Industrial Training Fund

INDUSTRIAL SKILL TRAINING CENTRE, IKEJA

Dangote Academy

INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) (Safe shut down of Hazardous Energy Sources)

Employees servicing or maintaining machines or equipment may be exposed to serious physical harm or death if hazardous energy is not properly controlled. Craft workers, machine operators, and maintenance personnel are among the workers who service equipment and face the greatest risk. Lockout/tagout program establishes the minimum requirements for the lockout or tagout of energy isolating devices. It will ensure that machines or equipment are isolated from all potentially hazardous energy, and locked out or tagged out before employees perform any servicing or maintenance. Workplace activities considered to be Servicing and/or maintenance of machinery and equipment include: adjusting, inspecting, modifying, constructing, re-tooling, lubricating, removing jams, cleaning etc.

Lockout/tagout is a method of controlling personnel injury/equipment damage associated with repairs and maintenance of equipment by de-energizing machines that use electricity or other sources of energy to prevent the operator from being exposed to serious and life threatening situations. Such accidental exposures can cause severe scalding or burns, extremities or clothing to be caught in a machines moving parts, or fatal electric shock. A wide variety of energy sources may need to be locked out during service or maintenance. This includes but is not limited to: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. Electrical equipment Hydraulic Pneumatic Mechanical Gravity Thermal Chemical Fluids and Gases Water under pressure Steam

The goal of any employer is to maintain a safe and healthy work environment in order to protect each employee from potentially hazardous or unsafe conditions. Requirements and

regulations pertaining to Lockout/tagout are found in the Occupational Safety and Health Standards for General Industry (OSHA 29 CFR 1910.147). Guidelines and procedures outlined in this section have been developed to ensure that a machine or piece of equipment is isolated from all potentially hazardous energy sources before servicing is performed. The above standard does not apply to: a. Work on cord and plug connected equipment - Work on cord and plug connected electric equipment for which exposure to the hazards of unexpected energizing or start up of the equipment is controlled by the unplugging of the equipment from the energy source and by the plug being under the exclusive control of the employee performing maintenance or repair. b. Hot tap operations, under special conditions - Hot tap operations involving transmission and distribution systems when they are performed on pressurized pipelines c. Oil and gas well drilling and servicing.
Lockout Device: A device that utilizes a lock and key to hold an energy isolating device in the safe position and prevents a machine or equipment from being energized.

Lockout Devices
Tagout Device: A prominent warning device, such as a tag, that can be securely attached to equipment or machinery for the purpose of warning personnel not to operate an energy isolating device and identifying the applier or authority who has control of the procedure.

Tagout Devices Lockout/Tagout: The placement of a lock and tag on the energy isolating device in accordance with an established procedure, indicating that the energy isolating device shall not be operated until removal of the lock/tag in accordance with an established procedure. (The term "lockout/ tagout requires the combination of a lockout device and a tagout device).

Lockout/tagout device The objectives of the Lockout/tagout Program include: a. To insure that specific lockout/tagout procedures are developed for all pieces of equipment and machinery in which the unexpected energization, start up or release of stored energy could cause injury to employees. b. To insure that Affected Employees recognize the various types of equipment used by Authorized Employees and understand the use and purpose of lockout/tagout equipment. c. To insure that Authorized Employees are properly trained and implement the lockout/tagout system according to developed procedures. d. To insure that only Authorized Employees lockout or tagout machines or equipment. e. To insure that every new or transferred employee, and any other employee, whose work operations may be in the area, are instructed in the purpose and use of lockout/tagout procedures. f. To insure that contracting employees are given correct and proper notification of required lockout/tagout procedures used in area of engagement and that the contracting company adheres to these guidelines. Responsibility/Resources Employed Safety Manager/ Maintenance Manager Safety manager/Maintenance manager is responsible for developing the written lockout/tagout program and ensuring that training is scheduled. He/she serves as the first contact for issues concerning the lockout/tagout program. Maintenance Supervisor The maintenance supervisor will develop written equipment specific procedures and review the proficiency of their subordinates in following developed procedures. The Maintenance supervisor will also be responsible for following emergency procedures for lock and tag removal in the absence of an employee who attached the lock and tag. Authorized Employees Authorized Employees are responsible for locking and tagging out equipment and machinery in accordance with procedures outlined in this section. Also,Authorized Employees are responsible for notifying Affected Employees before these procedures are implemented, and when the equipment is placed back into service.

Affected Employees Affected Employees are responsible for recognizing the various types of lockout/tagout equipment used by Authorized Employees and ensuring that this equipment is not tampered with or removed by anyone but the Authorized Employee. OHS Department OHS is responsible for auditing departments that have implemented lockout/tagout programs. Upon request, OHS will assist departments in developing equipment specific lockout/tagout procedures, train "Affected" and "Authorized Employees", and assist with lockout/tagout equipment selection. Rules for Lockout/Tag-outs You must attach a danger tag before starting work on any equipment that could injure you if it is energised. To do this you, or your supervisor, must isolate the equipment from its energy source, and safely discharge any stored energy. Your danger tag is then filled out and attached to the correct isolating device (such as a valve or switch). a. Only the name of the person tagging the equipment should be on the danger tag. b. You must NEVER touch a device, which has a danger tag attached to it. c. You can only remove YOUR OWN danger tag. You MUST NEVER remove someone elses danger tag. d. You must remove your danger tag when you have finished work on the repair. The lockout/tagout rule covers the following employees 1. Authorized Employee 2. Affected Employee 3. Other Employee Authorized employee: Affected employee: Other Employee: An employee who services or performs maintenance on machines or equipment i.e maintenance personnel An employee who normally works on or near a machine that must be locked out for maintenance. i.e machine operators Person who works in an area where lockout/tagout procedures are being used.

Application of Lockout/tagout Lockout/tagout program applies to the control of hazardous energy during schedule maintenance of machines and equipment or during normal machine operations if there is likelihood: a. That an employee is required to remove or bypass a guard or other safety device; b. That an employee is required to place any part of their body into an area on a machine or piece of equipment where work is actually performed upon the material being processed (point of operation) or where an associated danger zone exists during a machine operating cycle.

Conditions for using lockout Machinery or equipment is capable of being locked out if the following conditions are met: a. It has a hasp or other means to attach a lock; or b. It has a built in locking mechanism c. Does not have to be dismantled or altered to achieve lockout. 5

Conditions for using tagout a. When an energy isolating device is not capable of being locked out. b. If employer can demonstrate (prove) that using a tagout system will provide full employee protection. Requirements for lock-out/tag out devices The locks, tags, and other hardware that are identified and required will be the only devices used to lockout or tagout for personnel protection. The locks and tags used for personnel protection will be: a. Standardized according to one or more of the following: colour, shape, size, type, or format b. Distinctive in appearance, easily recognizable, clearly visible c. Designed to convey all information required for the application d. Designed to deter accidental or unauthorized removal e. Designed to withstand environmental conditions for the duration of their application The employer will provide the locks, tags, chains, wedges, key blocks, adaptor pins, selflocking fasteners, or other hardware. Lockout/tagout devices are to be singularly identified; and the only devices used for controlling energy. Do not be use these for other purposes.

Labelled Lockout Hasp

Ball Valve Lockout Devices Plug lockout devices

Floor mounted tagout

Circuit circuit-breaker-lockout-device Qualities of Tags and Locks Durable a. Capable of withstanding environmental conditions for the maximum period of use b. Constructed and printed so exposure will not cause deterioration of the message on the tag, and c. Tags shall not deteriorate when used in a corrosive environment. Substantial a. Must prevent removal without excessive force or unusual techniques such as bolt cutter or cutting tools b. Must be substantial enough to prevent inadvertent or accidental removal a) Non-reusable type b) Attachable by hand c) Self-locking d) Non-releasing with a minimum unlocking strength of less than 50 pounds, and e) Similar to the general design and basic characteristics of being at least equivalent to a one-piece, all environment-tolerant nylon cable tie.

Identifiable Lockout/tagout devices must have the identity of the employee and must warn against hazardous conditions. Messages must include: a. DO NOT START b. DO NOT OPEN c. DO NOT CLOSE d. DO NOT ENERGIZE, OR e. DO NOT OPERATE General Energy Control Procedures OSHA regulations state that it is not necessary to document a specific procedure for a particular machine or piece of equipment when all of the following conditions are met: 1. The machine has no potential for stored or residual energy or re-accumulation of stored energy after shut down which could injure employees. 2. The machine or equipment has a single energy source which can readily be identified and isolated.

3. The isolation and locking out that energy source will completely deengerize and deactivate the machine or equipment. 4. The machine or equipment is isolated from that energy source and locked out during servicing or maintenance. 5. A single lockout device will achieve a locked-out condition. 6. The lockout device is under the exclusive control of the Authorized Employee performing the servicing or maintenance. 7. The servicing and maintenance does not create hazards for other employees. 8. No accident involving the unexpected activation or re-energization of the machine or equipment during servicing or maintenance. Procedure for Equipment/Machinery Not Requiring a Specific Procedure: STEP 1: Notify all Affected Employees that lockout/tagout is going to be utilized and the reason why. STEP 2: If the machine or equipment is operating, shut it down by the normal stopping procedure (depress stop button, open toggle switch, etc.). STEP 3: Operate the switch, valve, or other energy isolating device(s) so that the equipment is isolated from its energy source. STEP 4: Lockout/Tagout the energy isolating devices. STEP 5: After insuring that no personnel are exposed, and as a check on having disconnected the energy source, operate the push button or other normal operating control to make certain the equipment will not operate. STEP 6: Return the operating control to the "neutral" of "off" position after the test. The equipment is now locked/tagged out. Procedures for Multiple Employee Lockout/Tagout: Employees may at times be required to repair/service equipment that requires the expertise of more than one (1) person. For these applications, a Multiple Employee Lockout procedure will be used. The following steps will be followed to properly lockout/tagout equipment that has more than one employee performing maintenance and service:

Multiple Employee Lockout using a multi-lock hasp A multi lock hasp will be placed on the equipment and each employee may put its own locks and tags by following a written procedure developed for the particular piece of equipment. Once an employee has completed their work on the locked out piece of

equipment, they will remove their lock and tag from the equipment. The equipment will be put into use when the last employee may have removed his/her lock. Procedures for Lock or Tag Removal: Each lockout or tagout device will be removed from energy isolating source by the employee who put the device on the equipment. EXCEPTION: When the employee who applied the lock or tag is not available to remove it, the following procedures will be followed: 1. Supervisor will be contacted and notified of the situation 2. Verification that the employee who applied the lock or tag is not at work. 3. An attempt will be made to phone the employee who applied the lock or tag. If telephone contact is made with the employee, he/she will be instructed that their lock or tag needs to be removed and that they must report to work to remove the lock or tag. If telephone contact is not made, the course of action will continue to Step 4. 4. The Supervisor will inspect the work area to ensure that non-essential items have been removed, machine components are operationally intact, all employees have been safely positioned or removed, and that affected employees in the area have been notified that the lock and tag are being removed. 5. No employee may remove a lock or tag belonging to another employee or contractor, unless specifically directed by maintenance supervisor. 6. Before the employee who applied the lock or tag that has been removed returns to work, they will be retrained on proper lockout/tagout procedures, instructed on the situation that arose and the steps taken to remove the lock and tag. Checklist for Lockout/Tagout Have all energy sources been identified (many types of equipment have more than one)? Have all energy sources been shut off or released? Have all lines been bled of air or hydraulic pressure? Have all valves or switches been locked in the off position? Are adequate tags and labels posted to notify other worker and inform area of authorized persons name? Have employees and supervisors in the area been informed of shutdown? Have brakes been applied or time been given to stop all centrifugal movement before guard is removed? Has equipment been blocked appropriately? Is there a plan for re-energizing the equipment when work is finished? Has all staff that operate or are performing work on the equipment been trained in Lockout/tagout? The most common problems of lockout/tagout 1. Lack of procedures. Specific procedures should be written for each piece of equipment. 2. Training for all employees. The staff that do normal repairs or operate the machines daily are usually well trained, it is the other staff you need to look in to 3. Wrong use of tags. Do not use these danger tags for anything except servicing and maintenance. 4. Wrong use of lock. Special lockout locks are not to be used on toolboxes, lockers, etc. 5. Working under someone elses lock. 9

If the lock on the equipment is not yours you are violating the law and putting yourself at risk of injury. 6. Not identifying all energy sources. You turn off the electricity, but not the steam! 7. Annual audit of procedures and review of findings. This is for your safety to make sure no new energy sources have been added and that all energy sources have been identified.) 8. Maintenance vs. minor, routine tool changes. Employees need to know the difference between service/maintenance and routine adjustment/normal operations

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HAND TOOL SAFETY

Introduction A hand tool may be powered or not powered. These tools allow us to work faster and increase the number of different jobs that we can accomplish. However, the greatest hazards posed by thesetools results from misuse and improper maintenance. Also when a tools is not put away safely then accidents can occur. The correct way is the safe way. The incorrect way is wrong. By using protective equipment, and following proper work practices, you can operate hand tools safely and with confidence. Always have it in mind, that the time and effort taken in fetching the correct tool from the stores or in servicing a worn tool is considerably less than the time taken in convalescing from an injury.

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Hand tools can cause many types of injuries: a. Cuts, abrasions, amputations, and punctures. If hand tools are designed to cut or move metal and wood, remember what a single slip can do to fragile human flesh. b. Repetitive motion injuries. Using the same tool in the same way all day long, day after day, can stress human muscles and ligaments. Carpal tunnel syndrome (inflammation of the nerve sheath in the wrist) and injuries to muscles, joints and ligaments are increasingly common if the wrong tool is used, or the right tool is used improperly. Injury from continuous vibration can also cause numbness or poor circulation in hands and arms. c. Eye injuries. Flying chips of wood or metal are a common hazard, often causing needless and permanent blindness. d. Broken bones and bruises. Tools can slip, fall from heights, or even be thrown by careless employees, causing severe injuries. A hammer that falls from a ladder is a lethal weapon.

To avoid such injuries, remember the following safety procedures: 1. Use the right tool for the job. Don't use your wrench as a hammer. Don't use a screwdriver as a chisel, etc. Go back to the tool house and get the right tool in the right size for the job. 2. Don't use broken or damaged tools, dull cutting tools, or screwdrivers with worn tips. 3. Cut in a direction away from your body. 4. Make sure your grip and footing are secure when using large tools. 5. Carry tools securely in a tool belt or box. Don't carry tools up ladders. Use a hoist or rope. 6. Keep close track of tools when working at heights. A falling tool can kill a co-worker. 7. Pass a tool to another person by the handle; never toss it to them. 8. Use the right personal protective equipment (PPE) for the job. Follow company instructions for selecting and using safety eyewear, steel toed shoes, gloves, hard hats, etc. 9. Never carry sharp or pointed tools such as a screwdriver in your pocket. 10. Select ergonomic tools for your work task when movements are repetitive and forceful.

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1. Be on the lookout for signs of repetitive stress. Early detection might prevent a serious injury. 2. Always keep your tools in top condition. A dull blade or blunt point can lead to injury. 3. Store tools properly when you stop work. By following these precautions, you can help prevent injuries and provide a better workplace for everyone. Remember, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure! The type of personal protective equipment (PPE) you need when using hand tools depends on the tool being used. At a minimum, eye protectionin the form of safety glasses or gogglesmust be worn at all times. It is also important to protect your hands from cuts, abrasion, and repeated impact. Cut-resistant gloves made of stainless steel can help protect against the effects of a misplaced blade. On jobs that require long periods of hammering, impact-resistant gloves with gel or rubber palms can reduce vibration. When using hand tools, the following apply: a. Select the right tools designed for specific purposes, e.g. screwdrivers-are for driving screws, chisels are for chiselling etc. a tools must be used only to perform the job, which it is designed. b. Tools should be used in the correct manner. Like other machines, there should be a proper way (also the safe way) of using a certain piece of tools. c. Tools should be properly stored. Improper storage of tools can cause damage to tools and injuries to people, especially those sharp edged or sharp-pointed tools; they should be properly secured during transport. d. Hand tools should not be left lying in places where persons have to work or pass, or on scaffolds or other elevations from which they might fall on persons below. e. Only insulated or non-conducting tools should be used on or near live electrical installations if there is any risk of electrical shock. f. Make sure saw blades, knives, or other tools are directed away from aisle areas and other employees working in close proximity. g. Replace or repair all wooden handles that are loose, splintered, or cracked. h. Do not use impact tools such as chisels, wedges, or drift pins that have mushroomed heads. i. Handling and use of sharp-edged and sharp-pointed tools should not: Be thrown from person to person; Be used in dangerous proximity to other persons or moving machinery. Storage of hand tools a. When not in use, sharp tools should be kept in sheaths, shields, chests or other suitable containers. b. Unless adequately protected, sharp-edged and sharp-pointed tools should not be carried in pockets. Tools should not be carried in manner that the sharp edges or the sharp points facing you or other persons.

