DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

NONRESIDENT
TRAINING
COURSE

October 1995
Electronics Technician
Volume 7Antennas and Wave
Propagation
NAVEDTRA 14092

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
Although the words he, him, and
his are used sparingly in this course to
enhance communication, they are not
intended to be gender driven or to affront or
discriminate against anyone.
i
PREFACE
By enrolling in this self-study course, you have demonstrated a desire to improve yourself and the Navy.
Remember, however, this self-study course is only one part of the total Navy training program. Practical
experience, schools, selected reading, and your desire to succeed are also necessary to successfully round
out a fully meaningful training program.
COURSE OVERVIEW: In completing this nonresident training course, you should be able to: discuss
wave propagation in terms of the effects the earths atmosphere has on it and the options available to receive
optimum performance from equipment; identify communications and radar antennas using physical
characteristics and installation location, radiation patterns, and power and frequency-handling capabilities.
Be familiar with safety precautions for technicians working aloft; and discuss the different types of
transmission lines in terms of physical structure, frequency limitations, electronic fields, and radiation
losses.
THE COURSE: This self-study course is organized into subject matter areas, each containing learning
objectives to help you determine what you should learn along with text and illustrations to help you
understand the information. The subject matter reflects day-to-day requirements and experiences of
personnel in the rating or skill area. It also reflects guidance provided by Enlisted Community Managers
(ECMs) and other senior personnel, technical references, instructions, etc., and either the occupational or
naval standards, which are listed in the Manual of Navy Enlisted Manpower Personnel Classifications
and Occupational Standards, NAVPERS 18068.
THE QUESTIONS: The questions that appear in this course are designed to help you understand the
material in the text.
VALUE: In completing this course, you will improve your military and professional knowledge.
Importantly, it can also help you study for the Navy-wide advancement in rate examination. If you are
studying and discover a reference in the text to another publication for further information, look it up.
1995 Edition Prepared by
ETC Larry D. Simmons
and
ETC Floyd L. Ace III
Published by
NAVAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
AND TECHNOLOGY CENTER
NAVSUP Logistics Tracking Number
0504-LP-026-7580
ii
Sailors Creed
I am a United States Sailor.
I will support and defend the
Constitution of the United States of
America and I will obey the orders
of those appointed over me.
I represent the fighting spirit of the
Navy and those who have gone
before me to defend freedom and
democracy around the world.
I proudly serve my countrys Navy
combat team with honor, courage
and commitment.
I am committed to excellence and
the fair treatment of all.
CONTENTS
1. Wav e Pr opagati on
CHAPTER
Page
1-1
2. An ten n as
2-1
3-1 3. I n tr odu cti on to Tr an s mi s s i on an d Wav egu i des
APPENDI X
I . Gl ossary
AI -1
I I . References
AI I -1
I NDEX
I ndex-1
iii
SUMMARY OF THE ELECTRONICS
TRAINING SERIES
TECHNICIAN
Thi s seri es of trai ni ng manual s was devel oped to repl ace the Electronics Technician
3 & 2 TRAMAN. The content i s di rected to personnel worki ng toward advancement to
El ectroni cs Techni ci an Second Cl ass.
The ni ne vol umes i n the seri es are based on major topi c areas wi th whi ch the ET2 shoul d
be fami l i ar. Vol ume 1, Safety, provi des an i ntroducti on to general safety as i t rel ates to
the ET rati ng. I t al so provi des both general and speci fi c i nformati on on el ectroni c tag-out
procedures, man-al oft procedures, hazardous materi al s (i .e., sol vents, batteri es, and vacuum
tubes), and radi ati on hazards. Vol ume 2, Administration, di scusses COSAL updates, 3-M
documentati on, suppl y paperwork, and other associ ated admi ni strati ve topi cs. Vol ume 3,
Communication Systems, provi des a basi c i ntroducti on to shi pboard and shore-based
communi cati on systems. Systems covered i ncl ude man-pat radi os (i .e., PRC-104, PSC-3)
i n the hf, vhf, uhf, SATCOM, and shf ranges. Al so provi ded i s an i ntroducti on to the
Communi cati ons Li nk I nteroperabi l i ty System (CLI PS). Vol ume 4, Radar Systems, i s a
basi c i ntroducti on to ai r search, surface search, ground control l ed approach, and carri er
control l ed approach radar systems. Vol ume 5, Navigation Systems, is a basi c i ntroducti on
to navi gati on systems, such as OMEGA, SATNAV, TACAN, and man-pat systems. Vol ume
6, Digital Data Systems, is a basi c i ntroducti on to di gi tal data systems and i ncl udes di scussi ons
about SNAP I I , l aptop computers, and desktop computers. Vol ume 7, Antennas and Wave
Propagation, i s an i ntroducti on to wave propagati on, as i t pertai ns to El ectroni cs Techni ci ans,
and shi pboard and shore-based antennas. Vol ume 8, Support Systems, di scusses system
i nterfaces, troubl eshooti ng, sub-systems, dry ai r, cool i ng, and power systems. Vol ume 9,
Electro-Optics, is an i ntroducti on to ni ght vi si on equi pment, l asers, thermal i magi ng, and
fi ber opti cs.
