A gurukul (Sanskrit guru "teacher" or "master"; kul domain, from kula, "extended family") is a type of school in India, residential

in nature, with shishyas living in proximity to the guru, often within the same house.[1] In a gurukul, shishyas reside together as equals, irrespective of their social standing, learn from the guru and help the guru in his day-to-day life, including the carrying out of mundane chores such as washing clothes, cooking, etc. The guru-shishya tradition (parampara) is a hallowed tradition in Hinduism and appears in other religious groups in India, such as Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. Typically, a guru does not receive fees from a shishyas studying with him. At the end of his studies, a shishya offers the guru dakshina before leaving the ashram. The gurudakshina is a traditional gesture of acknowledgment, respect and thanks, which may be monetary, but may also be a special task the teacher wants the student to accomplish.

History
Gurukulas have existed since the Vedic age. Upanishads mention many gurukulas, including that of Yajnavalkya, Varuni and so on. Brigu Valli, the famous discourse on Brahman, is mentioned to have taken place in Guru Varuni's gurukul. Vedic school of thought prescribes an initiation (Upanayanam) to all individuals, including women, before the age of 8 or latest by 12. From initiation until the age of 25 all individuals are prescribed to be students and to remain unmarried. The gurukuls were supported by public donation and support of the administration. This was followed by the many following Vedic thoughts making gurukul one of the earliest forms of public school offices. By the colonial era the gurukul system was declining in India except in a few regions, such as Kerala, where the warrior Nair clan and their own military gurukulas, called Kalaris, still maintained the tradition.[citation needed] [edit]Developments Recently several gurukulas have begun, driven both by a desire to uphold the traditions and monetary gain. Examples of these new schools are the Ananda Marga Gurukula,[2] It is not a religious school in the Hindu tradition but rather a secular academic institution based on universal spiritual principles. Vivekananda College near Madurai is an NAAC accredited `A' grade autonomous college that is run under a Gurukula system.[3] In India and other parts of the world, gurukul [4] is becoming a synonym for Swaminarayan Gurukul, a socio-spiritual, nonprofit organization with over 14 branches and centers, head branch at Gurukul Rajkot. The Bhaktivedanta Gurukula and Internation School, founded in 1977, is a gurukul located in Vrindavan, India. The school cultivates a cultural and vedic lifestyle while providing a high

school degree from the ICSE board. In Mayapur (West Bengal, India) an ISKCON gurukul project, which has been in operation since the 70's, is rejuvenating the ancient gurukul system and providing students with a system of traditional education and values. In Andhra Pradesh, the first attempt of expanding the Gurukul tradition was made at Shree Swaminarayan Gurukul Hyderabad by Sadguru Shri Devprasaddasji Swami.

Education
With its plurality and paradoxes, India never ceases to fascinate. And education in India is only one among various other elements that have captured the attention of the world. While the United Nations is worried about the presence of a large number of illiterates, various other countries are amazed by the quality of some of the human resources that the Indian education system has produced. The growth of the Indian economy in the recent forcing the Indian government to accelerate the Indian education system. Therefore, it would be various structures of education in India, its present past and the compulsion to sustain it is also process of developing all the branches of the very interesting to understand and analyze the condition and future developments.

Historical Background:
The Vedas, Puranas, Ayurveda,Yoga, Kautilya's Arthasahtra are only some of the milestones that the traditional Indian knowledge system boasts of. There are evidences of imparting formal education in ancient India under the Gurukulsystem. Under the Gurukul system, young boys who were passing through theBrahmacharya stage of life had to stay at the Guru or the teacher's home and complete their education. Although the ancient system of education has produced many geniuses and still a major area of research, it was hardly egalitarian. Women and people of lower castes gradually lost their right to educate themselves. The spread of Jainism, Buddhism, Bhakti and Sufi movements did have some liberating effects on the condition of the women, sudras and atisudras. But it is the English language and the reformation movements of the 19th century that had the most liberating effect in preindependent India. Thus, the Britishers, although rightly criticized for devastating the Indian economy, can also be credited for bringing a revolution in the Indian education system.

Present Condition of Education in India:

Soon after gaining independence in 1947, making education available to all had become a priority for the government. As discrimination on the basis of caste and gender has been a major impediment in the healthy development of the Indian society, they have been made unlawful by the Indian constitution. The 86th constitutional amendment has also made elementary education a fundamental right for the children between the age group- 6 to 14. According to the 2001 census, the total literacy rate in India is 65.38%. The female literacy rate is only 54.16%. The gap between rural and urban literacy rate is also very significant in India. This is evident from the fact that only 59.4% of rural population are literate as against 80. 3% urban population according to the 2001 census. In order to develop the higher education system, the government had established the University Grants Commission in 1953. The primary role of UGC has been to regulate the standard and spread of higher education in India. There has been a marked progress in the expansion of higher education if we look at the increase of higher educational institutes in India. The highereducation system in India comprise of more than17000 colleges, 20 central universities, 217 State Universities, 106

Deemed to Universities and 13 institutes of Natioanl importance. This number will soon inflate as the setting up of 30 more central universities, 8 new IITs, 7 IIMs and 5 new Indian Institutes of Science are now proposed.

Education System in India:

The present education system in India mainly comprises of primary education, secondary education, senior secondary education and higher education. Elementary education consists of eight years of education. Each of secondary and senior secondary education consists of two years of education. Higher education in India starts after passing the higher secondary education or the 12th standard. Depending on the stream, doing graduation in India can take three to five years. Post graduate courses are generally of two to three years of duration. After completing post graduation, scope for doing research in various educational institutes also remains open.

Prominent Educational Institutes in India:

There are quite a good number of educational institutes in India that can compete with the best educational institutes of the world. The Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), Indian Institutes of Science, National Law Schools, Jawaharlal Nehru University are some such institutes.

