The Control Of Body Temperature
B io F actsheet
April 1998Number 17
1
Why is temperature control important?
Over the course of a year, or even over a single 24-hour period, environmentaltemperatures may vary considerably. Controlling the body temperaturebetween narrow limits enables an organism to be independent of thesefluctuations in environmental temperature. Enzymes are very sensitive tochanges in temperature. The graph shows the effect of temperature onthree different reactions in a mammal. These are controlled by enzymes.If the body temperature fell to, say, 20
O
C, the rates of reaction of theseenzymes would be too slow to maintain the organism’s metabolism. If thebody temperature rose above 45
O
C, there would also be seriousconsequences for the animal. Some enzymes would be denatured but thereis another problem as well. As can be seen on the graph, each enzyme isaffected to a different extent by a rise in temperature. Such a rise couldtherefore upset the overall balance of metabolic reactions in the body.
There may be as many as 2000 different chemical reactions taking place inside a single living cell. Each of these is controlled by anenzyme and enzymes are very sensitive to changes in temperature. A constant internal temperature is an advantage because it mayprevent fluctuations in the rates of these reactions. Body temperatures of most mammals change very little but many other organismscan also control their internal temperatures to some extent. Mammals and birds rely on complex physiological mechanisms; otheranimals such as reptiles and insects rely mainly on behaviour.Fig 1. Temperature affects different enzymes in different ways
R a t e o f r e a c t i o n
20304050Temperature/
O
CApart from enzyme-controlled reactions, other processes are also affectedby changes in temperature. An insect, for example, is covered in a thin,waxy, outer layer. This is impermeable and plays a very important part inreducing water loss from the insect’s body. If the temperature rises aboveabout 40
O
C, the wax molecules are affected and more water is lost.
Ectotherms and endotherms
Some biologists divide animals into those whose temperature shows verylittle variation and those whose temperature fluctuates, closely matchingchanges in the temperature of the external environment. The first group are
homeothermic
, the second group are
poikilothermic
. This is not reallya very satisfactory division as many homeothermic animals have bodytemperatures which fluctuate considerably.Many poikilothermic animals, on the other hand, are able to maintain coretemperatures which remain remarkably constant. It is perhaps more usefulto consider animals as being either
ectotherms
which rely mainly on theenvironment to provide essential body heat or
endotherms
which gaintheir body heat from metabolic reactions. Table 1. shows some of the maindifferences between ectothermic animals and endothermic animals.
Table 1. Differences between ectotherms and endotherms
Ectotherms
Reptiles, insects and otherinvertebratesBody temperature fluctuateswith, although generally not asmuch as, that of the environmentBehavioural and structuralmechanisms important inlimiting variation in bodytemperatureFound in limited range of environments. Need less foodthan endotherms to supply theirmetabolic needs
Endotherms
Mammals and birdsBody temperature more or lessconstant and largely independentof that of the environmentPhysiological mechanismsimportant in maintaining bodytemperature more or lessconstantFound in an extremely widerange of environments. Needmore food than ectotherms tosupply their metabolic needs
The control of body temperature in a mammal
Humans and other mammals are endotherms and control their bodytemperatures within a very narrow range. As with other examples of homeostasis, temperature control involves four components:
1. Receptors
These are sensory cells which detect changes in skin temperature and in thetemperature of the blood flowing through the part of the brain known asthe
hypothalamus
. Warmer and cooler temperatures are detected by twodifferent types of receptor.
2. A coordinator
Control of body temperature is coordinated by the part of the brain knownas the
hypothalamus
. Within the hypothalamus are two areas, the heatgain centre which is concerned with limiting the amount of heat lost fromthe body and with generating more heat from metabolism and the heat losscentre which controls those activities that reduce body temperature.
Exam hint -
Remember! - Humans and other mammals are endotherms.
The Control Of Body Temperature
Bio Factsheet
2
3. Effectors
These include the sweat glands and muscles at the base of hairs and in thewalls of arterioles supplying blood to the skin.
4. A negative feedback system
Changes in body temperature set in motion mechanisms which return thebody temperature to its norm or set level. Fig 2. shows how negativefeedback is used to control the body temperature of a mammal.
Fig 2. Negative feedback in temperature control
Exam hint -
Body temperature can be regulated by altering the blood flow to the surface of the skin. Capillaries do not move up and down in the skin!
