AP English Language: 1st Semester Final Study Guide

I. Language Terms
Term
allegory alliteration allusion ambiguity anadiplosis Definition story, play, or picture in which characters are used as symbols; fable use of the same consonant at the beginning of each stressed syllable in a line of verse a reference to a well-known person, place, event, literary work, or work of art unclearness by virtue of having more than one meaning repetition of the final words of a sentence or line at the beginning of the next, repetition of the final words of a sentence or line at the beginning of the next drawing a comparison in order to show a similarity in some respect repetition of a word or phrase as the beginning of successive clauses short account of an incident (especially a biographical one) A character or force in conflict with the main character the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers. the juxtaposition of contrasting words or ideas to give a feeling of balance ..., A brief, cleverly worded statement that makes a wise observation about life. ..., a technique by which a writer addresses an inanimate object, an idea, or a person who is either dead or absent. ..., a word or phrase that renames a nearby noun or pronoun ..., a fact or assertion offered as evidence that something is true a part of an actor's lines supposedly not heard by others on the stage and intended only for the audience. ..., the repetition of similar vowels in the stressed syllables of successive words ..., lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses or words ..., Discussions directed to the reader and constituting a substantial break in the narrative illusion of reality ..., a sentence in which words, phrases, or clauses are set off against each other to emphasize a contrast ..., a loud harsh or strident noise description of character, traits, etc a statement consisting of two parallel parts Susan walked in, and out rushed Mary. in which the second part is structurally reversed a decisive moment that is of maximum intensity or is a major turning point in a plot. ..., spoken or written communication that seeks to imitate informal speech ..., a sentence composed of at least one main clause and one subordinate clause a sentence with two or more coordinate independent clauses, often joined by one or more conjunctions ..., opposition in a work of drama or fiction between characters or forces (especially an opposition that motivates the development of the plot) ..., a fanciful, particularly clever extended metaphor ..., suggested or implied meaning of word; V. connote the repetition of consonants (or consonant patterns) especially at the ends of words Example

Jesses jaguar is jumping and jiggling jauntily.

anger leads to hate, hate leads to

analogy anaphora anecdote antagonist antecedent antithesis aphorism apostrophe

The students need the study guide. Can you please send it to them? "the students" is the antecedent in which "them" refers Bitter-sweet

appositive argument aside

My father, Bob, worked for NASA

assonance asyndeton authorial intrusion

We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any

balanced sentence

cacophony characterization chiasmus

climax colloquial complex sentence compound sentence

conflict

conceit connotation consonance

cumulative sentence

declarative sentence deductive reasoning

denotation denouement diction dissonance ellipsis

epistrophe epithet ethos euphemism

..., An independent clause followed by subordinate clauses or phrases that supply additional detail. ..., a sentence that makes a statement or declaration ..., reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case ..., the most direct or specific meaning of a word or expression ..., the final resolution of the main complication of a literary or dramatic work the choice and use of words in writing or speech ..., harsh, inharmonious, or discordant sounds ..., the omission of a word or phrase which is grammatically necessary but can be deduced for the context ..., repetition of the ends of two or more successive sentences, verses, etc. ..., a defamatory or abusive word or phrase

The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.

Some people prefer cats; others, dogs. of the people, for the people, by the people

euphony expletive extended metaphor figurative language

foil foreshadowing homily

..., an appeal to ethics, conscience, morals, values, principles ..., an inoffensive expression that is substituted for one that is considered offensive ..., any agreeable (pleasing and harmonious) sounds ..., profane or obscene expression usually of surprise or anger ..., A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work. ..., Writing or speech that is used to create examples are metaphor, simile, and personification vivid impressions by setting up comparisons between dissimilar things a person or thing that makes another seem better by contrast to show or indicate beforehand; prefigure ..., This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice. ..., a figure of speech that uses exaggeration to express strong emotion, make a point, or evoke humor An expression that cannot be understood if taken literally ..., description that appeals to the senses (sight, sound, smell, touch, taste) ..., these sentences give orders, instructions, advice and directions ..., deriving general principles from particular facts or instances ..., a conclusion one draws (infers) based on premises or evidence the act of appealing for help, prayer for help (used in invoking); calling upon as a reference or support; act of invoking ..., incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs ..., placing two elements side by side to present a comparison or contrast ..., understatement for rhetorical effect (especially when expressing an affirmative by negating its contrary) the science that investigates the principles governing correct or reliable inference. a lapse in logic in an argument causing its invalidity ..., an appeal based on logic or reason