Education for the Marginalized in India:

As education is the means for bringing socio- economic transformation in a society, various measures are being taken to enhance the access of education to the marginalized sections of the society. One such measure is the introduction of the reservation system in the institutes of higher education. Under the present law, 7.5% seats in the higher educational institutes are reserved for the scheduled tribes, 15% for scheduled castes and 27% for the non creamy layers of the Other Backward Classes (OBCs). Under the Indian constitution, various minority groups can also set up their own educational institutes. Efforts are also being taken to improve the access to higher education among the women of India by setting up various educational institutes exclusively for them or reserving seats in the already existing institutes. The growing acceptance of distance learning courses and expansion of the open university system is also contributing a lot in the democratization of higher education in India. Conclusion: Despite all the efforts to develop the education system in India, access, equity and quality of education in India continue to haunt the policy makers till this date. This has mainly been due to the widespread poverty and various prejudices. The inability to check the drop out rates among the marginalized sections of the population is another cause of worry. However, the renewed emphasis in the education sector in the 11th five year plan and increased expenditure in both primary and higher education can act as palliatives for the Indian education system.

EDUCATION
In ancient India, the Gurukul system of education was followed where an overall knowledge was imparted to the student who is to be away from home for most of his educative years. It was a residential type of education with total submission to the Guru or teacher.

The Indian system of education is one of the best in the world, despite its high illiteracy rate. Education in India is very disciplined with physical education also getting equal importance. Indians are noted for their scientific and mathematical skills even from ancient times. Aryabhatta and Bhaskara, Ramanujam etc were great Indians who brought credit to the Indian system of education. Later with foreign invasions, alien culture swept India and many were forced to go out of the country to get a decent education, as the educational system was in shambles. Nehru, Gandhi and many Indians had to get educated from outside India. With the withdrawal of the foreign forces and the introduction of English into India by Lord Maculay, Indian educational system rose up like a Phoenix. There are around 1000,000 schools in the country with around 600, 000 dedicated for Primary Education alone. The literacy rate is around 60 %, which is far greater when compared to the rate, a decade earlier. But in general men have a high literacy rate, as most of the village women are yet to come out of their veils of ignorance. The State of Kerala boasts of cent percent literacy rate while some like Bihar are way back with a literacy rate of around 40% only.

Gurukul system of Education

In the last decade, science and technology studies have caught the fancy of the Indians who earlier took to law and finance. Armed with such degrees they are a prey to many foreign firms. This brain drain is now stemmed to some extent by competent pays and perks in India. Studying at home at the grace of the World Wide Web or Net is now slowing catching up in India, and this trend is likely to dominate the Indian culture in the near future.

History India has a long history of organized education. The Gurukul system of education is one of the oldest on earth but before that the guru shishya system was extant, in which students were taught orally and the data would be passed from one generation to the next. Gurukuls were traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery. Education was free (and often limited to the higher castes), but students from well-to-do families payed Gurudakshina, a voluntary contribution after the completion of their studies. At the Gurukuls, the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, Philosophy, Literature, Warfare, Statecraft, Medicine Astrology and "History" ("Itihaas" actually mythology). Only students belonging to

Brahmin and Kshatriya communities were taught in these Gurukuls. However, the advent of Buddhism and Jainism brought fundamental changes in access to education with their democratic character. The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of higher education at Nalanda, Takshashila University, Ujjain, & Vikramshila Universities. Art, Architecture, Painting, Logic, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, Buddhism, Hinduism, Arthashastra (Economics & Politics), Law, and Medicine were among the subjects taught and each university specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed up to 10,000 students at its peak. British records show that education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students representative of all classes of society. Traditional structures were not recognized by the British government and have been on the decline since. Gandhi is said to have described the traditional educational system as

a beautiful tree that was destroyed during the British rule. But scholars have questioned the validity of such an argument. The village pathshalas were often housed in shabby dwellings and taught by ill-qualified teachers. Instruction was limited mainly to the three Rs and the native mahajanilzamindari accounts. Printed books were not used, and most writing was done on palm leaf, plantain leaf, or on sand. There was no fixed class routine, timetable, or school calendar. There was no annual examination, pupils being promoted whenever the guru was satisfied of the scholar's attainments. There were no desks, benches,blackboards, or fixed seating arrangements. The decline probably started in the mid- 1700s. By the 1820s neither the village schools nor the tols or madrasas were the vital centers of learning. In 1823, Raja Rammohan Roy wrote to the governor-general, Lord Amherst, requesting that he not spend government funds on starting a Sanskrit College in Calcutta but rather employ "European Gentlemen of talent and education to instruct the natives of India in Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Anatomy and other useful sciences."The current system of education, with its western style and content, was introduced & founded by the British in the 20th century, following recommendations by Macaulay. Up to the 17th century The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of higher

education at Nalanda, Takshila, Ujjain, & Vikramshila Universities. Art, Architecture, Painting, Logic, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, Buddhism, Hinduism, Arthashastra (Economics & Politics), Law, and Medicine were among the subjects taught and each university specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed up to 10,000 students at its peak.this is Education under British Rule British records show that indigenous education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students representative of all classes of society. But scholars have questioned the validity of such an argument. They argue that proponents of indigenous education fail to recognize the importance of the widespread use of printed books in the West since the sixteenth century, which led to a remarkable advancement of knowledge. Printed books were not used in Indian schools till the 1820s or even later. There were institutions such

as Gresham's college in London that encouraged scientific learning. In fact, there were a number of such academic and scientific societies in England, often supported by Puritan and non-Conformist merchants, the like of which probably did not exist in India. The entire claim of indigenous education proponents is based on the thesis advocated by Dharampal which says that there was a general decline in Indian society and economy with the coming of British rule. In the process, indigenous education suffered. This, however, is too broad a generalization, and the exact impact of British rule on different regions at different times has to be studied more carefully before we conclude that the curve everywhere steadily declined. He argues that pre-British schools and colleges were maintained by grants of revenue-free land. The East India Company, with its policy of maximizing land revenue, stopped this and thus starved the Indian education system of its financial resources. Again, we need more detailed evidence to show how far inam lands were taken over by the government. More often, military officers, zamindar.~,and talukdars were deprived of revenue-free land rather than temples, mosques, madrasas. Recent research has revealed that inam lands continued to exist well into the nineteenth century, much more than was previously suspected.The current system of education, with its western style and content, was introduced &