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Do not carry tools in your pockets. c. Sharp edges or points of tools to be carried or stored, should be protected d. Sharp-edged and sharp-pointed hand tools should be stored in such a way that: They cannot fall; and They cannot cause danger to the person removing them. Wrenches Wrenches come in an endless variety of styles such as socket, open-end, combination, adjustable and torque, just to name a few. Wrenches are designed to turn or hold bolts, nuts or multiple threaded fasteners. They are sized to keep the leverage and load in an acceptable balance. a. Choose a wrench that properly fits the fastener you wish to turn. Use metric wrenches for metric bolts and American inch wrenches for inch-sized bolts. By using the correct size, the wrench is less prone to slip or round off the fastener corners. b. Avoid using an extension to improve the leverage of a wrench. c. Do not use open-end or adjustable wrenches for final tightening or loosening frozen fasteners. These wrenches do not have the strength of a box-end or socket wrench. d. Apply penetrating oil on frozen fasteners before using a striking face box, socket or heavy-duty box wrench. e. Do not expose a wrench to temperatures that could weaken tool hardness. f. Always try to pull on a wrench (instead of pushing) in case the fastener loosens. g. Adjustable wrenches must be adjusted tightly to the fasteners and then pulled, putting the force on the fixed end. h. Turn power off and use electrically insulated wrenches when working on or around electrical components. i. Never alter a wrench. j. Do not over torque a fastener. Use a torque wrench to tighten the fastener to the exact torque required. k. Inspect wrenches periodically for damage, such as cracking, severe wear or distortion.

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Always try to pull on a wrench (instead of pushing)

Do not use oversize spanner and packing Hammers, wrenches, chisels, pliers, screwdrivers, and other hand tools are often underrated as sources of potential danger. Hand tools may look harmless, but they are the cause of many injuries. In fact, an estimated 8 per cent of all workplace compensable injuries are caused by incidents associated with hand tools. These injuries can be serious, including loss of fingers or eyesight. Pliers Pliers come in all shapes and sizes, such as lineman, diagonal cutting, needle nose, slip joint, locking tongue and groove. Plier uses include gripping, cutting, turning and bending. Pliers are a versatile tool, but must be used according to how they are designed. a. Do not increases a pliers handle length to gain more leverage, instead choose larger sized pliers. b. Never subject pliers to temperatures that could decrease tool hardness.

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c. d. e. f. g.

Cut hardened wire only with pliers designed for that purpose. Do not substitute a plier for a wrench when turning nuts and bolts. Be sure the pliers jaws can grasp properly when bending rigid wire. Do not hammer with pair of pliers. Always use non-sparking pliers when in the presence of flammable vapours or dusts.

Hammers and Striking Tools Hammers are one of the most used tools in our toolboxes. (Unfortunately, they are also the most abused tools.) Nail, soft-face, ball-peen, chipping, sledge and setting are just a few of the hammers we use in the workplace and home. Hammers are designed according to the intended purpose. a. Always use a hammer of the proper weight and size for the task. b. Hammers handles shall be well fitted and securely fastened by wedges or other acceptable means. c. Do not use one hammer to strike another hammer, stones or concrete. d. Look behind and above you before swinging the hammer. e. Watch the object you are hitting. f. Do not use one hammer to strike another hammer, stones or concrete. g. Look behind and above you before swinging the hammer. h. Watch the object you are hitting. i. Hold the hammer with your wrist straight and your hand firmly wrapped around the handle. j. Strike a hammer blow squarely.

Strike a hammer blow squarely.

Hammer with cracked head and Hammer with a loose handle. Screwdrivers Screwdrivers are intended for turning a variety of threaded fasteners, such as machine or wood screws, in or out of materials. Screwdriver tips come in a variety of different shapes 18

and sizes. The slotted tips are the most common; however, hex, square and various others are also used. As with any tool, it is important to match the type of screwdriver you use to the type of job you are doing. Safety Tips To Know When Using Screwdrivers are stated below. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. Never use a screwdriver as a pry bar, chisel, punch, stirrer or scraper. Always use a screwdriver tip that properly fits the slot of the screw. Throw away screwdrivers with broken or worn handles. Never expose screwdrivers to temperatures that could reduce tip hardness. e. Turn power off and use electrically insulated screwdrivers when working on or around electrical components. f. Straighten tips or redress rounded edges with file. Use magnetic or screw-holding screwdrivers to start fasteners in tight areas. Use both hands when using a screwdriverone guides the tip and the other to turn the handle. Final tightening requires both hands on the screwdriver handle. Always use non-sparking screwdrivers in the presence of flammable vapours Use a screw-holding screwdriver (with screw-holding clips or magnetic blades) to get screws started in awkward, hard-to-reach areas. Square-tipped screwdrivers (e.g., Robertson) that hold screws with recessed square holes are also useful in such situations.

Files a. Files must never be used without a proper handle. b. Keep files in racks and avoid the chipping of the teeth which will result in poor quality workmanship c. Files should be provided with well-fitting handles. d. Wooden handles should be renewed if they show signs of splitting. e. Check that the work piece is firmly gripped in the vice. f. Hold the file correctly and distribute the weight evenly over its whole length. Apply pressure only on the cutting strokes. g. File narrow surfaces diagonally. Always remove sharp edges and tidy up the job. h. Always check that the handle is firmly attached to the tang.

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Do not use a file without a proper handle Chisels a. Always wear safety glasses or goggles when using chisels. b. The proper type and size of chisel should be selected for the job. c. Cold chisels for cutting metal should not be used for cutting timber. d. Never use chisels for prying opening lids. e. Always drive chisels outward and away from your body. f. The head of the chisel must be free of grease and burrs. The mushroomed heads must be properly rounded off. g. Use the tools only if they are in good condition (i.e., cutting edges are sharp, struck head is not mushroomed or chipped). h. Hold the chisel, for shearing and chipping, at an angle, which permits the bevel of the cutting edge to lie flat against the shearing plane. i. Chisels should be fitted with hand protection.

Chisels should be fitted with hand protection 20

Hacksaws a. Use the right type of saws for cutting different materials (e.g. timber, steel, etc.). b. All saws should be kept sharp and clean. c. When cutting, use slow, deliberate strokes. Forcing the cut can make the blade buckle and snap and/or jump out onto your hand. d. Dont hold work pieces in your hand when using a saw. Securely place work piece in a vise or other suitable support.

Marking Out Tools a. Keep all marking out clean and slightly oiled, and well away from all other tools. b. Take care to clean the tools and the work piece before starting to mark out. c. Handle the tools carefully no knocking or rubbing of the surface. d. Check that the clamps are tight on the scribing block

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Hydraulic Tools Safety Fluid powers hydraulic tools, the fluid used to power hydraulic tools must be approved and fire resistant. It also must retain its same operating characteristics at the highest temperature to which it is exposed. For example, if a hydraulic tool is used in a very hot environment, the fluid must retain its same characteristics, even with the extreme temperature change. Any limitations set forth by the manufacturer on the fluid or equipment must not be exceeded. Fuel-powered Tools Safety Fuel-powered tools usually are operated with gasoline. The most serious hazards associated with these types of tools are the inhalation of fumes and the risk of explosion. In environments where fuel-powered tools are used, effective ventilation is mandatory. To reduce the chance of fire or explosion, do not use these tools near flames or flammable materials, and store gas in approved containers only. Always turn off a tool and allow it to cool before refueling. Powder Tool Safety A powder tool works like a loaded gun. A powder tool is often used to shoot nails into a work-piece. Only approved, trained employees may operate powder tools because they pose many safety risks. To use them, you must follow the manufacturer recommendations and wear eye, ear, and face protection. In addition, most manufacturers of powder tools require employees to wear hard hats because of the ricochet possibility. Some manufacturers also require signs to be posted in areas where the tools are used. Abrasive Wheel Tool Safety Grinding, cutting, polishing, and wire buffing wheels create special safety problems since they may discharge particles. Even worse, they may become disengaged from the mounting.

Abrasive wheel tool. Before an abrasive wheel is mounted, it should be inspected closely and sound-tested or ringtested to be sure it is free from cracks or defects. Many types of grinding wheels will emit a high-pitched ringing sound when tapped with a light, non-metallic tool. When wheels are cracked or damaged, the sound will be dull or dead. Do not use damaged or dead abrasive wheels. If a wheel is defective, it could fly apart in operation. When mounting, the wheel must be tightened with a nut without distorting the flange, and the wheel must be able to move freely.

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Mounting of abrasive wheel. Pneumatic Tool Safety Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air. Examples of pneumatic tools include drills, hammers, grinders, nail guns, riveting guns, and sanders. Fig. 5.54 shows a pneumatic nail gun.

A type of pneumatic tool and Pneumatic unit.

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OSHA requires that each pneumatic tool must have a tool retainer installed on each piece of pneumatic utilization equipment. The retainer protects the tool from being ejected during operation. Also, the hose and hose connections used for conducting compressed air to utilization equipment shall be designed for the pressure and service to which they are subjected. In other words, the equipment you use for the hose and its corresponding equipment must be designed specifically for the pneumatic tool you are using. For air hoses more than 1/2 inch (12mm) in diameter, a safety excess flow valve must be installed at the air supply to reduce pressure in the event of hose failure. Pneumatic tools that shoot nails, rivets, staples, or similar fasteners and operate at pressures greater than 100 psi must have a safety device to keep fasteners from being accidentally ejected, unless the muzzle is pressed against the work surface. Airless spray guns that spray fluids such as paint at 100 psi or greater must have safety devices that prevent accidental pulling of the trigger.

Pneumatic Nail Gun. a. Portable pneumatic tools should be used only for the work for which they are designed. b. Wear safety glasses or a face shield and, where necessary, safety shoes or boots and hearing protection. c. Pneumatic shock tools should be equipped with safety clips or retainers to prevent dies and tools from being accidentally expelled from the barrel. d. Restrict the use of pneumatic tools to the competent persons who have been given adequate instructions and training on proper use of such tools. e. Post warning signs where pneumatic tools are used. Set up screens or shields in areas where nearby workers may be exposed to flying fragments, chips, dust, and excessive noise. f. Cleaning with compressed air is dangerous. You should not use the compressed air for cleaning.

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Do not use compressed air to blow debris or to clean dirt from clothes

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Material handling Safety

Introduction Materials handling embraces the movement of all the materials used in the workshops. It should be apparent that any piece of material used in engineering workshops has to be moved about many times. This shows the importance of material movement in the workshops, especially when it is recognized that there is some danger involved every time material is moved. Many of the accidents that happen in workshops are caused by mishaps during handling and moving materials. This should indicate the need for caution when lifting and carrying materials- the aim being to make your work easier and much safer. The objective of material handling should be the speedy movement of materials between all operation stages throughout the workshops. Material handling involves lifting, moving and placing of objects. It can be done manually (MANUAL material handling) or with the aids of equipment (MECHANICAL material handling) such as trolleys, forklift trucks, chain blocks etc. Manual Handling Operations Manual handling covers a wide range of activities including lifting, pushing, pulling, holding, throwing, carrying and supporting of loads by way of physical effort. It includes repetitive tasks such as packing, typing, assembling, cleaning and sorting, using hand-tools, and operating machinery and equipment. Most jobs involve some form of manual handling; most workers are at risk of manual handling injury. Of course, not all manual handling tasks are hazardous. But it is significant that around a quarter of all workplace injuries are caused by manual handling. The first consideration when looking at an activity involving manual handling should be whether the manual handling is necessary. Quite often it is only being done in the way that it is because, it has always been done that way. It may be possible to change the system of work to remove the need for the manual handling. Power Zone The power zone for lifting is close to the body, between mid-thigh and mid-chest height. This zone is where arms and back can lift the most loads with the least amount of effort.

Power zone

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Hazards Accidents related to manual material handling can result in a variety of injuries such as crushed fingers, broken toes, cuts, and brushes to the legs and feet, strained sprained backs etc. However, back injuries are far the most serious and common problem in manual material handling. Back injuries are not limited to industrial or construction activities, but are widespread among many occupational environments including office work. Causes of Injuries a. Manual material handling injuries can be attributed to a number of factors: b. Incorrect lifting techniques. c. Carrying too heavy a load. d. Incorrect gripping. e. Failure to wear protective clothing. f. Poor job design. g. Physical conditions of individuals.

Control Measures Applying both administrative and engineering control measures should minimize the potential for injury cause by manual material handling. Administrative Controls These refer mainly to items such as training, the provision of personal protection equipment and proper job assignment. The provision of proper training is very important in reducing injuries resulting from manual material handling. Training should include the recognition of dangers in manual material handling, learning of proper lifting practice to avoid unnecessary stress to the body. Engineering Controls Engineering controls refer to items such as improvement on mechanical, visual, and thermal environments, alternatives for material handling systems, minimization of potential ergonomic problems etc. The mechanical controls include container design, handle and handhold designs, and floor worker interfaces. The visual environment refers to lighting, colour and labelling. Material handling alternatives include various equipment and job aids, such as the use of trolleys, chain blocks, hooks, bars, and other devices. Potential ergonomic problems minimized through proper design or workstations.

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Proper Handholds Proper handholds make lifting easier and reduce the risk of injury. Handholds should be made large enough to accommodate larger hands and should not dig into fingers and palms.

Assessment of Work Procedure for Manual Handling The Task a. Does the task involve holding loads away from the trunk? b. Does the task involve large vertical movement? c. Does the task involve long carrying distances? d. Does the task involve strenuous pushing or pulling of the load Manual Handling and Lifting Techniques Lifting Heavy Loads How much weight a worker can safely lift depends on a number of factors. When the factors are such that the worker can assume an ideal body posture during the lift, the worker is able to lift greater loads. Factors affecting how much weight a worker can safely lift include:
Lifting factors More weight can be safely lifted when: The load is close to the body and not too large/bulky, which allows the arms and elbows to be close to the torso during the lift. The lift is at waist height. The amount of weight that can safely be lifted is reduced when: The load is farther away from the body or is large/bulky, forcing the arms and elbows away from the torso during the lift. The lift must be made from below the knees or above the shoulder. The worker must twist the torso to lift and move the load. The lift is performed repeatedly (several times a minute). The load must be carried a distance (more than 3 feet). The load does not have handles or is slippery.

How far from the body the load is held (horizontal distance).

How high or low is the lift (vertical distance). How much the worker must twist to lift and move the load. How often the lift is repeated. How far the load is carried. How the load is gripped.

The lift is performed in front of the body. The lift is occasionally. performed only

The lift does not carrying. The load has handles.

involve

(b). Team lifting Team lifting is employed when manhandling heavy loads, but remembers there can be only ONE captain to the team and only he gives the orders. All members of the team should lift together to spread the load evenly. All the men in the team should be of similar physique and build.

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Some Proper Lifting Practices are recommended below: a. Gets firm footings make sure that the floor is not slippery. b. Determine how heavy it weighs. If the load is too big or too heavy for one person to carry, ask somebody to help or use team lifting. c. Make sure the load is free, not locked down or struck. d. Watch out for the fingers and hands when carrying a load so that they will not struck against other objects. e. Inspect the route over which the load is to be carried. Make sure it is in plain view with adequate lighting and is free of obstructions or spillage that could cause tripping or slipping. f. Inspect the load to be lifted for sharp edges, and wet or greasy spots. g. Wear gloves when lifting or handling objects with sharp or splintered edges. Make sure the gloves are free from oil, grease, or other agents that may cause a poor grip. h. Consider the distance the load is to be carried. Recognize the fact that gripping power will weaken over long distances. DO NOT continue lifting when the load is too heavy. i. Size up the load and make a preliminary heft to be sure the load is easily within lifting capacity. If it is not, get help or use a mechanical lifting device. j. If team lifting is required, make sure that personnel are similar in size and physique. One person should act as leader and give the commands to lift, lower, etc. k. Never overexert yourself when lifting. If the load is thought to be more than one person can handle, an additional person shall be assigned to the job. l. Bend your knees and keep your back straight. m. Lift gradually with your legs (not your back), without jerking, to minimize the effects of acceleration. n. Keep the load close to the body. o. Lift without twisting the body.

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General Lifting Principles

General Lifting Principles a. Get a firm footing. Keep your feet apart for a stable base. Point feet in the direction of travel. b. Bend your hips and knees instead of bending at the waist. This allows the leg muscles to take the load and not the spine. c. Tighten abdominal muscles. Abdominal muscles support the spine when lifting. d. Ensure correct hold. Select a secure grip so that there is no danger of slipping during the lift. e. Brace yourself for the lift, continue to breathe normally through the lift, concentrate on the lift and not on the breathing. vi. Lift steadily don't jerk the load. f. Keep your back straight and avoid twisting or bending to the side. g. Keep the load close. The closer it is to your spine the less force it exerts on your back. How to Lift Safely Before lifting, take a moment to think about what you're about to do. Examine the object for sharp corners, slippery spots or other potential hazards. Know your limit and don't try to exceed it. Ask for help if needed, or if possible, divide the load to make it lighter. Know where you are going to set the item down and make sure it and your path are free of obstructions. Then follow these steps. 1. Stand close to the load with your feet spread apart about shoulder width, with one foot slightly in front of the other for balance.

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2. Squat down bending at the knees (not your waist). Tuck your chin while keeping your back as vertical as possible.

3. Get a firm grasp of the object before beginning the lift.

4. Begin slowly lifting with your LEGS by straightening them. Never twist your body during this step.

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5. Once the lift is complete, keep the object as close to the body as possible. As the load's center of gravity moves away from the body, there is a dramatic increase in stress to the lumbar region of the back.

If you must turn while carrying the load, turn using your feet-not your torso. To place the object below the level of your waist, follow the same procedures in reverse order. Remember, keep your back as vertical as possible and bend at the knees.