iv
v
INSTRUCTIONS FOR TAKING THE COURSE
ASSIGNMENTS
The text pages that you are to study are listed at
the beginning of each assignment. Study these
pages carefully before attempting to answer the
questions. Pay close attention to tables and
illustrations and read the learning objectives.
The learning objectives state what you should be
able to do after studying the material. Answering
the questions correctly helps you accomplish the
objectives.
SELECTING YOUR ANSWERS
Read each question carefully, then select the
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vi
PASS/FAIL ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES
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vii
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Course Title: Electronics Technician, Volume 7Antennas and Wave Propagation
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CHAPTER 1
WAVE PROPAGATION
The eyes and ears of a shi p or shore stati on depend
on sophi sti cated, hi ghl y computer i zed el ectr oni c
systems. The one thi ng al l of these systems have i n
common i s that they l ead to and from antennas. Shi ps
operators who must communi cate, navi gate, and be
ready to fi ght the shi p 24 hours a day depend on you
to keep these emi tters and sensors operati onal .
I n thi s vol ume, we wi l l revi ew wave propagati on,
antenna characteri sti cs, shore-based and shi pboard
communi cati ons antennas, matchi ng networks, antenna
tuni ng, radar antennas, antenna safety, transmi ssi on
l i nes, connector i nstal l ati on and weather pr oofi ng,
wavegui des, and wavegui de coupl i ngs. When you
have compl eted thi s chapter, you shoul d be abl e to
di scuss the basi c pri nci pl es of wave propagati on and
the atmospheres effects on wave propagati on.
THE EARTHS ATMOSPHERE
Whi l e radi o waves travel i ng i n free space have
l i ttl e outsi de i nfl uence to affect them, radi o waves
tr avel i ng i n the ear ths atmospher e have many
i nfl uences that affect them. We have al l experi enced
pr obl ems wi th r adi o waves, caused by cer tai n
atmospher i c condi ti ons compl i cati ng what at fi r st
seemed to be a rel ati vel y si mpl e el ectroni c probl em.
These probl em-causi ng condi ti ons resul t from a l ack
of uni formi ty i n the earths atmosphere.
Many factors can affect atmospheri c condi ti ons,
ei ther posi ti vel y or negati vel y. Three of these are
var i ati ons i n geogr aphi c hei ght, di ffer ences i n
geographi c l ocati on, and changes i n ti me (day, ni ght,
season, year).
To understand wave propagati on, you must have
at l east a basi c understandi ng of the earths atmosphere.
The earths atmosphere i s di vi ded i nto three separate
regi ons, or l ayers. They are the troposphere, the
stratosphere, and the ionosphere. These l ayers are
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 1-1.
TROPOSPHERE
Al most al l weather phenomena take pl ace i n the
troposphere. The temperature i n thi s regi on decreases
rapi dl y wi th al ti tude. Cl ouds form, and there may be
a l ot of tur bul ence because of var i ati ons i n the
temperature, pressure, and densi ty. These condi ti ons
have a profound effect on the propagati on of radi o
waves, as we wi l l expl ai n l ater i n thi s chapter.
STRATOSPHERE
The stratosphere i s l ocated between the troposphere
and the i onosphere. The temperature throughout thi s
regi on i s al most constant and there i s l i ttl e water vapor
present. Because i t i s a rel ati vel y cal m regi on wi th
l i ttl e or no temperature change, the stratosphere has
al most no effect on radi o waves.
