This article was downloaded by: [University of Jammu] On: 25 January 2012, At: 02:03 Publisher: Routledge Informa

Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wttm20

Impression Management and the Hospitality Service Encounter

Luz Manzur & Giri Jogaratnam
a b a b

Hotel and Restaurant Management, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI, 48197, USA

Hotel and Restaurant Management, Eastern Michigan University, 202 Roosevelt, Ypsilanti, MI, 48197, USA Available online: 21 Sep 2008

To cite this article: Luz Manzur & Giri Jogaratnam (2007): Impression Management and the Hospitality Service Encounter, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 20:3-4, 21-32 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J073v20n03_02

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

Impression Management and the Hospitality Service Encounter: Cross-Cultural Differences

Luz Manzur Giri Jogaratnam

Downloaded by [University of Jammu] at 02:03 25 January 2012

ABSTRACT. Managers, marketers, and employees in the hotel and restaurant industry that are aware of the needs of people from different cultures will be able to better direct their efforts at product development, provide better guest services, and thereby offer a means of developing competitive advantage. This study determined cross-cultural differences in customer perceptions of employee behavior, intentions to return, and tipping between Americans and Asians living in the United States. The study was based on several impression management dimensions (ingratiation, intimidation, self-promotion, exemplification, supplication, and non-verbal behaviors). The results suggest that behaviors associated with ingratiation and exemplification techniques were perceived as being more satisfying for American than Asian respondents. Behaviors demonstrative of intimidation and supplication techniques were perceived as very dissatisfying for Americans. doi:10.1300/J073v20n03_02
[Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: <docdelivery@haworthpress.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com> 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Employee behavior, impressions, customer satisfaction, cultural differences

INTRODUCTION With the increase in global breadth and scope of the hospitality and tourism industry, it is important to understand the differences in multicultural market needs and the servicing of those needs (Kandampully, Mok, & Sparks, 2001). Since any interaction between customers and employees affects customers perception of the quality of service (Woods & King, 2002), it is important to know if there are variations in how people from different cultures perceive employee behavior. In intercultural

communication it is easy to misinterpret other peoples ideas. Such things as the dynamics of turn-taking, the use of space, eye contact, and smiling, among others, can be misinterpreted (Victor, 1992). Cultural variations in values, norms, and customs may lead to cultural misunderstandings and instances of communication breakdown that are stressful and unpleasant (Spencer-Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). In addition, this may create an unhappy customer, a frustrated employee, and a loss of business for the organization. During cross-cultural encounters employees in the hospitality industry

Luz Manzur is a Graduate Student in Hotel and Restaurant Management, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197 USA (E-mail: gaby_manzur@yahoo.com). Giri Jogaratnam is Professor, Hotel and Restaurant Management, Eastern Michigan University, 202 Roosevelt, Ypsilanti, MI 48197 USA (E-mail: giri.jogaratnam@ emich.edu). Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, Vol. 20(3/4) 2006 Available online at http://jttm.haworthpress.com 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J073v20n03_02

21

22

JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING

with higher levels of intercultural sensitivity will provide higher levels of service (Sizoo, Iskat, Plank, & Serrie, 2003). As it pertains to the hospitality industry, Woods (2002, p. 172) notes that Employees may know how to perform the skills associated with their positions, but far too often do not know how to deliver the services. To be more competitive, organizations and their employees must communicate impressions that consistently meet or exceed customer expectations (Woods & King, 2002). Moreover, studies have shown that customers impressions differ based on culture (Giacalone & Beard, 1994). By understanding how customers from different cultures perceive employee behavior during service encounters, managers can create awareness and appreciation of diversity, helping them develop better communication and training techniques that ultimately deliver superior customer satisfaction and service quality. Hospitality employees that are aware of their customers perceptions will be able to serve them better and meet or exceed their expectations (Woods & King). Knowledge of cultural differences and similarities enhances our ability to manage the impression others have of us (Pacquiao, 2000, p. 6). Although service exporting has become an increasingly important component of the international trade package, and while hotel and restaurant companies are at the forefront of this trend, there is little evidence of comparative research to understand how consumers from different countries evaluate service encounters (Winsted, 1997). The objective of this research is to explore differences in the behaviors that consumers from different countries use to evaluate service encounters. In doing so, this study examines behaviors commonly associated with the a priori defined dimensions of impression management (ingratiation, intimidation, self-promotion, exemplification, supplication, and non-verbal behaviors). These dimensions have been widely studied in many disciplines (Rosenfeld, Giacalone, & Riordan, 2002), but there is no evidence in the literature of any study that examines how customers from different cultures perceive employees that use impression management techniques as part of their behavioral repertoire in the hospitality service encounter. Moreover, previous