funded by the British in the 19th century, following recommendations by Macaulay. Traditional structures were not recognized by the British government and have been on the decline since. Gandhi is said to have described the traditional educational system as a beautiful tree that was destroyed during British rule. The British established many colleges like St. Xavier's College [disambiguation needed] , Sydenham College, Wilson College and Elphinstone College in India. According to Prof. Emeritus M.G. Sahadevan, F.R.C.P. (London), the first medical college of Kerala was started at Calicut, in 1942-43, during World War II. Due to shortage of doctors to serve the military, the British Government decided to open a branch of Madras Medical College in Malabar, which was under Madras Presidency then. After the war, the medical school at Calicut was closed and the students continued their studies at Madras Medical College. After Independence After independence, education became the responsibility of the states. The Central Government's only obligation was to co-ordinate in technical and higher education and specify standards. This continued till 1976, when the education became a joint responsibility of the state and the Centre.

Education Commission The Education Commission under the Chairmanship of Dr. D. S. Kothari, the then Chairman, University Grants Commission, began its task on October 2,1964. It consisted of sixteen members, eleven being Indians and five foreign experts. In addition, the Commission had the benefit of discussion with a number of internationally known as consultants in the educational as well as scientific field----. After 1976 In 1976, education was made a joint responsibility of the states and the Centre, through a constitutional amendment. The center is represented by Ministry of Human Resource Development's Department of Education and together with the states, it is jointly responsible for the formulation of education policy and planning. NPE 1986 and revised PoA 1992 envisioned that free and compulsory education should be provided for all children up to 14 years of age before the commencement of 21st century. Government of India made a commitment that by 2000, 6% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) will be spent on education, out of which half would be spent on the Primary education.The 86th Amendment of the Indian constitution makes education a fundamental right for all children aged 6-14 years. The access to preschool education for children under 6 years of age was excluded from the provisions, and the supporting legislation has not

yet been passed. In November 1998, Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee announced setting up of Vidya Vahini Network to link up universities, UGC and CSIR. Recent developments The Indian Education System is generally marks-based. However, some experiments have been made to do away with the marks-based system which has led to cases of depression and suicides among students. In 2005, the Kerala government introduced a grades-based system in the hope that it will help students to move away from the cutthroat competition and rote-learning and will be able to focus on creative aspects and personality development as well. iDiscoveri education started by Alumni of Harvard, XLRI is a pioneer in this field. This organization has already developed 5 model schools. Outdoor Education in India Outdoor education is relatively new to schools in India, though it is quite well established abroad. Acceptance is slowly increasing with a few schools advocating outbound adventure based programmes among students, to enhance personal growth through experiential learning and increase awareness about various subjects like the environment, ecology, wildlife, history, archaeology, geography and adventure sports. Some organisations that currently offer such programmes for schools are OETS and

Wide Aware in Mumbai.Youreka& Ozonewho offer open summer programs based out of Delhi in north and Bangalore in South. Expenditure on Education in India The Government expenditure on Education has greatly increased since the First fiveyear plan. The Government of India has highly subsidized higher education. Nearly 97% of the Central Government expenditure on elementary education goes towards the payment of teachers' salaries. Non-Formal Education In 1979-80, the Government of India, Department of Education launched a program of Non-Formal Education (NFE) for children of 6-14 years age group, who cannot join regular schools. These children include school drop-outs, working children, children from areas without easy access to schools etc. The initial focus of the scheme was on ten educationally backward states. Later, it was extended to urban slums as well as hilly, tribal and desert areas in other states. The program is now functional in 25 states/UTs. 100% assistance is given to voluntary organizations for running NFE centers. Bal Bhavans Bal Bhavans centers, which are operational all over India, aim to enhance creative and sports skills of children in the age group 5-16 years. There are various State and District Bal Bhavans, which conduct programs in fine-arts, aeromodeling, computer-education,

sports, martial arts, performing arts etc. They are also equipped with libraries with books for children. New Delhi alone has 52 Bal Bhavan centers. The National Bal Bhavan is an autonomous institution under the Department of Education. It provides general guidance, training facility and transfer of information to State and District Bal Bhavans situated all over India. Distance education India has a large number of Distance education programmes in Undergraduate and Post-Graduate levels. The trend was started originally by private institutions that offered distance education at certificate and diploma level. By 1985 many of the larger Universities recognized the need and potential of distance education in a poor and populous country like India and launched degree level programs through distance education. The trend caught up, and today many prestigious Indian Universities offer distance programs. Indira Gandhi National University, one of the largest in student enrollment, has only distance programs with numerous local centers that offer supplementary contact classes. Education for special sections of society Women Under Non-Formal Education programme, about 40% of the centers in states and 10% of

the centers in UTs are exclusively for girls. As of 2000, about 0.3 million NFE centers were catering to about 7.42 million children, out of which about 0.12 million were exclusively for girls. In engineering, medical and other colleges, 30% of the seats have been reserved for women. SC/STs and OBCs The Government has reserved seats for SC/STs in all areas of education. Special scholarships and other incentives are provided for SC/ST candidates. Many State Governments have completely waived fees for SC/ST students. The IITs have a special coaching program for the SC/ST candidates who fail in the entrance exams marginally. Seats have been reserved for candidates belonging to Other Backward Classes as well in some states like Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The struggle for reserving seats for students from OBC categories in elite institutions like IITs, IIMs and AIIMS and Central Universities is still going on. The Supreme Court of India is obstructing this reservation for the reason that there has been no caste-wise census since 1931 and the population share of OBCs cannot be based on 1931 census. The Department for the Welfare of SC/ST/OBC/Minorities introduced the SC/ST tuition-fee reimbursement scheme in 2003-2004. The scheme applies to SC and ST students of Delhi who are