hyperbole

idiom imagery imperative sentence inductive reasoning inference invocation

Get your head out of the clouds

Every cat I have ever seen has four legs; cats are four-legged animals

irony juxtaposition litotes

She is not so unkind.

logic logical fallacy logos malapropism metaphor

..., the unintentional misuse of a word by the doctor wrote a subscription confusion with one that sounds similar a figure of speech in which a term or phrase Wow, Michael truly is an Einstein. is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable in order to suggest a resemblance

metonymy mixed metaphor monologue mood motif non sequitor onomatopoeia

oxymoron paradox

..., substituting the name of an attribute or The suits on Wall Street walked off with most of our savings. feature for the name of the thing itself ..., a combination of two or more metaphors that together produce a ridiculous effect a part of a drama in which a single actor speaks alone; soliloquy. a prevailing emotional tone or general attitude ..., a unifying idea that is a recurrent element in a literary or artistic work ..., a statement that does not follow logically from evidence ..., using words that imitate the sound they denote, using words that imitate the sound they denote ..., conjoining contradictory terms deafening silence ..., a statement or proposition that seems self-contradictory or absurd but in reality expresses a possible truth. ..., the repetition of words or phrases that have similar grammatical structures a humorous or satirical imitation of a serious piece of literature or writing ..., a quality that arouses emotions (especially pity or sorrow) ..., Presents the main clause at the end of Despite Barbara's irritation at Jack, she loved him the sentence, for emphasis ..., the speaker, voice, or character assumed by the author of a piece of writing ..., the act of attributing human characteristics to abstract ideas etc. a specified or stated manner of consideration or appraisal; standpoint ..., the use, for rhetorical effect, of more he ran and laughed and jumped for joy conjunctions than is necessary or natural the principal character in a work of fiction a play on words. ..., how a passage is constructed; organization and how author combines images, details or arguments to serve his or her purpose language or writing that exposes follies or abuses by holding them up to ridicule ..., where and when the story takes place, The time and place of a literary work ..., a figure of speech that expresses a resemblance between things of different kinds (usually formed with 'like' or 'as') ..., A sentence consisting of one independent clause and no dependent clause the act of speaking alone or to oneself, esp as a theatrical device ..., the continuous flow of ideas and feelings that constitute an individual's conscious experience ..., the choices a writer makes; the combination of distinctive features of a literary work, a way of expressing something (in language or art or music etc.) that is characteristic of a particular person or group of people or period ..., a construction in which one word is used in two different senses ..., a three-part deductive argument in which a conclusion is based on a major premise and a minor premise ..., A device in literature where an object represents an idea. ..., a figure of speech in which a part is used for the whole or the whole for a par ..., describing one kind of sensation in terms of another ..., the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences the combination of seperate parts into a unified whole

parallelism parody pathos periodic sentence persona personification point of view polysyndeton protagonist pun rhetoric

satire setting simile

He was as fierce as a lion.

simple sentence

soliloquy stream of consciousness style

syllepsis syllogism

After he threw the ball, he threw a fit. All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal.

symbolism synecdoche synesthesia syntax synthesis

All hands on deck a loud color; a sweet sound

theme tone

understatement

vernacular voice Zeno's paradox

zeugma

..., a unifying idea that is a recurrent element in a literary or artistic work the writer's attitude toward the material and/or readers. Tone may be playful, formal, intimate, angry, serious, ironic, outraged, baffled, tender, serene, depressed, etc. ..., the opposite of exaggeration. It is a technique for developing irony and/or humor where one writes or says less than intended. ..., the everyday speech of the people (as distinguished from literary language) ..., The fluency, rhythm and liveliness in writing that makes it unique to the writer ...allusions to Zeno's Paradox are used by authors to convey ideas about the absurdity of time and distance. ..., When a word is used with two adjacent He closed the door and his heart on his lost love words in the same construction, but only makes literal sense with one of them

