two ends of the resonator as boundary conditions [8] which are defined by: (at x=-112)

4 -- - U2
iw

(at x=-1/2)

Constants A and B in equation 3.65 can be determined by differentiating equation 3.65

with respect to x, and evaluating the constants A and B for the given boundary conditions,
we obtain:

u2 = A C O S ( ~ C / ~ s i n ( r U 2 ) ~)+

Solving for A and B, we obtain:

A=

U , sin y(.f?/2)- U 2sin y (-t/2) j w sin yC

B=

u2 y (- !/2) - LI, cos y ( q 2 ) cos

jwsin yC

Page 43

The strain may be written in terms of the denvative of the particle displcement, so by using equations 3.61, 3.71 and 3.72, we obtain the stress expressions for each mechanical end as:

4, T(x=-t/2)+?E3
SII
d l 3 T,(x=t/2)+,E3 41

SEjvsin

[u, - Ul cos yt]

1 cosye sij v s i n y! [CI, - ul]

At x=-V2, the compressive force is FI=-wtT,. Hence multiplying both sides of equation
3.73 by wr gives:

d l -4+ w E3V

SII

- wt =[LI,cos yP - LI, ] sfi s f i j v s i n y t

Let:

Using

and letting

We obtain:
4-@V=O0

j sin y4

[~,-u~cos~~]

Page 44

Where:

Similarly equation 3.73 would imply, F2=-wrT, at x=+1/2 equation 3.74 by ivt and M e r simplifying we get:

therefore by multiplying

-F~+#V=

' O

jsin y [

[CI, y e - CI, COS

Fz - # V =

jsin y t

[- U, + U , cos y t ]

Equations 3.76 and 3.77 c m be written in the following matrix form:

Since cos A = cosh jA and jsin A = sinh jA [35], we c m rewrite (3.78) as follows:

Z=
Also coth j y e sinh j y l
where:

cosyt

-1

]=

Z . [cosjhyt sinjhyt -1

cosjhy! dl

1
1
(3.79)

sinh jy4

21,+ 4
2

2 -"12 Z21+z22

coth j y t

Page 45

Based on the above equations, the equivalent circuit c m be drawn as shown in figure:
3.6:

Figure 3.6:~lectromechaniea~ equivalcnt circuit of s resoantor und& thickness vibration In figure 3.6:

Fil F2/ are the forces at the ends & UI& U2 are the velocities ut the two
ends
7

YJ z,, = Z0Tmdy-2

t = thickness p = density s 1 1 = Cornpliance

"

d31
(=

= Piezoelectric
MJ

Struin Constant

d3i/s,lE

With reference to figure: 3.6, we can derive the equation for current as follows:

The above equivalent circuit is valid for al1 frequencies. Simplification The resonator is clamped on one end (clamped drive) and fiee on the other end (inertia

Page 46

drive).

The exact network under these conditions can be obtained by shorting the

terminal at x=-I/2 Le. F = O and leaving the other end open, as shown in figure: 3.7 [SI.

Figure: 3.7 Equivalent circuit with terminal short circuited

Figure: 3.7 can be redrawn as shown in figure: 3.8:

Figure: 3.8 Redrawn equivalent circuit with terminal short circuit

Figure: 3.8 c m be simplified using the procedure described in 1371. The process is explained in figure: 3.9.

Page 47

Figure: 3.9 Equivalence of an L-Type network plus a transformer with an L-Type network reversed in direction
where:

< and Zb are the new equivalent impedances and a is the result of this transformation.
Using the technique of figure: 3.9, figure: 3.8 can be redrawn and is shown in figure:

Figure: 3.10 Equivalent circuit represeotation after employing the simplification technique
Now referring the middle side to the secondary on the right, we obtain a circuit as shown in figure: 3.11.

Page 48

Figure: 3.1 1 Equivalent circuit representation after refemng the middle branch to the secondary side in figure 3.11

In figure: 3.11, let

3 Z A=

- j4Z0
sin y[

+ 2jZo tan-y t
2

Y = -2ZoC0~hj--

Also, let

Let ,=-

ire
CI

Page 49

Considering the hyperbolic fnctions of equations 3.87 and 3.89, we have from the partial expansion theorern [3 81 :

I 2a 2a cotha = -+ + * a z 2 + a - 4n2+a
7

+ .........

Equation 3.90 can be modeled as parallel combination of an inductor L I , and an infinite number of inductors L, and capacitors C,, in series.

Similady for the parallel branch we have:

Equation 3.91 can be modeled as a parailel combination of an infinite number of inductors Ln and capacitors C, in series. Thus considering both branches, the equivalent circuit can be formulated as shown in figure: 3. I2.

Figure: 3.12 Simplified equivalent circuit without losses

Page 50

Determination of circuit parameters

The use of the partial fraction expansion theorem for the parallel and series branches

enables us to determine the equivalent circuit parameters in tenns of Ls and Cs.

For the Series Branch

For the Parallel Branch

Hence figure: 3.12 c m be redrawn in ternis of equivalent circuit parameters, as shown in figure: 3.13.

Modeling losses
Piezoelectric cerarnics suffer energy losses, which are attributable to mechanical, dielectric and piezoelectnc effects. Mechanical losses are the dominant of the 3 types near resonance and the latter two are not of significant importance [39].

Page 5 1

Figure: 3.13 Equivalent circuit of a resonator for thickness vibration with al1 the circuit parameters
Mechanical Iosses are due to the delay between the strain and the force applied i.e. a hysteresis curve is traced over one cycle. The mechanical quality factor Q,,, is the figure of merit most ofien utilized in regards to the mechanical losses. The quality factor is defined as the ratio of stress in phase with strain velocity to the stress out of phase with strain velocity 1351, (figure: 3.14).

a, = tan

+c

Q,,, = cot @c = tan(90 - 4=)

Strain

Figure: 3.14 Vector Representation of Strain and Velocity

The electrical analogies of velocity and stress are current and voltage. The quality factor for an equivalent circuit is the ratio of reactance to resistance [35]. Hence, in a series

K R circuit, we can define:

Electrical Quality factor= Qe =

Page 52

In a mechanical system we use the nomenclature Qm instead of Q. to denote the quality

factor [35]. Thus:
Qm

= Qe

(3.97)

Most rigorous denvations of the Iumped circuit parameters for elecical equivalent circuits of piezoelectric resonators show that the above-expfained method for determining the quality factor gives good accuracy near resonance. It may not be as accurate for other fiequencies including the anti-resonant fiequencies [3 51.

Since the value of mechanical quality factor Q, is given by the manufacturer, it is used to introduce mechanical losses in ternis of an equivalent R, using the following relationship;

where

Qmn

is

Qm

in for each resonant fiequency. Hence the circuit s h ~ w n figure: 3.13

can be redrawn with losses incorporated as s h o w in figure: 3.15:

Dielectric Losses
J
I

Figure: 3.15 Compkte equivaknt circuit mode! with losses

Page 53

It is also possible to incorporate the dielectric losses by placing a resistor in parallel with

the input capacitance. One interesting question is whether or not the branch containing the inductance should include a series resistance. This may be the piezoelectric loss that authors have referred to in a previous publication [39]. Apparently the authors came to the conclusion that it would be impossible to separate the mechanical and piezoelectric losses. Perhaps our circuit makes the positioning of this additional loss element obvious.

3.3.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSDUCER FOR

THE LONGITUDINAL VIBRATION MODE
The analysis of the longitudinal vibration mode is similar to the thickness vibration mode with the exception of the electrical boundary conditions. The wave is assurned to propagate along the length axis with zero stress in the lateral direction [3]. Figure: 3.16 shows a transducer operating in the transverse (length) vibration mode.

Figure: 3.16 A longitudinally vibrated piezoelectric resonator under stress The equivalent circuit modeling approach follows dong the same lines as the description
given in section: 3.3.2. Details are explained in Appendix A3. The equivalent circuit of a transducer under longitudinal vibration is shown in figure: 3.17.

Page 54

Figure: 3.17: Electromecbanical equivalent circuit for the longitudinal vibration section
In figure: 3.17:

F2 & F2* the forces ut the ends are Uf U'are the velocities ut the huo & ends
7

I = length w = widrh t = rhickness p = density ~ 3 =3Cornpliance ~ w = Angular velocity dJ3= Piezoelectric Strain Constantfor the longitudinal mode Steps for simplifiing the circuit in figure: 3.17 are the same as those given in section:
3.3.2 and explained in appendix A3. The simplification process would give us an

equivalent circuit as shown in figure: 3.18.

Figure: 3.18 Simplified equivalent circuit witbout losses Page 55

In figure: 3.18, the expressions for the impedances or admittances are the same as derived in section: 3.2, i.e.

Determination of circuit parameters These parameters are determined in the sarne way as was determined for the thickness vibration mode, namely to use the partial tiaction expansion method to represent the hyperbolic functions. Therefore : For the Series Branch

For the Parallel Branch

Hence figure: 3.18 can be redrawn in terms of equivalent circuit parameters, as shown in
figure: 3.19.

Page 56

Figure: 3.19 Equivaknt circuit of a resoaator assuming longitudinal vibration with al1 the circuit parameters
An equivalent circuit with losses for a transducer under longitudinal vibration conditions

can be obtained in a similar way as outlined in section: 3.3.2.

3.3.4 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER

The equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric transformer s h o w in figure: 3.2 is just a combination of the open mechanical ends of the equivalent circuits of individual transducers or sections. The simplified representation of the circuit is obtained by applying transformations and circuit simplifications that result in an equivalent piezoelectric transformer model. This can either be shown in a detailed form (in terms of hyperbolic fnctions), or with the lumped parameters with losses induded. Figure: 3.20 shows the results after combining and simplieing:

Page 57

Figure: 3.20: Simplified equivalent circuit of a Rosen type piezoelectric transformer

In figure: 3.20:

Z , , = 22, coth j -

(3

A detailed transformer mode1 wth al1 the lumped parameters is shown in figure: 3.21.

Figure 3.21: Detailed equivalent circuit of a Rosen type piezoelectric transformer

Page 58

3.3.4.1

Further Simplification to the Model

The model shown in figure: 3.21 is quite complicated. Usuaily, we are operating close to
a particular resonant frequency. In which case the details of the remaining resonances is

not important, unless the device is subjected to a voltage that generates harmonies that coincides with the other resonant fiequencies. A simplified equivalent transformer model either side of a resonance frequency c m be obtained by applying L'Hospital's Rule to determine the equivalent impedance of parallel off resonance branches for the series and parallel sections. This process of determining the equivaient circuit is explained in Appendix: A 4 This action reduces the order of the rnodel as s h o w in figure: 3.22.

(a) series

(b) parallel

Figure 3.22: Simplification of off resonance branches

where for the series branch:

and for the parallel branch:

Page 59

Y, =- J 1iI-n a-.", 220

cot a
=,7

3.3.4.1

Process Flow Chart

This whole process of equivalent circuit modeling c m be summarized in a flow chart

fom. We have divided the whole process into 3 steps i.e. pre-processing, processing,

and post-processing.

These steps and the flow chart are given in Appendix: AS.

transformer mode1 is also s h o w for a circular disc operating in the radial vibration mode.
It is given in Appendix: A6.