I ONOSPHERE
Thi s i s the most i mportant regi on of the earths
atmosphere for l ong di stance, poi nt-to-poi nt communi -
cati ons. Because the exi stence of the i onosphere i s
di rectl y rel ated to radi ati on emi tted from the sun, the
movement of the earth about the sun or changes i n
the suns acti vi ty wi l l r esul t i n var i ati ons i n the
i onosphere. These vari ati ons are of two general types:
(1) those that mor e or l ess occur i n cycl es and,
therefore, can be predi cted wi th reasonabl e accuracy;
and (2) those that are i rregul ar as a resul t of abnormal
behavi or of the sun and, therefore, cannot be predi cted.
Both regul ar and i rregul ar vari ati ons have i mportant
effects on radi o-wave propagati on. Si nce i rregul ar
vari ati ons cannot be predi cted, we wi l l concentrate
on regul ar vari ati ons.
Regular Variations
The regul ar vari ati ons can be di vi ded i nto four
mai n cl asses: dai l y, 27-day, seasonal , and 11-year.
We wi l l concentrate our di scussi on on dai l y vari ati ons,
1-1
Figure 1.1Atmospheric layers.
si nce they have the greatest effect on your job. Dai l y of the ul travi ol et energy that i ni ti al l y set them free
vari ati ons i n the i onosphere produce four cl oud-l i ke
l ayers of el ectri cal l y-charged gas atoms cal l ed ions,
whi ch enabl e radi o waves to be propagated great
di stances around the earth. I ons are formed by a
process cal l ed ionization.
Ionization
I n i oni zati on, hi gh-energy ul travi ol et l i ght waves
from the sun peri odi cal l y enter the i onosphere, stri ke
neutral gas atoms, and knock one or more el ectrons
free from each atom. When the el ectrons are knocked
free, the atoms become posi ti vel y charged (positive
ions) and remai n i n space, al ong wi th the negati vel y-
charged free el ectrons. The free el ectrons absorb some
and form an i oni zed l ayer.
Si nce the atmosphere i s bombarded by ul travi ol et
waves of di fferi ng frequenci es, several i oni zed l ayers
are formed at di fferent al ti tudes. Ul travi ol et waves
of hi gher frequenci es penetrate the most, so they
produce i oni zed l ayers i n the l ower porti on of the
i onosphere. Conversel y, ul travi ol et waves of l ower
frequenci es penetrate the l east, so they form l ayers
i n the upper regi ons of the i onosphere.
An i mportant factor i n determi ni ng the densi ty
of these i oni zed l ayers i s the el evati on angl e of the
sun. Si nce thi s angl e changes frequentl y, the hei ght
and thi ckness of the i oni zed l ayers vary, dependi ng
1-2
on the ti me of day and the season of the year.
Another i mportant factor i n determi ni ng l ayer
densi ty i s known as recombination.
Recombination
Recombi nati on i s the reverse process of
i oni zati on. I t occurs when free el ectrons and posi ti ve
i ons col l i de, combi ne, and return the posi ti ve i ons to
thei r ori gi nal neutral state.
Li ke i oni zati on, the recombi nati on process
depends on the ti me of day. Between earl y morni ng
and l ate afternoon, the rate of i oni zati on exceeds the
rate of recombi nati on. Duri ng thi s peri od the i oni zed
l ayers reach thei r greatest densi ty and exert
maxi mum i nfl uence on radi o waves. However, duri ng
the l ate afternoon and earl y eveni ng, the rate of
recombi nati on exceeds the rate of i oni zati on, causi ng
the densi ti es of the i oni zed l ayers to decrease.
Throughout the ni ght, densi ty conti nues to decrease,
reachi ng i ts l owest poi nt just before sunri se. I t i s
i mportant to understand that thi s i oni zati on and
recombi nati on process vari es, dependi ng on the
i onospheri c l ayer and the ti me of day. The fol l owi ng
paragraphs provi de an expl anati on of the four
i onospheri c l ayers.
Ionospheric Layers
The i onosphere i s composed of three di sti nct
l ayers, desi gnated from l owest l evel to hi ghest l evel
(D, E, and F) as shown i n fi gure 1-2. I n addi ti on, the
F l ayer i s di vi ded i nto two l ayers, desi gnated F1 (the
l ower l evel ) and F2 (the hi gher l evel ).
The presence or absence of these l ayers i n the
i onosphere and thei r hei ght above the earth vary
wi th the posi ti on of the sun. At hi gh noon, radi ati on
i n the i onosphere above a gi ven poi nt i s greatest,
whi l e at ni ght i t i s mi ni mum. When the radi ati on i s
removed, many of the parti cl es that were i oni zed
recombi ne. Duri ng the ti me between these two
condi ti ons, the posi ti on and number of i oni zed l ayers
wi thi n the i onosphere change.