enrolled in recognized unaided private schools and who have an annual family income of less than Rs. 1 lakh. It provides a 100% reimbursement of the tuition fees, sports fee, science fee, lab fee, admission fee and the co-curricular fee if the student's family income falls below Rs. 48, 000 per annum and a reimbursement of 75% if the family income is greater than Rs. 48, 000 per annum but less than Rs. 1 lakh. The subsidy provided by the scheme covers between 85% and 90% of the beneficiary's total running expenses in studying in a private school. Post Graduate Classes at Correctional Homes The Government of West Bengal has started the Post Graduate teaching facilities for the convicts at the Correctional Homes in West Bengal. The first of its kind has already started at Alipore Central Correctional Home, Kolkata where Utthan Paul, a life convict is pursuing his Post Graduation in Political Science from Netaji Subhas Open University. Dr. Imankalyan Lahiri , Lecturer in Political Science of Netaji Subhas Open University is taking his classes. Criticism of Indian Education System Modern education in India is often criticized for being based on rote learning. Emphasis is laid on passing examinations with high percentage. Very few institutes give importance to developing personality and creativity among students. Recently, the

country has seen a rise in instances of student suicides due to low marks and failures, especially in metropolitan cities, even though such cases are very rare. The presence of a number of education boards (SSLC, ICSE, CBSE, IB) leads to nonuniformity. ICSE and CBSE boards, are sometimes favorably considered at the time of admission, although it cannot be said with certainty that their syllabuses are harder. A large number of SSLC (State board) students therefore complain that their ICSE and CBSE counterparts are given an advantage during college admissions, which are extremely competitive and sought for. Most colleges though account for these differences during admissions. The syllabi prescribed by the various boards are accused of being archaic and some textbooks (mostly ones written for the SSC) contain many errors.The boards are recently trying to improve quality of education by increasing percentage of practical and project marks. However, critics say even this is memorized by students (or even plagiarized). This is attributed to pressure from parents who are eager to see high scores more than overall development. Many people also criticize the caste, language and religion-based reservations in education system. Many allege that very few of the weaker castes get the benefit of reservations and that forged caste certificates abound. Educational institutions also can

seek religious minority (non-Hindu) or linguistic minority status. In such institutions, 50% of the seats are reserved for students belonging to a particular religion or having particular mother-tongue(s). For example, many colleges run by the Jesuits and Salesians have 50% seats reserved for Roman Catholics. In case of languages, an institution can declare itself linguistic minority only in states in which the language is not official language. For example, an engineering college can declare itself as linguistic-minority (Hindi) institution in the state of Maharashtra (where official state language is Marathi), but not in Madhya Pradesh or Uttar Pradesh (where the official state language is Hindi). These reservations are said to be a cause of heartbreak among many. Many students with poor marks manage to get admissions, while meritorious students are left out. Critics say that such reservations may eventually create rifts in the society. The general corruption prevalent in India is also an issue in the Education system. Engineering, medical and other lucrative seats are sometimes sold for high prices and ridden with nepotism and power-play. Student politics is also a major issue, as many institutions are run by politicians. Ragging used to be a major problem in colleges, but tough rules and regulations have curbed it. Some state governments have made ragging a criminal offence.

Chronology of main events 1935: Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) set up. 1976: Education made a joint responsibility of the states and the Centre. 1986: National Policy on Education (NPE) and Programme of Action (PoA) 1992: Revised National Policy on Education (NPE) and Programme of Action (PoA) December 17, 1998: The Assam Government enacts a law making ragging in educational institutions a criminal offence. November 1998: Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee announces setting up of Vidya Vahini Network to link up universities, UGC and CSIR. September 2006: Education Reforms In India See also Literacy in India Labour India Educational Research Centre Speech on Education in India by Keshub Chandra Sen delivered at London on 24th May 1870. Asian Academy Of Film & Television Ancient India. The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Education in the Eighteenth Century by Dharampal (Biblia Impex, Delhi, 1983) Marie Lall, The Challenges for India's Education System, Chatham House: London,

2005 (ASP BP 05/03) Meenakshi Jain et al. (2003) History in the New NCERT Textbooks Fallacies in the IHC Report, National Council of Educational Research and Training,

Education in India is mainly provided by the public sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: federal, state, and local. Child education is compulsory. The Nalanda University was the oldest university-system of education in the world. Western education became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the British Raj. Thus India lost its native educational system. Education in India falls under the control of both the Union Government and the states, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy for others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a fundamental right. Most universities in India are Union or State Government controlled. India has made a huge progress in terms of increasing primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately two thirds of the population.[2] India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to the economic rise of India.
[3]

Much of the progress in education has been credited to various private institutions.[4] The

private education market in India is estimated to be worth $40 billion in 2008 and will increase to $68 billion by 2012.[4] However, India continues to face stern challenges. Despite growing investment in education, 35% of its population is still illiterate; only 15% of Indian students reach high school, and just 7% graduate.[5] As of 2008, India's post-secondary high schools offer only enough seats for 7% of India's college-age population, 25% of teaching positions nationwide are vacant, and 57% of college professors lack either a master's or PhD degree.[6] As of 2007, there are 1522 degree-granting engineering colleges in India with an annual student intake of 582,000,[7] plus 1,244 polytechnics with an annual intake of 265,000. However, these institutions face shortage of faculty and concerns have been raised over the quality of education.[8] [edit]History Monastic orders of education under the supervision of a guru was a favored form of education for the nobility in ancient India.[9] The knowledge in these orders was often related to the tasks

a section of the society had to perform.[10] The priest class, the Brahmins, were imparted knowledge of religion, philosophy, and other ancillary branches while the warrior class, theKshatriya, were trained in the various aspects of warfare.[10] The business class, the Vaishya, were taught their trade and the lowered class of the Shudras was generally deprived of educational advantages.[10] The book of laws, the Manusmriti, and the treatise on statecraft the Arthashastra were among the influential works of this era which reflect the outlook and understanding of the world at the time.[10] Apart from the monastic orders, institutions of higher learning] and universities flourished in India well before the common era, and continued to deliver education into the common era.
[11]