3.4

Extension of the Model to a Three Section Rosentype Piezoelectric Transformer

As explained in Chapter: 2, a multi-layered structure is capable of handling high force,

and an increase in device volume increases the energy that may be transferred to a load.

Due to the layered structure, a higher resonant frequency (specific mode) can be
achieved, depending on the stress distribution. We used a three section altematel y poled piezoelectric transformer for testing and analysis purposes. Figure 3.23 shows the

general outline of the device, while Table: 3.2 contains an estimate of the material and geometry data.

Page 60

TABLE 32 . DESIGN PARAMETERS

Density (p)
1

"out

Figure 3.23: Outline of a three section alternately poled piezoelectric transformer

7.97~ kg/m' 10'

Piezoelectric Charge Coefficient (dJl)

1

1 Piezoelectric Charge Coefficient (4)

Elastic Compliance ( , " s,) Elastic Cornpliance (sUE)
Free Perrnittivity ( E ~ ] )

1 -14i~lB'~ mN 1 3 10 ~ 1 0 m ~ " N 1 11.5 xlO-" m L M 1 15.9xlO-ILm Z M

1 1
I

1
1

1380 F/m

Length of each section ( f ) W idth ( w ) Thickness ( t )

) 1 . mm 32

1 7.6 m m
1.0 mm

3.4.1 Modeling
The modeling of this device follows dong the same lines as the device modeled earlier.

The first and last sections have the sarne equivalent circuit as given in the previous
sections i-e. 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 for thickness and longitudnal vibration modes respectively.

In contrast, the middle section must be handled differently. The middle section is poled
in an opposite direction to the first section and is comected electrkaiiy in parallei. Figure: 3.24 shows the equivalent circuit representation of the middle section. If we combine al1 the three sections we will have a circuit as shown in figure: 3.25.

Page 6 1

Figure 3.24: Equivalent circuit representation of the middle section

i input a
Section

2nd Input Section

Ouput Section

Figure: 3.25: Complete equivalent circuit model of a piezoelectric transformer sbown in figure: 3.24 Upon simplification and application of boundary conditions, the circuit in figure 3.24 c m

be redrawn as shown in figure 3.26. This figure gives a complete equivalent circuit model
of an alternately poled piezoelectric transformer.

~ k3.26 .

Equivalent circuit representation of a tbree section altemately poled piezoelectric transformer

Page 62

In figure: 3.26:

~t 2, = z coth j-;. i ,

3.4.2 Lumped Circuit Model

We ernploy the methodology described in the section: 3.3, to determine the lumped parameters associated with each branch using the Partial Fraction Expansion of hyperbolic tnctions. Figure: 3.27 shows a detailed mode1 in terms of lumped circuit parameters in which the middle resonator is transformed fiom a Y configuration to a A configuration.

Fig. 3.27 Detailed equivalent circuit representation of a three section altemately poled piezoelectric transformer in terms of lumped parameters
In figure: 3.27:

L A I gand CAl,,s represent the expansion of ZH. L

of
&,

B and Celd represent the expansion ~ ~

&,

LA2d CAld and represent the expansion of

LB~,$ Ceins represent the and

expansion of ZB2, the expansion of ZB

and CA&represent the expansion of ZA, B and C ~ frepresent L ~ i

Page 63

Chapter: 4 EXPERIMENT AND RESULTS

A 3-layered piezoelectric transformer (described in Chapter: 3) and a multi-layered

circular disc type structure (described in Appendix: A7) are considered.

The

experimental plan, test results, and also the derivation of a simple circuit mode1 near the resonant frequency based on the techniques described in Chapter: 3 are described in this chapter.

4.1 Testing Procedure

Test A: Yi, Characterktic:
The proposed admittance arrangement is shown in figure: 4.1.

1. The V-I impedance method was used to veri@ the simulation results.

This

method of measurement requires a value for the input current 1 This is achieved . by determining the voltage across the resistor Ri,, and calculating Ih using the following relationship:

2. A HP Network Analyzer i.e. HP4395A was used to perform the experiments. The
comection setup is shown in figure: 4.1. The resonant fiequencies, anti-resonant fiequencies, and admittance characteristics as a function of fiequency were extracted fiom these results. 3. Only small signal analysis was performed considering the limitations of the maximum voltage levels available fiom the Network Analyzer. Page 64
A fkequency

range of 10-200 kHz was used. Frequencies lower than IkHz were not practical due to the low signai to noise ratio.
See Note 1

DUT

Note 2

Note 1: Rh is adjusted such that the maximum current Iin under short circuit

conditions does not exceed the rating of the analyzer, which for our case is 100 R
Note 2: The loads considered for RI. were 1O YIOOOY I k , OOkO and open circuit O aI

i.e. infinite resistance.

Note 3: Piezoelectric Transformer(s) with rated input voltage of 1OV, 1W step-up and
300V, IOW-15W step-down were tested. The estimated Qs of these devices are 1800,

and 180 respectively.

The voltage transformation ratio for these devices is

approximately 1 l O (step up), 1O: I (step down) respectively. :

Test B: Ourpu to Input Vo/tageRatio (Y.,)
The proposed voltage divider scheme for a step up configuration is shown in figure:

Page 65

See Note 1

DUT

Piezoelectric Transformer

4
R

I
L I

Nehivork Analyzer

1
See Note 3

6 Note 2

Figure: 4.2 Setup for measuring V2'Ni Note 4: RDjvider adjusted such that the maximum voltage Y2 ' under open circuit or is
low load conditions does not exceed the rating of the analyzer/probe. The voltage division is achieved using HP's active probe i.e. HP16338A with input signal divider option. We used a divider ratio of 100.9.

4.2 Testing of 3-layered Rosen-type Transformer

The piezoelectric transformer discussed in section: 3.4 was tested first. Two transformers were tested. These transformers are distributed comrnercially by Mitsui Chemicals,

Japan and the device nurnber is PT130A02. The material and geometrical information is shown in table: 3.1.

Admittance Measurement
Figure: 1.3 shows the results obtained at different Ioads for one of the samples. The Y-I characteristics were measured first by recording the input voltage and the output voltage across the terminais of the device over a fiequency sweep. The input admittance

characteristics as a function of fiequency were calculated aflerwards.

Page 66

-100

3rd Resonant Mode

-250

.
02

- 300O

0.4

0.6

0.8 1.2 F requency (Hz>

1.4

1.6

1.8

10'

Fig,ure 4.3: Measured Input Admittance vs. Frequency characteristics of the 3layered Rosen-type transformer
From figure: 4.3 it is clear that there are different resonant modes present. For our device it is advisable to operate the device near the 3rd resonance mode as it ailows the device to operate with zero stress at the section interfaces, as described in Chapter: 2. This corresponds to a fiequency of 120-130kH.z (the operating fiequency specified by the manufacturer).

We validated Our model of figure: 3.25 i.e. detailed circuit model of a 3-layered Rosentype PT by simulating the circuit model. Figure: 4.1 shows a comparison of our

simulated and measured results for a load of Ik 0

It can be observed fiom figure: 4.4 that Our model predicts the multimode resonance and

anti-resonance behavior very well. The shifts in the peaks are due to the uncertainties in material and geometrical tolerances and a close response between the experimental and simulation results were obtained by changing the value of thickness extensional compliance ( s i ) by 80% (up). Fine adjustments to the offsets between the two curves

Page 67

were obtained by adjusting the longitudinal compliance ( s : )

to 90% of its specified

value. The adjustments allowed us to obtain an exact relation between the experimental

and simulated resonant fiequency. In order to provide near exact correlation between the
simulation and measured results in terms of the amplitude, the dielecic constant
(6; )

was increased up to 5% of its given value. This variation between estimated and actuai

data is possible since these parameters can change during the cofiring stage. Figure: 4.5 shows the results after these adjustments are made and the simulation program is given in appendix: Ag. It is also noted that very slight changes in the density ( p ) and the

piezoelectric constants (d,, or d,, ) affect the distance between different resonant modes,
and hence equidistance between the resonant peaks is not achieved. The values of the

mechanical quality factor (Q) will affect the peak value and also the width of a peak.
-50

.-

-350

'----

0.5

1.5

2.5
w1O5

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 4.4: Measured and sirnulated input admittance vs. frequency characteristics of the 3-layered Rosen-type transformer

In Chapter: 3 we discussed the method of simplifying the equivalent circuit mode1 near
the desired frequency and resonant mode using L'Hospital's d e . Hence, by employing

Page 68

the methodology, we simplified the detailed equivalent circuit representation of the three segment altemately poled piezoelectric transformer, figure: 3.28. The simplified model for the transformer operating near the 3'd resonance mode is shown in figure: 4.6, while
the simulation results of the model are shown in figure: 4.7.
-6O

-100

-300
3

-35 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

lb

1.8

Frequency (Hz)

r1 2

Figure 4.5: Measured and simulated input admittance vs. frequency characteristics of the 3-layered Rosen-type transformer, after correction in material parameters is made

Figure 4.6: Best fit equivalent circuit model near the 3rdresonance mode
It can be seen in figure: 1 6that the main resonant branch is retained in the model and al1 .

other off resonant branches in parallel are replaced by an equivalent impedance. This equivalent impedance can be determined by applying L'Hospital's rule (Appendix: A4).

Page 69

Detailed Simulation

3rd resonant mode Point of interest for Simplification

Figure 4.7: Cornparison of detailed and sirnplifed (near 3rdresonance) input admittance vs. frequency simulation of the 3-layered Rosen-type transformer
Losses are incorporated by placing resistances in each resonant branch, as explained in Chapter: 3. The negative branches have negative resistances inserted. The addition of resistances in each resonant branch Ieads to a decrease in the resonant and anti-resonant peaks as well as broadening of the peaks. This is in agreement with the operation.
Output to Input Voltage Ratio

The test procedure given in figure: 4.2 was used to determine the transformation ratio of the transformer under varying load conditions. Figure: 4.8 shows the results obtained. A transformation ratio of about 30 was observed under open circuit conditions.

Page 70

Figure 4.8: Measured voltage Ratio vs. Frequency of the 3-layered Rosen-type transformer

4.3 Testing of multi-layered Circular Transformer

The mode1 of a piezoelectric transformer given in Appendix: A7 was tested. 3 out of the
5 proto-type sarnples were characterized. The results are discussed below. Material data

for these devices is listed in Table: A7.1.

Admittance Measurement
Figure: 4.9 shows the results obtained at different loads for one of the samples when the auxiliary is open circuited. From figure: 4.9, it is clear that there are different resonant modes present. The

fiequency of interest, as given by the manufacturer, is near 99-IlOkHz. The responses obtained with the remaining sarnples are identical; hence, they are not shown separately.
Upon loading the awtiliay winding (i.e. R-=IO,

IOOk), it is noted that the output

remained unaffected and the ratio of auxiliary to input voltage levels remained at 0.3-0.32.