studies related to service behaviors associated with the service encounter (e.g., Liljander & Mattsson, 2002) have used other dimensions (e.g., concern, civility and congeniality). This study attempts to determine if there are cultural differences in customer perceptions of employee behavior, as well as related factors such as intention to return, and tipping between Americans and Asians living in the United States. The research questions that guide this study are as follows: How do Americans and Asian nationals living in the United States perceive employee behavior during service encounters in the hospitality industry? What are the differences between these cultures? When employees demonstrate behavior that is associated with good customer service, what are Americans and Asian nationals intentions to return and intentions to tip? What are the differences between these cultures? LITERATURE REVIEW Todays hotel and restaurant customers have more options for spending their money, have better defined expectations of quality, and are less tolerant of poor service (Woods & King, 2002). Therefore it is important to deliver superior levels of service, because once the service is delivered, customers perceptions are difficult to change (Mattsson, 1994). Customers perceptions of the service provided are determined by their expectations. If the service experienced meets customer expectations, customers will be satisfied (Kandampully et al., 2001). To be more competitive, organizations must communicate impressions that consistently meet or exceed customer expectations (Woods & King). Those who believe they can succeed in communicating the impressions they want to convey will succeed more often than those who are less confident (DePaulo, 1992). The quality of service and the customers satisfaction with the service are determined during the service encounter. Interactions between employees and customers create customer experiences with the service. It is during

Downloaded by [University of Jammu] at 02:03 25 January 2012

Luz Manzur and Giri Jogaratnam

23

these experiences that customers perceive and evaluate the employees skills, motivations, and attitudes toward them (Kandampully et al., 2001). Ostrowski, OBrien, and Gordon (as cited in Kandampully et al.) suggested that employees must know how to satisfy customers so that they may be able to develop positive perceptions of the service. In most service interactions the behavior of customers is influenced by their perception of the service provider (Folkes & Patrick, 2003). Moreover, the organizational service climate and the customers behavior may influence the tactics employed by service providers (Yagil, 2001). The service providers emotions also may affect the customers status and self-esteem. Usually, the expression of positive emotions support and enhance the customers self-esteem, while the expression of negative emotions serve to decrease the customers status and self-esteem (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). Because all interactions between customers and employees affect customers perception of the quality of service (Woods & King, 2002), it is important to know if there are variations in how people from different cultures perceive employee behavior. How do customers from different cultural backgrounds perceive employees that manifest competence, concern, enthusiasm, integrity, steadiness and happiness? Very little information is known about the dynamics of person to person encounters (Mattsson, 1994), and very little information has been reported on service perception of consumers from other countries (Kandampully et al., 2001). Service exporters (i.e., hospitality companies) that better understand the perceptions of other cultures are therefore better positioned to reduce miscommunication, misperception, misinterpretation and misevaluation during the service encounter. This is very important especially to hotel and restaurant companies operating internationally, and many companies that have not paid adequate attention to cultural differences have failed miserably. The popular press is replete with examples of companies that have miscalculated in their attempts to address the needs of customers from different cultures. For example, when KFC first entered the Asian market in 1973 it failed because of the lack of understanding that market (Kandampully et al.).

Everyone manages the impressions they want to convey to others (Tedeschi, 1981). When people influence the perceptions and behaviors of others by controlling the information others receive, they are managing their impressions (Rosenfeld et al., 2002). First impressions are very important. Hospitality firms almost never have a second chance to make a good first impression because a customers first experience with an organization is difficult to forget (Knutson, 1988). In the hospitality industry, customers make their overall impressions of the property and the employees in the first ten minutes (Michael, 1995). Because customer exposure in the hospitality industry is short, the time employees have to make an impression on customers is also short (Kandampully et al., 2001). Although everybody manages their impressions, there are some cultures in which this occurrence is less or more prevalent (Rosenfeld et al.). If different cultures perceptions of the behaviors associated with the hospitality service encounter are significantly different, this may provide a strong argument for improving and therefore managing the impressions that employees convey to consumers from different cultures. The a priori dimensions of impression management (IM) on which this study is based are ingratiation, intimidation, self-promotion, exemplification, supplication, and non-verbal behaviors. These dimensions are founded in theory and have been consistently identified in previous research relating to impression management in different disciplines (Rosenfeld et al., 2002). However, there is no evidence of research having examined impression management techniques in the hospitality services context. The following sections present a brief overview of the characteristics associated with each dimension. Ingratiation. Employees may use ingratiation techniques to get others to like, reward and view them favorably (Rosenfeld et al., 2002). In general, in high power distance cultures such as those found in Asian countries (Hofstede, 2001), employees are more likely to adopt ingratiation techniques than in low power distance cultures (Zaidman & Drory, 2001) such as the United States (Hofstede). Other studies indicate that Asian tourists tend to travel in groups where everything is ar-