Secular Buddhist institutions cropped up along with monasteries.[10] These institutions

imparted practical education, e.g. medicine.[10] A number of urban learning centres became increasingly visible from the period between 200 BCE to 400 CE.[12] The important urban centres of learning were Taxila and Nalanda, among others.[12] These institutions systematically imparted knowledge and attracted a number of foreign students to study topics such as logic, grammar, medicine, metaphysics, arts and crafts.[12] By the time of the visit of the Islamic scholar Alberuni (973-1048 CE), India already had a sophisticated system of mathematics and science in place, and had made a number ofinventions and discoveries.[13] With the arrival of the British Raj in India a class of Westernized elite was versed in the Western system of education which the British had introduced.[14] This system soon became solidified in India as a number of primary, secondary, and tertiary centres for education cropped up during the colonial era.[14] Between 1867 and 1941 the British increased the percentage of the population in Primary and Secondary Education from around 0.6% of the population in 1867 to over 3.5% of the population in 1941. However this was much lower than the equivalent figures for Europe where in 1911 between 8 and 18% of the population were in Primary and Secondary education.[15] Additionally literacy was also improved. In 1901 the literacy rate in India was only about 5% though by Independence it was nearly 20%.[16] Following independence in 1947, Maulana Azad, India's first education minister envisaged strong central government control over education throughout the country, with a uniform educational system.[17] However, given the cultural and linguistic diversity of India, it was only the higher education dealing with science and technology that came under the jurisdiction of the central government.[17] The government also held powers to make national policies for educational development and could regulate selected aspects of education throughout India.
[18]

The central government of India formulated the National Policy on Education (NPE) in 1986 and also reinforced the Programme of Action (POA) in 1986.[19] The government initiated several measures the launching of DPEP (District Primary Education Programme) and SSA

(Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan,[20] India's initiative for Education for All) and setting up of Navodaya Vidyalaya and other selective schools in every district, advances in female education, interdisciplinary research and establishment of open universities. India's NPE also contains the National System of Education, which ensures some uniformity while taking into account regional education needs. The NPE also stresses on higher spending on education, envisaging a budget of more than 6% of the Gross Domestic Product.[19] While the need for wider reform in the primary and secondary sectors is recognized as an issue, the emphasis is also on the development of science and technology education infrastructure. [edit]Overview

Children lining up for school in Kochi.

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex body for curriculum related matters for school education in India.[21] The NCERT provides support and technical assistance to a number of schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of education policies.[22] In India, the various curriculum bodies governing school education system are:

The state government boards, in which the majority of Indian children are enrolled. The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) board. The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (ICSE) board. The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) board.

 International schools affiliated to the International Baccalaureate Programme and/or the Cambridge International Examinations. Islamic Madrasah schools, whose boards are controlled by local state governments, or autonomous, or affiliated with Darul Uloom Deoband. Autonomous schools like Woodstock School, Auroville, Patha Bhavan and Ananda Marga Gurukula.
In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and Administration)[23] and NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the management of the education system and teacher accreditation.[24] [edit]Primary

education

The Indian government lays emphasis to primary education up to the age of fourteen years (referred to as Elementary Education in India.[25]) The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions.
[25]

However, both free education and the ban on child labour are difficult to enforce due to

economic disparity and social conditions.[25] 80% of all recognized schools at the Elementary Stage are government run or supported, making it the largest provider of education in the Country.[26]

School children, Mumbai

However, due to shortage of resources and lack of political will, this system suffers from massive gaps including high pupil teacher ratios, shortage of infrastructure and poor level of teacher training. Education has also been made free[25] for children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009.[27] There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. The District Education Revitalization Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary

education system.[28]85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15 percent was funded by the states.[28] The DERP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000 alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3.5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes.[28] This primary education scheme has also shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio of 9395% for the last three years in some states.[28]Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a part of this scheme.[28] The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality remain low. [edit]Private education According to current estimates, 80% of all schools are government schools[26] making the government the major provider of education. However, because of poor quality of public education, 27% of Indian children are privately educated.[29] According to some research, private schools often provide superior results at a fraction of the unit cost of government schools.[30][31][32] However, others have suggested that private schools fail to provide education to the poorest families, a selective being only a fifth of the schools and have in the past ignored Court orders for their regulation.[33] In their favour, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire curriculum and offer extra-curricular activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and drama.[29] The pupil teacher ratios are much better in private schools (1:31 to 1:37 for government schools and more teachers in private schools are female.[34] There is some disgreement over which system has better educated teachers. According to the latest DISE survey, the percentage of untrained teachers (paratechers) is 54.91% in private, compared to 44.88% in government schools and only 2.32% teachers in unaided schools receive inservice training compared to 43.44% for government schools. The competition in the school market is intense, yet most schools make profit.[29] Even the poorest often go to private schools despite the fact that government schools are free. A study found that 65% of schoolchildren in Hyderabad's slums attend private schools.[32] Private schools are often operating illegally. A 2001 study found that it takes 14 different licenses from four different authorities to open a private school in New Delhi and could take years if done legally.[32] However, operation of unrecognized schools has been made illegal under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act[27] which has also significantly simplified the process of obtaining recognition.