Page 71

-350

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Fraquancy (Hz)

los

Figure 4.9: Measured input admittance vs. frequency characteristics of multilayered circular dise transformer with an open circuit rt the auxiliary winding
We validated our model of figure: A7.5 (i.e. detailed circuit mode1 of a multi-layered

Circular PT) by simulating the circuit model. Figure: 4.10 shows a cornparison of our simulated and measured results for a I O 0 load, given an auxiliary load of 1OOk. Our mode1 predicts many peaks including the measured peaks observed through the measurements. The other peaks are not observed during the measurement due to the fact that the excitation levels are very low (mV). There are also some small undulations. These represent modes that are only weakly excited and which are heavily darnped. Unforhmately due to the driving limitations of the equiprnent, we were unable to generate a large enough signal to excite these modes. This low excitation was not a problem for the Rosen-type as it is designed to operate with a IO V input.

Page 72

-50

Srmulation
-1 00

Mode of imporance

s E
-250
,

Frequency ( z H)

los

Figure 4.10: Input admittance vs. frequency characteristics of multblayered circular disc transformer. Comparison of simulated and measured results Now having the experimentd results, we employed the simplification methodology using L'Hospital's rule, and simplified the detailed equivalent circuit representation of the multi-layered circular piezoelectric transformer, figure: A 7 5 The simulation results of .. the simplified model are shown in figure: 4.11, while the model for the transformer operating near the desired resonant fiequency is shown in figure: 4.12.

Simplified -100,

. .
o

..

i
,
I

. .

.. . .I .
.. .
,
'

M 08s u r s d
1

i
I
1

I
-250

f
i 0.2 0.4

-300

L .

0.6

0.8 1 1.2 Frequsncy ( H z )

1.4

1.6

1.8

2 1 o5

Figure 4.1 1: Input admittance vs. frequency characteristics of multi-layered circular disc transformer. Comparison of simplified and measured simulation

Page 73

Input terminal

to output terminal 2
--

(b)lnput Section

Output terminal

Figure 4.12: Best fit equivalent circuit mode1 of a multi-layered PT near the resonance frequency
Figure: 4.1 1 should be viewed with caution, as the simulation is based on the circuit

given in figure: 4.10 and is used to investigate the response near the fiequency range of
99-IOlkiiz. Therefore, al1 the results outside of this fiequency range have no meaning.

Page 74

Output to Input Voltape Ratio

The test procedure given in figure: 3.2 is used to determine the transformation ratio of the
transformer under different loading conditions. Figure: 4.13 shows the results obtained

with the auxiliary terminais lefl unloaded.

The voltage levels at higher loads i.e. >500 ohms are found to be greater than 1.0.
Results obtained when the auxiliary branch was not loaded did not affect the output significantly and the ratios remained the sarne. The auxiliary is f o n d to trace the input.

The awiiliary to input ratio was observed to be 0.3 in contrast to the value of 0.28
determined through the mode1 (Appendix: A 7).

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8
x10

2
5 !

Frequency(Hz)

Figure 4.13: Measured output and input Voltage ratio vs. frequency of the multilayered circular transformer

Page 75

4.4 CONCLUSION
Our models for both of the test transformer cases predict the multi-mode resonance and
anti-resonance peaks. The partial fiaction expansion theorem was used to generate the equivalent circuit mode1 for each resonant branch. Near resonance, the equivalent circuit

can be represented by a series L and C, and a paraliel equivalent reactance obtained by

applying L'Hospital's rule to the hyperbolic fnction for the admittance minus the admittance of the remaining parallei branches evaluated at the resonant fiequency (Appendix: A*. Losses can be incorporated through a pst-processing step. The

addition of resistances in each resonant branch leads to a decrease in the resonant and anti-resonant peaks as well as broadening of the peaks.

Page 76

Chapter: 5 Converter Design

In this chapter, two zero voltage switching (ZVS) DC-DC converter topologies, a Class-E
and Asymmetrical Converter suitable for use with a piezoelectric transformer are proposed. These topologies have the lowest component count and are investigated for a given application. For the Class E converter, a simplified analysis and Spice simulation are performed using the conventional piezoelectric transformer mode1 used by many other researchers. This topology is found to be suitable for step-up applications. The asymmetrical converter topology is investigated using experirnents. Spice simulations and

It is found that the asymmetrical topology is suitable for step-down

applications. The asymmevical topology was also used to investigate the suitability of using the voltage across an auxiliary winding as a feedback control signal. Experiments showed that the auxiliary voltage does not track the secondary voltage hence the voltage across this arrangement is not suitable as a control feedback signal. The proposed piezo transformer was also found to be unsuitable for a 220 V input voltage.

5.1 A DC-DC Class E ZVS Converter Design

The advantage of the Class-E converter is the single switch implementation and the elimination of switching losses if operated under a ZVS condition [40]. ZVS switching condition is satisfied, when the switching fiequency is higher than the series resonant

fiequency.

Page 77

The piezoelectric transformer mode1 is ideally suited for a Class-E converter since its equivalent circuit represents the circuit typically associated with a Class-E converter load. In terms of component count, PTs provide an appropriate resonant structure in one package.

5.1.1 Description
The basic circuit of the Class-E ZVS inverter is shown in figure: 5.1. It consists
O

power MOSFET operating as a switch, an LrCrRo series resonant circuit, a shunt capacitor

C l , and a choke inductor Li. Resistor R, is an ac load and inductor L, is assumed high
enough so that the ac ripple on the dc supply current Ii can be neglected [40].

When the switch is ON, the resonant circuit consists of LrCrRo, since capacitor Cl is shorted by the switch. The resonant fiequency is given by:

Figure: 5.1 Basic Class E Converter

However, when the switch is OFF, the resonant circuit consists of L,CrCIR, connected in series. The current through Li is assumed to remain constant. The resonant fiequency is given by:

Page 78

The switch is turned ON when the voltage Y, across the switch and capacitor CI is zero. The energy stored in the shunt capacitance is zero when the switch tums ON therefore zero turn-on switching loss is achieved. To achieve ZVS tum-on of the switch, the operating fiequency f should be greater than the resonant fieq~encyf.~ [40].

5.1.2 Equations and Mathematical Modeling

Consider the circuit s h o w in figure: 5.1. The current through the series resonant circuit is assumed sinusoidal and the current 4 is assumed to be almost DC. These assumptions

are not exactly valid, but will allow us to develop a circuit that will give us some
guidance on component ratings. We begin by letting:
i = I , sin(wt + 8)

(5-3)

where:

L represents the amplitude, and 0 represents the phase of the current I with respect to the
voltage Vcoi. For the time interval O 5 wf 5 2 x 0 , (where D is the duty cycle) the switch is ON and therefore: i = 0 , and the switch voltage V, = O. Consequently, the current through the ,

MOSFET is given by:

i, = Ii

- In, sin(wt + O )

O<mrSSnD

(5.4)

For the time interval 2 x 0 < u t I 2n,the switch is OFF, hence: i, = O

Page 79

The current through the capacitor is given by:

During this interval, the voltage across the capacitor Cl and the switch is given by:

In order to achieve ZVS,the voltage across switch S and shunt capacitance Cl must be zero when the switch is turned ON. Thus the ZVS condition is expressed as:

i.e. when the switch tums ON, Y is zero. Using equation 5.6 and applying an ampsec ,
balance to capacitor Cl we obtain:

Substituting equation 5.10 into 5.5 gives:

1-

2z(1- D)sin(wt + 8 ) OcwtI2nD cos(2z D + 8)- cos 0 O 21tDcwt 1 2

Likewise, substituting 5.10 into 5.6 gives:

and, substituting 5.10 into 5.8 gives:

Page 80

Under optimal operating conditions, there is no current through the diode and the switch
operates under a ZVS condition. In this case, both the switch voltage

Y' and its slope (i.e.

dVs d(W

) are zero when the switch tums ON (at ot = Sn). Using this condition, a

relationship between phase 0 and duty cycle D c m be obtained by differentiating equation 5.13 and setting
dVs - O at w t = 21t . Therefore: d(W

Substituting w t = 2 z and simplieing results in:

tan 8 =

COS~ZD-1 27r(l- D) + sin 2nD

9 = tan"

cos 2 z D - 1 27r(l- D)+ sin 27r D

Using equation 5.13 and appIying a volt-sec balance across the inductor, we obtain an expression for dc input voltage 6 given by the following expression:

Remangement of equation 5.16 gives:

'i

(1 - D)[x(l - D) cos zD + sin ZD =R , oC, tan(x D + 0) sin X D

Page 8 1

which is the equivalent dc input resistance of the Class E converter as see fiom the dc source. From equations 5.13 and 5.17 we can obtain a relationship between the input voltage and the switch voltage:

The current through the series-resonant circuit is considered sinusoidai, therefore using
equation 5.13 and the Fourier formula, the fndamental component of the voltage across resistor Ro is given by:

=-

2 sin ZD sin(lrD + 8) Y n(1- D)

Hence, the output power fiom equation: 5.19 is

v p, =-24,

2 sin' ZD sin' ( l 8 ) v,' d+

rr2(1- D ) ' R ~

(5.20)

This expression can be used to determine the input dc current given an output power and load resistance as a fnction of the duty cycle and input voltage. In order to determine the peak values of the switch current and the voltage across the switch, we differentiate 5.11 and 5.13 with respect to m t to determine the maximum value. The result is:

Page 82

Substituting 3.21 into 5.11, gives:

L<m -- m > - 1 -

~ ( 1 D) sin z D sin(z D + 8)

5. f 3 can also be rewritten as:

Substitution of equation 5.23 into 5.13 gives the maximum voltage across the switch.

To design the value of the choke inductance Li, let us consider the operation at a
switching fiequency equal to the resonant fiequency (optimal case). In such a case, when the switch is ON the voltage across the choke inductor is V,, hence the peak to peak value
of the tipple cwrent in the choke inductor is:

where n is the percent ripple factor. The minimum value of inductance for a given maximum allowable ripple is:

Let us assume a npple current of less than 10%with respect to the dc current liut D4.5. Using equation 5.17 we obtain:
=

Li(min)

( 1 - D)[lr(l - D)coszD + sinnD] wC, tan(z D + 8 )sin lr D 2f (10% or less)

Page 83

L. . = ~(rnin)

, 2 f (1 0% or less) R

In the case of a PT, we have an output capacitance across the load resistor in the equivalent circuit model (Chapter: 3). In order to develop a PT based Class-E converter
model; we must modifi the expression slightly. Let us consider a parallei RC circuit, as

shown in figure: 5.2.

Figure: 5.2 A paraltel RC network

In figure: 5.2, the equivalent impedance as seen fiom the input can be expressed as follows:

Equation 5.28 can also be written as:

The reactance factor for R, and C2is defined as [40]:

Therefore fiom equations 5.29 and 5.30, let:

Page 84

Hence, fiom equations 5.30 and 5.31, we obtain:

Rearrangement of 5.32 gives:

We can also write:

Using 5.33 and 5.34, equation 5.29c m be rewritten as:

This is a series RC network with the above-derived values of Rs and Cs. Using this relation, we obtain a circuit as shown in figure 5.3. Cr in figure: 5.1 can now be considered as a series combination of C and Cs.

Figure: 5.3 Class E converter with a an equivalent R and C

Page 85

Refemng to figure 5.3 and using 5-31and 5.35, we obtain:

Using the above-derived expressions and relationships, figure: 5.3 c now be s h o w to m be equivalent to figure: 5.4 at least to first order. equivalent circuit of a simplified PT.
Li

The circuit in figure: 5.4 is the

R,

---.
-.