II. American Literary Movements

Colonialism/ Puritanism
Time: 1620-1760 Major Characteristics:
Knowledge: comes from grace, scripture, trypological history World view: God directed Social View: governmental throcracy, mutual suspicion Self Concept: self loathing, very self conscious View of Nature: emblematic of God's purposes, the living work of God. Evolved from 'fearful woods' to beauty

Authors and Titles:

Nathaniel Hawthorne: The Scarlett Letter Arthur Miller: The Crucible Charles Darwin: Origin of Species

Age of Reason and Enlightenment

Time: 1760-1820 Major Characteristics:
Knowledge: Lockian empiricism, through senses and reason World view: natural laws are discoverable, deism (celestial clockmaker) Social view: democracy, common man is more moral, closer to truth Constitution is "machine" to set government in motion self concept: social, member of a community, be a good citizen View of Nature: mechanical, scientific, follows laws/rules, hierarchical separation of God, Man, Nature

Authors and Titles:

Thomas Paine: Common Sense. It advocated political independence from England. Thomas Jefferson: Declaration of Independence. listed factual evidence to explain why the colonies were breaking away from England. Thomas Robert Maltus: "Essay on Population". This argued that man would one day deplete the world's resources.

Romanticism/Gothic
Time: 1820-1860/65 Major Characteristics:
World view: emphasis on the individual and the center of life through experiences Knowledge: genius, intuition, the sublime Social view: importance of the imagination and intuition View of Nature: nature over world alter, scorned urbanization and artificial beings

Authors and Titles:

Edgar Allen Poe: The Cask of Amontillado and The Raven Ann Radcliffe: The Mysteries of Udolpho and The Italian Mary Shelley: Frankenstein John Polidori: Vampyre Nathanial Hawthorne: The House of Seven Gables and The Marble Faun Sir Walter Scott: The Lay of the Last Minstrel and The Lord of the Isles

WIlliam Beckford: Vathek

Timeline:
1764 - Horace Castle publishes The Castle of Otranto the first gothic novel 1796 - Matthew Lewis publishes The Monk, the graphic violence of this novel shocked readers 1838 - Oliver Twist is published by Charles Dickens, it mocks the hypocrisies of his time 1846 - Edgar Allen Poe publishes The Fall of the House of Usher, considered the masterpiece of American Gothic lit 1847 - Charlotte Bronte publishes Jane Eyre, one of the great masterpieces of Victorian Gothic literature and Emily Bronte publishes Wuthering Heights, considered a classic of English literature 1850 - Nathanial Hawthorne publishes The Scarlet Letter, considered his most famous work 1886 - Robert Louis Stevenson publishes The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde 1890 - Oscar Wilde publishes The Picture of Dorian Gray, considered one of the last great masterpieces of 19th century gothic fiction 1897 - Dracula was published by Bram Stoker, one of the greatest stories of all time