Downloaded by [University of Jammu] at 02:03 25 January 2012

24

JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING

ranged for them, making them less likely to seek individual attention from hotel or restaurant employees (Kandampully et al., 2001). Moreover, studies have shown that when employees use ingratiation techniques, customers satisfaction with the quality of the service may be increased (Yagil, 2001). Intimidation. Service personnel that adopt intimidating behavior attempt to create and enhance an identity of being dangerous and tough, like to be feared, and feel superior to others (Rosenfeld et al., 2002). In general, individuals who use intimidation techniques are likely to be seen less favorably by others (Bolino & Turnley, 2003). Research studies indicate that when people respond to dominant individuals with submissive behaviors there is greater comfort and liking and when dominant individuals meet with dominant people there is less liking between them and the interaction is less comfortable (Tiedens & Fragale, 2003). In addition, studies have found that the Japanese are more conforming than Americans (Matsumoto, 2000). Alternatively, it is interesting to note that Asian cultures are very concerned with saving face and intimidation techniques may cause loss of face. Face saving is the act of preserving ones prestige or outward dignity (Victor, 1992, p. 159). According to Victor, Americans tend to place less value on face-saving while the Japanese are the highest face-saving culture. Self-Promotion. Employees that value recognition and want to be seen as smart, competent, effective, intelligent, and successful are more likely to adopt self promotion techniques (Rosenfeld et al., 2002). In general, individuals who use self-promotion techniques make positive impressions on others (Bolino & Turnley, 2003). In the service encounter, competent service can contribute to positive feelings, but its absence can contribute to negative feelings about the service encounter (Price, Arnould, & Deibler, 1995). Some employees may use small talk to promote themselves. In monochromic cultures (those that dominate the conception of time such as in the United States), small talk and building interpersonal relations in the workplace are not considered important as they are in polychronic cultures (i.e., southern and western Asia) (Victor, 1992). In addition, members of high context

cultures, such as Japan, China and Korea, are less likely to enter into communication with strangers or those they do not know well in contrast to members of low context cultures, such as the United States (Victor). Moreover, high masculinity cultures, like Japan and the United States, search for more recognition than low masculinity cultures like Korea. A masculine society focuses more on assertiveness, ambition and competition (Hofstede, 2001). Exemplification. According to Jones and Pittman (1982) exemplification involves managing the impressions of integrity, self-sacrifice, and moral worthiness. Exemplifiers try to appear dedicated and committed, and will volunteer for difficult assignments, suffer to help others, and go beyond the call of duty (Rosenfeld, Giacalone, & Riordan, 1995). Individuals who use exemplification techniques usually make positive impressions on others (Bolino & Turnley, 2003). Exemplification techniques are more likely to be used in low power distance cultures, like the United States, where organizations have more decentralized decision structures, and subordinates are empowered to make decisions (Hofstede, 2001). Moreover, when exemplification techniques are used by male employees in masculine cultures, they may be perceived as critical since it is very important for males to appear competent and serve as role models (Hofstede). Supplication. The supplicator employee exploits his or her own weaknesses to influence others with the purpose of soliciting assistance from them (Rosenfeld et al., 2002). When employees try to look bad in an organization they are displaying supplication techniques. Becker and Martin (1995) suggested that people may look bad at work by decreasing performance, not working to potential, withdrawal, displaying a bad attitude, and broadcasting limitations. Supplication techniques are more likely to be seen less favorably by others (Bolino & Turnley, 2003). Hofstede (2001) suggests that in high uncertainty avoidance cultures (some Asian and Latin cultures) there is a tendency to avoid competition among employees and to prefer group decisions and consultative management. Many Asian cultures place a premium on being a part of a group instead of standing out or being

Downloaded by [University of Jammu] at 02:03 25 January 2012

Luz Manzur and Giri Jogaratnam

25

identified as the leader (Victor, 1992). The emphasis is on group, as opposed to, individual achievement. Non-Verbal Behaviors. Non-verbal messages that customers receive from service employees can have more potent effects than those employees verbal messages (Lynn, Le, & Sherwyn, 1998). For instance, in Asian cultures, facial expressions, nodding of the head, the use of hands or fingers, and body posture can be important components of the message or, indeed constitute the message itself (Jafari & Way, 1994, p. 77). Non-verbal behaviors have different meanings in different cultures (Victor, 1992) and may affect our expectations about others (Hart & Morry, 1996). For example, in several Asian cultures, direct eye contact is seen as insulting and they may avoid it as a sign of respect (Victor). However, in the Unites States, service providers use frequent eye contact to enhance customers perceptions of credibility (Sundaram & Webster, 2000). Moreover, smiles for Americans may mean friendship or agreement (Woods & King, 2002), while smiles for Asians may mean many things like happiness, fear, humiliation, anger or apology (Murray, 1997). Customer Satisfaction and Repurchase Intention. Research has established a strong relationship between customer perceptions of service quality, customer satisfaction, and repurchase intention (Kandampully et al., 2001). Companies should always aim to have their employees provide memorable services to their customers in order to increase their satisfaction (Walsh, 2000). Organizations should take special note of service encounters because they are the customers main source of information for conclusions related to satisfaction, quality and service differentiation (Shostack, 1985). Since customers from diverse cultures are likely to have different perceptions and expectations of the service provided, their level of satisfaction may also differ. For example, a study conducted in three Hong Kong hotels demonstrated that customers from five countries had different expectations of the service (Kandampully et al.). Intentions to Tip. Some studies demonstrate a positive relationship between evaluations of service and tip size (Lynn & McCall, 2000).