Figure: 5.4 Class E converter with a parallel capacitance across the load resistance

5.1.3 Class E converter Design using the Piezoelectric Transformer

The circuit given in figure: 5.5 has been widely used by other researchers and is based on expenmental measurements but has not been rigorously derived fiom first principles. Values for the circuit components can be obtained using a system identification tool with expenmentally derived impedance characteristics.

Figure: 5.5 Approximate Equivalent Circuit

Page 86

The following values were provided by the supplier based on measurements taken using
an impedance analyzer.

L,=O. 00 7924 H c,=o. 32107 x 1 0 - ~

RL=13 ohms

A2=j.67

Using figure: 5.3, the complete design with simplified circuit parameters c m be drawn as
shown in figure: 5.6. The components in figure: 5.6 are values referred to the primary
side of the PT shown in figure: 5.5.
Li
Le

Figure: 5.6 Class E Converter based on Piezoelectric Transformer In figure: 5.6:

L'=0.0391 H
~ ' = 6 . x IQ"F 5

&"=2.2 k ohms
CO2 768 nF =O.

Col=I.55 nF

Using equations 5.2 and 5.3,we have:

fol=99.83 kHz fo2=1o1.90k z H

Page 87

For our analysis, we considered an operating fiequency of 100 kHz. For the given step down (IO: I ) transformer under investigation, Y , is 320V and the output Power is 15W. For D=OS and an operating fiequency of 100 kHz, we obtain fiom equation 5.17, 5.18, and 5.27 :

R , =326.84R, Li =0.01634 H ,

=1139.4 V

These results show that the value of peak voltage across the switch is about 4 times the input DC voltage. We therefore conclude that the Class-E topology is not suited for stepdown (high voltage) applications, assuming 11
V or 22O/j12O V are considered as high

voltage levels, and 5, 10, or l 5 V are considered as low voltage levels. It is best suited for step-up applications fiom low to high voltage levels, where practical values of inductance
and switch voltages are small due to a low input voltage.

In order to ver@ our

conclusion we considered a Rosen-type step-up (1:IO) transformer, where the input voltage is IOV, and the component values are estimated as follows [17]: L,=0.2193 H
Cr=14.556 pF

Al=l A2=81.8509 fol ~ 8 9 .79 kHz 0 fO2=89. kHz 998

RL=700 kohms
Coz=3.9 1 74 pF Col=7O1.96pF

Now using the above-derived expressions for a Class-E converter and these numerical values, we obtain the following data:

R , = 8 0 6 . 3 7 a , Li =0.045 H , V,(,,,,, 2 5 0 V
These results v e n v our initial statement and the stress across the switch is just 5OV.

Page 88

The given simplified circular disc transformer mode1 given in figure: 5.5 has been simulated using PSpice at an operating fiequency of I00kH z (Appendix: Ag). The reason for performing the simulation was to verify the validity of the empirical method in ternis of component values and waveforms. The results were found to be in good agreement with the calculations. Table: 5.1 shows the comparison between the simulated and calculated results in terms of the maximum values of switch voltage Y,, current through Col, and current through Li.

TABLE: 5.1
Cornparison between the results from a simulation and calculation @L=IS otrms,pIOo kHz
Max. Values obtained

Switch Voltage Inductor Current Switch Current Suggested Input Inductor for ZVS

througb calculations 1139.84 V 0.9515 A 2.723 A 0.01634 H

Max. Values obtained through simulation 1104.44 V 0.636A 2.046 A 0.0008 H

It can be concluded that the fndamental component analysis provides a good approximation for switch voltage, and switch current, while the inductor current observed through simulation is lower than expected. The calculated value of input inductance is found to be on the high side, and ZVS could not be achieved with this value for the chosen operating conditions, as shown in figure: 5.7. However, simulation verifies

minimum ripple content with this value. We cannot place great confidence in the exact location of the optimal ZVS location since the waveform for analysis purposes was simplified. Thetefore, to evaluate our circuit for ZVS,a different operating fiequency or a lower value of inductor should be used. Since operating fiequency is dictated by the

Page 89

equivalent circuit of PT, simulations with different values of input inductance were performed to determine a lower value of inductance that would lead to ZVS. An inductance of about 0.8mH was able to achieve this requirement. In figure: 5.8, the wavefoms of current through the inductor and the voltage across the input capacitor for different values of inductance are shown. The impact of the choice of inductance on ZVS
is evident. Figure: 5.8 shows a ZVS operation with a lower input inductance, but the cost

is a higher ripple current. Although, initially we assumed a relatively large choke

inductance in order to achieve a low ac ripple on the dc supply current for Class-E operation, it is suggested in 1421 that a large ripple cment is d s o possible.

0 A ~
CI

1 1

2.OKV

--------- ------ ----------- ...................... -----..------- ------ -- ------ ---- ---Cmcnt hrough the Mput Inchrctor. Ii ----------- ----................................................
c-- - - - - - a

I 1
I

Figure: 5.7 Wnveforms for a C1ass-E c a & b usiiig a multi-lnyered Piezoelectric ov % Transformer (L4.016342H)

Page 90

1
1
1

I I I I

SEm> -1.OW

I I

-------------------------------*----------------------------------------------------A

Voiage across the switch (Vs), C order of spmbois. M. l634H,0.8mH) m 0

Figure: 5.8 Class-E Converter using a multi-layered Piezoelectric Transformer with different values of Choke Inductance

5.2 Asymmetrical Converter Design

The purpose of using this topology was threefold: to investigate the permissible range of input voltage for a PT provided by a manufacturer; to study the behavior of an auxiliary

winding and to look into the possibility of using the auxiliary voltage for feedback
control; to consider the applicability of an asymmetrical bridge converter.

An asyrnmetrical converter is a combination of a Class-D series-parallel and a Class-D ZVS inverter. In a Class-D Series-ParalIel Inverter, there is no parallel capacitor (Coi).

In contrast, a Class-D ZVS inverter has no parallel capacitance (Cor).

Page 91

5.2.1 Asymmetrical Converter Design using a Piezoelectric Transformer

Figure: 5.9 shows an Asymmetrical Converter with the sarne piezoelectric transformer used for the Class-E converter analysis. It is noted that an inductor Li is inserted in series
with the PT. The function of Liis similar to that of a low pass filter. It attenuates higher

fiequency components of the quasi-square wave voltage and thus supplies the PT with a sinusoidal waveform [4 11. The inductor prevents rnultimode resonances fiom k i n g excited and allows ZVS to occur. It also reduces the circulating current through the input shunt capacitor [42,43] and helps to maintain a continuous flow of current through the resonant circuit, even during the dead time interval (diodes conducting, switches do not conduct). A suitable value for this inductor is determined using a PSpice simulation.

Figure: 5.9 Asymmetrical Converter with an input inductance

The asymrnetncal converter of figure: 5.9 consists of two bi-directional switches S/ and
S2 and a resonant circuit L, '-Cr'-Cm'ORL' ' where ' ,

RL ' ' represents an ac load and Co2 ' '

represents the shunt capacitance. The switches SI and S2 consist of power MOSFET Q I , /diode Dl, and MOSFET
Q2

/diode D2 respectively. The switches are dnven altemately

by a rectangular pulse at the switching fiequency with a suficiently long dead time i.e.

the ON duty cycle of each drive voltage is less than 0.5 (or 50%)[40].

Page 92

A fundamentai component analysis can be used to analyze the salient features of the

circuit in figure 5.9. The resonant circuit (when the switch S2 is OFF) is similar to a third order resonant low p a s filter circuit. The corner fiequency of the tank circuit of figure
5.9 is given by:

The behavior of the circuit in figure 5.9 is slightly different fiom that of a Class-E
converter, as the input capacitor is always part of the resonant circuit. impedance of the resonant circuit is given by:

The input

where

and

Page 93

From the above equations (5.40-5.42), it is apparent that at f = f,, 8 > 0 and the resonant circuit represents an inductive load. For f c fr 6 is less than zero and the , resonant circuit represents a capacitive load. Setting 0 in equation 5.40 to zero would give:
I

Substituting the component values provided by the supplier (section 5.1.3) into the above expressions (equation 5.37 and 5.43) would give:

fo

= 103.972 kHz

fr -= 0.894
fo
a f, = 92.97 kHz
Since a fkquency greater thanf, is required for ZVS, an operating fiequency of 95kHz is used for M e r analysis.

5.2.2 Simulation Results

As proposed earlier (section: 5.2.2), the value of input inductor was determined using the

simulation (Appendix: A9). Circuit behavior was investigated for different inductance values and results are shown in figure: 5.10.

Page 94

-80-

O. 99O

O. 99-

O. 9 9 4 u
Ti or

0.996-

O. 99-

1 OOOu .

Input Inuctor Cuntnt ('ni order of syrnbols Li0.40.500. and 700uH)

Figure: 5.10 Simulated waveforms for an Asymmetrical Converter witb different input inductance values
It is observed fiom figure: 5-16 that in the absence of an inductor, there is a discontinuity in current during the dead time i.e. when both switches are OFF. The voltage at the input terrninals is not sinusoidal. This may cause higher order harmonies to influence the circuit behavior and thus oscillations at the other frequencies may occur. This problem
can be resolved by a proper selection of the inductor value, as shown in figure: 5.10.

These plots help designers determine the value of inductor. It is clear that in case of no inductor we observe a discontinuous behavior and high spikes (up to 8A) during the switching transition. In contrast, a larger inductor guarantees a smooth sinusoidal input current to the transformer. The condition of ZVS must also be sotisfied, but it was found that at lower inductor values ZVS could not be achieved. As far as ZVS is concemed, the

Page 95

higher the inductor value, the greater the range of loading conditions under which ZVS is achieved. However, the use of a very large inductor is not a good choice due to its size
and cost. Notice in figure: 5.10 that inductor values of 500 and 700 uH results in an

approximately sinusoidal voltage and curent at the input.

5.2.3 Experimental Analysis

For experimental purposes, we tested two PTs. PT #I is a five terminal device, while #2 is a 6-terminal device i.e. Multi-layered Circular disc transformer (Appendix: A7). Simulated and actud waveforms for the cunent through the input inductor and for the voltage across the input terminals PTW are shown in figures: 5.11 and 5.12 respectively.

T1.e

Figure: 5.1 1 Simulated Waveforms of an Asymmetrical Converter (Li=2SOuH)

An inductor of 25OuH is chosen for simulation. This value corresponds approximately

with the value used in the experiment. The affect of the MOSFET drain to source

Page 96

capacitance is considered during simulation.

The experimental results are in good

agreement with the simulation results. Thus, the inclusion of MOSFET capacitances and the simplified piezoelectric transformer model, provided by the manufacturer and used by the researchers, appear to be adequate for design purposes.