Transcendentalism
Time: 1820-1860/65 Major Characteristics:
combines world of senses with world beyond the senses intuition and emotion over science individual over society impatience of bondage to custom and habit living close to nature dignity of manual labor rejected European tradition began as a protest against the society and culture at the time emphasized feeling/intuition over scientific reason exalted the individual over the society preferred change rather than custom and habit aroused dignity in manual labor encouraged intense individualism Social: Social conformity was looked down upon. Transcendentalists were expected to live their lives based on intuition rather than logic or reason. Family orientation was important to each individuals life. Political: In 1856, the Republican Party become an official United States political party with the nomination of John C. Fremont for president. It was a third party because the Democrats and whigs dominated at the time. Economic: From 1819 to 1821, America received its first major depression: the Panic of 1819, which was due, in part, to both dramatic expenses from the War of 1812 and the collapse of cotton prices. Shortly thereafter, decreased prices in cotton and wheat and a multitude of other causes led to the Panic of 1837, which lasted six dreadful years; it was the second longest American Depression. Religious: Though America was mostly Christian during this time, many sought for new perspectives on life and religion, from which the roots of transcendentalism were planted. It was based on foundations of spirituality and new ways of thinking and examining the world. Military: On April 12, 1861, shots were fired towards Fort Sumter, starting the American Civil War, which lasted until April 9, 1865 with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, the president of the time. strong need of intellectual companionship and interests great emphasis on "spiritual living" Men's relation to God was not mediated by a church self-trust and self-reliance individualism was gratified every individual had worthiness called for new American literature delighted in nature and surrounding oneself in it put a great emphasis on "spiritual living" underscored self-trust and self-reliance rejected past, especially European tradition allowed men's relationships with God to remain personal rather than flamboyant insisted on originality, not imitation of other works

Authors and Titles:

Ralph Waldo Emerson: Self-Reliance, Nature Henry David Thoreau: Walden, Civil Disobedience Margaret Fuller: The Great Lawsuit, Summer on the Lakes

Critique of Slavery
Time: 1820-1865 Major Characteristics:
emphasis on family and destruction of family ties undulating hope and hopelessness dehumanization preferred death over slavery used food imagery, religious/political hypocrisy of slave owners animal imagery of slave and slave owners

Authors and Titles:

Harriet Beecher Stowe: Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) Frederick Douglass: The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845)

David Walker: An Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (1829)

Timeline:
1820 - Missouri Compromise 1833 - British Abolishes Slavery 1859 - First African-American Novelist 1861 - Civil War Begins 1863 - Emancipation Proclamation 1865 - 13th Amendment

Civil War/ Regionalism

Time: Late 1800s- Early 1900s Major Characteristics:
anti-intellectual bias avid interest in "native" vernacular characters exaggeration often used interest in representing actual spoken dialects often uses a Frame structure [genteel narrator vs vernacular] particular regional setting simple, deceptive quality best work becomes universal

Definition:
1865 through 1895 was in the middle of the Civil war through the end of the nineteenth century. During this time period, Regionalism or Local cover took over most literature. Author began writing about the customs and characters and local dialect of a specific place or region. These writing were expressed through fiction novels or poetry and often had influences or realism and romanticism.

Authors and Titles:

Mark Twain: The Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, Adventures of Huckleberry FInn Louisa May Alcott: Little Women Frederick Douglass: Life and Times of Frederick Douglass Emily Dickinson, Poems: Second Series

Realism
Time: 1865-1900 Major Characteristics:
Renders reality closely and in comprehensive detail complex ethical choices are subject objectivity in presentation is important life has value character is more important than action and plot class is important; novel usually based on insurgent middle class events are plausible; never sensational or dramatic human reason must be asserted over animal passion

Authors and Titles:

Stephen Crane: The Red Badge of Courage (1895) William Dean Howells: The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885) Jack London: The Call of the Wild (1903), The Sea Wolf (1904) Mark Twain: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885) Booker T. Washington: Up From Slavery (1901)

Naturalism
Time: 1865-1900 Major Characteristics:
Nature and universe are unpredictable, spontaneous, discontinuous, and indifferent free will is an illusion fate is determined by environment, heredity, and chance The brute within each individual, comprised of strong and often warring emotions: passions, such as lust, greed or the desire for dominance or pleasure; and the fight for survival in an amoral, indifferent universe Dramatic or sensational events Nature plays a large role in setting the plot is more important than the character A conflict involving man vs. man, man vs. nature, or man vs. self. Naturalism often has a theme of humans in their naturally savage or barbaric ways Usually shows an unpredictable side of nature Always about nothing but the truth Derived from Darwins theory of survival of the fittest Political: Class is very important