Downloaded by [University of Jammu] at 02:03 25 January 2012

Other studies show that employees who briefly touch the customers in the service encounter increase customer satisfaction and receive larger tips (Lynn, 1996). However, employees should be aware that not all cultures like to be touched, such as some Asian cultures (Victor, 1992). Furthermore, research suggests that one way servers can increase their tips is by kneeling down next to tables. Doing this increases the congruence between the servers and customers postures, facilitates eye contact, and brings the servers face closer to the customers faces (Lynn, 1996, p. 26). It is also important to note that different countries have different gratuity systems. For example, in some Asian countries tipping is not very common as in the United States, and tips are smaller. Further, in many Asian countries, good service is given without any expectation of a tip (Murray, 1997). METHODOLOGY Data were gathered for this study using a survey questionnaire. A total of 85 Americans, and 250 Asians completed the questionnaire in the departure lounge area at a major international airport in the Great Lakes area of the USA (i.e., Detroit). To increase the random nature of the sample, every 3rd Caucasian or Asian individual was approached and asked to complete the survey. However, not every person thus approached agreed to complete the survey. Asian respondents were identified by country of origin and based on the number of responses received three countries were chosen for further analysis: China (n = 63), Japan (n = 55), and Korea (n = 85). A total of 47 surveys from other Asian respondents were discarded from this study because they were from seven other Asian nations, and the number of respondents was not large enough for between group analysis. Asian individuals were chosen over other cultures because of the great cultural contrast they present compared to Americans, making them ideal to analyze their perceptions of employee behavior in the United States. In this study, Asians surveyed were those temporarily residing in the United States for purposes of

26

JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING

education or work. Temporarily was defined as being an expatriate or non-citizen. This was to ensure that they retained cultural values inherent to their home countries and were not completely assimilated into the American value system. Previous literature on the dimensions of impression management was reviewed and an average of three to five behavioral items per dimension were developed. Although impression management has been extensively researched in other disciplines, especially Human Resources, there is no evidence of questionnaire items having been developed with respect to the hospitality service encounter. Therefore it was necessary to develop items that dealt specifically with the hotel or restaurant service encounter, as opposed to adapting existing items. The survey instrument was pretested among a group of 20 domestic/American students and 18 international students in order to determine if the questions were clear and unambiguous. Their suggestions were used to refine and improve the clarity of items. No changes were made in the content of the question. Respondents were asked to recall a recent visit to a hotel or restaurant and to report level of satisfaction with statements regarding 25 different behaviors associated with the service encounter. Data related to the study was collected using a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = very dissatisfied, 5 = very satisfied). Because demographic characteristics may influence the variables being considered, data pertaining to demographics (gender, age, nationality, country, years living in the United States, and level of education) was also collected. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION The data were analyzed to determine the differences between American and Asian respondents in their perceptions of employee behavior. The results reported pertain to behaviors associated with the a priori dimensions of IM. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) followed by post hoc analysis (Tukey B) was used to compare the differences for each significant variable. Results were considered significant at the five percent

level (p < 0.05). The results of the MANOVA procedure indicated that customer perceptions differed depending on nationality (F (72, 756) = 4.953, p < 0.001). Follow-up univariate tests revealed significant differences in 21 of 25 items examined. As shown in Table 1, over half (52.4%) of the respondents were male. On average, Asian respondents were younger than American respondents. Most Americans were between 18-35 years of age and most Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans were 26-35 years of age. Asian respondents were citizens / nationals of other countries and temporarily resident in the United States. The average time living in the United States for the Chinese was approximately 3-4 years, for the Japanese between 1-2 years, and for the Koreans between 1-2 years. Graduate education was the highest formal education attained by the respondents: (29.4%) of Americans, (49.2%) of Chinese, (43.6%) of Japanese, and (63.5%) of Koreans. Ingratiation. In general, ingratiation techniques adopted by employees were satisfying for American and Asian respondents. This was similar to Yagils (2001) findings which demonstrated that ingratiating behavior employed by service providers toward customers increases their satisfaction. Significant differences were found with respect to one of the three items representing this dimension (see Table 2). When employees presented a caring attitude, American respondents were the most satisfied (x = 4.34; sd 0.09) followed by the Chinese (x = 4.06; sd 0.10). The Japanese (x = 3.91; sd 0.11) and Korean respondents (x = 3.96; sd 0.09) were less satisfied though they were more similar to the Chinese than to the Americans. This finding supports Kandampully et al. (2001), who suggest that Asian tourists are less likely to seek individual attention and caring than Americans do. There were no significant differences with respect to the item pertaining to the adoption of techniques to like, reward and view others favorably as well as that pertaining to receiving compliments from employees. Intimidation. The adoption of intimidating behavior was perceived as very dissatisfying for both American and Asian respondents, supporting Bolino and Turnley (2003) who

Downloaded by [University of Jammu] at 02:03 25 January 2012

Luz Manzur and Giri Jogaratnam

27

TABLE 1. Demographic Profile of Respondents

American (n = 85) GENDER Male Female AGE 18-25 26-35 36 and over TIME LIVING IN THE U.S. Less than 1 year 1-2 years 3-4 years 5 years or more LEVEL OF EDUCATION High school 2 year degree 4 year degree Graduate school 37 48 35 24 26 Chinese (n = 63) 33 30 21 37 5 5 18 17 20 6 3 23 31 Japanese (n = 55) 31 24 9 42 4 12 23 8 8 0 7 24 24 Korean (n = 85) 50 35 17 66 2 17 31 11 19 10 3 18 54 Total (n = 288) 151 137 82 169 37 34 72 36 47 40 26 88 134

N.A.

