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A translation, or translation operator, is an affine transformation of Euclidean space which moves every point by a fixed distance in the same

direction. It can also be interpreted as the addition of a constant vector to every point, or as shifting the origin of the coordinate system. In other words, if v is a fixed vector, then the translation Tv will work as Tv(p) = p + v. Let us have a clear visualization on this. In day to day life we use computers in all fields let us consider this window. This window if maximized to full dimensions of the screen is the reference plane. Imagine one of the corner as the reference point or origin (0, 0). Consider a point P(x, y)in the corresponding plane. Now the axes are shifted from the original axes to a distance (h, k) and this is the corresponding reference axes. Now the origin(previous axes) be (x, y) and the point P be (X, Y) and therefore the equations are X = x h or x = X + h or h = x X and Y = y k or y = Y + k or k = y Y. replacing these values or using these equations in the respective equation we obtain the transformed equation or new reference axes, old reference axes,point lying on the plane.

Reflection
A reflection is a map that transforms an object into its mirror image. For example, a reflection of the small English letter p in respect to a vertical line would look like q. In order to reflect a planar figure one needs the "mirror" to be a line ("axis of reflection"), while for reflections in the three-dimensional space one would use a plane for a mirror. Reflection sometimes is considered as a special case of inversion with infinite radius of the reference circle. Or in easier terms a translation is on coordinate grid you slide the figure over on to another coordinate plane

Glide reflection
A glide reflection is a type of isometry of the Euclidean plane: the combination of a reflection in a line and a translation along that line. Reversing the order of combining gives the same result. Depending on context, we may consider a reflection a special case, where the translation vector is the zero vector.

Rotation
A rotation is a transformation that is performed by "spinning" the object around a fixed point known as the center of rotation. You can rotate your object at any degree measure, but 90 and 180 are two of the most common. Also, rotations are done counterclockwise (Anticlockwise).

Scaling
Uniform scaling is a linear transformation that enlarges or diminishes objects; the scale factor is the same in all directions; it is also called a homothety. The result of uniform scaling is similar (in the geometric sense) to the original. More general is scaling with a separate scale factor for each axis direction; a special case is directional scaling (in one direction). Shapes not aligned with the axes may be subject to shear (see below) as a side effect: although the angles between lines parallel to the axes are preserved, other angles are not.

Shear
Shear is a transform that effectively rotates one axis so that the axes are no longer perpendicular. Under shear, a rectangle becomes a parallelogram, and a circle becomes an ellipse. Even if lines parallel to the axes stay the same length, others do not. As a mapping of the plane, it lies in the class of equi-areal mappings.

In mathematics, a linear map, linear transformation, or linear operator (in some contexts also called linear function) is a function between two vector spaces that preserves the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication. The expression "linear operator" is commonly used for linear maps from a vector space to itself (endomorphisms). Sometimes the definition of linear function coincides with that of linear map, while in analytic geometry it is less strict. In the language of abstract algebra, a linear map is a homomorphism of vector spaces, or in the language of category theory a morphism in K-Vect, the category of vector spaces over a given field K.

Examples of linear transformation matrices


Some special cases of linear transformations of two-dimensional space R2 are illuminating:

rotation by 90 degrees counterclockwise:

rotation by degrees counterclockwise:

reflection against the x axis:

reflection against the y axis:

scaling by 2 in all directions:

horizontal shear mapping:

squeezing:

projection onto the y axis:

In linear algebra, linear transformations can be represented by matrices. If T is a linear transformation mapping Rn to Rm and x is a column vector with n entries, then

for some mn matrix A, called the transformation matrix of T. There is an alternative expression of transformation matrices involving row vectors that is preferred by some authors. Rotation For rotation by an angle counter-clockwise about the origin, the functional form is x' = xcos ysin and y' = xsin + ycos. Written in matrix form, this becomes:

Similarly, for a rotation clockwise about the origin, the functional form is x' = xcos + ysin and y' = xsin + ycos and the matrix form is:

Scaling For scaling (that is, enlarging or shrinking), we have matrix form is: and . The

When Shearing

, then the matrix is a squeeze mapping and preserves areas in the plane.