Non-Powered Hand Trucks When not in use, trucks should be parked in a designated area, not in the aisles or in other places where they constitute tripping hazards or obstruct traffic Manual Pallet Jack Floor Hand Truck

Pallet + walk + no stack + manual Manual lifting and/or travel

Four or more wheeled hand truck with handles for pushing or hitches for pulling

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Two-Wheeled Hand Truck

Dolly

Three or more wheeled hand truck with a flat platform in which, since it has no handles, the load is used for pushing

Non-pallet + manual + no stack Load tilted during travel

Guidelines for using a hand truck. a) Keep the centre of gravity of the load as low as possible. Place heavy objects below lighter objects. b) Place the load well forward so the axle will carry the weight. c) Position the load so it will not slip, shift, or fall. Load only to a height that will allow a clear view ahead. d) Let the truck carry the load. The operator should only balance and push. e) Never walk backwards with a hand truck. f) When going down an incline, keep the truck in front of you. When going up, keep the truck behind you. g) Move the truck at a safe speed. Do not run. Keep the truck under control at all times. Guidelines for using a wheelbarrow.

a. b. c. d. e.

Keep the centre of gravity of the load as low as possible. Centre the load so the axle will carry the weight. Position the load so it will not slip, shift, or fall. Make sure the tires are inflated and at the proper pounds per square inch (p.s.i.). Position your body between the handles, using your right hand for the right handle and left hand for the left handle. f. To properly lift the load, bend your knees, while keeping your back straight.

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g. Let the wheelbarrow carry the load. The operator should only balance and push. Mechanical Handling Operations Introduction The aim of lifting equipment is to lift material effectively, without waste of time or effort, and without causing damage or injury to man or machine. Almost every workplace contains parts or tools that are too heavy to lift safely by hand. Lifting equipment can be defined as work equipment used at work for lifting and lowering loads includes attachments used for anchoring or supporting the load. Such a definition covers a wide range of equipment. Key Requirements of Lifting Equipment a. Strength and Stability The lifting equipment must be sufficiently strong, stable for the proposed use. Similarly the load and anything attached to it must be suitable and of adequate strength. b. Positioning and Installation Lifting equipment must be positioned or installed to prevent risk of injury, e.g. from the equipment or the load falling or striking people. c. Marking of Lifting Equipment Lifting equipment, including accessories, must be visibly marked with any appropriate information to be taken into account for its safe use, e.g. safe working load. Equipment for lifting people must be appropriately marked, as must equipment, which must not be used for lifting people but might be in error. d. Organization of Lifting Operations Lifting operations must be planned, supervised, and carried out in a safe manner by people who are competent to do so. e. Lifting Equipment for Lifting Persons Such equipment must not present a risk of crushing or tripping, nor must people be at risk of falling from the equipment or struck by it.

Types of Lifting Devices for Material Handling The most common lifting devices used today for handling material are stated below. a. Cranes. b. Portable lifting stands. c. Chain Blocks. d. Forklift Trucks.

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Principles of lifting device

Mobile Crane
Portable lifiting Stand

Chain Blocks

Gantry Crane Forklift

35

Overhead Crane

Chain Blocks (Tackle) Although a crane is necessary to lift heavy loads, chain blocks are frequently used in workshops for the overhead lifting of smaller loads. To lift a load with chain blocks, it is necessary to have a support above the load, to which the block can be fixed. Often a special lifting jib is fixed over the place where most of the lifting needs to be done. In selecting the support to be used, remember that any roof attachment used has to carry the total load to be lifted plus the weight of the block, and manual pull exerted. Forklift trucks Forklift trucks are commonly used in the workplace and industry in moving and stacking goods on pallets. Forklift trucks can be powered by different kinds of fuels such as LPG batteries, diesel. Forklift trucks have one major difference from ordinary road vehicles that they are operated with rear wheel steering. As a result, both the forks and the rear of the vehicle swing wide on corners. Forklift truck drivers have to be trained and practice for some time before they can get used to the difference. Mobile Cranes Mobile cranes are used to hoist loads to meet various construction and industrial needs. All cranes use cables and pulleys or hydraulics to raise and lower the desired load. Mobile Cranes are used in many industries and construction sites to move heavy and oversized object that other material handling methods cannot. The basic operational characteristics of all mobile cranes as follows: a. Ability to lift and lower loads. b. Ability to swing loads around an axis of rotation. c. Adjustable boom lengths. d. Adjustable boom angles. e. Ability to travel about the job site under their own power. Overhead Cranes Overhead cranes are among the most commonly used lifting devices in many industrial workplaces. They provide both vertical and horizontal movement of heavy and oversized loads. Overhead travelling cranes usually have three main drive mechanisms for: a. Lifting. b. Crane travel. c. Hoist trolley travel. Overhead cranes have a railed support structure called a bridge and a wheeled trolley that travels across the bridge horizontally. A hoisting mechanism attaches to the trolley and exerts

36

force for raising and lowering. The load is attached to the hoist with an attachment such as a sling or a hoist chain. There are several types of overhead cranes, including gantry cranes, storage bridge cranes, mobile cranes and wall cranes. These cranes are powered similarly to hoists, manually, electrically, or by air. Overhead cranes are used in shop environments to maximize the use of overhead space. Gantry Cranes Gantry Cranes are similar to overhead cranes, except that the bridge carrying the trolley is supported on two or more legs running parallel on fixed rails; also, the legs of a gantry crane are secured to the ground, or movable. Otherwise, the setup is basically the same with the overhead crane. Lifting Equipment and Lifting Gears There are many kinds of lifting equipment such as cranes, hoists, winches; chain blocks etc., which are used for moving materials vertically. Lifting equipment also, include devices such as ropes, chains, slings, shackles, eyebolts etc. Hazards Hazards involving the use of lifting equipment include: a. Failing down of elevated materials due to improper fixing, tying, slinging etc b. Structural failure of lifting equipment due to overloading. c. Overturning of mobile cranes due to improper operations. d. Striking of persons or objects by the load as a result of inadequate visibility of the operator.
Safety Precautions in the use of Lifting Devices

Always ensure that all lifting equipment is: a. Sufficiently strong, stable and suitable for the proposed use. Similarly, the load and anything attached (eg timber pallets, lifting points) must be suitable; b. positioned or installed to prevent the risk of injury, eg from the equipment or the load falling or striking people; c. Visibly marked with any appropriate information to be taken into account for its safe use, eg safe working loads. Accessories, eg slings, clamps etc, should be similarly marked. Never exceed any safe working loads. Additionally, you must ensure that: a. lifting operations are planned, supervised and carried out in a safe manner by people who are competent; b. where equipment is used for lifting people it is marked accordingly, and it should be safe for such a purpose, eg all necessary precautions have been taken to eliminate or reduce any risk; c. Where appropriate, before lifting equipment (including accessories) is used for the first time, it is thoroughly examined.

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Chemical Safety
Introduction Over the past decade there has been a vast increase in the use of chemicals, and this trend will continue as chemicals have a direct impact on the improved quality of life. There are, however, many risks associated with the unsafe use of chemicals at work. Therefore safety and health in the use of chemicals offers a challenge to governments, and to employers and workers and their representatives. Fifty years ago only 1 million tons of chemical were produced annually. Little was known, and little was done, about the hazards associated with chemicals and chemical processes. Today over 400 million tons of chemicals are produced annually, and of the 5-7 million known chemical substances over 80,000 are marketed. Over 1,000 new chemicals are produced each year. It is estimated that 5,000-10,000 commercial chemicals are hazardous, of which 150-200 are considered likely to cause cancer. It is imperative that everyone who could potentially come into contact with chemicals should know and understand the risks, and the methods available for reducing them. This section covers the following topics: a. Health risks resulting from exposure to chemical hazards at work; b. Chemical fire and explosion hazards; c. Basic principles of prevention; d. Chemical emergency procedures; e. The management of a chemical control programme.

What is a Chemical? What is a chemical? Everything is a chemical. Chemistry is the study of matter and its interactions with other matter. Anything made of matter is therefore a chemical be it liquid, solid, or gas, any pure substance or any mixture. Chemicals are available either in natural or synthetic form. These chemicals are mostly found as mixtures in commercial products such as

38

agricultural chemicals, food additives, fuels for power production, chemical consumer products, etc. One to two million of such products or trade names are available. What is a hazardous chemical? A hazardous chemical is a chemical for which there is significant evidence that acute or chronic health effects may occur in exposed employees. The following properties contribute to risk to health resulting from acute, repeated or prolonged exposure: a. very toxic or toxic b. harmful c. corrosive d. irritant e. cancer causing f. hazards to reproduction g. can cause non-heritable birth defects h. sensitizing What is Toxicity? Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism. There are no safe substances, all chemicals can be poisonous and cause injury or death. But they can be used safely: the effect depends on the dose and exposure. It is possible by limiting these to handle and benefit from the properties of chemical substances in an `acceptably safe' way. The toxic effects can be immediate or delayed, reversible or irreversible, local or systemic. The toxic effects vary from mild and reversible (e.g., a headache from a single episode of inhaling the vapours of ethyl acetate that disappears when the victim inhales fresh air) to serious and irreversible (e.g., birth defects from excessive exposure to a teratogen during pregnancy or cancer from excessive exposure to a carcinogen). Toxic Entities There are generally three types of toxic entities; chemical, biological and physical: a. Chemicals include inorganic substances such as lead, mercury, asbestos, hydrofluoric acid, and chlorine gas, organic compounds such as methyl alcohol, most medications, and poisons from living things. b. Biological toxic entities include those bacteria and viruses that are able to induce disease in living organisms. Biological toxicity can be complicated to measure because the "threshold dose" may be a single organism. Theoretically one virus, bacterium or worm can reproduce to cause a serious infection. However, in a host with an intact immune system the inherent toxicity of the organism is balanced by the host's ability to fight back; the effective toxicity is then a combination of both parts of the relationship. A similar situation is also present with other types of toxic agents. c. Physically toxic entities include things not usually thought of under the heading of "toxic" by many people: direct blows, concussion, sound and vibration, heat and cold, non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation such as infrared and visible light, and ionizing radiation such as X-rays and alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. How chemicals affect us The harmful effects of chemical substances depend on the toxicity and the exposure to that chemical. Toxicity is a property of the chemical substance, while the exposure depends on the way the chemical is used. For a chemical to exert an effect there has first to be exposure. If

39

there is no contact between a living organism and a chemical, no matter how toxic the chemical, the organism cannot possibly be harmed. Exposure to chemicals: dose-effect relationship

Chemical health hazard Chemicals have become a part of our life, sustaining many of our activities, preventing and controlling diseases, and increasing agricultural productivity. However, one can not ignore that these chemicals may, especially if not properly used, endanger our health and poison our environment. Chemical health hazard is the potential of a chemical to cause harm or adversely affect health of people in the workplace. Adverse health effect ranges from fatality, permanent and serious health impairment to mild skin irritation at the other end. To prevent chemical risks, it
is necessary to:

a. b. c. d. e.

Identify the substances present in the workplace; Be aware of their risks for health and the environment; Understand both employers and employees perception of risk; Identify alternatives that bear lesser risk; and Evaluate the advantages and inconveniences that these alternatives may present from a legal, environmental, occupational and economic perspective, before implementing them.

Fig 1. Factors that determine the chemical effects on a worker Acute effects - Chronic effects The effects may be acute: after a short exposure an immediate effect may be experienced. Chronic effects usually require repeated exposure and a delay is observed between the first

40

exposure and appearance of adverse health effects. A substance may have acute and chronic effects. Both acute and chronic conditions can result in permanent injury. Local effects - Systemic effects Hazardous substances may cause local effects. Acute local effects may include corrosive injuries from acids and bases or lung injuries from inhaled gases such as ozone, phosgene and nitrogen oxides. Systemic effect refers to an adverse health effect that takes place at a location distant from the body's initial point of contact and presupposes absorption has taken place. a. Local effects - stomach irritation and stomach upset. b. Systemic effects - an increase in the blood alcohol level, which can cause damage to brain cells. c. Acute effects - drunkenness, headache and a hangover. d. Chronic effects - permanent liver damage, which can have a latency period of many years.

Fig, 2. Local and Systemic effects

Routes of entry of workplace chemicals into the body a. Inhalation (breathing in) b. Absorption (through the skin or eyes) c. Ingestion (eating, swallowing) Other routes of entry include a. Transfer across the placenta to the unborn baby b. Intravenous (injection into the vein) 41

c. Intramuscular (injection into the muscle) d. Subcutaneous (injection under the skin)

Fig. 3. Routes of entry of chemical into the body Table 1. The physical form, route of entry, affected organ and type of toxicity of some common industrial chemicals.
Chemical Physical form Method of entry Organ(s) that can be affected Class of toxicity Symptoms Examples of industries where the chemicals are used Metal industries, welding processes, heavy chemicals Industrial processes involving polyureth ane manufact ure, paints and inks

Cadmium metal and some of its compounds

Dusts, vapours, Dusts

Inhalation

Ingestion

Lungs, Poisonous, throat, causing kidneys damage to lungs, kidneys on chronic exposure. Lungs Allergenic

Dry burning throat, chest pain, vomiting, headaches

Toluene diisocyanate

Vapour

Inhalation

Industrial asthma due to lung effects Dermatitis

Solid

Spillage on skin

Skin

Allergenic

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Target Organ Effects of Chemicals 1. Hepatotoxins damage the liver. 2. Nephrotoxins damage the kidneys. 3. Neurotoxins adversely affect the nervous system. 4. Hematopoietic Agents decrease haemoglobin function and deprive the body tissues of oxygen. 5. Agents which damage the lung irritate or damage pulmonary tissue. 6. Reproductive toxins affect reproductive capabilities including chromosomal damage (mutations) and effects on foetuses (teratogens). 7. Cutaneous hazards affect the skin, or dermal layer, of the body. 8. Eye hazards affect the eye or visual capacity.

Fig.4. Target organ of chemical Forms of chemical found in the workplace The physical form of a chemical can affect how it enters your body and to some extent, the damage it causes. The main physical forms are stated below. a. Solid. This form is the least likely to cause chemical poisoning. However, certain chemical solids can cause poisoning if they get onto your skin, or into food;

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b. Dust. Dust is made of tiny particles of solids. Exposure can be either from materials that normally exist in dust form (for example, bags of cement), or from work processes that create dust (for example, handling glass fibres that produce toxic dust); c. Liquid. Many hazardous substances, such as acids and solvents, are liquids when they are at normal temperature; d. Vapour. This is the gas phase of a material that is found as a liquid under normal conditions. Tiny droplets of liquid which are suspended in the air are called mists; and e. Gases. Some chemical substances exist as a gas when they are at a normal temperature. However, some chemicals in liquid or solid form become gases when they are heated. Other physical forms are aerosols, fumes, smokes, and fogs.

Fig. 5, Chemicals can change their physical form, e.g. wood into sawdust. Common forms of Chemical That Cause Health Risks a. Dusts b. Acids and bases c. Fumes/vapour d. Solvents e. Pesticides f. Gases g. Metals

Labels

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The hazard classification and labelling process is an essential tool for establishing an effective information transfer so that the degree of the hazard the chemical represents for man and the environment can be recognized, the correct preventive actions be chosen, and safe use achieved. The label is the basic tool to keep the user informed on the classification of a products hazard and the most important safety precautions. Labels must be attached to the container, and correspond to the exact chemical that can be found in the container.

Fig. 7 Labelling of chemicals It is important to know that most industrial chemicals have two names: (1) a trade name by which the chemical is commonly known, for example Wonderglu or Supabat, which does not tell you anything about the chemical it is simply the brand name used to advertise the chemical; and (2) the chemical (generic) name which tells you the exact ingredients (the ingredients are often in small writing on the label).

SODIUMTRICHLOROACETATE (NaTA)
Dangerous to health safety - hazards: dangerous to health, especially when swallowed! may decompose above 110C (230F) and form poisonous gases

safety - directions
1. 2. 3. 4. keep container tightly closed and store in cool, dry area keep material away from food avoid contact with skin and eyes rinse contaminated articles and floors thoroughly with water 5. avoid elevated temperatures in case of fire do not inhale smoke

Labelling systems International, regional, and national classification and labelling systems are already established some of them are stated below:

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a. The United Nations Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods is widely recognized and used among the UN member states; b. The classification and labelling system of the European Union which is used beyond the EU countries; and c. Several functioning national systems, such as those of Canada and USA, may also be used as models for national systems. d. The globally harmonized system of classification and labelling of chemicals (GHS)

Fig.9. Label under EU regulation The globally harmonized system of classification and labelling of chemicals (GHS) The globally harmonized system of classification and labelling of chemicals (GHS) is an internationally recognized system set to replace the various classification and labelling standards used in different countries. The GHS establishes consistent criteria for classification and labelling of chemicals on a global scale. It covers all hazardous chemicals, including substances and mixtures. Information on GHS labels The required information in the GHS labels includes: a. Symbols (hazard pictograms) b. Signal Words: Danger or Warning c. Hazard Statements: Additional label elements included in the GHS are: a. Precautionary statements: b. Product identifier: c. Supplemental information. Safety data sheets (MSDS) Safety data sheet (or SDS) is the name given to the Material Safety Data Sheet of the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). Safety Data Sheets contain identification information about the substance (composition, physical, chemical and toxicological hazards), information on specific protection and prevention measures throughout the whole process (production, storage, transport, etc.), measures to undertake in case of an accident (spillage, fire-fighting measures, etc.), as well as

46

contact details of the supplier. The information in the SDS should be presented using the following 16 headings in the order given below: 1. Identification 2. Hazard identification 3. Composition/information on ingredients 4. First-aid measures 5. Fire-fighting measures 6. Accidental release measures 7. Handling and storage 8. Exposure controls/personal protection 9. Physical and chemical properties 10. Stability and reactivity 11. Toxicological information 12. Ecological information 13. Disposal considerations 14. Transport information 15. Regulatory information 16. Other information PREVENTIVE MEASURES 1. Substitution Replace the hazardous chemical with another less dangerous one 2. Engineering control Enclosed process Ventilation 3. Safe working procedures - Codes of Practice 4. Reducing exposure The number of exposed workers Reducing the length of time and/or frequency of exposure 5. Personal protective equipment 6. Monitoring Working environment Medical monitoring of workers 7. Hazard communication Labelling of chemicals Chemical Safety Data Sheets 8. Training Use of chemicals Emergency situation First aid training Provisions and legislation concern Substitution Substitution of a less toxic material Change in process to minimize contact with hazardous chemicals Isolation or enclosure of a process or operation Use of wet methods to reduce generation of dusts or other particulates Engineering Controls General dilution ventilation Local exhaust, including the use of fume hoods 47

Closed system Housekeeping Management controls a. Restricted entries b. Special attention to high-risk groups c. Job rotation d. Observing re-entry intervals in sprayed places Use of personal protective equipment and personal hygiene Personal protective equipment against chemicals includes: a. Face shields, goggles and safety glasses; b. Gloves; c. Rubber boots; d. Plastic or rubber overalls and aprons; e. Hard hats; f. Respirators; and g. Dust masks.