Downloaded by [University of Jammu] at 02:03 25 January 2012

24 13 23 25

stated that intimidation was more likely to be seen less favorably by others. However, the degree of dissatisfaction among respondents was different. For instance, in terms of pressuring behavior used by employees, the American respondents (x = 1.60; sd 0.10) were the most dissatisfied and the Japanese (x = 2.36; sd 0.12) the least dissatisfied. This may confirm Matsumotos (2000) finding suggesting that the Japanese are more conforming than Americans and may be a possible explanation of why they were not as dissatisfied as the Americans. Moreover, when employees presented a superior attitude, the Americans (x = 1.42; sd 0.11) and Chinese (x = 1.71; sd 0.13) were the most dissatisfied. The least dissatisfied were the Korean (x = 1.89; sd 0.11) and Japanese respondents (x = 2.06; sd 0.14). There was not a significant difference among cultures in relation to not presenting a flexible attitude. Self-Promotion. On average, the respondents were satisfied with self-promoting techniques. These results are in support of Bolino and Turnley (2003) who suggested that self-promotion techniques make a positive impression on others. The Korean respondents (x = 2.89; sd 0.08) were the most satisfied with self-promoting behavior while there were no significant differences among American (x = 2.41; sd 0.08), Chinese (x = 2.58; sd 0.09) and Japanese (x = 2.47; sd 0.10) respondents. Moreover, the Japanese (x = 3.28; sd 0.12) and Koreans (x = 3.12; sd 0.09) were the most sat-

isfied with employee efforts at small talk, while the American (x = 2.51; sd 0.09) and Chinese respondents (x = 2.81; sd 0.11) were less satisfied. Nonetheless, the Chinese were more similar to the Koreans, and the Koreans to the Japanese than Americans, making Americans the least satisfied with employee efforts at small talk. This result may be supported by Victors (1992) research suggesting that in monochromic cultures, such as the United States, small talk and building interpersonal relations are not considered important. In relation to self-advertising behavior, the Japanese (x = 2.38; sd 0.10) and American respondents (x = 2.57; sd 0.08) were the least satisfied, while the Korean (x = 2.78; sd 0.08) and Chinese respondents (x = 2.82; sd 0.09) were a little more satisfied. Exemplification. Exemplification techniques used by employees elicited positive impressions from customers backing up the Bolino and Turnley (2003) finding that those individuals who use exemplification techniques usually make positive impressions on others. Specifically, with respect to taking extra time to help customers understand, American respondents (x = 4.66; sd 0.07) were the most satisfied followed by the Chinese (x = 4.42; sd 0.09). The Japanese (x = 4.26; sd 0.09) and Koreans (4.32; sd 0.08) were less satisfied, being more similar to the Chinese than the Americans. This may be because in the United States (a low power distance culture), employees are em-

28

JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING

TABLE 2. Perceptions of Employee Behavior, Intentions to Return, and Tipping

Multiple comparison post hoc test (Tukey B)* American (n = 85) How do I feel when employees: (Ingratiation) use techniques to get others to like, reward and view them favorably? show a caring attitude (i.e., asking me if I had a nice stay)? compliment me (i.e., telling me my clothes look good)? (Intimidation) look for ways to apply pressure on me? have a superior attitude (i.e., not willing to explain a basic function)? are not flexible (i.e., in changing me to a less noisy room)? (Self-promotion) engage in behavior that is self-promoting? make small talk focused on making themselves look good? behave in order to make themselves look good? (Exemplification) take extra time to help me understand? volunteer to help me (i.e., taking my bags to my room even if they are small)? go beyond the call of duty (i.e., telling me about the best restaurants in town)? (Supplication) look for ways to get my sympathy? exhibit the impression of being over-worked? are unable to complete the task at hand and are forced to seek help from others? (Non-verbal behavior) use non-verbal means of communication (nodding of the head)? maintain eye contact with me? touch me on the hand/shoulder when asking me if I need something else? kneel beside me to take my order in a restaurant? smile frequently? Word-of-Mouth Intention to return Intention to tip Motivation to increase tip 3.41a 4.24a 2.67a 2.84a 4.45a 4.43a 4.51a 4.28a 4.37a 3.37a 3.50bc 2.35ab 2.66a 3.97b 3.77b 3.97b 3.81b 3.56b 3.38a 3.19c 2.32ab 2.92a 3.92b 3.77b 4.09b 3.58b 3.57b 2.84b 3.72b 2.21b 3.40b 4.12b 4.02b 4.15b 3.84b 3.74b 2.01a 2.31ab 2.71 2.58b 2.37ab 2.61 2.83b 2.13a 2.47 2.68b 2.56b 2.46 4.66a 4.25a 4.52a 4.42ab 3.85b 4.13b 4.26b 3.66b 3.70c 4.32b 3.66b 3.62c 1.60a 1.42a 1.64 2.41a 2.51a 2.57ab 1.92ab 1.71ab 1.92 2.58a 2.81ab 2.82b 2.36c 2.06b 1.94 2.47a 3.28c 2.38a 2.06bc 1.89b 2.02 2.89b 3.12bc 2.78b 2.92 4.34a 3.43 3.10 4.06ab 3.45 3.19 3.91b 3.26 3.23 3.96b 3.38 Chinese (n = 63) Japanese (n = 55) Korean (n = 85)