-200
O

5 Time (u

10

11

4 0 0 'O

5 Time (u

IO

11

Figure: 5.12 Measured voltage and current waveforms at the input terminais of a PT, when used with an asymmetrical converter (Li=400uH)
Further experiments were performed with the circular disc multi-layered PT device. Five

circular Piezoelectric Transformer samples were used to experimentally verifj the operating characteristics. The converter has been modified so that the device could be tested for both 110 and 220 VAC, with an optional auxiliary output. The converter design and circuit is shown in Appendix: A8. A duty cycle ratio of 0.42 is used during testing, while ZVS is achieved if the circuit is operated at a switching fiequency in excess

Page 97

of 98.5 kHz. However, an operating fiequency of 99.5 kHz was used in order to maintain a temperature nse within an acceptable value (figure: 5.14). One of the five samples (sample #2) was found to be faulty, white sample #4 was f o n d tu be defective due to an abnormal temperature rise (as much as 90
OC

below 99 kHz (figure: 5-14)). Voltage

transformation ratios with sample #I were found to be very different fiom the other sarnples (figure: 5.14).

Test results for 300VDC Operation

The complete characteristics of the converter for a 300 VDC input were not determined.
Testing was constrained due to an unacceptable temperature nse (as much as 104 degrees), which resulted in the destruction of the device. Only a few readings were recorded at a load of 100 l2and a frequency of 98.5400 kHz, and the results are iisted in Table 5.2. From these results, it appears that the device is not suitable to meet the specifications. We thus chose to use I6OVDC for which the previous devices were known to work.

Test results for 16OVDC Operation

Testing given an ac input voltage of 110 VAC or 160 VDC (after rectification) was perfonned for most of the analysis. A temperature rise of as much as 71
OC

at

H fiequencies around 96-98 k z was observed. Figures: 5.13, 5.14, and 5.15 show the
outputhnput voltage transformation ratio, auxiliarylinput voltage transformation ratio and temperature charactenstics of the converter for varying loading conditions. These plots are based on steady state values recorded during the expenment.

Page 98

The auxiliary winding was found to be tracking the input voltage at the transformer
terminals and was unaffected by the loading conditions at the output. This behavior was expected as explained in Chapter: 4 and Appendix: A 7. The auxiliary voltage for most of

the cases was O. 4-0.3 times the input voltage, except for R,=l2.5 and 25 ohms where the
ratio varied between 0-35-0.46 and 0.24-0.35 respective1y. observed with the other loads.

This behavior was not

TABLE: 52 .
SummaV of R s l s @ 220VAC/300 W C eut

I
--

-10 ohms
-

Frequency kHz
97.5 98.5 99.5 100

OutpuVInput Voltage transformation ratio Sample 1 Sample 3 Sample 5

0.0 154 0.0 149 0.0098 0.008 1 0.025 0.022 0.0 17 0.0 157 0.0245 0.024 0.0193 0.0 164

Aux.Anput Voltage transformation ratio Sample 1 Sample 3 Sample 5

0.292 0.3 1 1 0.30 1 0.299 0.324 0.365 0.362 0.359 0.33 1 0.372 0.365 0.36 1

A T CC)
Sample I
76.2 74.9 76 75 -6

Sample 3
75 74 79 75.3

Sample 5
73.4 73.2 77.9 75.1

OutpuVInput Voltage transformation ratio Frequency

k ~ z 97.5 98.5 99.5 1 O0

Aux.Anput Voltage transformation ratio

AT CC)
Sample 1 Sample 3
80.1 79 74.9 71.3 78.5 75.9 74.9 72

Sample 1
0.0498 0.0425 0.0412 0.0383

Sample 3
0.077 1 0.070 1 0.0698 0.055

1
"

1
Sample 5
0.0757 0.0639 0.053 0.049

Sample 1
0.324 0.365 0.362 0.359

Sample 3
0.388 0.359 0.35 0.35

Sample 5
0.39 0.367 0.342 0.348

Sample 5
79.2 76.4 74 71

y-100 ohms
Outputfinput Voltage transformation ratio Freq uency
kHz 97.5 98.5 99.5 100

Aux.Anput Vol :age transformation ratio Sample 1

NIA 0.359 0.362 0.359

AT

ml
Sample 5 N/ A
77.6 74.7 70.1

Sample 1
NIA 0.074 0.073 0.068

Sample 3 N/A
0.101 0.952 0.0874

Sample 5 N/A
0.102 0.101 0.09 1

Sample 3
NIA 0.349 0.35 1 0.359

Sample 5
NIA 0.362 0.343 0.349

Sample 1 Sample 3 N/A N/A

79.2 75.2 74 78.9 75.1 72.7

Page 99

Figure 5.13: Voltage Transformation ratio (output/input) vs. Frequency for different loads, keeping auxiliary unloaded

Figure 5.14: Voltage Transformation ratio auxiliary/input) vs. Frequency for different loads, keeping auxiliary unloaded

Figure 5.15: Temperature rise (AT) vs. Frequency at different loads, keeping auxiliary unloaded
High temperatures (AT=10-50) were recorded over an operating frequency range of

97-98.5 KHr while low temperature values were recorded (AT= 19-25) around 99400.5

kHz. An input to output voltage transformation ratio of 1 : was achieved with a load of 0f
100 ohms at an operating frequency of 99.5400 kHz. A temperature nse AT of 25

degrees was recorded.

Page 100

Other sarnples were also tested with the same loading conditions (100 ohms). Figures: 5.16, 5.17, and 5.18 show the outputhput voltage transformation ratio, awiliary/input voltage transformation ratio and temperature charactenstics for different piezoelectric transformer samples.

Figure 5.16: Voltage Transformation ratio (outpuinput) versus Frequency for a 100 ohm load and for different samples

Figure 5.17: Voltage Transformation ratio (auxiliary/input) versus Frequency for a 100 ohm load and for different samples

25 L
20 : 95

For sample 4. ~99kHz. T rise is 60+

1

96

97

98

99 100 Fmquency (kHz)

101

102

103

Figure 5.18: The temperature rise (AT) versus Frequency for a 100 ohm load and for different s a m ~ l e s
The other task was to detennine how the auxiliary winding tracked the load voltage given

different auxiliary loading conditions. A load of 100 ohms at the output was fixed as the base load, and a fiequency of 99.5 kHz was considered. Sarnple #5 was tested first and

Page 101

the results are shown in Table: 5.3. The procedure was then repeated for the other samples and the observations are surnmarized in Table: 5.3. Table: 5.3 shows the behavior of auxiliary winding for various auxiliary loading conditions. It is clear that although the load at the auxiliary changed fiom very light to
very heavy, the output voltage level remained unaffected.

Changes in the voltage

available at the auxiliary were obsewed with the varying load. The same voltage levels were observed at the output and the auxiliary for a load of 1.Zk-ohms. In table: 5.4 it is shown that a similar response was observed for sample #3 and #5, while the other samples show results that deviate significantly fiom those of sample #3 and #5. Table:
5.4 revalidates that concIusion. From this, we conclude that the auxiliary voltage cannot

be used as a feedback signal for controlling the converter.

TABLE: 5.3 Characteristics of Auxiliary Windings (Sample #5) @IIOVAC, R&OOaP99.5 kHz

Open

82

1 5.34

Page 102

TABLE: 5.4
Characteristics of Auxiliary Windings
SampIe
# 1 #3

V~uriliary

WC)

Voutpue

WC)

15.2 t 5.3 1

12.5
15.3

5.2.4 Conclusion
The design of an asymrnetrical converter in conjunction with a piezoelectric transformer
has been investigated. The differences between the experimental data and simulation are

due to the approximate mode1 provided by the manufacturer. The circular disc type PT provided by the manufacturer was found suitable for a s!ep-down type DC-DC converter design given that the voltage was IIOVAC/160VDC. These samples were designed to deliver 10 W at 220VAC/300VDC, but fiom observations of temperature rise this cannot be the case. The behavior of the auxiliary winding is also investigated. It is found that

the auxiliary output tracks the input signal and is not useful as a control feedback voltage.

Page 103

Chapter: 6 Thesis Conclusion

The characteristics of piezoelectric transformers are investigated in this thesis.

simplified approach for developing a steady state model of a simple Rosen type piezoelectric transformer has been presented. A flow chart has also been developed to assist the reader in understanding the link between the physical and circuit-based model. The model has been successflly extended to different geometries and complex structures, and expenmental results are found to be consistent with the theoretical predictions. Differences between theory and experiment can be attributed to uncertainties

in the materid parameters. It has been shown that the material data (cornpliance, in
particular) could be off as much as 80%. Some caution should therefore be exercised in believing the data provided by the manufacturer.

Two topologies (Le. Class-E and an asymrnetrical bridge converter) have been identified as suitable for piezoelectric transformers. The class-E converter design is recommended
for low voltage step-up applications as the switch is exposed to a potential, which is four times higher than the input bus. In addition, the value of the input inductance is large. Through our findings, it c m also be concluded that an asymmetrical converter is suitable for high voltage step-down applications as the voltage across the driver switches is the

sarne as the input bus. It is also found that for an asymmetrical converter the input
inductor guarantees soft switching and acts as a low-pass filter together with the input

Page 104

capacitance of the transformer, thus providing a sinusoidal voltage to the piezoelectric transformer. This prevents multimode resonances fiom k i n g excited.

The major contribution of this thesis is a methodology for linking electricai circuit parameters with the mechanical geometry and material constants. The Partial Expansion Theorem was used to generate an exact representation to the circuit model. L'Hospital Rule was used to simplify the model about the resonance fiequency without losing information relating the material and geometrical constants to the electrical circuit parameters.

It has also k e n shown that losses c m be introduced into single resonant branches, using the mechanical quality factor and related data. It is known that there are other losses present, but the literature indicated that these losses are unimportant in devices that are operated near the main resonance fiequency. It is possible to incorporate other losses, but at this point in time, there is no means of decoupling piezoelectric losses fkom dielectric
and mechanical iosses. Moreover, the values of these parameters are detennined by the

level of excitation. Our model gives guidance regarding suitable location for introducing lossy components (resistors).

Proposed Future Work

The following topics are proposed for future work:

1. Incorporating temperature characteristics and dependencies in the model. 2. Considering the effects of extemal stress, strain, and hence mounting.

Page 105

3. Using a system identification technique to determine the equivalent circuit parameters after characterizhg the devices using a network anaiyzer.

4. Recommending that manufacturers provide tolerance data for the material and physical design.
5 . Using a simple resonator to develop a complete mode1 that accounts for ail the

physical, material, mechanical properties, and other non linearities i.e. losses and temperature.

6. Developing an integrated circuit with al1 the control and switch drivers on a single
chip for a complete converter design.

Page 106

APPENDIX: A1 Piezoelectric Equations in a Cartesian Coordinate System

The fundamental piezoelectnc equations in the Cartesian coordinate system [6] are given
by :

where j = 42,....,6

The linear strain in the x, y and z directions is given by [6];

The remaining strain coefficients are usually defined by:

S, =-du2

+-a u 3
?Y

du, ' S5 =a2

du, +-,

dx

S6 =-au

+-h

& ? Y

In vector form, Newton's law can be written as:

where ui are the displacements of the crystal in x, y and z directions, Fi are the components of force in x, y and z directions exerted on the crystal.