[edit]Homeschooling Homeschooling is legal in India, though it is the less explored option. The Indian Government's stance on the issue is that parents are free to teach their children at home, if they wish to and have the means. HRD Minister Kapil Sibal has stated that despite the RTE Act of 2009, if someone decides not to send his/her children to school, the government would not interfere.[35] [edit]Secondary

education

The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for environment awareness, science and technology education, and introduction of traditional elements such as Yoga into the Indian secondary school system.[36] Secondary education covers children 14-18 which covers 88.5 million children according to the Census, 2001. However, enrolment figures show that only 31 million of these children were attending schools in 2001-02, which means that two-third of the population remained out of school.[37] A significant feature of India's secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of the society. Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in vocational training. Another feature of India's secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills for finding a vocation of his/her choosing.[38] A significant new feature has been the extension of SSA to secondary education in the form of the Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan[39] A special Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) programme was started in 1974 with a focus on primary education.[21] but which was converted into Inclusive Education at Secondary Stage[40] Another notable special programme, the Kendriya Vidyalaya project, was started for the employees of the central government of India, who are distributed throughout the country. The government started the Kendriya Vidyalaya project in 1965 to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the same pace regardless of the location to which the employee's family has been transferred.[21] A multilingual web portal on Primary Education is available with rich multimedia content for children and forums to discuss on the Educational issues. India Development Gateway [41] is a nation wide initiative that seeks to facilitate rural empowerment through provision of responsive information, products and services in local languages. [edit]Higher

education

Main article: higher education in India

Our university system is, in many parts, in a state of disrepair...In almost half the districts in the country, higher education enrollments are abysmally low, almost two-third of our universities and 90 per cent of our colleges are rated as below average on quality parameters... I am concerned that in many states

university appointments, including that of vice-chancellors, have been politicised and have become subject to caste and communal considerations, there are complaints of favouritism and corruption. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in 2007[42]

Indian Institute of Management,Ahmedabad.

India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United States.[43] The main governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission (India), which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the state.[44] Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions established by the University Grants Commission.[45] As of 2009, India has 20 central universities, 215 state universities, 100 deemed universities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the State Act, and 13 institutes which are of national importance.[44] Other institutions include 16000 colleges, including 1800 exclusive women's colleges, functioning under these universities and institutions.[44] The emphasis in the tertiary level of education lies on science and technology.[46] Indian educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number of technology institutes.[47] Distance learning is also a feature of the Indian higher education system.[47] Some institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), have been globally acclaimed for their standard of education.[47]The IITs enroll about 8000 students annually and the alumni have contributed to both the growth of the private sector and the public sectors of India.[48] However, India has failed to produce world class universities like Harvard or Cambridge.[49] Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive world class education to their pupil, India is also home to many universities which have been founded with the sole objective of making easy money. Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard to extirpate the menace of private universities which are running courses without any affiliation or recognition. Students from rural and semi urban background often fall prey to these institutes and colleges.[50][dead link]

Three Indian universities were listed in the Times Higher Education list of the worlds top 200 universities Indian Institutes of Technology, Indian Institutes of Management, andJawaharlal Nehru University in 2005 and 2006.[51] Six Indian Institutes of Technology and the Birla Institute of Technology and Science - Pilani were listed among the top 20 science and technology schools in Asia by Asiaweek.[52] The Indian School of Business situated in Hyderabad was ranked number 12 in global MBA rankings by the Financial Times of London in 2010[53] while the All India Institute of Medical Sciences has been recognized as a global leader in medical research and treatment.[54] [edit]Technical

education

Main (Administrative) Building, IIT Roorkee

From the first Five Year Plan onwards India's emphasis was to develop a pool of scientifically inclined manpower.[55] India's National Policy on Education (NPE) provisioned for an apex body for regulation and development of higher technical education, which came into being as the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) in 1987 through an act of the Indian parliament.[56] At the level of the centre the Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Information Technology are deemed of national importance.[56] The Indian Institutes of Management are also among the nation's premier education facilities.
[56]

Several Regional Engineering Colleges (REC) have been converted into National Institutes

of Technology.[56] The UGC has inter-university centres at a number of locations throughout India to promote common research, e.g. the Nuclear Science Centre at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.[57] In addition to above institutes, efforts towards the enhancement of technical education are supplemented by a number of recognized Professional Engineering Societies like: (i) the Institution of Engineers (India); (ii) The Institution of Chemical Engineering (India); (iii) The Institution of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineers (India); (iv) The Indian Institute of Metals; (v) The Institution of Industrial Engineers (India); (vi) The Institute of Town Planners (India); (vii) The Indian Institute of Architects,Dnyaneshwar Vidyapeeth etc., who conduct

Engineering/Technical Examinations at different levels(Degree and diploma) for working professionals desirous of improving their technical qualifications [edit]Literacy

Main article: Literacy in India

According to the Census of 2001, "every person above the age of 7 years who can read and write in any language is said to be literate". According to this criterion, the 2001 survey holds the National Literacy Rate to be around 64.84%.[58] Government statistics of 2001 also hold that the rate of increase in literacy is more in rural areas than in urban areas.[58] Female literacy was at a national average of 53.63% whereas the male literacy was 75.26%.[58] Within the Indian states, Kerala has shown the highest literacy rates of 90.02% whereas Biharaveraged lower than 50% literacy, the lowest in India.[58] The 2001 statistics also indicated that the total number of 'absolute non-literates' in the country was 304 million.
[58]

[edit]Attainment World Bank statistics found that fewer than 40 percent of adolescents in India attend secondary schools.[2] The Economist reports that half of 10-year-old rural children could not read at a basic level, over 60% were unable to do division, and half dropped out by the age 14.[30] Only one in ten young people have access to tertiary education.[2] Out of those who receive higher education, Mercer Consulting estimates that only a quarter of graduates are "employable".[59] An optimistic estimate is that only one in five job-seekers in India has ever had any sort of vocational training.[60]

Higher education
As per Report of the Higher education in India, Issues Related to Expansion, Inclusiveness, Quality and Finance,[61] the access to higher education measured in term of gross enrolment ratio increased from 0.7% in 1950/51 to 1.4% in 1960-61. By 2006/7 the GER increased to about 11 percent. By 2012, (the end of 11th plan objective) is to increase it to 15%. [edit]Women's

education

Girls in Kalleda Rural School, Andhra Pradesh.