Shows aspirations of a rebelling middle class Literary focus on ill-educated or lower class (working class) Thought middle class was oppressed, controlled and brutalized by societies Economic: All characters would mainly be middle or lower class; working class Post Industrial Revolution 1st Transcontinental railroad (1869) Religious: Did not believe there was a good Beliefs were mainly science based Controversial Naturalist books, such as Charles Darwins Origin of Species emerged, challenging original religious beliefs Social: Lynching of African Americans peaked during this time in the south Many women were taking part in social movements

Authors and Titles:

Stephen Crane; Maggie: A Girl of the Streets(1893), The Red Badge of Courage(1895) Jack London; Call of the Wild(1903), To Build a Fire(1908) Ellen Glasgow; Phases of an Inferior Planet (1898), The Voice of the People(1900)

Timeline:
First Transcontinental Railroad-1869 Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain-1884 The Awakening by Kate Chopin-1889 The Red Badge of Courage by Stephen Crane-1895 First Noble Peace Prize in Literature-1901 Wright Brothers first flight-1903 Call of the Wild by Jack London-1903 The Jungle by Upton Sinclair-1906 World War One begins-1914

Modernism
Time: 1890-1950 Major Characteristics:
Focused on new subjects such as race, class, sex and gender New styles of writing including multiple narrative voices, poor grammar and punctuation, and a lack of chronological order An attempt to find mans relation to the universe Study of characters in a particular area, such as the south- known as regionalism Focused on troubles of minorities (Harlem Renaissance) Attacks on commercialism and materialism Topics of war and suffrage(WWI and WWII)

Characteristics of the Age:

Genetics established; Freud launches psychoanalysis; discovery of radium and radioactivity; Rutherfords revolutionary new model of the atom overturned classical physics; Planks quantum theory of energy released; Einsteins special and general theories of relativity released Harlem Renaissance- Pride in their racial identity also led many writers to give voice to anger, sorrow,, and frustration that blacks felt over racism they routinely experienced in America (Koopmans). Fundamentalism insists upon the plain intent of the Scripturemodernists submits all judgment to man (Goldberg) The Great Depressionhad devastating effects on the American and worldwide economy The Jazz Agebrought great social change with the introduction of the flapper, prohibition, new styles of dancing and music, and female rights

Authors and Titles:

William Faulkner: Wrote works of psychological dramas with emotional depth. Wrote As I lay Dying John Steinbeck: During the World Wars, he wrote works of a propagandistic, such as The Moon Is Down, a story about Norwegians being under the rule of Nazis. Ayn Rand: though she wrote for the post-modernism era also, Rands most famous modernist works include Anthem, which talked about a dysfunctional utopia and The Fountainhead, which talked about an egoistic character trampling over traditional ideals. Ernest Hemingway: was an expatriate living in Paris like Fitzgerald. Served as an ambulance driver in the First World War, he was decorated for heroism when he was wounded on the job. Many of his novels bases come from his experiences in bull fighting, skiing, hunting, and other colorful activities he completed when in Paris. After World War II, and Fidel Castros invasion of his homeland in Cuba, he left for Idaho. Depressed, he shot himself, leaving many works behind.

F. Scott Fitzgerald: Among his greatest works, The Great Gatsby. This book showed the two sides of American life at this time. Fitzgerald was a brilliant author who wrote works in order to prove himself to his first wife, Zelda, daughter of an Alabama judge. However, fame eventually got to him, and he died at 44 because of alcohol related causes. Langston Hughes: African American Poet wrote during the time of the Harlem Renaissance. He also published many short stories. One of his most famous poems is Harlem. Zora Neal Hurston: A woman African American poet collaborated with Langston Hughes to write Mule Bone. She was an extreme conservative, opposing school integration in her later years.