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Machinery Hazards, Prevention and Protection Measures

Introduction In the manufacturing industry, production consists of processing, assembling, and transporting materials. In modern times, machines use large amounts of energy to absorb the burden from workers to assist in production. Trained workers based on experience in operating the machines create more stable quality, causing the relationship between machines and production to continue and evolve into many forms today. Machinery has the potential to cause severe and fatal injuries. It is estimated that half of machinery accidents arise during maintenance. This means that all dangerous parts must be guarded. Concept of Machine Safety The relationship between workers and machines and the environment in which they operate has thus changed on a global scale. And yet, manufacturing is not possible until a worker operates a machine. Across changes in the operating environment, safety demands that machines and production facilities should be used safely regardless of where they are used or who uses them. This is required not only in the workers, but also in the machines and hardware technology. As a result, global standards for safety are required for today's production sites. Hazards Generated by Machinery Hazards occur in areas where machine work areas (machine operating output) and human work areas overlap. Danger from machinery can arise in two main ways. 1. Firstly by machinery hazards, including traps, impact, contact, entanglement or through ejection of materials or machine parts. 2. Secondly through non machinery hazards, which include electrical failure, exposure to chemicals, pressure, extremes of temperature, noise, vibration and radiation. Danger can also arise from the software element; computer control and human error by the person carrying out the task at the machine

Human Workspace

Hazard Zone

Machine Workspace

Fig 1. Hazards occur in areas where machine work areas and human work areas overlap

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Source: http://www.ia.omron.com Fig. 2. Safety Procedure for Machinery

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Fig. 3. Risk Reduction Processes from the Designers Perspective Typical Machinery Hazards 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Mechanical Hazards Electrical Hazards Thermal Hazards Hazards Generated by Noise Hazards Generated by Vibration Hazards Generated by Radiation Hazards Generated by Materials and Substances 51

8. Hazards Generated by Neglecting Ergonomic Principles in Machine Design 9. Hazards associated with the environment in which the machine is used 10. Hazards combinations Machinery Hazards Injuries Many serious accidents at work involve the use of machinery. People can be injured by machinery in five different ways. Some machines can injure in more than one way. The five ways are: 1. Traps: The body or limb(s) become trapped between closing or passing motions of the machine. In some cases the trap occurs when the limb(s) are drawn into a closing motion, for example in-running nips. 2. Impact: Injuries can result from being struck by moving parts of the machine. 3. Contact: Injuries can result from contact of the operator with sharp and abrasive surfaces. Alternatively, contact with hot or electrically live components will cause injury on contact. 4. Entanglement: Injuries resulting from the entanglement of hair, jewellery, items of clothing in moving (particularly rotating) parts of machinery. 5. Ejection: Injuries can result from elements of the work-piece or components of machinery being thrown out during the operation of the machine, for example sparks, swarf, chips, molten metal splashes and broken components Causes of Machinery Accidents a. b. c. d. e. Reaching in to remove debris or loosen a jam Not using lockout/tagout Unauthorized persons doing maintenance or using the machines. Missing or loose machine guards. Operators/users not properly trained.

Contact with Dangerous Parts of machinery can be achieved by: 1. Unsafe (Unauthorised) Behaviours : (i). Violations - deliberate deviation from rules/procedures (ii). Errors - of commission (failure to perform an act correctly) (iii). Errors of omission (failure to act e.g not turning off power) 2. Authorised Behaviours : Maintenance, Repair, Inspection activities 3. Accidental Events: e.g. tripping / slipping collision with or falling into equipment Machinery Hazards Prevention Preventing machinery hazards begins by eliminating mechanisms that facilitate hazardous conditions. The following strategies are generally used to achieve this goal: 1. Spatial separation between human and machine workspaces (Isolation principle, Safety protection like guards, machine layout) 2. Temporal separation (stoppage principle: Safety by Design) 3. Safe Systems of Working 4. Operator training and supervision 5. Machine maintenance and inspection 6. The provision of personal protective equipment. Safety by Design

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Safety by design is the process by which the designer of the work equipment eliminates hazards at the design stage with consideration for the elimination of dangerous parts or making dangerous parts inaccessible, reducing the need to handle work pieces in the danger area, provision of automatic feed devices, and enclosure of the moving parts of the machine. Other areas, which should be covered at the design stage, include: Controls: The design and provision of controls which: a. Are in the correct position; b. Are of the correct type; c. Remove the risk of accidental start up; d. Have a directional link (control movement matched to machinery movement); e. Distinguished by direction of movement; f. Have distinguishing features (size, colour, feel e.t.c). Failure to Safety: Designers should ensure that machines fail to safety and not to danger. Examples of this are; provision of arrestor devices to prevent unexpected strokes and movements, fitting of catches and fall back devices, and fail safe electrical limit switches. Safe Systems of Working Where machinery is in operation systems of working must be put in place that prevents danger to operators or other persons who may be exposed. Permit to work systems should be in place where individuals may have to enter hazardous environments. Safe systems should be designed to ensure that people exposed to the work activities are not at risk. Operator training and supervision Training should take account of the nature of the hazard, the experience of the operator and any other points of vulnerability such as young people, pregnancy or disability. Supervision should be such that best practice is always complied with. Machine Maintenance and Inspection Depending upon the use equipment is put to; it should be regularly inspected and maintained. Such maintenance should be part of systematic schedules of work. In some cases, particularly lifting equipment and air receivers there is a statutory duty to carry out inspections. The safety of operatives during cleaning and maintenance operations should be designed into machinery. Positive lock off devices should be provided to prevent unintentional restarting of machinery. Machine Layout: The way in which machines are arranged in the workplace can reduce accidents significantly. A safe layout will take account of: a. Spacing - to facilitate access for operation, supervision, maintenance, adjustment and cleaning. b. Lighting - both general lighting to the workplace (natural or artificial, but avoiding glare) and localised for specific operations at machines. c. Cables and pipes - should be placed to allow safe access and avoid tripping, with sufficient headroom.

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Machine Guards

A machine guard is a rigid cover that shields workers from moving machine parts and flying debris. Injuries arising from exposure to unprotected moving machine parts include Crushed hands and arms, severed fingers, blindness etc, These injuries may range from minor to severe and cause the employee pain, suffering, lost wages and lost work time. It is important for employees to understand that guards are provided to protect them from injury.

In effective guard

Effective guard

Most modern machine designs incorporate proper machine guards to prevent access to dangerous parts of the machine. Guards are engineered to give as much protection as possible. However, many older and rebuilt machines do not necessarily offer the proper protection from moving parts. Also, when workers are servicing and maintaining machines, they are often exposed to areas that are typically guarded, such as the motor connections and nip points. For this reason, employers must do everything they can to properly guard machinery, and employees must be trained to recognize machine hazards and prevent injuries whether or not guards are in place. Machine guards must meet the following minimum general requirements to protect workers against mechanical hazards: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Be securely attached Create no new hazards Withstand operational conditions Allow for safe routine maintenance Allow for safe operator adjustments Withstand environmental conditions Provide protection from falling objects Prevent contact with hazardous conditions Create no interference in the conduct of work

Hierarchy of Control to be used for the selection of machine guards The type of machine guard used will depend very much on the type of machine part which needs guarding, the access requirements to the part and the feasibility of the guard. The following gives a hierarchy to be used for the selection of machine guards/controls: 1. Where access to the danger area is not required during normal operation: a. Fixed guard, where practicable

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b. Distance guard c. Trip device 2. Where access to the danger area is required during normal operation: a. Interlocked guard b. Automatic guard c. Trip device d. Adjustable guard e. Self-adjusting guard f. Two-handed control 3. Parts of machine to be guarded Parts of Machine to be safeguarded include: 1. Where Mechanical Hazards Occur a. The Point of Operation: b. Power Transmission Apparatus: c. Other Moving Parts:

2. The Point of Operation: Where work is performed on the material, such as: a. b. c. d. Cutting Shaping Boring Forming of stock

3. Power Transmission Apparatus: All components of the mechanical system which transmit energy to the part of the machine performing the work such as: a. b. c. d. e. Rotating parts Feed mechanisms Reciprocating parts Transverse moving parts Auxiliary parts of the machine

Hazardous Mechanical Motions and Actions A wide variety of mechanical motions and actions may present hazards to the worker:

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a. b. c. d. e. f.

Rotating members Reciprocating arms Moving belts Meshing gears Cutting teeth Any parts that impact or shear

The basic types of hazardous mechanical motions and actions Motions a. Rotating b. In-running Nip Points
c. d. Reciprocating Transversing
NIP POINT

Actions a. Cutting b. Punching c. Shearing d. Bending

SHEARITE CUTTING BLADES

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Hazardous Mechanical Motions Rotating motion a. Collars b. Couplings c. Cams d. Spindles e. Meshing gears f. Fans g. Clutches h. Flywheels i. Shafts

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Rotating and fixed parts

Rotating and tangentially moving

Parts rotating in opposite direction Reciprocating motion Transverse motion

Examples: Conveyor lines Lengthy belts

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Hazardous Mechanical Actions

Cutting

Bending

Punching

Shearing

Methods of Machine Guarding There are many ways to safeguard machines. The type of operation, the size or shape of stock, the method of handling, and the physical layout of the work area, the type of material, and production requirements or limitations will help determine the appropriate safeguarding method for the individual machine. The two principal methods of guards are stated below:

Guards a. Fixed b. Interlocked c. Adjustable d. Self-adjusting

Devices a. Presence-Sensing Devices b. Photoelectric (optical) c. Radiofrequency (capacitance) d. Electromechanical e. Pullbacks f. Restraints g. Gates

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Other safeguarding strategies may include: a. Location/Distance Miscellaneous aids can help reduce exposure a. Awareness barriers Protective shields b. Hand-feeding tools and holding fixtures Guards Guards are physical barriers which prevent access to danger areas. 1. Fixed 2. Interlocked 3. Adjustable 4. Self-adjusting Fixed Guards a. Permanent part of the machine. b. Not dependent upon moving parts to perform its intended function. c. Constructed of sheet metal, screen, wire cloth, bars, plastic, or other substantial material d. Usually preferable to all other types because of its relative simplicity and permanence.

Interlocked Guards a. When opened or removed, the tripping mechanism and/or power automatically shuts off or disengages b. Machine cannot cycle or be started until the guard is back in place c. Electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic power d. Replacing the guard should not automatically restart the machine

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Adjustable Guards Allow flexibility in accommodating various sizes of stock

Self-adjusting Guards a. Openings are determined by the movement of stock b. Guard is pushed away as stock is introduced; c. Opening is only large enough to admit the stock; d. Guard returns to rest position after stock passes through.

Devices A safety device may perform one of several functions. a. It may stop the machine if a hand or any part of the body is inadvertently placed in the danger area; b. Restrain or withdraw the operator's hands from the danger area during operation; c. Require the operator to use both hands on machine controls; or d. Provide a barrier which is synchronized with the operating cycle of the machine in order to prevent entry to the danger area during the hazardous part of the cycle. Type of Safety Devices a. Presence-Sensing Devices b. Photoelectric (optical) c. Radiofrequency (capacitance) d. Electromechanical e. Pullback

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f. g. h. i.

Restraint Safety Trip Controls Two-Hand Controls Gate

Location & Distance The machine or its dangerous moving parts are positioned so that the hazardous areas are not accessible or do not present a hazard during normal operation a. Walls b. Barriers/Fences c. Height above worker d. Size of stock (single end feed, punching) e. Controls (positioned at a safe distance)

Miscellaneous Aids May not give complete protection from machine hazards, but may provide the operator with an extra margin of safety. Examples: a. Awareness barriers b. Ropes c. Shields d. Holding tools e. Push sticks or blocks

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Quiz a. Machine guarding protects operators and prevents injury from b. Three basic areas require machine safeguarding. Name them: c. What are the three types of equipment/machine motions that present hazards to the worker? d. What are the four types of equipment/machine actions that can injure the worker? e. List the four general types of guards. f. List at least two types of safeguard devices. g. What are the requirements for effective guards? h. Describe at least two of the main causes of machine accidents. i. List three of the requirements for safeguards. j. List 5 machinery parts that pose hazards when unguarded or improperly guarded. k. List at least five types of machine guards l. List at least three types of devices used to safeguard machines.

GUIDANCE AND STANDARDS There are numerous standards for machine guarding and machine specific standards. Standards should be researched and consulted where they exist. The main standards are: 1. BS EN ISO14121-1:2007, Safety of machinery Principles for risk assessment 2. BS-EN953:1998, Safety of machinery Guards General requirements for the design and construction of fixed and movable guards. 3. BS EN294:1992, Safety of machinery Safety distances to prevent danger zones being reached by the upper limbs. 4. BS EN811: 1997, Safety of machinery Safety distances to prevent danger zones being reached by the lower limbs. 5. BS EN1088:1995, amended in 2007, Safety of machinery Interlocking devices associated with guards, principles for design and selection. 6. PD5304:2005, Guidance on safe use of machinery although not a standard this is a BSI published documented based on BS5304:1998 and contains a wealth of useful guidance and practical examples of guard designs.

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NOISE SAFETY
Introduction Not all sound is noise noise is sound that people do not like. Noise can be annoying and it can interfere with your ability to work by causing stress and disturbing your concentration. Noise can cause accidents by interfering with communication and warning signals. Noise can cause chronic health problems. Noise can also cause you to lose your hearing. Hearing loss from exposure to noise in the workplace is one of the most common of all industrial diseases. Workers can be exposed to high noise levels in workplaces as varied as construction industries, foundries and textile industries. Short-term exposure to excessive (too much) noise can cause temporary hearing loss, lasting from a few seconds to a few days. Exposure to noise over a long period of time can cause permanent hearing loss. Hearing loss that occurs over time is not always easy to recognize and unfortunately, most workers do not realize they are going deaf until their hearing is permanently damaged. Industrial noise exposure can be controlled often for minimal costs and without technical difficulty. The goal in controlling industrial noise is to eliminate or reduce the noise at the source producing it. 1. Health effects of noise exposure What are the health effects of exposure to too much noise? The health effects of noise exposure depend on the level of the noise and the length of the exposure. A. Temporary hearing loss After spending a short time in a noisy workplace, you may have noticed that you cannot hear very well and you have a ringing in your ears. This condition is called temporary threshold shift. The ringing and the feeling of deafness normally wear off after you have been away from the noise for a short time. However, the longer you are exposed to the noise, the longer it takes for your hearing to return to normal. After leaving work, it may take several hours for a worker's ears to recover. This may cause social problems because the worker may find it difficult to hear what other people are saying or may want the radio or television on louder than the rest of the family.

Suspect hearing loss if a person complains that he or she cannot hear something when you can.

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B. Permanent hearing loss Eventually, after you have been exposed to excessive noise for too long, your ears does not recover and the hearing loss becomes permanent. Permanent hearing loss can never be repaired. This type of damage to the ear can be caused by long-term exposure to loud noise or, in some cases, by short exposures to very loud noises. When a worker begins to lose his or her hearing, he or she may first notice that normal talking or other sounds, such as warning signals, are becoming unclear. Workers often adapt themselves (get used to) to hearing loss produced by harmful noises at work. For example, they may begin to read lips as people talk, but have difficulty listening to someone in a crowd or on the telephone. In order to hear the radio or television they may need to turn up the volume so much that it deafens the rest of the family. Getting used to noise means you are slowly losing your hearing. Hearing tests are the only reliable way to find out whether a worker is suffering from hearing loss. Unfortunately, hearing tests can be difficult to obtain and need to be performed by a trained health-care professional. The reactions of new workers or visitors to a noisy workplace can be indicators of a noise problem, for example if they have to shout, cover their ears, or leave in a hurry. C. Other effects In addition to hearing loss, exposure to noise in the workplace can cause a variety of other problems, including chronic health problems: a. Exposure to noise over a long period of time decreases coordination and concentration. This increases the chance of accidents happening. b. Noise increases stress, which can lead to a number of health problems, including heart, stomach and nervous disorders. Noise is suspected of being one of the causes of heart disease and stomach ulcers. c. Workers exposed to noise may complain of nervousness, sleeping problems and fatigue (feeling tired all the time). d. Excessive exposure to noise can also reduce job performance and may cause high rates of absenteeism.