Si nce the posi ti on of the sun vari es dai l y,
monthl y, and yearl y wi th respect to a speci fi c poi nt
on earth, the exact number of l ayers present i s
extremel y di ffi cul t to determi ne. However, the
fol l owi ng general statements about these l ayers can
be made.
D LAYER. The D l ayer ranges from about 30
to 55 mi l es above the earth. I oni zati on i n the D l ayer
i s l ow because l ess ul travi ol et l i ght penetrates to thi s
l evel . At very l ow frequenci es, the D l ayer and the
ground act as a huge wavegui de, maki ng communi ca-
ti on possi bl e onl y wi th l arge antennas and hi gh-
power transmi tters. At l ow and medi um frequenci es,
the D l ayer becomes hi ghl y absorpti ve, whi ch l i mi ts
the effecti ve dayti me communi cati on range to about
200 mi l es. At frequenci es above about 3 MHz, the D
l ayer begi ns to l ose i ts absorpti ve qual i ti es.
Figure 1-2.Layers of the ionosphere.
1-3
Long-di stance communi cati on i s possi bl e at
frequenci es as hi gh as 30 MHz. Waves at frequenci es
above thi s range pass through the D l ayer but are
attenuated. After sunset. the D l ayer di sappears
because of the rapi d recombi nati on of i ons. Low-
frequency and medi um-frequency l ong-di stance
communi cati on becomes possi bl e. Thi s i s why AM
behaves so di fferentl y at ni ght. Si gnal s passi ng
through the D l ayer normal l y are not absorbed but
are propagated by the E and F l ayers.
E LAYER. The E l ayer ranges from approxi -
matel y 55 to 90 mi l es above the earth. The rate of
i onospheri c recombi nati on i n thi s l ayer i s rather
rapi d after sunset, causi ng i t to nearl y di sappear by
mi dni ght. The E l ayer permi ts medi um-range
communi cati ons on the l ow-frequency through very-
hi gh-frequency bands. At frequenci es above about 150
MHz, radi o waves pass through the E l ayer.
Someti mes a sol ar fl are wi l l cause thi s l ayer to
i oni ze at ni ght over speci fi c areas. Propagati on i n thi s
l ayer duri ng thi s ti me i s cal l ed SPORADI C-E. The
range of communi cati on i n sporadi c-E often exceeds
1000 mi l es, but the range i s not as great as wi th F
l ayer propagati on.
F LAYER. The F l ayer exi sts from about 90 to
240 mi l es above the earth. Duri ng dayl i ght hours, the
F l ayer separates i nto two l ayers, F1 and F2. Dur i ng
the ni ght, the F1 l ayer usual l y di sappears, The F
l ayer produces maxi mum i oni zati on duri ng the
afternoon hours, but the effects of the dai l y cycl e are
not as pronounced as i n the D and E l ayers. Atoms i n
the F l ayer stay i oni zed for a l onger ti me after sunset,
and duri ng maxi mum sunspot acti vi ty, they can stay
i oni zed al l ni ght l ong.
Si nce the F l ayer i s the hi ghest of the
i onospheri c l ayers, i t al so has the l ongest propagati on
capabi l i ty. For hori zontal waves, the si ngl e-hop F2
di stance can reach 3000 mi l es. For si gnal s to
propagate over greater di stances, mul ti pl e hops are
requi red.
The F l ayer i s responsi bl e for most hi gh-
frequency, l ong-di stance communi cati ons. The
maxi mum frequency that the F l ayer wi l l return
depends on the degree of sunspot acti vi ty. Duri ng
maxi mum sunspot acti vi ty, the F l ayer can return
si gnal s at frequenci es as hi gh as 100 MHz. Duri ng
mi ni mum sunspot acti vi ty, the maxi mum usabl e
frequency can drop to as l ow as 10 MHz.
ATMOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
Wi thi n the atmosphere, radi o waves can be
refracted, refl ected, and di ffracted. I n the fol l owi ng
paragraphs, we wi l l di scuss these propagati on
characteri sti cs.
REFRACTION
A radi o wave transmi tted i nto i oni zed l ayers i s
al ways refracted, or bent. Thi s bendi ng of radi o
waves i s cal l ed refraction. Noti ce the radi o wave
shown i n fi gure 1-3, travel i ng through the earths
atmosphere at a constant speed. As the wave enters
the denser l ayer of charged i ons, i ts upper porti on
moves faster than i ts l ower porti on. The abrupt speed
i ncrease of the upper part of the wave causes i t to
bend back toward the earth. Thi s bendi ng i s al ways
toward the propagati on medi um where the radi o
waves vel oci ty i s the l east.
