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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management , New Delhi-63, by Parul arora
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Learning Objective
Explain the objectives and functions of modern operating systems. Describe how operating systems have evolved over time from primitive batch systems to sophisticated multiuser systems. Analyze the tradeoffs inherent in operating system design. Describe the functions of a contemporary operating system with respect to convenience, efficiency, and the ability to evolve. Discuss networked, client-server, distributed operating systems and how they differ from single user operating systems.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Introduction
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management , New Delhi-63, by Parul arora
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Learning Objective
Understand the purpose of the operating system Distinguish between a resource, a program, and a process Recognize critical resources and explain the behavior of semaphores Describe various memory page replacement algorithms Describe how files are stored in secondary storage
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Introduction
What is an Operating System? Features of Mainframe Systems Features of Desktop Systems Discuss Multiprocessor Systems Features of Distributed Systems Features of Clustered System Types of Real -Time Systems Features of Handheld Systems Features of Computing Environments
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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System view
Resource allocator Operation and control of I/O devices
System Goals
Convenience for the user efficient
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Mainframe Systems
Reduce setup time by batching similar jobs Automatic job sequencing automatically transfers control from one job to another. First rudimentary operating system. Resident monitor initial control in monitor control transfers to job when job completes control transfers pack to monitor
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Time-Sharing SystemsInteractive Computing The CPU is multiplexed among several jobs that are kept in memory and on disk (the CPU is allocated to a job only if the job is in memory). A job swapped in and out of memory to the disk. On-line communication between the user and the system is provided; when the operating system finishes the execution of one command, it seeks the next control statement from the users keyboard.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
Desktop Systems
Personal computers computer system dedicated to a single user. I/O devices keyboards, mice, display screens, small printers. User convenience and responsiveness. Can adopt technology developed for larger operating system often individuals have sole use of computer and do not need advanced CPU utilization of protection features. May run several different types of operating systems (Windows, MacOS, UNIX, Linux)
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. U1. 16
Parallel Systems
Multiprocessor systems with more than on CPU in close communication. Tightly coupled system processors share memory and a clock; communication usually takes place through the shared memory. Advantages of parallel system: Increased throughput Economical Increased reliability graceful degradation fail-soft systems
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. U1. 17
Asymmetric multiprocessing
Each processor is assigned a specific task; master processor schedules and allocated work to slave processors. More common in extremely large systems
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Distributed Systems
Distribute the computation among several physical processors. Loosely coupled system each processor has its own local memory; processors communicate with one another through various communications lines, such as high-speed buses or telephone lines. Advantages of distributed systems. Resources Sharing Computation speed up load sharing Reliability Communications
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. U1. 20
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Clustered Systems
Clustering allows two or more systems to share storage. Provides high reliability. Asymmetric clustering: one server runs the application while other servers standby. Symmetric clustering: all N hosts are running the application.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Real-Time Systems
Often used as a control device in a dedicated application such as controlling scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, and some display systems. Well-defined fixed-time constraints. Real-Time systems may be either hard or soft real-time.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Soft real-time
Limited utility in industrial control of robotics Useful in applications (multimedia, virtual reality) requiring advanced operating-system features.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
Handheld Systems
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) Cellular telephones Issues:
Limited memory Slow processors Small display screens.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Computing Environments
Traditional computing Web-Based Computing Embedded Computing
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Memory management
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management , New Delhi-63, by Parul arora
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Learning Objective
Major responsibility of the operating system To discuss with both organizing and managing memory Real (main) memory first Virtual memory next Memory organization - how memory is structured Memory management - strategies for optimizing performance
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Memory Management
Background Swapping Contiguous Allocation Paging Segmentation Segmentation with Paging
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Background
Program must be brought into memory and placed within a process for it to be run. Input queue collection of processes on the disk that are waiting to be brought into memory to run the program. User programs go through several steps before being run.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Logical and physical addresses are the same in compiletime and load-time address-binding schemes; logical (virtual) and physical addresses differ in execution-time address-binding scheme.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. U1. 35
Memory-Management Unit
Hardware device that maps virtual to physical address. In MMU scheme, the value in the relocation register is added to every address generated by a user process at the time it is sent to memory. The user program deals with logical addresses; it never sees the real physical addresses.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Dynamic Loading
Routine is not loaded until it is called Better memory-space utilization; unused routine is never loaded. Useful when large amounts of code are needed to handle infrequently occurring cases. No special support from the operating system is required implemented through program design.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Dynamic Linking
Linking postponed until execution time. Small piece of code, stub, used to locate the appropriate memory-resident library routine. Stub replaces itself with the address of the routine, and executes the routine. Operating system needed to check if routine is in processes memory address. Dynamic linking is particularly useful for libraries.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Overlays
Keep in memory only those instructions and data that are needed at any given time. Needed when process is larger than amount of memory allocated to it. Implemented by user, no special support needed from operating system, programming design of overlay structure is complex
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Swapping
A process can be swapped temporarily out of memory to a backing store, and then brought back into memory for continued execution. Backing store fast disk large enough to accommodate copies of all memory images for all users; must provide direct access to these memory images. Roll out, roll in swapping variant used for priority-based scheduling algorithms; lower-priority process is swapped out so higher-priority process can be loaded and executed. Major part of swap time is transfer time; total transfer time is directly proportional to the amount of memory swapped. Modified versions of swapping are found on many systems, i.e., UNIX, Linux, and Windows.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Contiguous Allocation
Main memory usually into two partitions:
Resident operating system, usually held in low memory with interrupt vector. User processes then held in high memory.