The resultant force in any direction is obtained by summing al1 the forces with
components in that direction. Hence the total resultant force along the x direction is the partial derivative of the stresses [6] or

1
Similady, for the other two directions

kdyd7

(x direction)

(y direction)

(A 1.7)

(r direction)
These c m be expressed in the general tensor form [6];

(A 1.8)

where i,1= I,2,3,...6 Hence, using equations A1-4 and A1.9, we can obtain [6];

For the longitudinal bar wth its length along x, the only stress different fiom zero is
and hence the only equation of motion for this bar is:

Tl,

APPENDIX: A2
Piezoelectric Equations in a Cylindrical Coordinate System
The fundamental piezoelectric equations in the cylindrical coordinate system are 131:
S, =

SET,

+SET,

+S

~ T .

- + d,,Et

S, = SET,

+ S ~ T , + SLT-- + d,, E,

S= =s,";(T,+ T , ) + s , ~ T = +d,,E= S c = s z c +dl&

se = S ~ T ,+ d , , ~ ,
S , = sLTr, Dr = &:Er + d 1 5 ~ ~

D, = &&Ee +dIsT'

D: = ELE. + d 3 , ( T , + T m ) + d,,T'
The strain
,

s ,

1 du, u =-+Z-, r dB r

S- =-au:

&

Sr@ - u, 1 % = au, +-+-de r r de

SE=;

au

dz

+-au;
dr

1 au: se = -- +-au,

r d8

de

The equations of motions are

Appendix: A3 Equivalent circuit of a transducer in Longitudinal vibration mode

Consider the transducer shown in figure: 3.17. From Newton's law we have [3,5]:

The wave is assumed to propagate dong the length axis with a zero stress in the lateml
direction. Hence no lateral inertia exists [l] i.e.

T1=O,T2=0
but

Where u~ is the displacement velocity in z-direction. From the basic piezoelectric

equations for this mode we have:

Rearranging equation A3.3 gives:

Substituting equation A3.5 into A3.4 gives us the following expression:

Solving for E3 and using it in equation A3.5 results in the following expression:

Substituting equation A3.7 in A3.2 results in:

Since for this mode

A 3 . 8 gives:

Since the electrical field is along the length of the bar and the displacement does not vary along the length of the bar [3], we have:

Differentiating A3.4 with respect to z gives:

Now substituting equation A3.7 in for T3 and using equation A3.11, we obtain the following expression:

Tg3 3

T g+

Using A3.9 and substituting it into A3.13, gives:

Rearranging gives:

Substitution of A3.15 into A3.10 gives:

Simplification gives:

For simple harmonic motion, the variation of u3 with time can be written in the phasor form as [1,5,6]:

u3 = u3ei d
C1

(A3.18)

Hence A3.17 becomes:

A solution of this equation is

where:

The displacement velocity is:

In terms of velocity we have f o A3.18: rm

It is desired to utilize the particle velocities at the two ends of the resonator for boundary

conditions [8] defined as follows:

Hence we obtain:

B=

- CI, sin y ( - l / 2 ) + LI, sin y ( t / 2 ) jw sin y l

Therefore the strain S3 is given by:

au = cos 3= u, cos y { z - (- 42/2))- U , y { ( l / 2 ) - z ) Y s 3 dx jw sin y l

cos - U,cos y { z - (- P/2)f - U, y ( ( l / 2 ) - z)VPS&
jw sin y [

(A3.24)

From A3.4 we have:

D3 = d3,T,+ E E) ; Substituting T' h m equation A3.9 and simplieing gives:

Rearranging gives:

Substituting A3.25 into equation A3.5, gives:

Hence:

Substituting A3.21 into A3.25 gives:

and

=LI3 =-

jowt

Therefore A3.28 can be written as:

E;=
$3

1 -F
s33

1 ---

d3 3

d:3j o w t

s$

V [ U ~ C O S @ - ( - ~ ~ ) } - U ~ C O S Y { ( P / ~ ) - Z ] (A3.30) ]

The voltage potential between the two plates can be obtained by integrating the electric field over the distance between the plates [3,8], i.e.

Substituting A3.30 gives:

It is clear from A3.32 that:

Hence:

v=

I iwco,

+--

: s

oc,

J[U, -u1

where the electromechanical transformation ratio is given by:

= jwCo2V + 4, wt(U2- U ,)
s3 3

Similarly the stress is (fiom A3.3):

Substituting for E3 gives:

r3= ---

d33

SE

I+- 1
S;

E PS33

juwt

j sin y t

[u,cos(z - (- P/z)} - U , y ( ( q 2 )- z } ] COS

For the two sides of the resonator:

T,(z = 412) =--- 4 E3 1 I + P v [ U , C O S ~ ~ - U , ] s33j o w t j sin y. ' 4

4 T3(z= 4 1 2 ) = --- 3

1 I + P v [u2 U , C O S ~ P ] SE jwwt j s i n y l -

At 2=1/2. the compressive force =-wtT.. Therefore multiplying both sides o f equations
A3.40 by wt gives:
d3 3 -F,+--I=

SU jwwf

wt

pvwt

jsinyP

[LI,cos y! - U ,]

d3, ~ : : 4 wr -F2 + - - P I : E:: t j o w r s

j sin ye

[LI, y4 - CI,] cos

-F,

+-4

Co* I = z0 j@Co2 j sin y!

[u,cos y t - LI,]

- F2+

zo [LI, ye - u,] 'Y I= COS jwC,, jsinyt

At z-=Z/2, the compressive force =-wtT' ,similarly for A3.39:

I 4 -j ~ c 0 2 = -

z0

[u2 U, - c0syc]

j sin y t

Combining A3.4 1 and A3.42 into a matrix form results in the following expression:

Hence, the equivalent circuit representation for equation A3.43 is shown infigure 3.18.

Now by employing the same simpliming procedure as explained in section: 3.3.2 for the
thickness vibration mode, we can obtain a circuit as shown in figure: A3.1.

Figure A3.1: Electromechanical equivalent circuit for the longitudinal vibration section

Appendix: A4 Determination of off-resonance equivalent impedance using L'Hospital's Rule

We have to consider other means of representing the hyperbolic functions used in our

model, i.e. tanh, cosech, and coth.

A4.1 For tanh function

From equation 3.87 we have:
YA=Let

[ Y tanh j 22, 2

Equation 3.99 can be rewritten as:

Using the partial fraction expansion [38] we have:

Therefore:

From equations A4.2 and Ad. 3 we obtain:

y=--tan a a

Let

Therefore
tan y=-- a

L'Hospital's rule is used to determine the value of Y when:

CI

+ a,

da

U3UI

2a2cota
a:

Since the application of limits gives an indeterminate quantity, we have to apply the rule
a second time

L'Hospital's rule is used to determine the value of Y when:

Hence:

for

Therefore:

This admittance can be easily represented as a capacitive conductance that represents al1

the off resonance branches placed in parallel with the resonant branch evaluated at the
resonant fiequency.

A4.2 For coth function

From equation 3.89 we have:

Let

coth ju = -j cot a Equation 3.98 can be rewritten as:

YB =-- j

coth-~e 22, 2

Using the partial fraction expansion method [38] we have:

cotha =-+-

2a

1
+

1
2

+ .........

Let

Therefore for al

cot a a

Admittance c m be found by using equations A4.15 and A4.18 fkom the RHS, which
gives:

cot a

Let

Therefore cota y=---a

P
l-

);[

L'Hospital's rule is used to determine the value of Y when:

But since: sec 2 a = l + t a n 2 a Equation A422 can be written as:

Since the application of limits gives an indetenninate quantity, we have to apply the rule

a second time

L'Hospital's rule is used to determine the value of Y when:

a+a, =z
and we obtain:

hence:

for

Therefore:

This admittance can be easily represented as a capacitive conductance representing al1 the

off resonance branches placed in paralle1 with the resonant branch evaluated at the
resonant fiequency.

A4.3 For cosech function

Frorn equation 3.112 we have:
2 = Z,, sinh j y l , ,

Therefore:

Let

csc hja = -j csc a

Equation A4.29 can be rewritten as:

yA = -- cscho 20,

'

Using the partial fraction expansion method [38] we have:

Let

Therefore for a=al

Admittance can be found by using equations A4.29 and A4.34 and we obtain:

csca a

Let

Therefore

L'Hospital's rule is used to determine the value of Y when:

da
"+Ut

sina~-(l)>]'+acosa~

-[:)>]-

2a sin a a:

Since the application of limits gives an indeterminate quantity, we have to apply the rule
a second time

$Y &2
"1

-- + P cosa + Pasina - Pcosu

a 1

- ( ~ ] ] - 2 ~ i - a S i n-($~]+co{-(i)i]-$acosa--

4a sina - 2$ 4

ci'

L'Hospital's rule is used to determine the value of Y when:

this results in

Hence:

for

Therefore:

This admittance cm be easily represented as a capacitive or an inductive conductance (depending on the sign), representing al1 the off resonance branches placed in parallel

with the resonant branch evaluated at the resonant fiequency.

Appendix: A5

Flow Chart
ASA Pre-processing Stage

/
;

Determine the number of sections (1.2, . . ) ..

\
/'

/ /'

\\

Dimensions and Material Properties For every section, determine: dimensions of the section dimensions of the electrodes vibration mode determined by the direction of polarization with respect to the electris field

Y
1

Dimensions: Rectangular geometry (length, height and width). Circular structure(height, inner and outer diameter) Vibration Mode: thickness transverse shear

Determine Piezoklectric Material Constants and Coefficients, i.e. density p), charge coefficient (dij), free permittivity (E& elastic compliance (sijE) mechanical Q

s
Processing Stage

A5.2 Processing Stage

Piezoelectric equations, as a function of stress 1 strain S, , electric field E, displacernent D and piezoelectric coefficients

Equation of Motion
a2ui
at2

=-

aT,
ax,

Set the boundary conditions Write and solve the wave equation Determine equations for velocity (u,)

Determine strain S:

S =ax

Cu J

Rearrange equations for D to determine electric field E, as a function of D and S Determine voltage V:

E, = t

Detemine the current I :

1 =jwQ = jw J J D ~ ~ s

Calculate: Input capacitance as a function of dimensions and permitivity Transformation ratio as a function of piezo coefficients

Post Processing Stage

Applying boundary conditions leads to equivalent circuit: Impedances repmsented as a function of coth, tanh, csch and sech. l

Apply Partial Fraction Expansion to hyperbolic functions for each branch. This gives a description of the multiresonant behavior

Equivalent circuit can be redrawn in t e m s of Ls, Cs and Rs (parallel or series combinations) Use Q to detemine appropriate resistance Rs for each branch

Detailed Circuit Circuit is in detailed form

i

Circuit
I

Determine the equivalent parallel branches using L'Hospital's Rule

Go to PostProcessing I I

Repeat Processing and Post -Processing 1 for every section of the transformer

Combine mechanical (open)ends of every section Apply transformations and circuit simplifications

In case of: Detailed circuit- complete transforrner model for multiresonant behavior Simplified circuit- model for single resonant behavior w e L'Hospital's rule

process

Appendix: A6 Equivalent Circuit Modeling of a Circular Disc type Piezoelectric Transformer assuming a radial vibration A6.1 Equivalent Circuit Modeling of a Circular Disc in a radial vibration
For a radialy vibrating disc, we assume the thickness to be small enough that the change

of stress is negligible along the z-direction [5,6].

surface [ I l , we can set:

Since the stresses are zero on the

T= =Tc =Ta = O

4=O
Since the motion is entirely radial [3];
Uo = O

and

Tr, = O
Furthemore, since the field is applied only along the z-direction i.e.: D,=D,=O
Hence the basic equations in Appendix: A 2 become [3]:
S, =S
Sm =
~ T ,+

s ~ T ,+d3i E:

SLT,

+ S ~ T +d3,EZ ,

@ =&E; +d,,(~' +Tm)

Also:

where

Superscript P is used for radial mode [43].