Figure 1-3.Radio-wave refraction.
The amount of refracti on a radi o wave undergoes
depends on three mai n factors.
1. The i oni zati on densi ty of the l ayer
2. The frequency of the radi o wave
3. The angl e at whi ch the radi o wave enters the
l ayer
1-4
Figure 1-4.Effects of ionospheric density on radio waves.
Layer Density
Fi gure 1-4 shows the rel ati onshi p between
radi o waves and i oni zati on densi ty. Each i oni zed
l ayer has a mi ddl e regi on of rel ati vel y dense
i oni zati on wi th l ess i ntensi ty above and bel ow. As
a radi o wave enters a regi on of increasing
i oni zati on, a vel oci ty i ncrease causes i t to bend
back toward the earth. I n the hi ghl y dense
mi ddl e regi on, refracti on occurs more sl owl y
because the i oni zati on densi ty i s uni form. As the
wave enters the upper l ess dense regi on, the
vel oci ty of the upper part of the wave decreases
and the wave i s bent away from the earth.
Frequency
The l ower the frequency of a radi o wave, the
more rapi dl y the wave i s refracted by a gi ven
degree of i oni zati on. Fi gure 1-5 shows three
separate waves of di fferi ng frequenci es enteri ng
the i onosphere at the same angl e. You can see that
the 5-MHz wave i s refracted qui te sharpl y, whi l e
the 20-MHz wave i s refracted l ess sharpl y and
returns to earth at a greater di stance than the 5-
MHz wave. Noti ce that the 100-MHz wave i s l ost
i nto space. For any gi ven i oni zed l ayer, there i s a
frequency, cal l ed the escape point, at whi ch energy
transmi tted di rectl y upward wi l l escape i nto
space. The maxi mum frequency just bel ow the
escape poi nt i s cal l ed the critical frequency. I n
thi s exampl e, the 100-MHz waves frequency i s
greater than the cri ti cal frequency for that i oni zed
l ayer.
Figure 1-5.Frequency versus refraction
and distance.
The cri ti cal frequency of a l ayer depends upon
the l ayers densi ty. I f a wave passes through a
1-5
parti cul ar l ayer, i t may sti l l be refracted by a
hi gher l ayer i f i ts frequency i s l ower than the
hi gher l ayers cri ti cal frequency.
Angle of Incidence and Critical Angle
When a radi o wave encounters a l ayer of the
i onosphere, that wave i s returned to earth at the
same angl e (roughl y) as i ts angle of incidence.
Fi gure 1-6 shows three radi o waves of the same
frequency enteri ng a l ayer at di fferent i nci dence
angl es. The angl e at whi ch wave A stri kes the
l ayer i s too nearl y verti cal for the wave to be
refracted to earth, However, wave B i s refracted
back to earth. The angl e between wave B and the
earth i s cal l ed the critical angle. Any wave, at a
gi ven frequency, that l eaves the antenna at an
i nci dence angl e greater than the cri ti cal angl e wi l l
be l ost i nto space. Thi s i s why wave A was not
refracted. Wave C l eaves the antenna at the
smal l est angl e that wi l l al l ow i t to be refracted and
sti l l return to earth. The cri ti cal angl e for radi o
waves depends on the l ayer densi ty and the
wavel ength of the si gnal .
Figure 1-6.Incidence angles of radio waves.
As the frequency of a radi o wave i s i ncreased,
the cri ti cal angl e must be reduced for refracti on to
occur. Noti ce i n fi gure 1-7 that the 2-MHz wave
stri kes the i onosphere at the cri ti cal angl e for that
frequency and i s refracted. Al though the 5-MHz
l i ne (broken l i ne) stri kes the i onosphere at a l ess
cri ti cal angl e, i t sti l l penetrates the l ayer and i s
l ost As the angl e i s l owered, a cri ti cal angl e i s
fi nal l y reached for the 5-MHz wave and i t i s
refracted back to earth.
Figure 1-7.Effect of frequency on the critical angle.
1-6
SKIP DISTANCE AND ZONE
Recal l from your previ ous study that a
transmi tted radi o wave separates i nto two parts,
the sky wave and the ground wave. Wi th those
two components i n mi nd, we wi l l now bri efl y
di scuss skip distance and skip zone.