See also: Women in India

Women have much lower literacy rate than men. Far fewer girls are enrolled in the schools, and many of them drop out.[62] According to a 1998 report by U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief barrier to female education in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary facilities), shortage of female teachers and gender bias in curriculum (majority of the female characters being depicted as weak and helpless).[63] Conservative cultural attitudes, especially among Muslims, prevents some girls from attending school.[64] The number of literate women among the female population of India was between 2-6% from the British Raj onwards to the formation of the Republic of India in 1947.[65] Concerted efforts led to improvement from 15.3% in 1961 to 28.5% in 1981.[65] By 2001 literacy for women had exceeded 50% of the overall female population, though these statistics were still very low compared to world standards and even male literacy within India.[66] Recently the Indian government has launched Saakshar Bharat Mission for Female Literacy. This mission aims to bring down female illiteracy by half of its present level. Sita Anantha Raman outlines the progress of women's education in India:
Since 1947 the Indian government has tried to provide incentives for girls school attendance through programs for midday meals, free books, and uniforms. This welfare

thrust raised primary enrollment between 1951 and 1981. In 1986 the National Policy on Education decided to restructure education in tune with the social framework of each state, and with larger national goals. It emphasized that education was necessary for democracy, and central to the improvement of womens condition. The new policy aimed at social change through revised texts, curricula, increased funding for schools, expansion in the numbers of schools, and policy improvements. Emphasis was placed on expanding girls occupational centers and primary education; secondary and higher education; and rural and urban institutions. The report tried to connect problems like low school attendance with poverty, and the dependence on girls for housework and sibling day care. The National Literacy Mission also worked through female tutors in villages. Although the minimum marriage age is now eighteen for girls, many continue to be married much earlier. Therefore, at the secondary level, female dropout rates are high.[67]

Sita Anantha Raman also maintains that while the educated Indian women workforce maintains professionalism, the men outnumber them in most fields and, in some cases, receive higher income for the same positions.[67] [edit]Rural

education

A primary school in a village in Madhya Pradesh.

Following independence, India viewed education as an effective tool for bringing social change through community development.[68] The administrative control was effectively initiated in the 1950s, when, in 1952, the government grouped villages under a Community Development Blockan authority under national programme which could control education in up to 100 villages.[68] A Block Development Officer oversaw a geographical area of 150 square miles (390 km2) which could contain a population of as many as 70000 people.[68] Setty and Ross elaborate on the role of such programmes, themselves divided further into individual-based, community based, or theIndividual-cum-community-based, in which microscopic levels of development are overseen at village level by an appointed worker:
The community development programmes comprise agriculture, animal husbandry, cooperation, rural industries, rural engineering (consisting of minor irrigation, roads, buildings), health and sanitation including family welfare, family planning, women welfare, child care and nutrition, education including adult education, social education and literacy, youth welfare and community organisation. In each of these areas of

development there are several programmes, schemes and activities which are additive, expanding and tapering off covering the total community, some segments, or specific target populations such as small and marginal farmers, artisans, women and in general people below the poverty line.[68]

Despite some setbacks the rural education programmes continued throughout the 1950s, with support from private institutions.[69] A sizable network of rural education had been established by the time the Gandhigram Rural Institute was established and 5, 200 Community Development Blocks were established in India.[70] Nursery schools, elementary schools, secondary school, and schools for adult education for women were set up.[70] The government continued to view rural education as an agenda that could be relatively free from bureaucratic backlog and general stagnation.[70] However, in some cases lack of financing balanced the gains made by rural education institutes of India.[71] Some ideas failed to find acceptability among India's poor and investments made by the government sometimes yielded little results.[71] Today, government rural schools remain poorly funded and understaffed. Several foundations, such as the Rural Development Foundation(Hyderabad), actively build high-quality rural schools, but the number of students served is small. [edit]Issues [edit]Funding

and infrastructure

One study found out that 25% of public sector teachers and 40% of public sector medical workers were absent during the survey. Among teachers who were paid to teach, absence rates ranged from 15% in Maharashtra to 71% in Bihar. Only 1 in nearly 3000 public school head teachers had ever dismissed a teacher for repeated absence.[72] A study on teachers by Kremer etc. found that 'only about half were teaching, during unannounced visits to a nationally representative sample of government primary schools in India.'.[72] A study of 188 government-run primary schools found that 59% of the schools had no drinking water and 89% had no toilets.[73] 2003-04 data by National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration revealed that only 3.5% of primary schools in Bihar and Chhattisgarh had toilets for girls. In Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh, rates were 12-16%.[74] [edit]Curriculum

issues

Modern education in India is often criticized for being based on rote learning rather than problem solving. BusinessWeek denigrates the Indian curriculum saying it revolves around rote learning.[75] and ExpressIndia suggests that students are focused on cramming.[76]

[edit]Controversy In January 2010, the Government of India decided to withdraw Deemed university status from as many as 44 rations were not being kept in mind by the management of these institutions and that "they were being run as family fiefdoms".[77] Fake degrees are a problem. One raid in Bihar found 100,000 fake certificates.[78] In February 2009, the University Grant Commission found 19 fake institutions operating in India.[79] Only 16% of manufacturers in India offer in-service training to their employees, compared with over 90% in China.[80] [edit]Initiatives

Boys seated in school near Baroda, Gujarat.

The madrasah of Jamia Masjid mosque in Srirangapatna.