Downloaded by [University of Jammu] at 02:03 25 January 2012

* Means with a different superscripted letter (a, b, c) are significantly different at the 0.05 level 5-point scale: 5 = very satisfied, 1 = very dissatisfied.

powered to make decisions (Hofstede, 2001) and American customers may perceive this more favorably. Another possible explanation is that it may be difficult for employees to understand the requests or concerns of individuals for whom English is not their first language, and as such, their requests may not have been completely satisfied. When respondents were asked how they perceive employees who volunteer to help them, Americans were the most satisfied, followed closely by the respondents from the three Asian countries. Americans were

also the most satisfied with actions that went beyond the call of duty (x = 4.52; sd 0.10) followed by the Chinese (x = 4.13; sd 0.12) and then by the Japanese (x = 3.70; sd 0.13) and Korean respondents (x = 3.62; 0.10). Supplication. In general, supplication techniques were viewed as dissatisfying by all respondents. This is similar to Bolino and Turnleys (2003) research findings which suggest that supplication is more likely to be seen less favorably by others. For instance, when employees look for ways to get the sympathy

Luz Manzur and Giri Jogaratnam

29

of customers, American respondents were the most dissatisfied (x = 2.01; sd 0.10). Asian respondents were also dissatisfied (x = 2.70), but were more neutral in their response to this item. In addition, efforts to convey an impression of being overworked were more likely to elicit a negative response from Japanese (x = 2.13; sd 0.11), followed by American (x = 2.31; sd 0.09), Chinese (x = 2.37; sd 0.10) and Korean respondents (x = 2.56; sd 0.09). Finally, there was no significant difference in the items relating to being unable to complete the task at hand and being forced to seek help from others, among the four nationalities. Non-Verbal Behavior. The use of nonverbal means of communication was perceived to be generally satisfying. Americans were the most satisfied (x = 3.41; sd 0.08), followed by the Japanese (x = 3.38; sd 0.10), the Chinese (x = 3.37; sd 0.09), and finally by the Koreans (x = 2.84; sd 0.08), who were the least satisfied. One possible explanation of why Asians in general were less satisfied with non-verbal behavior may be that they are living outside their home country and may not understand all the non-verbal behaviors or cues of employees representing a different cultural background. Specifically, the American respondents were more satisfied when employees maintained eye contact (x = 4.24; sd 0.09) than the Asian respondents. This reinforces Sundaram and Webster (2000) who noted that in the United States frequent eye contact enhances customers perceptions of credibility. The Japanese respondents (x = 3.19; sd 0.11) followed by the Chinese (x = 3.50; sd 0.10) and the Koreans (x = 3.72; sd 0.09) were more similar in their ratings of this item, and somewhat less satisfied. Moreover, American respondents were more likely to be satisfied with employees physical contact (x = 2.67, sd 0.11), while the Chinese (x = 2.35; sd 0.12), Japanese (x = 2.32; sd 0.13), and Koreans were (x = 2.21; sd 0.11) were more likely to be dissatisfied. This confirms Victors (1995) position suggesting that those from Asian cultures do not like to be touched. The kneeling position used to take orders in certain restaurants was generally not very satisfying for American (x = 2.84; sd 0.11), Chinese (x = 2.66; sd 0.12), and Japanese respondents (x = 2.92; sd 0.13) but was perceived as more satisfying for the Koreans (x = 3.40;

sd 0.11). This may be partially explained by the traditional Korean custom of adopting a kneeling position in service encounters such as that evident, for instance, in the behavior of flight attendants on Korean Airlines, the national carrier of Korea. Frequent smiles were perceived to be more satisfying by American respondents (x = 4.45; sd 0.08) than Asian respondents (average mean 4.00). This supports DePaulo (1992) who suggested that smiles create positive impressions in Americans, while a smile may mean many things for Asians (Murray, 1997). However, in general, Asians were satisfied when employees smiled frequently. Satisfaction, Intention to Return, and Tipping Four questions relating to general satisfaction with the service, intentions to return and tipping were assessed using a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). For all items there was a significant difference between American and Asian respondents (see Table 2). When employees demonstrate behavior that is associated with good customer service, American respondents said they were more likely to spread positive word-of-mouth about that place (x = 4.43) compared to Asian respondents (average mean 3.85). Americans were also more likely to return to the same place when good service was delivered (x = 4.51), when compared to Asian respondents (average mean 4.07). Moreover, in relation to tipping, American respondents were more likely to tip when good service was delivered (x = 4.28), in comparison to Asian respondents (average mean 3.74). Further, Americans motivation to increase the amount of their tip was greater (x = 4.37) than the motivation of Asian respondents (average mean 3.62). This may be partially attributed to cultural differences because in some Asian countries tipping is not very common, and tips are smaller (Murray, 1997). SUMMARY OF FINDINGS Statistically significant differences were found in 21 of 25 variables analyzed. Despite the cultural differences, behaviors associated