Skip Distance
Look at the rel ati onshi p between the sky wave
ski p di stance, ski p zone, and ground wave
coverage shown i n fi gure 1-8. The skip distance i s
the di stance from the transmi tter to the poi nt
where the sky wave fi rst returns to the earth. The
ski p di stance depends on the waves frequency and
angl e of i nci dence, and the degree of i oni zati on.
Figure 1-8.Relationship between skip
zone, skip distance, and ground wave.
Skip Zone
The skip zone i s a zone of si l ence between the
poi nt where the ground wave i s too weak for
recepti on and the poi nt where the sky wave i s fi rst
returned to earth. The outer l i mi t of the ski p zone
vari es consi derabl y, dependi ng on the operati ng
frequency, the ti me of day, the season of the year,
sunspot acti vi ty, and the di recti on of transmi ssi on.
At very-l ow, l ow, and medi um frequenci es, a
ski p zone i s never present. However, i n the hi gh-
frequency spectrum, a ski p zone i s often present.
As the operati ng frequency i s i ncreased, the ski p
zone wi dens to a poi nt where the outer l i mi t of the
ski p zone mi ght be several thousand mi l es away.
At frequenci es above a certai n maxi mum, the
outer l i mi t of the ski p zone di sappears compl etel y,
and no F-l ayer propagati on i s possi bl e.
Occasi onal l y, the fi rst sky wave wi l l return to
earth wi thi n the range of the ground wave. I n thi s
case, severe fadi ng can resul t from the phase
di fference between the two waves (the sky wave
has a l onger path to fol l ow).
REFLECTION
Refl ecti on occurs when radi o waves are
bounced from a fl at surface. There are basi cal l y
two types of refl ecti on that occur i n the
atmosphere: earth refl ecti on and i onospheri c
refl ecti on. Fi gure 1-9 shows two
Figure 1-9.Phase shift of reflected radio waves.
1-7
waves refl ected from the earths surface. Waves A
and B bounce off the earths surface l i ke l i ght off of
a mi rror. Noti ce that the posi ti ve and negati ve
al ternati ons of radi o waves A and B are i n phase before
they str i ke the ear ths sur face. However , after
refl ecti on the radi o waves are approxi matel y 180
degrees out of phase. A phase shi ft has occurred.
The amount of phase shi ft that occur s i s not
constant. I t vari es, dependi ng on the wave pol ari zati on
and the angl e at whi ch the wave stri kes the surface.
Because r efl ecti on i s not constant, fadi ng occur s.
Normal l y, radi o waves refl ected i n phase produce
stronger si gnal s, whi l e those refl ected out of phase
produce a weak or fadi ng si gnal .
I onospheri c refl ecti on occurs when certai n radi o
waves str i ke a thi n, hi ghl y i oni zed l ayer i n the
i onosphere. Al though the radi o waves are actual l y
refracted, some may be bent back so rapi dl y that they
appear to be refl ected. For i onospheri c refl ecti on to
occur, the hi ghl y i oni zed l ayer can be approxi matel y
no thi cker than one wavel ength of the wave. Si nce
the i oni zed l ayer s ar e often sever al mi l es thi ck,
i onospheri c refl ecti on mostl y occurs at l ong wave-
l engths (l ow frequenci es).
DI FFRACTI ON
Di ffracti on i s the abi l i ty of radi o waves to turn
sharp corners and bend around obstacl es. Shown i n
fi gure 1-10, di ffracti on resul ts i n a change of di recti on
of part of the radi o-wave energy around the edges of
an obstacl e. Radi o waves wi th l ong wavel engths
compared to the di ameter of an obstructi on are easi l y
propagated around the obstructi on. However, as the
wavel ength decreases, the obstructi on causes more
and more attenuati on, unti l at very-hi gh frequenci es
a defi ni te shadow zone devel ops. The shadow zone
i s basi cal l y a bl ank area on the opposi te si de of an
obstructi on i n l i ne-of-si ght from the transmi tter to the
recei ver.
Di ffracti on can extend the radi o range beyond the
hori zon. By usi ng hi gh power and l ow-frequenci es,
radi o waves can be made to enci rcl e the earth by
di ffracti on.
Figure 1-10.Diffraction around an object.
ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS
ON PROPAGATION
As we stated earl i er, changes i n the i onosphere
can pr oduce dr amati c changes i n the abi l i ty to
communi cate. I n some cases, communi cati ons
di stances ar e gr eatl y extended. I n other cases,
communi cati ons di stances ar e gr eatl y r educed or
el i mi nated. The paragraphs bel ow expl ai n the major
probl em of reduced communi cati ons because of the
phenomena of fadi ng and sel ecti ve fadi ng.
Fading
The most troubl esome and frustrati ng probl em i n
recei vi ng radi o si gnal s i s vari ati ons i n si gnal strength,
mos t common l y k n own as FADI NG. Several
condi ti ons can produce fadi ng. When a radi o wave
i s refracted by the i onosphere or refl ected from the
earths surface, random changes i n the pol ari zati on
of the wave may occur. Verti cal l y and hori zontal l y
mounted recei vi ng antennas are desi gned to recei ve
verti cal l y and hori zontal l y pol ari zed waves, respec-
ti vel y. Ther efor e, changes i n pol ar i zati on cause
changes i n the recei ved si gnal l evel because of the
i nabi l i ty of the antenna to recei ve pol ari zati on changes.
Fadi ng al so resul ts from absorpti on of the rf energy
i n the i onosphere. Most i onospheri c absorpti on occurs
i n the l ower regi ons of the i onosphere where i oni zati on
1-8
densi ty i s the greatest. As a radi o wave passes i nto
the i onosphere, i t l oses some of i ts energy to the free
el ectrons and i ons present there. Si nce the amount of
absorpti on of the radi o-wave energy vari es wi th the
densi ty of the i onospheri c l ayers, there i s no fi xed
rel ati onshi p between di stance and si gnal strength for
i onospheri c propagati on. Absorpti on fadi ng occurs for
a l onger peri od than other types of fadi ng, si nce
absorpti on takes pl ace sl owl y. Under certai n
condi ti ons, the absorpti on of energy i s so great that
communi cati on over any di stance beyond the l i ne of
si ght becomes di ffi cul t.
Al though fadi ng because of absorpti on i s the
most seri ous type of fadi ng, fadi ng on the i onospheri c
ci rcui ts i s mai nl y a resul t of mul ti path propagati on.
Multipath Fading
MULTI PATH i s si mpl y a term used to descri be
the mul ti pl e paths a radi o wave may fol l ow between
transmi tter and recei ver. Such propagati on paths
i ncl ude the ground wave, i onospheri c refracti on,
reradi ati on by the i onospheri c l ayers, refl ecti on from
the earths surface or from more than one i onospheri c
l ayer, and so on. Fi gure 1-11 shows a few of the paths
that a si gnal can travel between two si tes i n a typi cal
ci rcui t. One path, XYZ, i s the basi c ground wave.
Another path, XFZ, refracts the wave at the F l ayer
and passes i t on to the recei ver at poi nt Z. At poi nt Z,
the recei ved si gnal i s a combi nati on of the ground
wave and the sky wave. These two si gnal s, havi ng
travel ed di fferent paths, arri ve at poi nt Z at di fferent
ti mes. Thus, the arri vi ng waves may or may not be i n
phase wi th each other. A si mi l ar si tuati on may resul t
at poi nt A. Another path, XFZFA, resul ts from a
greater angl e of i nci dence and two refracti ons from
the F l ayer. A wave travel i ng that path and one
travel i ng the XEA path may or may not arri ve at
poi nt A i n phase. Radi o waves that are recei ved i n
phase rei nforce each other and produce a stronger
si gnal at the recei vi ng si te, whi l e those that are
recei ved out of phase produce a weak or fadi ng
si gnal . Smal l al terati ons i n the transmi ssi on path
may change the phase rel ati onshi p of the two si gnal s,
causi ng peri odi c fadi ng.
Figure 1-11.Multipath transmission.
Mul ti path fadi ng may be mi ni mi zed by practi ces
cal l ed SPACE DI VERSI TY and FREQUENCY
DI VERSI TY I n space di versi ty, two or more recei vi ng
antennas are spaced some di stance apart. Fadi ng
does not occur si mul taneousl y at both antennas.
Therefore, enough output i s al most al ways avai l abl e
from one of the antennas to provi de a useful si gnal .
I n frequency di versi ty, two transmi tters and two
recei vers are used, each pai r tuned to a di fferent
frequency, wi th the same i nformati on bei ng
transmi tted si mul taneousl y over both frequenci es.
One of the two recei vers wi l l al most al ways produce a
useful si gnal .