For shear mapping (visually similar to slanting), there are two possibilities. For a shear parallel to the x axis has x' = x + ky and y' = y; the shear matrix, applied to column vectors, is:

A shear parallel to the y axis has x' = x and y' = y + kx, which has matrix form:

Reflection To reflect a vector about a line that goes through the origin, let direction of the line: be a vector in the

To reflect a point through a plane ax + by + cz = 0 (which goes through the origin), one can use , where is the 3x3 identity matrix and is the threedimensional unit vector for the surface normal of the plane. If the L2 norm of a,b, and c is unity, the transformation matrix can be expressed as:

Note that these are particular cases of a Householder reflection in two and three dimensions. A reflection about a line or plane that does not go through the origin is not a linear transformation; it is an affine transformation. Orthogonal projection To project a vector orthogonally onto a line that goes through the origin, let a vector in the direction of the line. Then use the transformation matrix: be

As with reflections, the orthogonal projection onto a line that does not pass through the origin is an affine, not linear, transformation. Parallel projections are also linear transformations and can be represented simply by a matrix. However, perspective projections are not, and to represent these with a matrix, homogeneous coordinates must be used.

Composing and inverting transformations


One of the main motivations for using matrices to represent linear transformations is that transformations can then be easily composed (combined) and inverted. Composition is accomplished by matrix multiplication. If A and B are the matrices of two linear transformations, then the effect of applying first A and then B to a vector x is given by:

In other words, the matrix of the combined transformation A followed by B is simply the product of the individual matrices. Note that the multiplication is done in the opposite order from the English sentence: the matrix of "A followed by B" is BA, not AB.

A consequence of the ability to compose transformations by multiplying their matrices is that transformations can also be inverted by simply inverting their matrices. So, A-1 represents the transformation that "undoes" A.

Other kinds of transformations


Affine transformations To represent affine transformations with matrices, we must use homogeneous coordinates. This means representing a 2-vector (x, y) as a 3-vector (x, y, 1), and similarly for higher dimensions. Using this system, translation can be expressed with matrix multiplication. The functional form x' = x + tx; y' = y + ty becomes:

All ordinary linear transformations are included in the set of affine transformations, and can be described as a simplified form of affine transformations. Hence, any linear transformation can be also represented by a general transformation matrix. The latter is obtained by expanding the corresponding linear transformation matrix by one row and column, filling the extra space with zeros except for the lower-right corner, which must be set to 1. For example, the rotation matrix from above becomes:

Using transformation matrices containing homogeneous coordinates, translations can be seamlessly intermixed with all other types of transformations. The reason is that the real plane is mapped to the w = 1 plane in real projective space, and so translation in real euclidean space can be represented as a shear in real projective space. Although a translation is a non-linear transformation in a 2-D or 3-D euclidean space described by Cartesian coordinates, it becomes, in a 3-D or 4-D projective space described by homogeneous coordinates, a simple linear transformation (a shear). When using affine transformations, the homogeneous component of a coordinate vector (normally called w) will never be altered. One can therefore safely assume that it is always 1 and ignore it. However, this is not true when using perspective projections. Perspective projection Another type of transformation, of importance in 3D computer graphics, is the perspective projection. Whereas parallel projections are used to project points onto the image plane along parallel lines, the perspective projection projects points onto the image

plane along lines that emanate from a single point, called the center of projection. This means that an object has a smaller projection when it is far away from the center of projection and a larger projection when it is closer. The simplest perspective projection uses the origin as the center of projection, and z = 1 as the image plane. The functional form of this transformation is then x' = x / z; y' = y / z. We can express this in homogeneous coordinates as:

After carrying out the matrix multiplication, the homogeneous component wc will, in general, not be equal to 1. Therefore, to map back into the real plane we must perform the homogeneous divide or perspective divide by dividing each component by wc:

More complicated perspective projections can be composed by combining this one with rotations, scales, translations, and shears to move the image plane and center of projection wherever they are desired.

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