Masking noise

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2. Measuring noise Noise in the workplace may be disturbing because of its frequency as well as its volume. For example, a high-pitched noise, such as a whistle, irritates the ears much more than a noise with a low pitch, even if the volume is the same in both cases. A. Decibels Sounds have different intensities (loudness). For example, if you shout at someone instead of whispering, your voice has more energy and can travel a great distance, therefore it has more intensity (loudness). Intensity is measured in units which are calls decibels (dB) or dB(A). The decibel scale is not a typical scale it is a logarithmic scale. Basically this means that a small increase in the decibel level is, in reality, a big increase in the noise level. For example, if sound is increased by 3 dB at any level, your ears will tell you that the sound has approximately doubled in volume. Similarly, if sound is reduced by 3 dB, your ears will feel that the volume has been cut in half. Therefore, an increase of 3 dB from 90 dB to 93 dB means the volume of the noise has doubled. However, a 10 dB increase at any level (for example, from 80 dB to 90 dB) means the noise intensity has increased ten times. Inside a typical workplace, noise comes from different sources, such as tools (machinery and materials handling), compressors, background noise, etc. If you want to identify all of the noise problems in the workplace, then you must measure the noise from each source separately. For example, if two different sources of noise in a workplace each create 80 dB by themselves, the level of noise they make together is 83 dB (not 160 dB). Therefore when you consider the amount of noise the two sources make together, the level of noise has doubled. An effective way to measure the noise in your workplace is with a sound meter. Unfortunately, it can be difficult to get the meters and the trained personnel to use them. However, there is a simple method that will help you to understand if there is a noise problem in your workplace:

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Simple method for assessing noise exposure Stand at arm's length from a co-worker. If you cannot speak in a normal tone and have to shout to communicate, then the noise level in your workplace is too high and should be reduced! B. Safe noise levels Is there a safe level of noise? A safe level of noise basically depends on two things: (1) the level (volume) of the noise; and (2) how long you are exposed to the noise. The level of noise allowed by most countries' noise standards is generally 85-90 dB over an eight-hour workday (although some countries recommend that noise levels be even lower than this). Exposure to higher noise levels may be allowed for periods of less than eight hours of exposure time. For example, workers should not be exposed to noise levels above 95 dB for more than four hours per day. Exposed workers should be provided with ear protection while exposed at this level and rotated out of the noise areas after four hours of continuous work. Of course before using ear protection and rotation every effort should be made to reduce noise using engineering controls. The eight-hour per day exposure limit found in a noise standard is the total amount of noise that a worker may be exposed to over an eight-hour period. The exposure may be from continuous (constant) noise, or from intermittent noise (noise that is periodic at regular intervals but not continuous). Therefore, you must add up the levels of noise you are exposed to throughout the day and see if they exceed 85-90 dB. Note: workers should never be exposed to more than 140 dB of impulse noise (usually a very loud noise that occurs only once) at any time. The following chart gives recommended limits of noise exposure for the number of hours exposed.
No. of hours exposed Sound level dB

8 6 4 3 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.25 or less

90 92 95 97 100 102 105 110 115

3. Methods of noise control How can noise be controlled? Workplace noise can be controlled: (1) at the source; (2) through the use of barriers; and (3) at the worker.

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A. At the source As with other types of exposures, the best method of prevention is to eliminate the hazard. Therefore controlling noise at its source is the best method of noise control. It can also often be cheaper than other methods of noise control. This method of control may require that some noisy machinery be replaced. Noise can be controlled at the source by the manufacturer, so that noisy devices never reach your workplace. Many machines are now required to conform to noise standards. Therefore before new machines (such as presses, drills, etc.) are purchased, checks should be made to see that they conform to noise standards. Unfortunately, many used machines producing high noise levels (which have been replaced with quieter models) are often exported to developing countries, causing workers to pay the price with hearing loss, stress, etc.

Put a silencer on the machine instead of ear protectors on the workers. Noise control at the source can also be engineered into an existing device by making adjustments to parts or a whole machine that reduce noise. For example, the noise level from a pneumatic drill can be reduced by placing a sound-reducing blanket around the drill. A length of tubing on the exhaust of the drill will also reduce the noise level. A rubber covering can be used to reduce noise from metal falling on to metal. Other engineering methods to reduce noise include: a. preventing or reducing impact between machine parts; b. reducing speeds gently between forward and reverse movements; c. replacing metal parts with quieter plastic parts; d. enclosing particularly noisy machine parts; e. providing mufflers for the air outlets of pneumatic valves; f. changing the type of pump in hydraulic systems; g. changing to quieter types of fans or placing mufflers in the ducts of ventilation systems; h. providing mufflers for electric motors; i. providing mufflers for intakes of air compressors.

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Noise - insulated air compressors. The principle is that the noise should be contained under the hood. The hood is made of hard material with a soft, absorbent lining. Regular maintenance, lubrication and replacement of worn or defective parts can also be effective ways to reduce noise levels. Noise from the way materials are handled can be reduced by measures such as: a. reducing the dropping height of goods being collected in bins and boxes; b. increasing the rigidity of containers receiving impact from goods, or damping them with damping materials; c. using soft rubber or plastic to receive hard impacts; d. reducing the speed of conveyor systems; e. using belt conveyors rather than the roller type. A machine vibrating on a hard floor is a common source of noise. Mounting vibrating machines on rubber mats or other damping material will reduce the noise problem. B. Barriers If it is not possible to control the noise at the source, then it may be necessary to enclose the machine, place sound-reducing barriers between the source and the worker, or increase the distance between the worker and the source. (However, this can be difficult in many cases.) The following chart is a simple method of knowing how much sound is reduced by distance.

If a small sound source produces a sound level of 90 dB at a distance of 1 meter, the sound level at a 2-meter distance is 84 dB, at 4 meters 78 dB, etc.

Here are a few points to remember when controlling noise with barriers: 70

a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

an enclosure should not be in contact with any part of the machine; holes in the enclosure should be minimized; access doors and holes for wiring and piping should be fitted with rubber gaskets; panels of insulating enclosures must be covered inside with sound-absorbent material; exhausts and air vents must be silenced and directed away from operators; the noise source should be separated from other work areas; the noise should be deflected away from work areas with a sound-insulating or reflecting barrier; h. Sound-absorbent materials should be used, if possible, on walls, floors and ceilings.

C. At the worker Controlling noise at the worker, by using ear protection (sometimes called hearing protection) is, unfortunately, the most common yet least effective form of noise control. Forcing the worker to adapt to the workplace is always the least desirable form of protection from any hazard. Generally there are two types of ear protection: earplugs and earmuffs. Both are designed to prevent excessive noise from reaching the inner ear. Earplugs are worn inside the ear and come in a variety of materials, including rubber, plastic, or any material that will fit tightly in the ear. Earplugs are the least desirable type of hearing protection because they do not provide very effective protection against noise and they can cause ear infection if pieces of the plug are left in the ear or if a dirty plug is used. Cotton wool should not be used as ear protection.

Earplugs and earmuffs: (1) Formable wadding-acoustical fibres; (2) Plastic-covered acoustical fibres; (3) Expandable plastics; (4) Reusable plastic earplugs; (5) Earmuffs.

Earmuffs are more protective than earplugs if they are used correctly. They are worn over the whole ear and protect the ear from noise. Earmuffs are less efficient if they do not fit tightly or if glasses are worn with them. Ear protection is the least acceptable method of controlling an occupational noise problem because: a. the noise is still present: it has not been reduced; b. in hot, humid conditions workers often prefer earplugs (which are less effective) because earmuffs make the ears sweaty and uncomfortable; c. management does not always provide the correct type of ear protection: often it is a case of the cheaper the better; d. workers cannot communicate with each other and cannot hear warning signals; e. if ear protection is provided instead of controlling the noise at source, then management is putting the responsibility on the worker it becomes the worker's fault if he or she becomes deaf. 71

Summary Temporary or permanent hearing loss from occupational noise exposure is one of the most common of all industrial diseases. Occupational noise exposure can cause a number of chronic health problems in addition to hearing loss. However, noise can be controlled by a variety of methods, the most effective of which is controlling noise at the source; the least acceptable method is relying on ear protection. Generally 85-90 dB over an eight-hour workday is the allowable level of noise, although it is better to reduce noise even further, whenever possible. There are a number of steps you and your union can take towards controlling noise in your workplace.

Exercise. Case-study on occupational noise

The following case - studies are based on real situations. Case 1 The problem Company XYZ is a manufacturer with five power presses producing noise levels of 102 - 104 dB. Even when only one or two presses are operating, the noise levels are still as high as 98 dB. This is painful for the workers and puts them in serious danger of losing their hearing. Question (1) What solutions to this problem can you suggest? How the problem was solved To solve the problem, the power presses were moved to a distance of 20 metres from the place where most of the workers were located. In this way, the workers were exposed to acceptable noise levels of 75-80 dB. Workers who operated the power presses were provided with earmuffs and rotated to a quieter section of the factory after a maximum of four hours' continuous work in the power press area. Questions a. Were these actions good solutions to the problem? Why or why not? b. Are workers safe if they are exposed to excessive noise for only four hours? c. Do you think there was still noise exposure for the workers even after the changes were made? d. Can you think of any better solutions to the problem? e. Why are earmuffs not an acceptable solution to noise exposure? Case 2 The problem Company ABC produces nails. The machines that cut the nails produce a noise level of 95 dB. These machines are all in a row in one section of the factory and need to be operated by a worker for eight hours a day. All workers have been given ear protectors but they do not wear them because it is too hot and uncomfortable. Question (1) What solutions to this problem can you suggest? How the problem was solved The union and the employer discussed the noise problem and decided that enclosing the nailcutting machines would cost less than buying ear protectors for all of the workers.

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Inexpensive, local materials were used to build a full enclosure around the machines. The enclosure reached from the floor to the ceiling, with no holes except the door to enter the machine area. The enclosure reduced the noise level outside the machine area to 85 dB. Workers operating the nail-cutting machines were required to wear earmuffs and were also rotated out of that area after four hours of continuous work there. A sign was placed on the door to the enclosed area reminding workers to put on their earmuffs before entering the noisy area. Questions a. Were these actions good solutions to the problem? Why or why not? b. Why were the workers rotated out of the enclosed area after four hours of continuous work there? c. Can you think of any better solutions to the problem? d. Are the solutions to this case better than the solutions that were used for the first case? Why or why not?

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Confined Space Safety

Introduction Many workers are injured and killed each year while working in confined spaces. An estimated 60% of the fatalities have been among the would-be rescuers without proper training and equipment. A confined space can be more hazardous than regular workspaces for many reasons. To effectively control the risks associated with working in a confined space, a Confined Space Hazard Assessment and Control Program should be implemented for your workplace. What Is a Confined Space? Confined Space its an enclosed space large enough for employee to bodily enter and perform assigned work, has limited or constricted means of entry or exit, and is not designed for continuous employee occupancy. Generally speaking, a confined space is an enclosed or partially enclosed space that: a. Contains or has the potential to contain a hazardous atmosphere. b. Contains a material that has the potential for engulfment of the entrant. c. Has an internal configuration such that an entrant could be trapped or asphyxiated (such as sloping walls or floors that reduce the area to a point of constriction. d. Contains any other recognized serious safety or health hazard. Confined spaces can be below or above ground. Confined spaces can be found in almost any workplace. Examples of confined spaces include: a. Storage tanks, b. Process vessels, dikes c. Pits, vats, and vaults, d. Sewage digesters and sewer silos, e. Tunnels, manholes, utility vaults, f. Pumping stations and enclosed grit chambers. g. Ditches and trenches may also be a confined space when access or egress is limited. h. Silos, and hoppers, etc. It is not possible to provide a comprehensive list of confined spaces. Some places may become confined spaces when work is carried out, or during their construction, fabrication or subsequent modification. Reasons for Entering Confined Space Entering a confined space as part of the industrial activity may be done for various reasons. a. It is done usually to perform a necessary function, such as inspection, repair, maintenance (cleaning or painting), or similar operations, which would be an infrequent or irregular function of the total industrial activity. b. Entry may also be made during new construction. Potential hazards should be easier to recognize during construction since the confined space has not been used. The types of hazards involved will be limited by the specific work practices. When the area meets the criteria for a confined space, all ventilation and other requirements should be enforced. c. One of the most difficult entries to control is that of unauthorized entry, especially when there are large numbers of workers and trades involved, such as welders, painters, electricians, and safety monitors. d. A final and most important reason for entry would be emergency rescue. 74

This, and all other reasons for entry, must be well planned before initial entry is made and the hazards must be thoroughly reviewed. The standby person and all rescue personnel should be aware of the structural design of the space, emergency exit procedures, and life support systems required.

Categories of Confined Spaces There are generally two categories of confined spaces. a. Open top confined space or b. A limited-access confined space. Open-Top Confined Open-top confined spaces have an entry on the top, with or without a cover. For example, pits and some storage tanks are considered open-top confined spaces. These spaces generally have a depth that restricts the normal movement of air. When certain substances are present, the quality or even the amount of air that is present in the tank may be affected, posing a breathing hazard to anyone entering. Even the interior of a water tank can be hazardous because of the possible build-up of certain gases. Limited-Access Limited-access confined spaces are those that are enclosed and have a very small opening for entry and exit. For example, sewers and silos are considered limited-access confined spaces.

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Open-top and Limited-Access confined spaces Both types of confined spaces also can contain mechanical equipment, such as a pump or mixing device, which could cause additional hazards. For example, someone could accidentally start the equipment while an employee is inside the space, causing injury or death. Because movement is so restricted in confined spaces, employees can become stuck, or they can be injured by the tools they take into the space with them. Also, the small openings can restrict the flow of air into the space. Even a space that contains air can be deadly if a worker spends too much time in the space and the workers breathing causes carbon dioxide to build up. Types of Confined Space The employer is required to determine if there are any confined spaces that present or could pose a hazard in the workplace. Confined spaces are of two types: a. Permit-required b. Non-permit required. Permit-Required Confined Space has any of these dangers: a. A dangerous or potentially hazardous atmosphere, contains material that could bury (engulf) workers, b. Has a shape that could cause workers to be trapped, or c. Has any other recognized serious health hazards. Non-Permit Required Confined Space is an area that does not contain any hazards capable of causing death or serious physical harm. Employers must make sure that there are no atmospheric or other major dangers. Permit System Written Permit System: It is basically just common sense ideas that result from knowledge and experience gained through studying the dangers of confined space work. A Written Permit System contains all the conditions that must be evaluated to ensure safe entry into a Permit-Require Confined-Space. Employers must develop a written permit-required confined space programme and train and certify employees required to enter a permit-required space. Training should include information about specific types of confined spaces and hazards employees will encounter at

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their worksite. Permit-required confined space entry requires a team of employees filling clearly defined roles. These are the authorized entrant, attendant, entry supervisor, and rescue personnel. For a permit-required confined space to be safe, employers must ensure that certain work practices are followed, including atmospheric testing, purging, decontaminating, isolating, and record keeping. Employees must protect themselves by wearing proper PPE and by using specialized equipment that does not cause additional hazards, such as fires. At the least, the written Permit System should contain: a. Hazards present- a list of the hazards present in the confined space must be identified. This includes atmospheric hazards as well as mechanical, explosive, and engulfment hazards. b. Means of isolation- the means by which the hazards will be isolated from the confined space. This includes lock out/tag out, when you physically disable a potential energy source (i.e. an electric or power switch), then lock or tag it so the energy cannot be restored until its safe to do so. Or, in the case of pipes, like Dannys situation, you would double block and bleed or line break the pipe and then lock and tag it so it cant be reopened until the confined space work is completed. Once isolation methods are used, you may be required to purge and/or ventilate the PRCS to establish acceptable conditions for entry. c. Acceptable environmental conditions List the acceptable environmental conditions that must be maintained during entry. These conditions will vary depending on the hazardous, toxic, and explosive materials and mechanical processes commonly found at your worksite. It would also include the usual concern of LEL and oxygen content along with work performed in the confined space that could alter the environmental conditions. Actions such as cleaning, Purging, and welding may affect the conditions in a confined space. The Permit System must acknowledge these actions in the written procedures and provide guidelines for maintaining safe working conditions while they are being performed. Entry permits must contain the following information: a. Any test results, such as levels of breathable air, and the testers initials or signature. b. Name and signature of the supervisor authorizing the entry. c. Name of permit space to be entered, names of authorized entrants, and names of others involved in the entry. d. Purpose of entry and known hazards of the space. e. Measures taken to isolate the space and control hazards, such as lockout/tagout or ventilation procedures. f. Date and authorized duration of work. g. Acceptable entry procedures. h. Communication procedures and equipment i. Additional permits needed, such as for hot work, before entering the space. j. Special equipment and procedures, including personal protective equipment (PPE). In general, the duration of the permit must not exceed the time required to complete the assigned task or job identified on the permit. Also, the entry supervisor must terminate the permit as soon as the operations covered by the permit are completed or when a condition arises that is not covered by the permit. For example, if the purpose of the entry is to inspect the space, and the inspection uncovers the need for a repair, the employer must issue a second permit for repair work.