D r , Do, Dz are the electrical displacements along the r , 8, z directions respectively. E r , E, , E, are the electric fields along the r , 8, z directions respectively. u,, u, , u_are the displacements dong the r , 8,z directions respectively. S,, S , , S= ,S , , S,, S, are the strain tensors dong the r , 8, z directions

T', TM, ,Tc, T,,, Teare the stresses' tensors along the r , 6,z directions T=
p is the density of the matenal

Note that, since the plating on the surface is an equi-potential surf'ace, Ez is not a function of r, therefore:

The equation of motion, for a simple harmonic motion, becomes:

The general solution of the wave equation for a steady state forced vibration is of the

forrn:

where

and JI is the Bessel fnction of first kind.

Taking the derivative of relationship:
Ur

with respect to r in equation A6.13 gives the following

Hence

At the boundary r=a (the radius of the disc), the stress

Using the recurrence relationship for Bessel functions, equation Ad. 13 gives:

Simplifiing we get:

and

Using equation A6.1 O, we have:

Since the value of Dz at the surface is equal to the surface charge density [6],then the

total charge Q on the plate is:

Q=E&~'E=

+
:O J

(E)
v

EZ (A6.22)

(y)]

The impedance of the plate is given by:

Let

Also, let

Let

where

The resonant fiequency occurs when [6]:

Denoting its roots by Rn, and using A6.15, the resonant angular fiequency of the nth order
is given by [6,44]:

The piezoelectric admittance Y is expanded wit respect to the k Rn,the poles for Y , ,
[3,6]. The elements are:

Using equations A6.29, A637 and A6.38, an equivalent circuit is drawn as shown in figure Ad. I.

*
Figure A6.1 Equivalent Circuit of a Piezoelectric Resonator (radial) Equation A6.24 can be rewritten as:

where
U r = jwu, Let

Also

Multiplying both sides of equation (A6.44) by xat ,gives:

Let

where

Let

Hence, the equivalent circuit of this radial resonator is s h o w in figure A6.2:

Figure: A6.2 Equivalent circuit of a radial resonator

A6.2

Equivalent Circuit Modeling of a Circular Piezoelectric Transformer for a radial vibration

Lets consider a radial mode transformer of the shape shown in figure: A6.3. In this type,
one resonator is a circular disc of radius a, while the other is a cylindrical plate attached

to the radial disc and has a radius e.

Figure: A 6 3 A radially vibrnted Piezoelectric Transformer

The equations for the radial mode cylinder will be derived the same way as we did for the
disc.

From (6.13)

where

For this case, equation (6.19) becomes

Let

= Y,, = jaco 2(e,q l2

43

4(y) 4(y)

+(cL-c.I

Let

Let

Hence the equivalent circuit and transformer mode1 is shown in figure: A6.4.

Figure: A6.4 Equivalent circuit of a Piezoelectric Transformer under radial vibration

Appendix: A7 Modeling of a Multi-layered Circular Disc Piezoelectric Transformer

Another device we investigated was a multi-layered circular disc piezoelectric transformer (a prototype). Al1 layers operate in the thickness vibration mode. The outline

of the device is shown in figure:A 7.1. The device contains 3 layers for the input section,
al1 of them mechanically in parallel but electrically in series as shown in figure: A7.2.

The middle layer in the input section is designated as an auxiliary as shown in figure:
A7.2. The input layer is sandwiched between two output sections, each section itself has
5 layers, al1 aitemately poled and mechanically in parallel. Their electrical connections

are shown in figure: A7.3.

Output part Input part Output part

Figure A . : Outline of a three section alternately poled piezoelectric transformer 71

I I

Auxiliary Connection

a I a I

i !

Figure A7.2: Details of the Input Section of a three section alternately poled piezoelectric transformer

73 Figure A . : Details of the Output Section of a three section altemately poled piezoelectric transformer

A7.1 Modeling
Modeling of this device does not difler fiom that of a very simple piemelecaic structure.
It is just a matter of cementing individual circuits for each layer. Al1 the layea are in

thickness mode. The layers for the input section are poled in the same direction while for the output sections they are altemately poled. For modeling, we used the technique presented in sections: 3.3.2, 3.3.3 and 3.4. Figure: A 7.4 shows a detailed circuit mode1
of this device.

For al1 output layers:

L02

'12

= Sinhjy d

For input layer 1:

For input layer 2:

2, ,

Y 4, = Z,,, Tunhj 2

For input layer 3:

'IZi3

=
=4

Loi3

Sinhjy d,
3 d 3 d ~ 3 3 ~

#3

(A7.12)

The voltage across the middle input layer or the auxiliary output depends on the ratio of
the thickness of layers i.e. the voltage transmission is achieved by the thickness ratio

between the individual layers in the input section.

From equation A7.13, it is clear that the voltage at the auxiliary depends on the voltage at the input terminal. The equivalent circuit shown in figure: 3.30 c m be simplified to a circuit shown in figure: A7.5.

ZA& is the input capacitance of the second input or the auxiliary layer referred to the primary of the input layer no. 2 or amiliary

Zco3 ' is the input sapacitance of the 3" input layer referred to primary of the input layer no. 3.

Figure: A7.6 cm be simplified further to figure: A7.7 where a star to delta transformation is performed on each branch at the output

and input sections. This is required in order to use the partial expansion theorem for the hyperbolic functions, as we are limited only
to cosech, coth, sech and tanh.

Figure: A7.7 Simplified Model with Star-Delta Transformations

Appendix: A8 Asymmetrical Converter design and circuit

The complete circuit design is shown in figures: A8.1 (Power Stage) and A8.2 (Control
Stage). The list of components for each stage is given in Table: A8. I (Power Stage) and
A8.2 (Control Stage).

Note that the fiequency is determined using equations A8.2 and A8.2. These expressions are provided by the manufacturer. Refer to the data sheets of UC386 1for more details.

TABLE A . 81 Components List-Power Stage

Reference # Description Cl Capacitor IOOuF, 250V C2 Capacitor 1OOnF, 250V C3 Capacitor 1200uF 63V C4 Capaci tor 1200uF 63V CS IOnF, 630V Capacitor C6 Zapac itor 1OnF, 630V C7 Capacitor 220pF, 1OOV DI Zener Diode 14V, 500m W D2 Zener Diode 14V, 500m W FI Fuse 0.25A, 220V, SLO BLO Inductor SOOuH LI NFET 400V QI NFET 400V 4 2 R1 Resistor 45k (1 20V) or 75k (220V), 0.5U R2 Resistor 10 ohms, 0.5 W R3 Resistor 10 ohms, 0.5 W R4 Resistor 10 ohms, 0.5 W R5 Resistor I O ohms, 0.5 W R6 Resistor 1 ohm, 3W Resistor Raux Ik, 2k, 3k .....1M ohms Rload Non-Inductive Resistor 1,2,5,10,15,20,25,50 ohms U1 Bridge Rectifier 400V, 1.1 A U2 400V, 1.1 A Bridge Rectifier U3 Bridge Rectifier 400V, 1.1 A

N2
AUX w1

OlCT2

AUX w 2

Figure: A . Power Stage of a PT based Asymmetrical Converter 81

TABLE A8.1 Components List-Control Stage

Reference # Description Cl Capacitor 47uF, 5OV C2 Capacitor 100nF, SOV Capacitor 100nF, SOV 1 nF, 50V Capacitor Capacitor 220pF, 100V 1nF, IOOV Capacitor Capacitor IOnF, 50V 1OOnF, 50V Capacitor Capacitor IOuF, SOV 1OOnF, 50V Capacitor Capacitor lOuF, 50V 20pF Capacitor 1nF, lOOV Capacitor Capacitor InF, IOOV Capacitor lOnF, 50V 100V, lOOmA Diode Zener Diode Optional Zener Diode Optional Trim pot 2k, O.SW Trimpot 2k, 0.5W Trimpot 2k, 0.5 W Trimpot Sk, 0.5W Resistor 10 ohms, 0.5 W 3.3 ohms, 0.5W Resistor Resistor 1Ok, 0.5W 1Ok, O.5W Resistor 1 Ok, 0.5 W Resistor 22k, 05W Resistor Resistor 4.7k, 0.5 W 220k, 0.5 W Resistor Resistor Slectable for frequency requiremes Resistor 10k, 0.5W Resistor IOk, 0.5 W Resistor 100 ohms, 0.5 W Resistor 100 ohms, 0.5 W Resistor 100 ohms, 0.5 W Resistor 10 ohms, 0.5 W Resistor 1 ohm, 0.5W UC3861N IC Resonant Mode IC High and Low Side DriverIR2 1 1O IC Opto Isolator LTV713V IIC Shunt Re~ulator Ti43ACLP

Aux Suppiy
(14-16VDc)

=F
con
USED

DRIVE 1 RTN

La

Appendix: A9 Simulation Programs

A9.1 Detailed Admittance Analysis of a 3-layered Rosen-type Piezoelectric Transformer
%This code is for Rosen Type Piezoelectric Transformer Admittance Characteristics*/ %Cornmon f = [10:260:200e+3] ;%Hz sigma=7.97e+3; %Density kg/mA2 epsilon0=8.854e-12 ;%dielectric constant F/m epsilon33T=1220*epsilonO; %free permitivitty F/m omega=2*pi*f; %angualr

%Input part-Thickness .ll=13.2e-3 ;%m wl=7.6e-3 ;%m tl=le-3 ;%m sllE=11.5e-12; %elastic compliance mA2/N d31=-141e-12; gammal=omega*sqrt(sigrna*s11E); % ZO1=wl*tl*sqrt(sigma/sllE);%Characteristic Impedance
%Output half -Longitudinal 12=13.2e-3 ;%m w2=7.6e-3; %m t2=le-3; %m d33=310e-l2;%g33*epsilon33T s33E=15.9e-12 ;%elastic compliance mA2/N gamma2=omega*sqrt(sigma*s33E); % Z02=w2*t2*sqrt(sigma/s33E);%Characteristic Impedance %load resistance RL=l.O0e3; %ohms %output capacitance COS C02=~2*t2*(epsilon33T-d33~2/~33E)/12; %output capacitance F si=d33*~2*tZ/(lS*s33E); %output half transformation ratio phi=wl*d3l/sllE; %input half transformation ratio

k31=d3l/sqrt(epsilon33T*sllE);%electromechanical coupling coeffiecient Thickness mode CO1=2*(wl*ll*epsilon33T*(1-k31A2))./tl;%nput capacitance F

ZB2=2.*ZO2.*tanh(j.*gamma2.*12/2)%simplified parameters ZB1=2.*ZOl.*tanh(j.*gamma1.*Il/2);%simpliied parameters ZB=ZBl. *ZB2. / (ZBl+ZB2)

circuit

circuit

ZA2=+2.*Z02.*coth(j.*gamma2.*l2./2); Z A I = + ~ . *coth (j *gammal*ll. /2) ;% s i m p i f i e d circuit *ZOl. parameters Zll=ZOl. *tanh ( j *gammal. *12/2); Z12=201./sinh(j.*gamma1.*12);