Timeline:
The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T.S. Elliot [1915] My Antonia by Willa Cather [1918] Winesburg, Ohio by Sherwood Anderson [1919] The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald [1925] The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway [1926] As I lay Dying by William Faulkner [1930] Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck [1937] Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston [1937] The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck [1939] The Class of Menargie by Tennessee Williams [1945]

III. Elements of Rhetoric

Aristotle defined rhetoric asThe faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion

Rhetoric is:
The specific features of texts, written or spoken, that cause them to be meaningful, purposeful, and effective for readers or listeners in a given situation The art of analyzing all the language choices that writer, speaker, reader, or listener might make in a given situation so that the text becomes meaningful, purposeful, and effective Language is used as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in literature, advertising, broadcast journalism, politics, religion, art, films, and conversation Not all communication has a rhetorical purpose, but much of what we say, hear, read and do involves somebodys influencing somebody else to make choices Rhetoric enables writers and speakers to design messages for particular audiences and purposes Language that affects an audience, which informs, moves, delights, and teaches has a rhetorical aim

Rhetorical Triangle:
Describes the interaction among subject, speaker and audience (or subject, writer and reader), as well as how this interaction determines the structure and language of the argument Subject writers must first choose a subject and then evaluate what they already know about it, what others have said about it, and what kind of evidence or proof will sufficiently develop their position Speaker the person narrating text Persona: the character the speaker creates when he or she writes or speaks Context the occasion or time and place in which the text is composed Purpose the goal that the writer wants to achieve Thesis/Claim/Assertion clear and focused statement regarding writers argument

IV. Methods of Persuasion

Logos
writers appeal to logos, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas. It means having a clear, main idea, or thesis, with specific details, examples, facts, statistical data or expert testimony as support. The idea must be logical. When thinking about constructing a logical argument, on must always consider the counterargument and whether or not one will concede or refute that counterargument. Youll have to decide whether an argument makes a plausible claim and offers good reasons for you to believe it. Are the reasons good and is the evidence reliable? Knowing how to judge the quality of sources is now more important than ever beforeFor logos, there must always be statement (directly stated or inferred) and proof You could do worse, in examining an argument, than to make sure that every claim a writer makes is backed by sufficient evident.
Its also fair to complain about what may be absent from an argument.

Pathos
writers appeal to pathos, or emotion, through engaging the emotions of the audience. This is the weakest form as it is rarely effective in the long run it is generally propagandistic in purpose and more polemical than persuasive. These appeals usually include vivid, concrete description, personal anecdotes and figurative language. Most emotional appeals are just ploys to win over readers with a pretty face, figurative or real (think magazine covers).
Are we generally fooled? No, as long as we stop to think about them. But thats the strategy: distract the audience from thought long enough to make a bad choice! In analyzing these appeals, judge whether the emotions raised anger, sympathy, fear, envy, joy or love advance the claims offered or are mere distractors. Effective argument or emotional manipulation?

Ethos

writers appeal to ethos, or character, to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy. They often emphasize shared values between speaker and audience. Often, a characters reputation immediately established ethos. The writers ethos expertise and knowledge, experience, training, sincerity or combination of these gives the audience a reason for listening. In considering the role that ethos plays in rhetorical anayses, you need to pay attention to the details, right down to the choice of words or, in a visual argument, the shapes and colors. Tone is crucial to ethos: does the writer want to seem credible? His tone had better reflect it!

V. Units of Study
A. What are the fundamental political philosophies of an American?
Thomas Paine
Wrote: The American Crisis, Common Sense Purpose:

Thomas Jefferson
American colonist. Wrote Declaration of Independence Purpose: Thomas Jefferson states the misbehaviors of the King as he independently frees America from the tight hold of Britain. This is the precious and powerful document that declares America's independence.

Patrick Henry
Speech at the Virginia Convention Purpose: Encouraged the American Colonists to rise up against British control and break free from the British King's overpowering laws through violent actions.

Abraham Lincoln
Gettysburg Address Purpose: As a sign of gratitude, the Gettysburg Address was a speech dedicated to the soldiers who lost their lives in the Gettysburg War. On the other hand, this piece was to motivate and remind the American citizens why to continue to fight the Civil War.

B. What are the fundamental religious philosophies of an American?

Arthur Miller
The Crucible

Jonathan Edwards
Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God Purpose: Jonathan Edwards addresses the people and states that they must realize that they are all inevitably sinners and must repent. He informs the Puritans of God's wrath and of the damnation that the Puritans would receive if the try to test God's wrath.