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Personnel Authorised to enter into Confined Space Permit-required confined space entry requires a team of employees filling clearly defined roles. Each role has specific duties that help ensure everyone involved in the process remains safe. These roles are the authorized entrant, authorized attendant, entry supervisor, and rescue team. Authorized Entrant An authorized entrant is an employee who actually has permission to enter the workspace. OSHA is very specific about the skills and duties required of authorized entrants, including requirements that entrants should: a. Know the hazards they may face during entry, including information on the mode of entry for the hazard and the signs, symptoms, and effects of exposure. b. Properly use appropriate PPE, including eye and ear protection. c. Maintain communication with attendants. d. Alert the attendant when a prohibited condition exists or when warning signs or symptoms of exposure exist. e. Exit from the permit space as soon as possible when ordered, when the warning signs or symptoms of exposure exist, when a prohibited condition exists, or when an alarm is activated. More than one authorized entrant is allowed to enter a confined space at a time. However, there must be adequate space for all entrants. Also, the amount of time it takes to exit the space in the event of an emergency must be taken into account when determining the number of occupants.

Authorized Attendant The authorized attendant is essentially a guard who helps keep the authorized entrant safe. However, this person should be completely trained in the hazards that the entrant may encounter within the space. The authorized attendant is the authorized entrants primary safety device. The importance of this persons duties cannot be overstated.

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The authorized attendant helps ensure the safety of the authorized entrant. The duties outlined for the authorized attendant include requirements that this person must: a. Remain outside the permit space during entry operations unless relieved by another authorized attendant. b. Perform no-entry rescues when specified by the employers rescue procedure. c. Know existing and potential hazards, including the signs and symptoms of exposure and their behavioural effects. d. Maintain communication with and keep an accurate account of those employees entering the permit-required space. e. Order evacuation of the permit space when a prohibited condition exists or when a worker shows signs of exposure. f. Summon rescue and other service during an emergency. g. Ensure that unauthorized persons stay away from the permit spaces. h. Inform the authorized entrant and the entry supervisor in the event that unauthorized persons have entered the space. i. Perform no other duties that interfere with the task of attending the space. Entry Supervisor The entry supervisor is the person most responsible for verifying that the space is as safe as possible to enter. In addition to knowing the hazards that may be faced during entry and the signs and symptoms of exposure, the supervisors duties include: a. Verifying that specified entry conditions, such as permits, tests, procedures, and equipment, are in place. b. Terminating entry and cancelling permits when entry operations are completed or if a new condition exists. c. Taking appropriate measures to remove unauthorized entrants. d. Ensuring that entry operations remain consistent with the entry permit and that acceptable entry conditions are maintained. e. Verifying that rescue services are available and that the means of summoning them, such as telephones or radios, are in working order. The employer, supervisor or foreman often fills the role of the entry supervisor. An entry supervisor may also serve as an attendant or as an authorized entrant, as long as they are properly trained and equipped for these other roles. Also, the role of entry supervisor may be passed from one individual to another during the course of a single entry situation. Confined Space Hazards The hazards encountered and associated with entering and working in confined spaces is capable of causing bodily injury, illness, and death to the worker. Accidents occur among workers because of failure to recognize that a confined space is a potential hazard. It should therefore be considered that the most unfavourable situation existing every case and that the danger of explosion, poisoning, and asphyxiation will be present at the onset of entry. All hazards found in a regular workspace can also be found in a confined space. However, they can be even more hazardous in a confined space than in a regular worksite. There are three types of confined space hazards: a. General hazards, b. Physical hazards, and c. Atmospheric hazards.

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General Hazards General hazards are further broken down into mechanical hazards, communication hazards, and entry and exit hazards. Mechanical hazards Mechanical hazards are those that occur when electrical or mechanical equipment is accidentally activated. To protect against these types of hazards, electrical and mechanical devices must be put under lockout or tag-out to alert others that the device should remain off. Alternatively, or in addition to lockout/tag-out, devices must be isolated. Isolation may be accomplished by physically or manually blocking components so that they cannot accidentally start up or by disconnecting pipes or feed lines to prevent the flow of substances.

Communication hazards Communication hazards occur when the person inside the confined space is unable to communicate with those on the outside and vice versa. When workers cannot speak to or signal each other, accidents can occur. In dark areas, a type of lighting that is safe for the environment must be used so that the worker is visible to those on the outside. When visual contact is impossible, another means of communication must be used, such as a radio or alarm system. Entry and exit hazards Entry and exit hazards Entry and exit time is of major significance as a physical limitation and is directly related to the potential hazard of the confined space. This hazard occurs when insufficient preparations are made to ensure that the employee on the inside can exit quickly. All possible means of entry and exit must be examined, and an emergency plan for removing injured or incapacitated workers must be in place. The extent of precautions taken and the standby equipment needed to maintain a safe work area will be determined by the means of access and rescue. The following should be considered: type of confined space to be entered, access to the entrance, number and size of openings, barriers within the space, the occupancy load, and the time requirement for exiting in event of fire, or vapour incursion, and the time required to rescue injured workers. Atmospheric Hazards Atmospheric hazards are hazards in the environment of the confined space that may incapacitate, injure, or impair an employees self-rescue or lead to acute illness or death to workers and rescuers who enter confined spaces. Generally, atmospheric hazards are categorized as: a. Flammable hazards, b. Toxic hazards, (Chemical Exposures)

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c. Irritant hazards, and d. Asphyxiating hazards.

. Flammable hazards, A flammable atmosphere generally arises from enriched oxygen (above 21%) atmospheres, vaporization of flammable liquids, and by-products of work, chemical reactions, concentrations of combustible dusts. An atmosphere becomes flammable when the ratio of oxygen to combustible material in the air is neither too rich nor too lean for combustion to occur. Combustible gases or vapours will accumulate when there is inadequate ventilation in areas such as a confined space. Flammable gases such as acetylene, butane, propane, hydrogen, methane, natural or manufactured gases or vapours from liquid hydrocarbons can be trapped in confined spaces, and since many gases are heavier than air, they will seek lower levels as in pits, sewers, and various types of storage tanks and vessels. In a closed top tank, it should also be noted that lighter than air gases may rise and develop a flammable concentration if trapped above the opening. Often the smallest spark from a tool can ignite the atmosphere within a tank, causing burns, explosions, and death. Also, many substances will spontaneously ignite when exposed to air or water.

. Toxic hazards, the substances to be regarded as toxic in a confined space can cover the entire spectrum of gases, vapours, and finely divided airborne dust in industry. The sources of toxic atmospheres encountered may arise from the following: a. The manufacturing process (for example, in producing polyvinyl chloride, hydrogen chloride is used as well as vinyl chloride monomer which is carcinogenic). b. The product stored (removing decomposed organic material from a tank can liberate toxic substances such as hydrogen sulphide [H2S]). 81

c. The operation performed in the confined space (for example, welding or brazing with metals capable of producing toxic fumes The three most commonly found toxic gases in confined spaces are stated below: a. Carbon monoxide (CO) results from incomplete combustion processes in equipment such as gasoline engines. CO is a colourless and odourless gas that displaces oxygen in the blood and can cause headaches, dizziness, unconsciousness, asphyxiation, and death. b. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is encountered in sewers, sewage treatment plants, and other locations where organic material (dead animals, leaves, etc.) decomposes. It has a distinct odour of rotten eggs at low concentrations but can cause olfactory fatigue (a deadened sense of smell) at high levels. H2S can block respiration, causing rapid loss of consciousness, and possible death. c. Methane (CH4) is a natural gas produced from the decay of organic matter. It is a flammable, explosive, colourless, and odourless gas. It can displace oxygen to the point of oxygen deficiency in a confined space, causing dizziness, unconsciousness, and asphyxiation. These substances may be inhaled, absorbed through the skin or eyes, or may enter the body through a cut in the skin. Toxic substances can cause illness, disease, and death. Be aware of any chemicals used in or generated by your specific industry, such as carbon dioxide in bakeries and breweries. Cleaning solvents and residues remaining in vessels can also be dangerous. Irritant Hazards Irritants are found in many forms, including liquids or gases. Primary irritants cause no systemic effects, meaning they harm only the parts that they touch, such as the skin, without harming the entire body. Secondary irritants can harm the parts they touch, as well as the entire body. For example, a chemical can cause skin problems and be absorbed into the body and cause diseases like cancer or infertility. Irritant gases vary widely among all areas of industrial activity. They can be found in plastics plants, chemical plants, the petroleum industry, tanneries, refrigeration industries, paint manufacturing, and mining operations Asphyxiating Hazards The normal atmosphere is composed approximately of 20.9% oxygen and 78.1% nitrogen, and 1% argon with small amounts of various other gases. Asphyxiating atmospheres are those that lack oxygen and/or contain excessive levels of harmful, breathable substances. An oxygen-deficient oxygen and/or contain excessive levels of harmful, breathable substances. An oxygendeficient atmosphere has less than 19.5% available oxygen. The oxygen level in a confined space can decrease because of work being done, such as welding, cutting, or brazing; or, it can be decreased by certain chemical reactions (rusting) or through bacterial action (fermentation). The oxygen level is also decreased if oxygen is displaced by another gas, such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen. This type of environment occurs naturally in sewers, wells, and storage bins. Any atmosphere with less than 19.5% oxygen should not be entered without an approved self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).

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Physical hazards Physical Hazards are non-chemical hazards that affect the body, including vibration, too much noise, poor visibility, falls, radiation, becoming stuck in a tight spot, or being buried by material stored in the space, structural hazards, entanglement, slips, temperature extremes including atmospheric and surface, barrier failure resulting in a flood or release of freeflowing solid etc. Causes of Confined Space Hazards Hazards specific to confined spaces generally have three causes: a. The material stored or used in the confined space, b. The activity carried out in the space, and c. The external environment. The Material Stored or Used in the Confined Space. The material stored or used in a confined space might be an obvious hazard, such as a caustic chemical, or an unrecognized hazard, such as a carbon filter in a water tank. While some substances have an odor that would warn you of their presence, many do not. For example, most employees would not suspect that the carbon filters in a water tank are capable of absorbing available oxygen, thus creating a breathing hazard. The Activity Carried Out in the Confined Space The activity carried out in a confined space also can create a number of problems. For example, if a tank is used for fermenting organic materials, decomposition can create a number of hazardous vapours. Also, when work, such as welding, is performed inside a confined space, fumes, heat, explosions, and other hazards can affect workers. The External Environment The external environment also can create hazards. For example, floods or tides can affect sewer systems, and a worker entering an empty pipe may be engulfed by water rushing into the pipe. Similarly, a storage tank that is entered at dawn may turn deadly when the rising sun raises the interior temperature. Again, all of these hazards may be increased by the addition of moving parts or mechanical equipment inside. Employees entering these spaces must be aware of all possible sources of injury or death.

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Equipment for Confined Spaces Equipment used in confined spaces includes the PPE that authorized entrants and rescuers must wear, as well as any tools that are used inside the space. Because of the hazards that exist in confined spaces, equipment must be specialized. For example, typical ear, eye, and head protection is often appropriate in confined spaces. However, caustic chemicals or fire and explosion hazards may require you to wear special protective suits, gloves, and facemasks. To facilitate rescue, entrants must often wear a harness with a hoist that allows workers to be pulled to safety. When atmospheres cannot be purged or when safe environments cannot be maintained, authorized entrants must wear breathing equipment. An air-purifying respirator is used when air exists in the atmosphere but is too contaminated to breadth without filtering. An airsupplying respirator is used when there is not enough air to safely filter and breathe. This device may have an air tank that the entrant wears or a supply line leading to an external tank. Work tools used inside the space must not create additional hazards. For example, tools used in explosive atmospheres must not create sparks or flames. Also, wet atmospheres require electrical tools that use low voltage or are plugged into power sources that have circuits equipped with ground fault interrupters. Employers are responsible for providing necessary equipment, but it is your responsibility to use it. To successfully perform work in confined spaces, you must strictly follow the requirements for entry, including using the proper equipment. Disregarding the rules because you will be in the space for just a minute can be fatal.

Safe Systems of Work If you cannot avoid entry into a confined space make sure you have a safe system for working inside the space. Use the results of your risk assessment to help identify the

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necessary precautions to reduce the risk of injury. These will depend on the nature of the confined space, the associated risk and the work involved. Make sure that the safe system of work, including the precautions identified, is developed and put into practice. Everyone involved will need to be properly trained and instructed to make sure they know what to do and how to do it safely. The following checklist is not intended to be exhaustive but includes many of the essential elements to help prepare a safe system of work. a. Record keeping includes securing proper permits and recording the details of any problems or accidents that occur. b. Is A Permit-To-Work Necessary? A permit-to-work ensures a formal check is undertaken to ensure all the elements of a safe system of work are in place before people are allowed to enter or work in the confined space. It is also a means of communication between site management, supervisors, and those carrying out the hazardous work. Essential features of a permit-to work are: 1. Clear identification of who may authorise particular jobs (and any limits to their authority) and who is responsible for specifying the necessary precautions (e.g. isolation, air testing, emergency arrangements e.t.c); 2. Provision for ensuring that contractors engaged to carry out work are included; 3. Training and instruction in the issue of permits; 4. Monitoring and auditing to ensure that the system works as intended. c. Suitability of Personnel: Do they have sufficient experience of the type of work to be carried out, and what training have they received? Where risk assessment highlights exceptional constraints as a result of the physical layout, are individuals of suitable build? The competent person may need to consider other factors, e.g. concerning claustrophobia or fitness to wear breathing apparatus, and medical advice on an individuals suitability may be needed. d. Isolation: Mechanical and electrical isolation of equipment is essential if it could otherwise operate, or be operated, inadvertently. If gas, fume or vapour could enter the confined space, physical isolation of pipe work etc needs to be made. Isolation can include lockout/tagout of power sources, blanking and bleeding feed lines, disconnecting belt and chain drives, and securing moving parts with chains or blocks. In all cases a check should be made to ensure isolation is effective. e. Decontaminating by various cleaning methods removes hazardous substances. f. Cleaning Before Entry (Purging): This may be necessary to ensure fumes do not develop from residues etc while the work is being done. Purging clears the existing atmosphere by displacing it with water, vapour, or forced air. Ventilation with an exhaust fan maintains the atmosphere. Purging or ventilating with pure oxygen, however, is a serious fire and explosion hazard and is prohibited. g. Check the Size of The Entrance: Is the entrance big enough to allow workers wearing all the necessary equipment to climb in and out easily, and provide ready access and egress in an emergency? For example, the size of the opening may mean choosing airlinebreathing apparatus in place of self-contained equipment, which is more bulky and therefore likely to restrict ready passage. h. Air Quality Testing This may be necessary to check that it is free from both toxic and flammable vapours and that it is fit to breathe. You should never trust your senses to determine the safety of the atmosphere. The air within the confined space should be tested from outside of the confined space before entry into the confined space. Care should be taken to ensure that air is tested throughout the confined space side-to-side and top to bottom. Qualified personnel with specialized testing equipment must perform atmospheric testing. The sampling should show that:

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The oxygen content is within safe limits - not too little and not too much. A hazardous atmosphere (toxic gases, flammable atmosphere) is not present. Ventilation equipment is operating properly. i. Provision of Mechanical Ventilation: Natural ventilation (natural air currents) is usually not reliable and not sufficient to maintain the air quality in confined space. Mechanical ventilation (blowers, fans) is usually necessary to maintain air quality. This is essential where portable gas cylinders and diesel-fuelled equipment are used inside the space because of the dangers from build-up of engine exhaust. If mechanical ventilation is provided, there should be a warning system in place to immediately notify the worker in the event of a hazard or a failure in the ventilation equipment Care should be taken to make sure the air being provided by the ventilation system to the confined space is clean. Ease of air movement throughout the confined space should be considered because of the danger of pockets of toxic gases still remaining even with the use of mechanical ventilation. Do not substitute oxygen for fresh air. Increasing the oxygen content will significantly increase the risk of fire and explosion. The use of mechanical ventilation should be noted on the entry permit. Confined Space Atmospheric Testing Continuous Monitoring Permissible Record Monitoring Results/Time
CONTINUOUS MONITORING TEST(S) TO BE TAKEN PERMISSIBLE ENTRY LEVEL

1. Percent of Oxygen 2. Lower flammable limit 3. Carbon Monoxide 4. Aromatic Hydrocarbon 5. Hydrogen Cyanide 6. Hydrogen Sulphide 7. Sulphur Dioxide 8. Ammonia 9. Other(s)

19.5% to 23.5% Under 10% 25 ppm 1 ppm - 5 ppm 4.7 ppm (S) 10 ppm* 15 ppm** 2 ppm* 5 ppm** 25 ppm* 35 ppm** To be stated

a. 8 hr. time-weighted avg.: Employee can work in area 8 hrs (longer with appropriate respiratory protection). a. **Short-term exposure limit: Employee can work in the area up to 15 minutes.

Warning: carbon monoxide in the exhaust from petrol-fuelled engines is so dangerous

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that use of such equipment in confined spaces should never be allowed. j. Provision of Special Tools and Lighting: Non-sparking tools and specially protected lighting are essential where flammable or potentially explosive atmospheres are likely. In certain confined spaces (e.g. inside metal tanks) suitable precautions to prevent electric shock include use of extra low voltage equipment (typically less than 25 V) and, where necessary, residual current devices.