%RL parallel CO2 ZL= (RL./ (l+j*ornega*C02*RL) ; ) ZLT=4*siA2.*ZL;Referred ZNC02T=4*siA2.*ZNC02;Referred

A=ZNC02T+ZLT B=A+ZA2 C=B.*ZB2./ (B+ZB2) D=C+Z11 E=Z12. *D. / ( Z 1 2 + D ) F=E+Z 11 G=F. *ZBl. / (F+ZBl) H=G+ZAl I=H/ (4*phiA2) J=I,*ZCOl. / (I+ZCOl) K=l*/J plot ( f , (abs (KI %End of Program

A9.2 Simplified Analysis of a 3-layered Rosen-type Piezoelectric Transformer near 3'<'Resonant Mode
%This code is for Rosen Type Piezoelectric Transformer Impedance Characteristics*/
%Corrunon f=[lO:260:25Oe3] % [10Oe3:260:200e+3] ;%Hz sigma=7.97e+3; %Density kg/mA2 epsilon0=8.854e-12 ;%dielectric constant F/m epsilon33T=1380*epsilonO; %free permitivitty F / m omega=2*pi*; %angualr

%Input part-Thickness 11=13.2e-3 ;%m wl=7.6e-3 ;%m t l=le-3 ;%m sllE=11,5e-12; %elastic compliance mA2/N d31=-14 le-12; garnma1=omega*sqrt(sigma*s11E); % ZO1=wl*tl*sqrt(sigma/s11E);%Characteristic Impedance %Output half -Longitudinal 12=13-2e-3 ;%m w2=7.6e-3; %m t2=le-3; %m d33=310e-I2;%g33*epsilon33T s33E=15.9e-12 ;%elastic compliance mA2/N
gamma2=omega*sqrt(sigma*s33E); % Z02=w2*t2*sqrt(sigma/s33E);%Characteristic Impedance

%load resistance RL=1000;%ohms Qm=1800; Mechanical Q %output capacitance CO2 C02=~2*t2*(epsilon33T-d33~2/~33E)/12; %output capacitance F ZNCOS=l./ (-3 *omega*C02); si=d33*~2*t2/(12*~33E); %output half transformation ratio phi=wl*d3l/sllE; %input half transformation ratio
k3l=d3l/sqrt(epsilon33T*s11E;)%electromechanicl coupling coeffiecient Thickness mode CO1=2*(wl*ll*epsilon33~*(1-k31~2))./tl;%input capacitance F

%circuit parameters ZAlO=ZOl*pi/ (2*Qm) *omega*sigma*wl*t1*11/2+1. / (j +j *omega*2*1 l*sllE./(wl*tl*piA2)); ZAll=-j*piA2*Z01*4/14;%Lhospital ZAl2=+j*omega*sigma*wl*tI*11/2+1./(j*omega*2*l1*sllE./(25*w l*tl*piA2));%simplified circuit parameters ZAl=l. / (1./ZAlO+l./ZAll);
ZA2O=ZO2*pi/(2*Qm)+j*omega*sigma*w2*t2*12/2+1./(j*omega*2*~ 2*s33E./(w2*t2*piA2))%simplified circuit parameters ZA21=-j*piA2*Z02*4/14;%LHospital Z~22=+j*omega*sigma*w2*t2*12/2+1./(j*omega*2*12*s33E./(25*w 2*t2*piA2));%simplified circuit parameters ~~23=+j*omega*sigma*w2*t2*12/2+1./(j*omega*2*12*s33E./(49*w 2*t2*piA2));%simplified circuit parameters

ZB10=j*omega*wl*tl*ll*sigma%simp1ified circuit pararneters ZB11=-j*8*ZOl*piA2*1/1%LHospital ZB12=+j*omega*sigma*wl*tl*11/2+l./(j*omega*ll*sllE./(2*wl*t 1*4*piA2));%simplified circuit parameters ZB13=-j*8*ZOl*piA2*9/17%LHospital ZB14=+j*omega*sigma*~1*t1*ll/4+l~/(j*0mega*ll*sllE./(wl*tl* 16*piA2));%simplified circuit parameters ~ ~ 1 5 =*ornega*sigma*wl*tl*ll/4+l. / (j +j *omega*ll*sllE. / (wl*tl* 25*piA2));%sirnplified circuit parameters ZBl=l./ (1./ZBlO+l./ZBll
ZB20=j*ornega*w2*t2*12*sigrna%simplified circuit parameters ZB21=pi*Z02/Qm+j*omega*~igma*~2*t2*12/2+l./(j*omega*l2*s33E

./(2*w2*t2*piA2))%simplified circuit parameters ZB22=-j*8*Z02*piA2*4/7%LHospital ZB23=+j*omega*sigma*~2*t2*12/2+1./(j*omega*l2*s33E~/(2*9*w2 *t2*piA2));%simplified circuit parameters ZB24=+j*omega*sigma*~2*t2*12/2+1./(j*omega*12*s33E~/(2*16*w 2*t2*piA2));%simplifled circuit parameters

ZAAO=pi*ZO1/(4*Qm)+j*omega*~igma*w1*t1*11/4+1./(j*omega*4*1 l*sllE./(wl*tl*piA2))%simp1ified circuit parameters

ZAAl=pi*Z01*3/(4*Qm)+j*omega*sigma*wl*tl*ll/4+1./(j*omega*4 *ll*sllE./(9*wl*tl*piA2))%simplified circuit parameters ~~~2=-j*pi~2*ZOl*4/7%LHospital ~~~3=+j*omega*sigma*wl*t~*l~/~+1./(j*0mega*4*11*s11E./(49*w l*tl*pi"2));%simplified circuit parameters

%RL p a r a l l e l CO2 ZL= (RL./ ( l + j *omega*CO2*RL)) ;

ZLT=4*siA2.*ZL ZNC02T=4*siA2.*ZNC02

%End of Program

A9.3 Analysis of the material uncertainities of a 3layered Rosen-type Piezoelectric Transformer

%This code is for Rosen Type Piezoelectric Transformer Admittance Characteristics*/
%Cornmon f=[10:260:350e+3];%Hz sigma=7.97e+3; epsilon0=8.854e-12 ;%dielectric constant F/m epsilon33T=1380*epsilonO;%free permitivitty F/m epsilon33T=epsilon33T*l.O5 omega=2*pi*f; %angualr

sllE=11.5e-12 sllE=l.848*sllE%elastic compliance mA2/N

ZO1=wl*tl*sqrt(sigma/sl1E);%Characteristic Impedance %Output half -Transverse l2=13.2e-3 ;%m w2=7.6e-3; %m t2=le-3; %m d33=31Oe-l2;%g33*epsilon33T s33E=15.9e-12 ;%elastic compliance mA2/N s33E=0.90fs33E;
gamma2=omega*sqrt(sigma*s33E); % Z02=w2*t2*sqrt(sigma/s33E);%Characteritic Impedance

%load resistance RL=1000; %ohms Qm=1800;Mechanical Q %output capacitance CO2 C02=~2*t2*(epsilon33~-d33~2/~33E)/12; %output capacitance F ZNCOZ=l. / ( - j *omega*C02);

si=d33*~2*t2/(12*~33E); %output half transformation ratio phi=wl*d3l/sllE; %input half transformation ratio
k31=d3l/sqrt(epsilon33T*sllE)%electromechanical coupling coeffiecient Thickness mode; ( CO1=2* (wl*ll*epsilon33T* 1-k31A2)) Jtl; % p u capacitance F

ZB2=2.* Z 0 2 . *tanh ( j .+gamrna2.*12/2)% s i m p l i e d circuit parameters ZB1=2. *-201. *tanh ( j .*gamma1 * l l / 2 ) ;Bsimplified circuit parameters ZB=ZBl.*ZB2./(ZBl+ZB2) ZA2=+2. *ZO2.*coth ( j .*gamrna2."12. /2); ZAl=+2.*ZO1.*coth(j.*gammal*ll./2);%simpied parameters Zll=ZOl. *tanh ( j .*garnrnal. *12/2); Z12=ZOl. /sinh (j.*gamma1 .*l2); circuit

%RL parallel C O 2 ZL= ( R L * (l+j*omega*CO2*RL) ; / ) ZLT=4*siA2.*ZL;Referred ZNC02T=4*siA2.*ZNC02;Referred

A=ZNC02T+ZLT B=A+ZAZ C=B. *ZB2. / (B+ZB2) D=C+Z11 E=Z12.*D. / (Z12+D) F=E+Z11 G=F. *ZB1. / (F+ZBl)
H=G+ZAl I = H / (4*phiA2)

J=I. *ZCOi./ (I+ZCOl) K=1. /J plot (f, 20*1og (abs(K))

%End of Progxam

A9.4 Analysis of a Class-E converter

*+ *+ *
*

vdl 50 O pulse(0V IV fO.O*per} {0.004perJ {0.004per) {OS*per) {per}) .param per= { 1/(f?eq)) fieq=95kHz *.step panun fieq list 95kHz

80kHz
105kHz

vbus 1 4 320v *visense2 1 2 dc 0.0 11 1 2 0.01634H

r100 2 3 0.2 S1 3 4 50 O hfswitch dsl 4 2 dpwr cossl 2 4 10pf

visense 2 5 dc 0.0

cd1 5 4 1.55nf 1 5 6 0.0391H

r 6 7 110 c 7 8 65pf

rgroundl 4 0 1G

cd2 8 4 768.45pf rload 8 4 2200

.mode1 hfswitch VSWITCH(rofFle6 ron=2 vofF0.0 von=l .O) .mode1 dpwr D(is= 1e-15 rs=O.O 1) .probe .options RELTOL=O.1 ABSTOL=l UAVNTOL=l m V .tran O. 1us 1ooous ous o.osus

.end

A9.5 Analysis of an Asymmetrical Converter

vdl 50 O pulse(0V 1V (O.O*per) {O.Ol *per) (0.0 1*per) {0.38*per) (per)) vd2 5 1 O pulse(0V 1V {OS*per) (0.01*per) (0.0 1*per) {0.38*per) {per)) .pararn per= ( 1/(fie@) f?eq=95 kHz .step pararn fieq list 9 5 W +96kHz +99kHz +1OOkHz +101kHz

vbus 1 3 l5OV rlOO 1 80 0.2 S 1 80 2 50 O hfswitch dsl 2 1 dpwr cossl 1 2 lOpf

rlOl 2 81 0.2 S2 81 3 51 O hfswitch ds2 3 2 dpwr coss2 2 3 SOpf

visense 60 4 dc 0.0

rground 1 3 0 1G

* *

cd2 7 3 768.4Spf rload 7 3 2000 .mode1 hfswitch VSWTCH(rofP1e6 ron=2 vofF0.0 von= 1.O) .mode1 dpwr D(is= 1e- 15 rs=O.O 1) .probe .options RELTOL=O. 1 ABSTOL=l UA VNTOL=l mV &an O. 1us 1OOOus Ous O. 1us

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