Single-partition allocation
Relocation-register scheme used to protect user processes from each other, and from changing operating-system code and data. Relocation register contains value of smallest physical address; limit register contains range of logical addresses each logical address must be less than the limit register.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Fragmentation
External Fragmentation total memory space exists to satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous. Internal Fragmentation allocated memory may be slightly larger than requested memory; this size difference is memory internal to a partition, but not being used. Reduce external fragmentation by compaction Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory together in one large block. Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic, and is done at execution time. I/O problem
Latch job in memory while it is involved in I/O. Do I/O only into OS buffers.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Paging
Logical address space of a process can be noncontiguous; process is allocated physical memory whenever the latter is available. Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called frames (size is power of 2, between 512 bytes and 8192 bytes). Divide logical memory into blocks of same size called pages. Keep track of all free frames. To run a program of size n pages, need to find n free frames and load program. Set up a page table to translate logical to physical addresses. Internal fragmentation.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Paging Example
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Paging Example
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Free Frames
Before allocation
After allocation
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Associative Memory
Associative memory parallel search
Page # Frame #
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Memory Protection
Memory protection implemented by associating protection bit with each frame. Valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in the page table:
valid indicates that the associated page is in the process logical address space, and is thus a legal page. invalid indicates that the page is not in the process logical address space.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Since the page table is paged, the page number is further divided into: Thus, a logical address is as follows:
pi p2 d 10 10
page offset
12
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Address-Translation Scheme
Address-translation scheme for a two-level 32-bit paging architecture
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Shared Pages
Shared code
One copy of read-only (reentrant) code shared among processes (i.e., text editors, compilers, window systems). Shared code must appear in same location in the logical address space of all processes.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Segmentation
Memory-management scheme that supports user view of memory. A program is a collection of segments. A segment is a logical unit such as: main program, procedure, function, method, object, local variables, global variables, common block, stack, symbol table, arrays
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. U1. 72
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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2 3
user space
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Segmentation Architecture
Logical address consists of a two tuple: <segment-number, offset>, Segment table maps two-dimensional physical addresses; each table entry has:
base contains the starting physical address where the segments reside in memory. limit specifies the length of the segment.
Segment-table base register (STBR) points to the segment tables location in memory. Segment-table length register (STLR) indicates number of segments used by a program segment number s is legal if s < STLR.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Sharing.
shared segments same segment number
Allocation.
first fit/best fit external fragmentation
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. U1. 76
Protection bits associated with segments; code sharing occurs at segment level. Since segments vary in length, memory allocation is a dynamic storage-allocation problem. A segmentation example is shown in the following diagram
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Segmentation Hardware
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Example of Segmentation
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Sharing of Segments
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Virtual memory
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management , New Delhi-63, by Parul arora
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Learning Objectives
Explain the concept of virtual memory and how it is realized in hardware and software. Summarize the principles of virtual memory as applied to caching and paging. Evaluate the trade-offs in terms of memory size (main memory, cache memory, auxiliary memory) and processor speed. Describe the reason for and use of cache memory. Discuss the concept of thrashing, both in terms of the reasons it occurs and the techniques used to recognize and manage the problem.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. U1. 86
Background
Virtual memory separation of user logical memory from physical memory.
Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution. Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical address space. Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes. Allows for more efficient process creation.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Demand Paging
Bring a page into memory only when it is needed.
Less I/O needed Less memory needed Faster response More users
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Valid-Invalid Bit
With each page table entry a validinvalid bit is associated (1 in-memory, 0 not-in-memory) Initially validinvalid Frame #is set to 0 on all entries. but valid-invalid bit 1 Example of a page table snapshot. 1
1 1 0 0 0
page table
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Page Fault
If there is ever a reference to a page, first reference will trap to OS page fault OS looks at another table to decide:
Invalid reference abort. Just not in memory.