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k. Provision of Breathing Apparatus: This is essential if the air inside the space cannot be made fit to breathe because of gas, fume or vapour present, or lack of oxygen. Never try to sweeten the air in a confined space with oxygen as this can greatly increase the risk of a fire or explosion. l. Preparation of Emergency Arrangements: This will need to cover the necessary equipment, training and practice drills. m. Provision of Rescue Harnesses: In addition to using ventilation and other measures to get rid of hazards, workers need protective gear. This includes a full body or chest harness and may also require respirators, hard hats, goggles, earplugs or muffs, gloves, boots, or other protective clothing. Lifelines attached to harnesses should run back to a point outside the confined space. Once spaces are cleared of hazards, they should be checked and monitored repeatedly for problems. For example, a poor atmosphere could be caused by a very small amount of chemical residue or an on-going chemical reaction. Clearing the space once is not enough. Control of Hazards in Confined Space The traditional hazard control methods found in regular worksites can be effective in a confined space. These include engineering controls, administrative controls and personal protective equipment. Engineering controls are designed to remove the hazard while administrative controls and personal protective equipment try to minimize the contact with the hazard. However, often because of the nature of the confined space and depending on the hazard, special precautions not normally required in a regular worksite may also need to be taken. The engineering control commonly used in confined spaces is mechanical ventilation. The Entry Permit system is an example of an administrative control used in confined spaces. Personal protective equipment (respirators, gloves, ear plugs) is commonly used in confined spaces as well. Fire and Explosion Prevention Work where a flame is used or a source of ignition may be produced (hot work) should not normally be performed in a confined space unless: a. All flammable gases, liquids and vapours are removed prior to the start of any hot work. Mechanical ventilation is usually used to Keep the concentration of any explosive or flammable hazardous substance less than 10% of its Lower Explosive Limit AND b. Make sure that the oxygen content in the confined space is not enriched. Oxygen content should be less than 23% but maintained at levels greater than 18%. (These numbers can vary slightly from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.) If a potential flammable atmosphere hazards are identified during the initial testing, the confined space should be cleaned or purged and ventilated and tested again before entry to the confined space is allowed. Only after the air testing is within allowable limits should entry occur, as the gases used for purging can be extremely hazardous. Emergency Procedures in Confined Space When things go wrong, people may be exposed to serious and immediate danger. Effective arrangements for raising the alarm and carrying out rescue operations in an emergency are essential. Contingency plans will depend on the nature of the confined space, the risks identified and consequently the likely nature of an emergency rescue. Emergency arrangements will depend on the risks. You should consider: 88

a. Communications: It is necessary to station someone outside to keep watch and to communicate with anyone inside, raise the alarm quickly in an emergency, and take charge of the rescue procedures. Attendants can perform a rescue that does NOT require entry. They may only enter to perform a rescue if they are trained and another attendant is present outside the space. b. Rescue and Resuscitation: Equipment: Suitable rescue and resuscitation equipment should be readily available. Where such equipment is provided for use by rescuers, training in correct operation is essential. c. Rescuers Capabilities: There is need to have a properly trained people, sufficiently fit to carry out their task, ready at hand, and capable of using any equipment provided for rescue, e.g. breathing apparatus, lifelines and fire fighting equipment. Rescuers also need to be protected against the cause of the emergency. d. Shut down: It may be necessary to shut down adjacent plant before attempting emergency rescue. e. First-aid Procedures: Trained first aiders need to be available to make proper use of any necessary first-aid equipment provided. f. Local emergency services: Local emergency services (e.g., fire brigade) should be contacted. Information about the particular dangers in the confined space should be given to them on their arrival.

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Work Permit System

Introduction Definition of Safe Work Permit A Safe Work Permit is a written record that authorizes specific work, at a specific location, for a specific period of time. A Safe Work Permit is an agreement between the issuer and the receiver, which documents the conditions, preparations, precautions and limitations before work commences. The Work Permit is a tool that is used to plan and control work that may have particularly high risks attached to either: a. The type of work that is being undertaken; b. The persons undertaking the work; or c. The area/plant/persons in the vicinity where the work is being undertaken. Therefore the Work Permit Procedure applies to the following: a. Work that is unusual or out of the ordinary that does not form part of the usual work for employees. b. Work that is normally undertaken by employees, but has a particularly high element of risk (e.g entering confined spaces or excavating). Therefore the Work Permit Procedure provides a means for adequate planning and control for work that would otherwise, through the unusual nature of the work, have little or no planning or control. That is, the Work Permit Procedure provides for safe working procedures to be implemented where there may be no formal procedures in place due to the short term or unusual nature of the work. In these situations, it is through the application of formal Work Permit Procedures that the employer is able to prove diligence in ensuring: a. The safety of activity; and b. The safety of the persons involved in the activity. The person authorised to issue a Work Permit is known as the Authorised Personnel and is responsible for defining work precautions and work conditions and ensuring that they are adhered to. The person(s) who receives a Work Permit is known as the Permit Holder and is responsible for complying with the conditions of the Work Permit. A Safe Work Permit must identify: a. The work to be done - a brief description of it. b. The location where the work will be done - as specific as possible. c. The hazards involved in the work - any toxic, corrosive, flammable materials in the work area. d. The length of the work - date and time the work will commence and finish. e. The precautions to be taken to do the work - equipment and/or procedures that must be worn/followed; isolation, ventilation and testing requirements. f. All hazards and precautions related to the work have to be determined before the work starts.

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A Safe Work Permit must also outline: a. The date the permit was issued and the name of the issuer. b. The date the permit was received and the name of the receiver. c. All the steps to prepare the equipment, building or area to be worked on. d. The emergency and rescue plan, if it is necessary. e. The date and time when the permit was returned and name of the person who signed it off. Use of Safe Work Permits Safe work permits should be used by: a. Any industry that has a significant risk because of a particular hazard. b. Any organization that has its own maintenance program and personnel. c. Any contractor who allows sub-contractors work to do maintenance or other hazardous work. d. Organizations that have individual employees working in isolated areas.

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Safe Work Permits should be used in activities such as: a. Maintenance b. Work in confined spaces c. Work in flammable or explosive atmospheres d. Exposure to harmful substances e. Work with high voltage f. Excavations g. Blasting h. Use internal combustion engines in enclosed areas

Types of Safe Work Permits:

The range of work activities and locations makes impossible for a single type of permit to suit all situations. For this reason, there are several different types of Safe Work Permits. The most appropriate type is determined according to the nature of the work to be performed and the hazards to be eliminated or controlled. a. Work Clearance used when the work to be done requires no preparation by the operations personnel. For example: oiling, greasing, garbage pickup/removal, meter reading, etc. b. Hot Work Permit used when heat or sparks are present due to the work activities. For example: welding, cutting, grinding, etc. The heat or sparks can ignite flammable or explosive materials/vapours that may be present close to the work place. c. Cold Work Permit used in maintenance work that does not involve hot work. Cold work permits are issued when there is no reasonable source of ignition and all contact with harmful substances have been eliminated or appropriate precautions been taken. d. Confined Space Entry Permit used when entering confined spaces. e. Special Permits used to cover special hazards, such as radioactive materials, PCBs, etc. f. Working At Heights Permit- used when working at height.
Responsibility Employees
It is the responsibility of all persons working at Company workplaces to ensure that the relevant Work Permit is issued where appropriate.

Manager/Supervisor It is the responsibility of Managers and Supervisors to ensure that the Work Permit System is implemented and maintained. It is also the responsibility of Managers and Supervisors to ensure that employees are trained appropriately prior to becoming a Permit Authority and that the relevant Authorisation Form has been completed.

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Each one of the five types of permits described above provides a checklist for the person preparing the equipment, a list of the hazards involved in the activity and the precautions to be taken. Safe Work Permits are usually made out in three copies: one retained by the issuer, the second for the workers directly involved in the task and the third for the safety department. The workers copy is returned to the issuer when the work is completed. A Safe Work Permit should be issued only by a competent person, who is completely familiar with the work and the work area. The issuer should review the place where the work will be performed prior to issuing the permit. Written instructions alone are often insufficient in the effective use of a permit. Practical training exercises for the people who issue and receive permits should be considered.

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Work at Height Safety

The majority of serious and fatal industrial accidents involve falling from heights. In workplaces, a fall can occur on any walking and working surface. Walking and working surfaces include any areas where workers must place their feet to travel from one place to the next, such as floors, platforms, stairs, temporary working platforms, ladders etc. Employer must make every effort to prevent this type of accidents. Hazard Management There are three levels of hazard management working at height 1. Elimination or how hazard can be remove altogether? For example, do as much work on the ground. This should always be the first option. 2. Isolation or how can the hazard be separated from employees? For example, install guardrails. If there is no way that you can eliminate a fall hazard, then you have to isolate it. 3. Minimisation or what to be done to minimise the impact should an accident occur? For example use of safety harnesses. Only when the first two methods of managing a height hazard are impossible that minimisation option is chosen. Following are just five common systems used when working at height. a. Ladders b. Scaffolding c. Machine-Lifted Work Platforms d. Handrails, Guardrails And Toe-boards e. Fall Arrest Devices Hazards There are four main types of hazard associated with work at height: 1. falls of persons 2. falling objects 3. falls from collapsing structures 4. access to normally inaccessible hazards (e.g. overhead power cables).

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Safety precautions to be observe on elevated workplaces. a. Stop working at an elevated spot if possible, and do operations on the ground if you can by devising appropriate working procedures. b. Always have some breakfast or at least a hot drink such as a cup of tea or coffee before you go to work AN EMPTY STOMACH CAN OFTEN RESULT IN A SUDDEN ATTACK OF FAINTNESS in even the healthiest person c. Put on a prescribed protective outfit and do not act recklessly. d. Secure a work floor that is wide enough not to cause inconvenience in working and fasten it firmly to supports to keep it from sliding down. e. When circumstances do not allow handrails to be placed on a work floor, use such safety precautions as wearing a safety belt, and setting up a safety net for preventing an accidental fall. f. Do not put articles on a work floor because such things restrict the space and workers may stumble over them and drop something they carry. g. Let two workers do operations that require the use of a ladder or Stepladders if possible, and have one worker support the ladder or stepladders and keep watch while the other is at work. h. Pay attention to weather conditions, including rain and wind, and avoid doing operations at an elevated spot in bad weather. Ladders A ladder is a steps consisting of two parallel members connected by rungs; for climbing up or down. Ladders are made from different materials such as Aluminium, Fibre Glass, wood and in a multitude of designs to be used in a variety of circumstances. The checklist below will assist in choosing a ladder. a. b. c. d. e. know when to use a ladder; decide how to go about selecting the right sort of ladder for the particular job; understand how to use it; know how to look after it; and Take sensible safety precautions.

Types of ladder a. Single Ladders b. Extension Ladders c. Fixed Ladders d. Step Ladders

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Dos: 1. Use the ladder at a safe angle four up, one out. 2. Allow at least a 1 metre extension above the step off point (unless some other form of hand hold is provided). 3. Set the ladder up on a firm, even surface (unless a secure method is used to ensure an even distribution of weight between the stiles). 4. Secure the ladder against sliding at the top and bottom while in use (get someone to hold the ladder until another can secure the top). 5. Make sure you have removed any loose tools or other items from the steps or rungs before you move the ladder.

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6. Consider the need to place cones or barricading where the ladder encroaches onto a passage or roadway. Donts: 7. Dont use the rung or step of a ladder to support a plank on which a person has to work. 8. Dont use a ladder horizontally as a work platform. 9. Dont carry a load that will prevent both hands from being able to hold or grab the rungs. 10. Dont over-reach your waist should remain within the stiles of the ladder at all times. Remember: ladders and steps are designed for the use of one person only at any one time Scaffolding A scaffold is an elevated, temporary work platform. Scaffolding can be defined as a temporary structure supporting one or more platforms and which is used either as a workplace or for the storage of materials in the course of any type of construction work, including both maintenance and demolition work. Scaffolds can be used on most sites to provide a good working platform at any height. Make sure all scaffolding is suitable and safe to use. The following are the checklist to consider when working with scaffolds. 1. Is it erected on a firm foundation? 2. Are all guardrails in position and at the correct height? 3. Are there enough planks to form the work platform and are they secured in position? 4. How far is it from the closest plank to the workface, and also to the outer edge of the scaffold? 5. What access is provided between platforms? 6. Is a safety belt or harness needed? 7. Are all scaffold ties in place? Types of Scaffolds a. Supported Scaffolds b. Suspended Scaffolds c. Independent (Tower) scaffolds d. Manually Propelled Mobile Ladder Stand (Rolling Towers)

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Independent (Tower) scaffolds

Supported Scaffold

Independent scaffold

Suspended scaffold

Ensure that a certified scaffolder is in direct charge of erection, modification or dismantling of any scaffold more than 5 metres above the ground (and a register kept for general inspection).

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Machine-Lifted Work Platforms

Work platforms provide a permanent or temporary surface for people to carry out work. These are power operated rolling tower. They may be powered either by electricity or Hydraulic engine. The platform should be secured against a structure for stability and be installed with an edge protection system. The surface of the working platform should be of a size and strength to safely support the tools, materials and people who may be working on it. The surface should be non-slip, free from trip hazards and traps and of an easily negotiable gradient. Safe access and egress must be provided to the work platform. These machines include elevating work platforms, cherry pickers, scissor hoists, crane lift platforms and building maintenance units. Before using such a machine, you must: a. Checked that the machine is the correct type and is fit for the intended work? b. Be trained to set up and operate that particular type of machine? c. Made sure the machine will not be overloaded? The following are the precautions to be observed on the use of the elevating platform. a) Follow the manufacturers operating instructions. b) Follow manufacturers guidelines for maintenance and operation of the engine and hydraulic systems. c) Ensure that operator controls are at platform level. Place emergency override controls at ground level. d) Lock wheels and use outriggers with adequate sole plates. e) Place on a firm and level surface only. Handrails, Guardrails and Toe-boards Remember, handrails are to assist balance, guardrails are to prevent falls. Have you: 1. Made sure the top rail for both types of rail is between 0.9 and 1.1 metres above the floor or front of the stair nosing? 2. Ensured a midrail has been fitted for guardrails? 3. Fitted a toe-board of sufficient height anywhere there is a danger of tools or materials being lost over the edge?

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Fall Protection Systems Fall protection systems can consist of devices that arrest a free fall or devices that restrain a worker in position to prevent a fall from occurring. Protection against falls must be provided when working on elevated surfaces or when a 1.2-metre or more fall hazard exists. Fall arresting systems are often used when guardrails, floors, nets, and other means cannot control fall hazards or where guardrails or other protection is not in place. Workers must use a fall protection system if there is danger of falling a. more than 1.2 metres b. into operating machinery c. into water or another liquid d. Into or onto a hazardous substance or object. The two basic types of fall protection are: a. Personal fall arrest b. Travel restraint. Use of belts, harnesses, fall arrest devices and the related rigging of static lines, anchorage lines and restraints is a skilled and specialised area, and should be relied on only as a last resort for fall prevention. Only use these systems if you have been fully trained and there are emergency procedures in place which enable a rescue within a few minutes. Where a fall has been arrested (the worker is held having fallen), faintness and serious blood circulation problems can occur which can lead to brain damage or death in under 10 minutes. Fall Arrest System Fall arrest system is employed when a worker is at risk of falling from an elevated position. Personal fall arrest systems consist of an anchorage, connectors, a body harness, and may include a lanyard, deceleration device, lifeline, or suitable combinations of these items. These systems are designed to stop a free fall of up to 1.2-metre while limiting the forces imposed

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on the wearer. Any time a worker is at a height of 1.8-metre or more, the worker is at risk and needs to be protected.

Personal Fall Arrest Systems These systems must include 4 elements referred to as ABCD's of Fall Arrest: a. A - Anchorage - a fixed structure or structural adaptation, often including an anchorage connector, to which the other components of the PFAS are rigged. b. B - Body Wear - a full body harness worn by the worker. c. C - Connector - a subsystem component connecting the harness to the anchorage - such as a lanyard. d. D - Deceleration Device - a subsystem component designed to dissipate the forces associated with a fall arrest event.

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Travel Restraint Travel-restraint systems prevent falls by restraining a worker from getting too close to an unprotected edge. A travel restraint system must be arranged to keep the worker back from the fall hazard area. The system usually consists of a. safety belt of full body harness b. lanyard c. rope grab d. lifeline e. lifeline anchor.

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Compressed Gas Safety

Introduction Compressed gases used in a variety of industrial and laboratory situations. Since the gases are contained in heavy, highly pressurized metal containers, the large amount of potential energy resulting from compression of the gas makes the cylinder a potential rocket or fragmentation bomb. The gases contained in these cylinders vary in chemical properties, ranging from inert and harmless to toxic and explosive. Compressed gases are unique in that they represent both a physical and potential chemical hazard (depending on the particular gas). The high pressure of the gases constitutes a serious hazard in the event that the cylinders sustain physical damage and/or are exposed to high temperatures. Careful procedures are necessary for handling the various compressed gases, the cylinders containing the compressed gases, regulators or valves used to control gas flow, and the piping used to confine gases during flow. Compressed gases present a unique hazard. Depending on the particular gas, there is a potential for simultaneous exposure to both mechanical and chemical hazards a. Gases can be: b. Flammable or combustible c. Explosive d. Corrosive hazards e. Poisonous/toxic f. Inert g. Cryogenic h. Pyrophoric (burns on contact with air) The main hazards from compressed gases are: Explosion of the cylinder due to mechanical damage, weakness or over-pressurisation Exposure to released gas or fluid, which may have harmful properties [asphyxiant, toxic, corrosive]. Oxygen is particularly dangerous as it can promote fires and explosion and sustains combustion. c. Fire due to escape of flammable gas/fluid. d. Over-pressurisation in the event of fire
a. b.

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e. f.