Nathaniel Hawthorne
Scarlet Letter

C. How do slavery and oppression affect identity -- the African-American Voice?

Frederick Douglass

Sojourner Truth

Aint I A Woman
Purpose: The purpose of the speech was to prove that women are just as equal as men are. Truth brings up experiences of her hard labor and makes it clear that women are just as strong as men are as well. Women deserve rights like everyone else.

Ralph Ellison

VI. Fallacies
Term
Accent Definition Shifting the emphasis or accent in a deceptive way Example

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Accident

Trying to disprove a statement that is generally true with a specific example Using an off-the-cuff explanation with no evidence

Ad Hoc

Amphiboly Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam Argumentum Ad Baculum Argumentum Ad Hominem Argumentum Ad Misericordiam Argumentum ad Nauseam Argumentum Ad Populum (Bandwagon) Argumentum Ad Verecundiam Black or White Argument Bullshit Complex Question Composition

The phrases and sentences have a double meaning Arguing from ignorance

They say that smoking is bad for you, but my aunt smoked 3 packs a day and died at 97 because she was hit by a car I was healed from cancer by God! Really? Does that mean that God will heal others with cancer? Well . . . God works in mysterious ways Save soap and waste paper We dont know that John didnt steal my bag. He doesnt have an alibi. He cant prove hes innocent If you dont vote for me , Ill break your ribs Dont listen to him, hes an old fossil; Smith should not be elected, his father is an alcoholic Students pleading why their homework wasnt turned in We have heard about budget cuts ad nauseum Peer pressure, rumors, designer clothes/fads Michael Jordan selling cars; my teacher says its true You vote for me or you vote for the end of civilization as we know it; do you want to go to college or dig ditches all your life? Do you still beat your cat? Answer yes or no

The argument of the stick; a threat To attack the person instead of the argument To use emotion or call upon pity to hide the real argument The belief that something becomes true if repeated often It is correct because it is popular

Appeal to authority, but in an area outside his expertise Presenting an either/or situation when there are other alternatives Concealing the intended meaning A double question when the answer to the first is assumed to be yes A group must have the same qualities or characteristics as its members The individual must have the characteristics of the group Using the same term with different meanings

The team must be good because all of the players are good Division Dogs are common. Pugs are dogs. Therefore Pugs are common Equivocation The word law cannot be used to mean both natural law and law by authority in the same argument Fallacy of the Beard Assuming that individual actions have no It wont hurt if I let the water run while Im collective impact brushing my teeth Hasty Generalization To generalize based on only a few examples I will never eat at McDonalds when there (Overgeneralizing) are teenagers there because they will be loud; I know this because last time I ate there and teenagers were present, they were loud Ignoratio Elenchi The use of another issueusually an Hitlers use of the Jewish people to deflect (Red Herring) emotional one- to draw attention from the examination of the Nazi system real issue Non sequitur The conclusion does not follow from the John does not drink or smoke, so he ought preceding argument; to give a nonsensical to make a good husband answer to a challenge Petitio Principii Assuming your conclusion as your proof; The unsanitary conditions of the slaughter Begging the Question where two things are seen as the cause and pens is detrimental to health (Circular Reasoning) effect of each other Post Hoc/Ergo Something is stated to be the result of Every time the Democrats get into office, we Propter Hoc (False something else, when no causal connection have a war. Every time the Republicans get Cause) can be found; something is stated to be the into office, we have a recession only cause, when there may be many causes Slippery Slope If event A happens, it will lead downhill to If we let gays marry, then well have to let further undesirable results men marry little kids Special Pleading The argument that the rules should not apply I know I was speeding, but I have an to this special case important appointment to get to Straw Man When an opponent's argument is overstated Evolution is a religion, therefore it should not or misrepresented in order to be attacked or be taught in schools. refuted. Truth is in the Middle A claim that average gives you the true The per capita income in our country is picture, when that is not true; the use of $20,000. We are doing well economically. facts or figures to tell what is true but not (The top 10% receives 80% of income. The what is accurate rest of the country lives in poverty