Get empty frame. Swap page into frame. Reset tables, validation bit = 1. Restart instruction: Least Recently Used
block move
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Effective Access Time (EAT) EAT = (1 p) x memory access + p (page fault overhead + [swap page out ] + swap page in + restart overhead)
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. U1. 96
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Process Creation
Virtual memory allows other benefits during process creation: Copy-on-Write Memory-Mapped Files
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Copy-on-Write
Copy-on-Write (COW) allows both parent and child processes to initially share the same pages in memory.If either process modifies a shared page, only then is the page copied. COW allows more efficient process creation as only modified pages are copied. Free pages are allocated from a pool of zeroed-out pages.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Memory-Mapped Files
Memory-mapped file I/O allows file I/O to be treated as routine memory access by mapping a disk block to a page in memory. A file is initially read using demand paging. A page-sized portion of the file is read from the file system into a physical page. Subsequent reads/writes to/from the file are treated as ordinary memory accesses. Simplifies file access by treating file I/O through memory rather than read() write() system calls. Also allows several processes to map the same file allowing the pages in memory to be shared. U1.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Page Replacement
Prevent over-allocation of memory by modifying pagefault service routine to include page replacement. Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page transfers only modified pages are written to disk. Page replacement completes separation between logical memory and physical memory large virtual memory can be provided on a smaller physical memory.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Page Replacement
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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4 frames
2 3 4
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Optimal Algorithm
Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time. 4 frames example 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
1 2 3 4 5 4 6 page faults
How do you know this? Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. U1. 112
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Counter implementation
Every page entry has a counter; every time page is referenced through this entry, copy the clock into the counter. When a page needs to be changed, look at the counters to determine which are to change.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Second chance
Need reference bit. Clock replacement. If page to be replaced (in clock order) has reference bit = 1. then:
set reference bit 0. leave page in memory. replace next page (in clock order), subject to same Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. rules.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Counting Algorithms
Keep a counter of the number of references that have been made to each page. LFU Algorithm: replaces page with smallest count. MFU Algorithm: based on the argument that the page with the smallest count was probably just brought in and has yet to be used.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Allocation of Frames
Each process needs minimum number of pages. Example: IBM 370 6 pages to handle SS MOVE instruction:
instruction is 6 bytes, might span 2 pages. 2 pages to handle from. 2 pages to handle to.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Fixed Allocation
Equal allocation e.g., if 100 frames and 5 processes, give each 20 pages. Proportional allocation Allocate according to the size of process.
si = size of process pi S = si m = total number of frames s ai = allocation for pi = i m S m = 64 si = 10 s2 = 127 10 64 5 137 127 a2 = 64 59 137 a1 =
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. U1. 122
Priority Allocation
Use a proportional allocation scheme using priorities rather than size. If process Pi generates a page fault,
select for replacement one of its frames. select for replacement a frame from a process with lower priority number.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Thrashing
If a process does not have enough pages, the page-fault rate is very high. This leads to:
low CPU utilization. operating system thinks that it needs to increase the degree of multiprogramming. another process added to the system.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Thrashing
Why does thrashing occur? size of locality > total memory size
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. U1. 126
Working-Set Model
working-set window a fixed number of page references Example: 10,000 instruction WSSi (working set of Process Pi) = total number of pages referenced in the most recent (varies in time)
if too small will not encompass entire locality. if too large will encompass several localities. if = will encompass entire program.
D = WSSi total demand frames if D > m Thrashing Policy if D > m, then suspend one of the processes.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Working-set model
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Why is this not completely accurate? Improvement = 10 bits and interrupt every 1000 time units.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Other Considerations
Prepaging Page size selection
fragmentation table size I/O overhead locality
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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Conclusion
Operating systems provide an environment for development and execution of programs. Multiprogramming increased the performance of computer system. Memory management algorithms differ in many concepts. Virtual memory allows extremely large processes to be run,and also allows degree of multiprogramming to be raised. Virtual memory frees application programers from worrying about memory availability
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Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
Summary
In the introduction, we saw that software can be roughly divided into two groups: application software and system software. Operating systems are a type of system software that allow applications to interface with computer hardware. Four major categories of operating systems are batch, timesharing, personal computing and dedicated. Resources are any objects that can be allocated within a system, and the operating system is responsible for managing them. Some resources such as primary memory can be space-multiplexed while other resources such as the CPU must be time-multiplexed.
Virtual Memory allows systems to execute programs which exceed the size of primary memory by dividing programs into sections called pages which can be loaded into sections of memory called page frames. Policies for determining which pages to load and remove from memory include Random Replacement, First In First Out, Second Chance, Least Recently Used, and Least Frequently U1. Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora. 136 Used.
a) b) c) d)
is not loaded until it is called. All routines are kept on disk in a relocatable load format. The main program is loaded into memory & is executed. This type of loading is called _________ Static loading Dynamic loading Dynamic linking Overlays
8. The principle of locality of reference justifies the use of ________. a) Virtual Memory b) Interrupts c) Main memory d) Cache memory
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Recommended reading
Silbersachatz and Galvin, Operating System Concepts Peason,6th Ed.,2001 Madnick E., Donovan J., Operating System: TMH, 2001 "Operating Systems Tannenbaum PHI, 4th Edition, 2000
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management,, New Delhi-63, by Parul Arora.
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