Downloaded by [University of Jammu] at 02:03 25 January 2012

30

JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING

Downloaded by [University of Jammu] at 02:03 25 January 2012

with ingratiation and exemplification techniques were perceived as satisfying, while intimidation and supplication techniques were perceived as dissatisfying, and self-promotion techniques were perceived as neither satisfying nor dissatisfying. In general, American respondents were more satisfied than Asian respondents with ingratiation and exemplification techniques used by employees. Similarly, American respondents were, in general, more dissatisfied than Asian respondents with intimidation and supplication techniques used by employees. Moreover, when employees demonstrated behaviors that were associated with good customer service, American respondents agreed that they would be more likely to tell a friend, return to the same place, and be motivated to increase the amount of the tip, in comparison to Asian respondents. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that managers, marketers, and employees alike, should be aware of cultural differences so they are better positioned to improve how they present the hospitality product, manage employee impressions in relation to guests, and create better perceptions of service delivery efforts. IMPLICATIONS The findings of this study suggest that managers of hotel and restaurant operations should continuously encourage their employees to adopt behaviors associated with ingratiation techniques. This may consist of adopting behaviors that represent a caring attitude or handing out compliments. It is also important for employees to be aware that too much ingratiation can be overwhelming for some customers, and that compliments that are not perceived as sincere may not be credible to customers. In presenting the hospitality product and interacting with customers, it is also important to understand that certain non-verbal behaviors can increase customer satisfaction and that some of these behaviors may differ based on culture. For example, employees should smile frequently because smiles create positive impressions, no matter their customers cultural background. Employees should also

be taught that other non-verbal behaviors like maintaining eye contact may be very satisfying for Americans, but a little less satisfying for some Asians. Being aware of this can help employees manage better the impressions they seek to project. Also, special attention should be placed on making physical contact and adopting the kneeling position during service encounters. In general, this study demonstrated that not all customers appreciate employees making physical contact with them or kneeling to take their order in a restaurant. Front line employees should be more analytical of and sensitive to their customer needs and tastes and be able to determine if certain behaviors are not well received. In addition, managers should continually discuss the importance and impact of non-verbal behaviors with their employees. Hospitality companies, especially those involved in service exporting, should also provide mandatory multicultural training programs for employees in order for them to learn more about the non-verbal behaviors of other cultures. Furthermore, hospitality organizations should discourage their employees from demonstrating behavior associated with intimidation techniques, such as adopting high pressure sales techniques, adopting a superior attitude, or not being flexible. Hospitality businesses must also avoid demonstrations of supplication techniques by their employees, such as exhibiting the impression of being overworked, or seeking help from others. They should consider that Americans can be more dissatisfied than Asians with this type of behavior. Managers can attend to this by carefully observing their employees, introducing continuous improvement programs, giving continuous feedback and making available training for those employees that lack the necessary skills and behavioral techniques. Furthermore, when planning training programs, hospitality firms should consider that when employees demonstrate behavior that is associated with good customer service, Americans are more likely to create positive word-ofmouth, return, and increase their tips when compared to Asians. However, employees should be aware that this may be due more to a cultural tendency rather than being related to

Luz Manzur and Giri Jogaratnam

31

Downloaded by [University of Jammu] at 02:03 25 January 2012

customer satisfaction and employees should therefore be encouraged to treat all customers without prejudice. From a marketing perspective, it is important to understand and study the distinctive consumer behavior patterns of market segments in order to recognize expectations and thereby improve upon marketing efforts at developing and packaging the overall hospitality product. The rapid expansion of service exporting within the hospitality industry and the concomitant diversity of the international marketplace dictates that marketers re-evaluate expectations surrounding the service encounter from the cultural perspective of the markets served. Although the findings of this study are not entirely surprising, this study confirms that customers with different cultural backgrounds do evaluate service encounters differently. Hospitality marketers and managers should therefore be able to adapt, and if necessary, customize the packaging of the hospitality product and especially the service encounter to meet the cultural expectations of the customers served. LIMITATIONS Several limitations of this study should be mentioned. The greatest of these limitations was the geographically focused nature of the study that prevents the results from being generalized beyond the range represented by this sample. An unequal number of respondents did not allow symmetric comparison between the respondents of different countries. In addition, the results of this study may not apply to the hospitality industry in other cities where the number and proportion of expatriate Asians living in the United States may be different. Moreover, due to the lack of time and the difficulty of finding Asian respondents willing to answer the survey, the research does not pertain to a single service site (i.e., a particular restaurant). This reduces the control of a potential confounding variable that may influence perceptions of the service encounter.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Further research needs to be undertaken in order to be able to generalize the results of this study. Research that replicates the study in other locations with a bigger sample will help confirm the validity of these findings. The study can also be conducted with respondents from other countries living in the United States to improve the hospitality industrys knowledge of cultural differences. It would also be interesting to replicate the study in other countries to determine if there are any differences between those foreign country nationals living in the United States and those living in their country of origin thereby controlling for the effects of acculturation or assimilation. Moreover, efforts to fully explore, generate, and validate a more complete set of behaviors associated with hospitality service encounters based upon the dimensions of impression management would no doubt be of benefit to students and practitioners of services management, and especially hospitality management. REFERENCES
Becker, T., & Martin, S. (1995). Trying to look bad at work: Methods and motives for managing poor impressions in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 38(1), 174-199. Bolino, M., & Turnley, W. (2003). More than one way to make an impression: Exploring profiles of impression management. Journal of Management, 29(2), 141-160. DePaulo, B. (1992). Nonverbal behavior and self-presentation. Psychological Bulletin, 111(2), 203-243. Folkes, V., & Patrick, V. (2003). The positivity effect in perceptions of services: Seen one, seen them all? Journal of Consumer Research, 30(1), 125-137. Giacalone, R., & Beard, J. (1994). Impression management, diversity, and international management. American Behavioral Scientist, 37(5), 621-636. Hart, A., & Morry, M. (1996). Nonverbal behavior, race, and attitude attributions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32(2), 165-179. Hofstede, G. (2001). Cultures consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Jafari, J., & Way, W. (1994). Multicultural strategies in tourism. Cornell Hotel & Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 35(6), 72-79.