Why does thetemperature rise?
Less heat lost byconduction andradiation.Insulating layer of airtrapped. Less heatlost by convection.Generates metabolicheat.Energy released asheat rather than ATP.
How are hightemperaturesdetected?
Receptors in thehypothalamus detectan increase in bloodtemperature.
What happens as aresult?
Sweating increases or,in some animals,panting occurs.Shunt vessels close,blood vessels in skindilate, so blood flow toskin surface increased.Erector pili musclesrelaxed and body hairlies flat.Metabolic ratedecreases
Why does the bodytemperature fall?
Heat energy lost frombody as waterevaporates.More heat lost byconduction andradiation.Insulating layer of airreduced. More heatlost by conduction.Less Metabolic heatgainedBodytemperatureusually increasesbecause of heatproduced bymetabolicreactions as aresult of exercise.Bodytemperatureusually fallsbecause of a lowenvironmentaltemperature.
How are lowtemperaturesdetected?
Receptors in the skinand hypothalamusdetect a decrease in thetemperature as theresult of a lowenvironmentaltemperature.
What happens as aresult?
Shunt vessels open andblood vessels in skincontract so blood flowto skin surfacedecreased.Erector pili musclescontract and body hairstands up.Shivering caused byrapid contraction of skeletal muscles.Metabolic rateincreased.Norm or set level (approximately 37
O
C)
The Control Of Body Temperature
Bio Factsheet
3
Camels and chuckwallas, the desert dwellers
Conditions in deserts are extreme. In places like the deserts of Africa,temperatures during the day can rise to as high as 45
O
C. At night, they mayfall by 30 degrees. Add to this, the fact that water is in very short supplyand we have an extremely inhospitable environment. In spite of this, desertsare not devoid of life. There are many species which have adapted to theseextreme environments.In very hot conditions, a human can maintain a constant body temperaturebut this is at considerable cost. The person concerned needs to producelarge quantities of sweat. A man, for example, may lose over a litre of wateran hour in extreme conditions. Dehydration rapidly results. By the timethat about 12% of his body fluid has been lost, conditions become critical.The blood loses water and gets thicker. The heart is unable to pump thisthickened blood as effectively and the circulation slows as a result. Metabolicheat can no longer be transported to the skin to be lost from the body. Thebody temperature rises rapidly and the person dies.Camels have a different strategy. They have adapted to life in hot, dryregions by allowing their temperatures to fluctuate. When a camel is exposedto hot conditions, its body temperature rises. Not until it reaches about40
O
C does the animal produce a significant amount of sweat. As nightcomes and the temperature of the surroundings falls, the camel loses thisheat. Its temperature falls, possibly to a value as low as 34
O
C. It survivesby
tolerating
fluctuations in body temperature. The advantage of thisbehaviour is that valuable water is not lost as sweat in trying to keep aconstant body temperature. Only when there is plenty of water does acamel rely on sweating to maintain a constant body temperature. Camelshave a number of adaptations which enable them to limit the heat absorbedby day and increase heat loss at night. These include:
•
A thick layer of wool-like hair on the animal’s back. This providesinsulation and reduces the amount of heat absorbed during the day.
•Concentration of reserves of body fat in a hump on its back.This means that heat can be lost more effectively at night asthere is no general insulating layer.
The chuckwalla is a desert-living lizard. It relies mainly on behaviouralmechanisms to maintain its remarkably constant body temperature. Fig 3.shows why this is necessary.Virtually all processes in the body depend on enzymes. Reduce the tem-perature and enzyme controlled reactions will become slower and slower.This is clearly seen with both the rate at which food is digested and thespeed of movement (Fig 4).
Fig 4. Some effects of temperature on the biology of a lizard
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R a t e o f d i g e s t i o n ( - ) R a t e o f m o v e m e n t a s p e r c e n t a g e o f m a x i m u m ( - - - )
Fig 3. Temperature regulation in a desert lizard
Range of temperature normally toleratedLow temperatureescape rangeBasking rangeActivity rangeHigh temperatureescape range
Moves into shadeBasks in sunBurrowingBurrowingBody turns increasingly light in colourMinimum body surfaceexposed to sunMaximum body surfaceexposed to sunTemperature
O
C4045353025
Temperature
O
C
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