Impact from falling cylinders Manual handling injuries

Causes of Accidents a. Inadequate training and supervision b. Poor installation c. Poor maintenance d. Faulty equipment and/or design(e.g badly fitting valves or regulators) e. Poor handling f. Poor storage g. Inadequately ventilated working conditions h.

Identification of gas cylinders

Identification

The contents of any compressed gas cylinder must be clearly identified. Gas cylinders are often colour coded, but the codes are not standard across different workplaces, and sometimes are not regulated. Never rely on the colour of the cylinder for identification. Colour coding is not reliable because cylinder colours may vary with the supplier. Additionally, labels on caps have little value because caps are interchangeable. Cylinders have labels which identify the gas they contain and the label alone should be used for positive identification. Such identification should be stencilled or stamped on the cylinder or a label. No compressed gas cylinder should be accepted for use that does not legibly identify its contents by name. If the labeling on a cylinder becomes unclear or an attached tag is defaced to the point the contents cannot be identified, the cylinder should be marked "contents unknown" and returned directly to the manufacturer.

Typical cylinder Label Cylinder Label 1. Cylinder Specification: 2. Cylinder Serial Number 3. Date of Manufacture: 4. Neck Ring Identification:. 5. Retest Markings:

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6. Bar Code Label: 7. Cylinder Manufacturers Inspection Marking 8. Cylinder Tare (Empty) Weight:

The standard EN1089-3, ensure consistency of colours across Europe. . Application of Compressed Gases Industrial Acetylene Air Argon Carbon Dioxide Helium Hydrogen Nitrogen Nitrous Oxide Oxygen MAPP Gas HPG Fuel Gas Propane Special uses Air Argon Carbon Dioxide Custom Gas Mixtures Emission Gases Helium Hydrocarbons Hydrogen Nitrogen Nitrous Oxide Oxygen Rare Gases Refrigerant Gases Sulfur Hexafluoride Electronic Grade Gases Medical Air Carbon Dioxide Helium Medical Device Gases Nitrogen Nitrous Oxide Oxygen Sterilants

Classes of Common Industrial Gases a. Oxidants support combustion e.g. air & oxygen b. Inerts do not generally react with other materials, asphyxiants(leak displace air) e.g. nitrogen, argon, helium c. Flammables when mixed with oxidant and ignition source will burn e.g. acetylene, hydrogen, propane d. Toxics toxic in small concentrations e.g. ammonia, chlorine, carbon dioxide e. Corrosives react with materials causing reactions e.g. chlorine, sulfur dioxide f. Pyrophorics ignite spontaneously in air e.g. silane, phosphine Description of Common Industrial Gases

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a. Acetylene Gas (C2H2) a colourless, flammable gas with a garlic-like odour. Acetylene has the highest flame temperature of any common hydrocarbon because of its triple-bond structure H-C=C-H. b. Argon (Ar) A colourless, odourless, nontoxic, non flammable, inert gas. Argon gas is used primarily for applications such as arc welding, steel making, heat-treating and electronics manufacturing. c. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) a non flammable, colourless, odourless gas. Airgas is a supplier of carbon dioxide gas in high pressure compressed gas cylinders, liquid cylinders, and bulk d. Ethylene Oxide - Ethylene oxide is widely used in hospitals as a sterilizing agent for instruments and equipment. e. Helium (He) a colourless, odourless, tasteless inert gas at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Helium gas is available in compressed gas cylinders, liquid cylinders, and bulk. f. Hydrogen (H) is a flammable, colourless, odourless, compressed gas at high pressure. Hydrogen is used in chemical synthesis to produce ammonia, methanol and other products. It is used in hydrogenation of edible oils and petroleum products. It is mixed with air to form the fuel gas for FID gas chromatography (usually Zero Grade) and is sometimes a carrier gas. Other uses are annealing and heat treating of metals. g. MAPP (C3H4) MAPP is a stabilized mixture of Methylacetylene and Propadiene. MAPP gas is a very versatile fuel gas with a flame temperature (5301 F) second only to acetylene. The BTU value of mapp gas also makes it an excellent fuel gas for pre-heating and stress relieving metals. h. Neon - Neon is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas used for glow lamps, electron tubes, signs, plasma studies, fluorescent starter tubes, cryogenic refrigeration and gas lasers i. Nitrogen Gas (N2) makes up 78.03% of air. Nitrogen is often used as an inert gas because of its nonreactive nature with many materials. j. Oxygen - Widely distributed in hospitals, Oxygen is also stored and used on airplanes and in electronics manufacturing processes. k. Propane (C3H8) a colourless, flammable, liquefied gas. Pure propane is odourless so like natural gas it has Ethyl Mercaptan added which gives it its distinctive smell. Propane is primarily used in heating applications and as fork truck fuel. Propane is also used in heavy steel fabrication for heating and cutting.

i.

Safe Working with Gas Cylinders:

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Safe Working with Gas Cylinders Work Practices Handling & Use a. Cylinders must never be used to support loads. b. Never repaint, change markings or identification, or interfere with valve threads. c. If a cylinder is involved in an incident, withdraw it from service and set it aside clearly marked. Contact the supplier. d. Never lift a cylinder with a magnets, or chains or slings. e. Always leave cylinder keys in the valves when working so that they may be quickly turned off in any emergency. f. Securely restrain cylinders to prevent them falling over

g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n. o. p. q. r. s.

Close the cylinder valve and replace dust caps when cylinder not in use Before connecting a gas cylinder to equipment or pipework make sure regulator and pipework are suitable for the gas and pressure being used Never drop a gas cylinder Never tamper with cylinders or subject them to abnormal mechanical shocks which could damage the valve or safety device Never re-paint, change markings or identification or interfere with threads Never disguise damage to a cylinder or valve. Label as faulty and contact the supplier Never attempt to repair a cylinder Never scrap a cylinder Never subject cylinders to abnormally high or low temperatures Never mix gases in a cylinder Never try refill a cylinder Never transport by rolling them on the ground or use them as rollers or supports Never subject to abnormal mechanical shocks which could damage the valve or safety device

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Safe Working with Gas Cylinders Daily Inspection a. Cylinders should be inspected daily and prior to each use for corrosion, leaks, cracks, etc. b. Inspection should include the cylinder, piping, safety relief devices, valves, protection caps and stems. c. Leaking regulators, cylinder valves or other equipment should be taken out of service.

Safe Working with Gas Cylinders a. Maintenance of cylinders and their valves or relief devices shall be performed only by trained personnel. b. An emergency response plan shall be developed and implemented wherever compressed gas cylinders are used, handled or stored. c. Never smoke around compressed gas cylinders. d. Valve protection caps must remain in place at all times except when cylinders are secured and connected to dispensing equipment e. Only wrenches or tools provided by the cylinder supplier should be used to open or close a valve. At no time should pliers be used to open a cylinder valve. f. Never apply tape, jointing compounds or any other sealing material to the valve in an attempt to achieve a tight seal, if a gas tight seal cannot be achieved metal to metal, replace the regulator or change the cylinder

Gas Cylinder Use

Gas Cylinder Regulators

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A regulator is a device that receives gas at a high pressure and reduces it to a much lower working pressure. It is precision instruments and MUST be handled with care to avoid damage to their sensitive springs, diaphragms, valve seals etc. After the regulator is attached, the cylinder valve should be opened just enough to indicate pressure on the regulator gauge (no more than one full turn) and all the connections checked with a soap solution for leaks. Before a regulator is removed from a cylinder, the cylinder valve shall be closed and the regulator relieved of gas pressure. The valve cap shall be replaced, the cylinder clearly marked as "empty, and returned to a storage area for pickup by the supplier a. Regulators, gauges, hoses and other apparatus shall not be used on gas cylinders having different chemical properties b. Valve outlet thread size is different for different products but the same products from different gas suppliers will have the same thread c. Never use oil or grease on the regulator of a cylinder valve or fitting.

a. Leave the pressure adjustment knob/screw fully out when the regulator is not in use (this ensures a minimum of tension on the springs and diaphragms) b. Cylinders should be placed with the valve accessible at all times. The main cylinder valve should be closed as soon as it is no longer necessary that it be open, it should never be left open when the equipment is unattended or not operating c. This is necessary not only for safety when the cylinder is under pressure, but also to prevent the corrosion and contamination resulting from diffusion of air and moisture into the cylinder after it has been emptied.

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Test for leaks at connections with soap and water solution. The solution is applied by brush.

Regulators and Fittings a. Cylinder valves and all other gas connections should be kept from oil and grease. b. Cylinder valves should be firmly closed when they are left unattended for a long time, e.g., at the end of the day or a work shift. c. Valves of empty cylinders should also be closed. d. Only the type of regulator designed for the gas being used should be fitted to the cylinder. e. Blow out the valve socket before connecting regulator. Cracking open the cylinder valve momentarily. The adjusting screw of the regulators must always be released before the cylinder valve is opened, which should be done slowly. f. A flashback arrestor should be fitted to the regulator outlet in the acetylene line to avoid accidental flashback. A second flashback arrestor in the oxygen line will give additional security. g. Cylinder valves should be operated by using standard keys. Long leverage spanners or keys fitted with extension pieces should not be used. Excessive force should be avoided in closing valves. Copper or copper-rich alloys should not be used for making fittings for acetylene supply. Copper with acetylene is liable to form a dangerous explosivesubstance. h. The oxygen pressure for welding should be the same as acetylene to prevent mixing of gases inside the hoses. i. Do not attempt to repair regulators. j. If gauge pointers do not return to zero when the pressure is released, the mechanism is faulty and the regulator should be replaced. k. Always treat a pressure regulator as a precision instrument. Do not expose it to knocks, jars or sudden pressure surges caused by the rapid opening of the cylinder valve. Always open the cylinder valve slowly and smoothly using the special spindle key.

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Flashback Arrestors a. Flashback is the result of mixture of fuel gas and oxygen burning within the hose, flame travels and burns its way towards the gas source at great speed, can result in force of explosion in either cylinder b. Flashback arrestors must be fitted on both oxygen and fuel gas regulators c. If flashback arrestor is dropped/damaged replace immediately d. Flashback arrestors should only be used with the gas they are labelled for and the pressure they are designed for e. Common reasons for flashback: incorrect purging of hose/torch prior to use, incorrect gas pressure, incorrect nozzle, damaged torch valves, gas passages blocked within the torch, kinked or trapped hose Hoses Correct hose bore size, pressure rating, length and colour coding are essential for safety BS EN 559 Colour code for Hose Blue Oxygen Red Acetylene and other fuel gases(except LPG) Black Inert and non combustible gases Orange Liquefied Petroleum Gas a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. Never use hoses that are longer than necessary Never use equipment while hoses are wrapped around the cylinders or trolley Length of hose should be suitable for the task Keep hoses in good condition Examine the hose for cracks, deterioration, damage and test the hose for leaks before use Do not repair hoses unless you have the skill and means to test them in accordance with BS En 1256 Purge hose thoroughly before lighting torch Do not put wrapping tape around hosing as this contains combustible hydrocarbons Do not use copper piping with acetylene hoses as it is potentially explosive Protect hosing from heat, oil, grease or mechanical damage

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Piping a. Distribution lines and their outlets should be clearly labeled as to the type of gas contained b. Piping systems should be inspected for leaks on a regular basis c. Special attention should be given to fittings as well as possible cracks that may have developed Blow Pipes and Torches a. Leaks are a serious hazard as they are closest to the operator b. Always check condition before use, ensure tip is free of obstruction c. Signs of heat damage around the blow pipe or torch may indicate the equipment has suffered internal damage and is leaking and should be replaced immediately d. Always fit the correct size nozzle for the job (hole size and pressure set at regulator determine gas flow and gas velocity exiting the nozzle, manufacturer gives a pressure rating for the nozzle being use, if the gas exit velocity is slower than the combustion velocity backfire and flashback may occur e. Replace blow pipe or torch if i. Broken bent or loose gas control valve ii. Bent mixer, misshapen cutter head iii. Bent cutter tube iv. Broken of bent cutting oxygen lever f. Leak test all connections and valves prior to use g. If replacing O ring seals always use the correct materials Handling Gas Cylinders a. Wear PPE: gloves, protective footwear, eye protection b. Correct way to move cylinders is to: keep upright, secure and with valves uppermost c. Use mechanical aids such as a trolley where reasonably practicable( do a risk assessment) d. For short distances on even ground the practice of milk-churning (manually moving cylinders) can be used only by trained personnel and never for longer distances, in uneven ground, wet or icy conditions, poor lighting, or at speed a trolley should be used e. All personnel involved should have completed manual handling training f. Never attempt to catch a falling cylinder just get out of the way Transporting Cylinders Transporting gas cylinders requires careful consideration and appropriate precautions. These considerations and precautions include: a. Motor vehicle transport of cylinders b. Flammable gas and oxidizer cylinders transport c. Hand truck (dolly) transport of cylinders d. Cylinder transport precautions Motor vehicle transport of cylinders shall only be done with vehicles equipped with racks or other means of securing the cylinders. Cylinders containing liquefied hydrogen or toxic gases shall be transported in open body vehicles. Flammable gas cylinders and cylinders containing an oxidizer must not be transported together, or with poisons or corrosives. However, the transportation of oxygen and acetylene cylinders together is allowed if: a. b. The cylinders are transported in the rear truck bed below the cab level A roll bar is installed over the rear truck bed to prevent the cylinders; from falling out of the truck bed in the event of the vehicle overturning. 114

Poison label materials are not to be transported with food or other items intended for human consumption. Hand truck (dolly) transport of cylinders shall be used for the transfer of compressed gas cylinders from loading area to shop and other areas within the workplace.

Cylinder transport precautions include: a. Cylinders have the valve protection cover in place while being transported (inter- and intra-building transport) b. Cylinders are not to be rolled or lifted by the valve or valve cap for moving c. Cylinder valve shut off and valve caps must be in place during transit from location to location d. Cylinders that are dropped during transit will be taken out of service and returned to the supplier for inspection e. Cylinders will be securely supported at all times during transport f. Smoking is prohibited during loading, unloading, and hand transportation of flammable gas cylinders g. If possible carry in open vehicles or trailers h. If they must be carried in closed vans/cars ensure good ventilation at all times i. If the load compartment is not separated from the driver do not carry toxic gas cylinders (those with a toxic gas label and having yellow as a colour on the cylinder) j. Secure cylinders properly so they cannot move or fall in transit or do not project beyond the edges of the vehicle, normally in the upright position unless instructions for transport state otherwise k. Carry propane cylinders upright and do not carry flammable gas cylinders in the same compartment as toxic gas cylinders l. Unload the cylinders as soon as possible and move to a well ventilated storage area m. If you suspect it is leaking, park the vehicle, investigate the fault and contact the supplier n. If you are involved in an accident advise, any emergency services involved what gas cylinders are being carried

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Safe Storage Each Storage area should be subject to unique risk assessment a. It is best to store gas cylinders in the open and on concrete in a fenced compound with some weather protection b. In storage areas oxygen cylinders must be stored at least 3 metres away/separated by a fire wall from fuel gases such as acetylene, propane, methane etc. c. Full cylinders should be stored separately from empties and empty oxygen cylinders should be segregated from empty fuel gas cylinders d. Other products should not be stored in the gas storage areas especially not oil or corrosive liquids, sources of ignition or flammable materials e. LPG cylinders have special requirements including storage 3m away from other gases f. Pyrophoric and toxic gases should be stored seperately in locked, suitable ventilated storage areas with restricted access g. Cylinders should be clearly labelled to show contents and associated hazards h. Store all cylinders upright and secure on a level surface to prevent them from falling i. Acetylene and propane must never be stacked horizontally either in storage or in use j. Cylinders should be located away from any heat/source of ignition and if possible away from the fire exits, elevators, walkways, building egresses, unprotected platform edges, or in locations where heavy moving objects may strike or fall on them k. Storage arrangements should be clearly described in the emergency plan l. Storage area must have good housekeeping and adequate warning signs with fire fighting equipment as necessary

Out door storage areas Emergencies 1. In the event of a leak or suspected leak of gas, evacuate the building or area. Activate the fire alarm by pulling the nearest fire alarm box. 2. Use soapy water to detect leaks. 116

3. An emergency plan must be prepared and updated wherever compressed gases are produced, handled, stored or used. The plan must include the following information: a. The type of emergency equipment available and its location (e.g. emergency eyewash & shower, fire extinguisher). b. An indication that hazard identification labelling is provided for each storage area. c. The location of posted emergency procedures. d. A material safety data sheet (MSDS) for each compressed gas or list with name of gas, hazard class, and quantity, stored or used in the area. e. A list of personnel who are designated and trained to be liaison personnel for the fire department/emergency responders and who are responsible for the following: i. Aiding the emergency responders in pre-emergency planning ii. Identifying the location of the compressed gases and cryogenic fluids stored or used iii. Accessing material safety data sheets iv. Knowing the site emergency procedures. Where a cylinder has been damaged a. If it has been dropped or physically damaged check it for leakage and deal with as for a leaking cylinder b. For handling acetylene cylinders should not be moved unless it is clearly established that there is no thermal disassociation c. Clearly mark any cylinder that has been exposed to excessive heat or physical impact and contact the supplier If a flashback has occurred: a. Close both blowpipe valves oxygen first b. Close both cylinder valves c. Check the temperature of the acetylene cylinder for thermal decomposition d. Check the blowpipe has not overheated e. Check the nozzle is not damaged f. Open both blowpipe valves oxygen first to vent the system g. Unwind the pressure adjustment screw on each pressure regulator h. Before starting up again, check the integrity of the whole system

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