32

JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING

Jones, E., & Pittman, T. (1982). Toward a general theory of strategic self-presentation. In J. Sulus (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self (pp. 231-262). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kandampully, J., Mok, C., & Sparks, B. (2001). Service quality management in hospitality, tourism, and leisure. Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Hospitality Press. Knutson, B. (1988). Ten laws of customer satisfaction. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 29(3), 14-17. Liljander, V., & Mattsson, J. (2002). Impact of customer preconsumption mood on the evaluation of employee behavior in service encounters. Psychology & Marketing, 19(10), 837-861. Lustig, M. W., & Koester, J. (1999). Intercultural competence: Interpersonal communication across cultures (3rd ed.). New York: Longman. Lynn, M. (1996). Seven ways to increase servers tips. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 37(3), 24-29. Lynn, M., Le, J., & Sherwyn, D. (1998). Reach out and touch your customers. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 39(3), 60-65. Lynn, M., & McCall, M. (2000). Gratitude and gratuity: A meta-analysis of research on the service-tipping relationship. Journal of Socio-Economics, 29(2), 203-214. Matsumoto, D. (2000). Culture and psychology: People around the world (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning. Mattsson, J. (1994). Improving service quality in person to person encounters: Integrating findings from a multi-disciplinary review. The Service Industries Journal, 14(1), 45-61. Michael, A. (1995). Best impressions in hospitality: Your professional image for excellence. Manassas Park, VA: Impact Publications. Murray, M. (1997). Put your best foot forward Asia: A fearless guide to international communication and behavior. St. Paul, MN: International Education Systems. Pacquiao, D. (2000). Impression management: An alternative to assertiveness in intercultural communication. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 11(1), 5-6. Price, L., Arnould, E., & Deibler, S. (1995). Consumers emotional responses to service encounters: The influence of the service provider. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 6(3), 34-63. Rafaeli, A., & Sutton, R. (1987). Expression of emotions as part of the work role. Academy of Management Review, 12(1), 23-37. Rosenfeld, P., Giacalone, R., & Riordan, C. (1995). Impression management in organizations: Theory, measurement, practice. London: Routledge. Rosenfeld, P., Giacalone, R., & Riordan, C. (2002). Impression management: Building and enhancing reputations at work. London: Thomson Learning.

Shostack, G. L. (1985). Planning the service encounter. In J. A. Czepiel, M. R. Solomon, & C. F. Surprenant (Eds.), The service encounter: Managing employee/ customer interaction in service businesses (pp. 243-254). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Sizoo, S., Iskat, W., Plank, R., & Serrie, H. (2003). Cross-cultural service encounters in the hospitality industry and the effect of intercultural sensitivity on employee performance. International Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Administration, 4(2), 61-77. Spencer-Rodgers, J., & McGovern, T. (2002). Attitudes toward the culturally different: The role of intercultural communication barriers, affective responses, consensual stereotypes, and perceived threat. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 26(6), 609-631. Sundaram, D. S., & Webster, C. (2000). The role of nonverbal communication in service encounters. Journal of Services Marketing, 14(5), 378-389. Tedeschi, J. (1981). Impression management theory and social psychological research. New York: Academic Press. Tiedens, L., & Fragale, A. (2003). Power moves: Complementarity in dominant and submissive nonverbal behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(3), 558-568. Victor, D. (1992). International business communication. New York: HarperCollins. Walsh, K. (2000). A service conundrum: Can outstanding service be too good? The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 41(5), 40-50. Winsted, K. F. (1997). The service experience in two cultures: A behavioral perspective. Journal of Retailing, 73(3), 337-360. Woods, R. H. (2002). Managing hospitality human resources. East Lansing, MI: American Hotel & Lodging Association. Woods, R. H., & King, J. Z. (2002). Leadership and management in the hospitality industry (2nd ed.). East Lansing, MI: American Hotel & Lodging Association. Yagil, D. (2001). Ingratiation and assertiveness in the service provider-customer dyad. Journal of Service Research, 3(4), 345-353. Zaidman, N., & Drory, A. (2001). Upward impression management in the work place cross-cultural analysis. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25(6), 671-690.

Downloaded by [University of Jammu] at 02:03 25 January 2012

SUBMITTED: August 23, 2004 FIRST REVISION SUBMITTED: May 24, 2005 FINAL REVISION SUBMITTED: November 9, 2005 ACCEPTED: November 16, 2005 REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY

doi:10.1300/J073v20n03_02