Following India's independence a number of rules were formulated for the backward Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes of India, and in 1960 a list identifying 405 Scheduled Castes and 225 Scheduled Tribes was published by the central government.[81] An amendment was made to the list in 1975, which identified 841 Scheduled Castes and 510 Scheduled Tribes.[81] The total percentage of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

combined was found to be 22.5 percent with the Scheduled Castes accounting for 17 percent and the Scheduled Tribes accounting for the remaining 7.5 percent.[81] Following the report many Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes increasingly referred to themselves as Dalit, a Marathi language terminology used by B. R. Ambedkar which literally means "oppressed".
[81]

The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are provided for in many of India's educational programmes.[82] Special reservations are also provided for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in India, e.g. a reservation of 15% in Kendriya Vidyalaya for Scheduled Castes and another reservation of 7.5% in Kendriya Vidyalaya for Scheduled Tribes.
[82]

Similar reservations are held by the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in many

schemes and educational facilities in India.[82] The remote and far-flung regions of North East India are provided for under the Non Lapsible Central pool of Resources (NLCPR) since 1998-1999.[83] The NLCPR aims to provide funds for infrastructure development in these remote areas.[83] The government objective for the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), started in 2001, is to provide education to children between 614 years by 2010.[84] The programme focuses specially on girls and children with challenged social or financial backgrounds.[84] The SSA also aims to provide practical infrastructure and relevant source material in form of free textbooks to children in remote areas.[84] The SSA also aims at widening computer education in rural areas.[84] SSA is currently working with Agastya International Foundation - an educational NGO - to augment its efforts in making science curriculum current and exciting. However, some objectives of the SSA, e.g. enrollment of all children under the scheme in schools by 2005 remain unfulfilled.[84] Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education are components of the SSA.[84] Women from remote, underdeveloped areas or from weaker social groups in Andra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala,Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand, fall under the Mahila Samakhya Scheme, initiated in 1989.[85] Apart from provisions for education this programme also aims to raise awareness by holding meetings and seminars at rural levels.[85] The government allowed 340 million (US$7.4 million) during 200708 to carry out this scheme over 83 districts including more than 21, 000 villages.[85] Currently there are 68 Bal Bhavans and 10 Bal Kendra affiliated to the National Bal Bhavan.
[86]

The scheme involves educational and social activities and recognising children with a

marked talent for a particular educational stream.[86] A number of programmes and activities are held under this scheme, which also involves cultural exchanges and participation in several international forums.[86] India's minorities, especially the ones considered 'educationally backward' by the government, are provided for in the 1992 amendment of the Indian National Policy on

Education (NPE).[87] The government initiated the Scheme of Area Intensive Programme for Educationally Backward Minorities and Scheme of Financial Assistance or Modernisation of Madarsa Education as part of its revised Programme of Action (1992).[87] Both these schemes were started nationwide by 1994.[87] In 2004 the Indian parliament allowed an act which enabled minority education establishments to seek university affiliations if they passed the required norms.[87] [edit]Central [edit]Budget As a part of the tenth Five year Plan (20022007), the central government of India outlined an expenditure of 65.6% of its total education budget of 438.25 billion (US$9.51 billion) i.e.

government involvement

287.5 billion (US$6.24 billion) on elementary education; 9.9% i.e. 43.25 billion (US$938.53 million) on secondary education; 2.9% i.e. 12.5 billion (US$271.25 million) on adult education; 9.5% i.e. 41.765 billion (US$906.3 million) on higher education; 10.7% i.e. billion (US$1.02 billion) on technical education; and the remaining 1.4% i.e. 6.235 billion (US$135.3 million) on miscellaneous education schemes.[88] According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), India has the lowest public expenditure on higher education per student in the world.[89] 47

See also: Education in India Five Year Plan Expenditure

[edit]Public

Expenditure on Education in India

In recent times, several major announcements were made for developing the poor state of affairs in education sector in India, the most notable ones being the National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP) of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government. The announcements are; (a) To progressively increase expenditure on education to around 6 percent of GDP. (b) To support this increase in expenditure on education, and to increase the quality of education, there would be an imposition of an education cess over all central government taxes. (c) To ensure that no one is denied of education due to economic backwardness and poverty. (d) To make right to education a fundamental right for all children in the age group 614 years. (e) To universalize education through its flagship programmes such as Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and Mid Day Meal. However, even after five years of implementation of NCMP, not much progress has been done on these promises or announcements. The public expenditure on education has actually declined from around 3.23 percent of GDP in 2000-2001 to 2.88 percent in the recent times. As a proportion of total government expenditure, it has declined from around 11.1 percent in 2000-2001 to around 9.98 percent during UPA rule. A policy brief issued by [Network for Social Accountability (NSA)][90] titled [NSA Response to Education Sector Interventions in Union Budget: UPA Rule and the Education Sector][91] provides significant revelation to this

fact. Due to a declining priority of education in the public policy paradigm in India, there has been an exponential growth in the private expenditure on education also. [As per the available information, the private out of pocket expenditure by the working class population for the education of their children in India has increased by around 1150 percent or around 12.5 times over the last decade].[92] [edit]Legislative

framework

Article 45, of the Constitution of India originally stated:

This article was a directive principle of state policy within India, effectively meaning that it was within a set of rules that were meant to be followed in spirit and the government could not be held to court if the actual letter was not followed.[93] However, the enforcement of this directive principle became a matter of debate since this principle held obvious emotive and practical value, and was legally the only directive principle within the Indian constitution to have a time limit.[93] Following initiatives by the Supreme Court of India during the 1990s the Ninety-third amendment bill suggested three separate amendments to the Indian constitution:[94]

The constitution of India was amended to include a new article, 21A, which read:

Article 45 was proposed to be substituted by the article which read:

Another article, 51A, was to additionally have the clause:

The bill was passed unanimously in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian parliament, on November 28, 2001.[96] It was later passed by the upper housethe Rajya Sabhaon May 14, 2002.[96] After being signed by the President of India the Indian constitution was amended formally for the eighty sixth time and the bill came into effect.[96] Since then those between the age of 614 have a fundamental right to education.[97] Article 46 of the Constitution of India holds that:

Other provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes can be found in Articles 330, 332, 335, 338342.[58] Both the 5th and the 6th Schedules of the Constitution also make special provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.[58]