In physics and systems theory, the superposition principle [1], also known as superposition property, states that, for

all linear systems, the net response at a given place and time caused by two or more stimuli is the sum of the responses which would have been caused by each stimulus individually. So that if input A produces response X and input B produces response Y then input (A + B) produces response (X + Y).

y The superposition principle holds because, by

definition, a linear system must be additive. Superposition may sometimes imply linearity, depending on whether homogeneity is included or implied in the definition of superposition.
y In the field of electrical engineering, where the x and y

signals are allowed to be complex-valued (as is common in signal processing), a linear system must satisfy the superposition property, which requires the system to be additive and homogeneous.[2][3] An additive system satisfies F(x1 + x2) = F(x1) + F(x2). A homogeneous system satisfies F(ax) = aF(x), where a is a scalar. Often the additivity and homogeneity conditions for superposition are combined into a

Superposition of almost plane waves (diagonal lines) from a distant source and waves from the wake of the ducks. Linearity holds only approximately in water.

y This principle has many applications in physics and

engineering because many physical systems can be modeled as linear systems. For example, a beam can be modeled as a linear system where the input stimulus is the load on the beam and the output response is the deflection of the beam. Because physical systems are generally only approximately linear, the superposition principle is only an approximation of the true physical behavior; it provides insight for typical operational regions for these systems. y The superposition principle applies to any linear system, including algebraic equations, linear differential equations, and systems of equations of those forms. The stimuli and responses could be

Relation to Fourier analysis and similar methods

y By writing a very general stimulus (in a linear system)

as the superposition of stimuli of a specific, simple form, often the response becomes easier to compute, y For example, in Fourier analysis, the stimulus is written as the superposition of infinitely many sinusoids. Due to the superposition principle, each of these sinusoids can be analyzed separately, and its individual response can be computed. (The response is itself a sinusoid, with the same frequency as the stimulus, but generally a different amplitude and phase.) According to the superposition principle, the response to the original stimulus is the sum (or integral) of all the individual sinusoidal responses.

y Fourier analysis is particularly common

for waves. For example, in electromagnetic theory, ordinary light is described as a superposition of plane waves (waves of fixed frequency, polarization, and direction). As long as the superposition principle holds (which is often but not always; see nonlinear optics), the behavior of any light wave can be understood as a superposition of

Application to waves
y Waves are usually described by variations in some parameter through

space and time for example, height in a water wave, pressure in a sound wave, or the electromagnetic field in a light wave. The value of this parameter is called the amplitude of the wave, and the wave itself is a function specifying the amplitude at each point. y In any system with waves, the waveform at a given time is a function of the sources (i.e., external forces, if any, that create or affect the wave) and initial conditions of the system. In many cases (for example, in the classic wave equation), the equation describing the wave is linear. When this is true, the superposition principle can be applied. That means that the net amplitude caused by two or more waves traversing the same space, is the sum of the amplitudes which would have been produced by the individual waves separately. For example, two waves traveling towards each other will pass right through each other without any distortion on the other side.

Wave interference

Combined waveform wave 1 wave 2

Two waves in phase Two waves 180 out of phase

y The phenomenon of interference between

waves is based on this idea. When two or more waves traverse the same space, the net amplitude at each point is the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves. In some cases, such as in noise-cancelling headphones, the summed variation has a smaller amplitude than the component variations; this is called destructive interference. In other cases, such as in Line Array, the summed variation will

Departures from linearity

yIn most realistic physical situations,

the equation governing the wave is only approximately linear. In these situations, the superposition principle only approximately holds. As a rule, the accuracy of the approximation tends to improve as the amplitude of the wave gets smaller. For examples of phenomena that arise when the

Quantum superposition
y In quantum mechanics, a principal task is to

compute how a certain type of wave propagates and behaves. The wave is called a wavefunction, and the equation governing the behavior of the wave is called Schrdinger's wave equation. A primary approach to computing the behavior of a wavefunction is to write that wavefunction as a superposition (called "quantum superposition") of (possibly infinitely many) other wavefunctions of a certain type stationary states whose behavior is particularly simple. Since Schrdinger's

Boundary value problems

y A common type of boundary value problem is (to put it abstractly) finding a function y that satisfies some equation y F(y) = 0 with some boundary specification y G(y) = z For example, in Laplace's equation with Dirichlet boundary conditions, F would be the Laplacian operator in a region R, G would be an operator that restricts y to the boundary of R, and z would be the function that y is required to equal on the boundary of R. y In the case that F and G are both linear operators, then the superposition principle says that a superposition of solutions to the first equation is another solution to the first equation: y while the boundary values superpose: y G(y1) + G(y2) = G(y1 + y2) Using these facts, if a list can be compiled of solutions to the first equation, then these solutions