Selective Fading
Fadi ng resul ti ng from mul ti path propagati on
vari es wi th frequency si nce each frequency arri ves at
the
recei vi ng poi nt vi a a di fferent radi o path. When a
wi de band of frequenci es i s transmi tted
si mul taneousl y,
each frequency wi l l vary i n the amount of fadi ng.
Thi s vari ati on i s cal l ed SELECTI VE FADI NG. When
sel ecti ve fadi ng occurs, al l frequenci es of the
transmi tted si gnal do not retai n thei r ori gi nal phases
and rel ati ve ampl i tudes. Thi s fadi ng causes severe
di storti on of the si gnal and l i mi ts the total si gnal
transmi tted.
Frequency shi fts and di stance changes because
of dai l y vari ati ons of the di fferent i onospheri c l ayers
are summari zed i n tabl e 1-1.
1-9
Table 1-1.Daily Ionospheric Communications
D LAYER: reflects vlf waves for long-range
communications; refracts lf and mf for
short-range communications; has little
effect on vhf and above; gone at night.
E LAYER: depends on the angle of the sun:
refracts hf waves during the day up to 20
MHz to distances of 1200 miles: greatly
reduced at night.
F LAYER: structure and density depend on
the time of day and the angle of the sun:
consists of one layer at night and splits
into two layers during daylight hours.
F1 LAYER: density depends on the angle of
the sun; its main effect is to absorb hf
waves passing through to the F2 layer.
F2 LAYER: provi des l ong-range hf communi ca-
ti ons; very vari abl e; hei ght and densi ty
change wi th ti me of day, season, and sun-
spot acti vi ty.
Figure 1-12.Ionospheric
layers.
OTHER PHENOMENA THAT AFFECT of these l ayers i s greatest duri ng the summer. The
COMMUNI CATI ONS F2 l ayer i s just the opposi te. I ts i oni zati on i s greatest
duri ng the wi nter, Therefore, operati ng frequenci es
Al though dai l y changes i n the i onosphere have for F2 l ayer propagati on are hi gher i n the wi nter than
the greatest effect on communi cati ons, other phenom-
ena al so affect communi cati ons, both posi ti vel y and
negati vel y. Those phenomena are di scussed bri efl y
i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE
I ONOSPHERE
Seasonal vari ati ons are the resul t of the earths
revol vi ng around the sun, because the rel ati ve posi ti on
of the sun moves from one hemi sphere to the other
wi th the changes i n seasons. Seasonal vari ati ons of
the D, E, and F1 l ayers are di rectl y rel ated to the
hi ghest angl e of the sun, meani ng the i oni zati on densi ty
i n the summer.
SUNSPOTS
One of the most notabl e occurrences on the surface
of the sun i s the appearance and di sappearance of dark,
i r r egul ar l y shaped ar eas known as SUNSPOTS.
Sunspots are bel i eved to be caused by vi ol ent erupti ons
on the sun and are characteri zed by strong magneti c
fi el ds. These sunspots cause var i ati ons i n the
i oni zati on l evel of the i onosphere.
Sunspots tend to appear i n two cycl es, every 27
days and every 11 years.
1-10
Twenty-Seven Day Cycle
The number of sunspots present at any one ti me
i s constantl y changi ng as some di sappear and new ones
emerge. As the sun rotates on i ts own axi s, these
sunspots are vi si bl e at 27-day i nterval s, whi ch i s the
approxi mate peri od for the sun to make one compl ete
revol uti on. Duri ng thi s ti me peri od, the fl uctuati ons
i n i oni zati on are greatest i n the F2 l ayer. For thi s
reason, cal cul ati ng cri ti cal frequenci es for l ong-di stance
communi cati ons for the F2 l ayer i s not possi bl e and
al l owances for fl uctuati ons must be made.
Eleven-Year Cycle
Sunspots can occur unexpectedl y, and the l i fe span
of i n di v i du al sunspots i s vari abl e. The
ELEVEN-YEAR SUN SPOT CYCLE i s a r egul ar
cycl e of sunspot acti vi ty that has a mi ni mum and
maxi mum l evel of acti vi ty that occurs every 11 years.
Duri ng peri ods of maxi mum acti vi ty, the i oni zati on
densi ty of al l the l ayers i ncreases. Because of thi s,
the absorpti on i n the D l ayer i ncreases and the cri ti cal
frequenci es for the E, F1, and F2 l ayers are hi gher.
Duri ng these ti mes, hi gher operati ng frequenci es must
be used for l ong-range communi cati ons.
IRREGULAR VARIATIONS
I rregul ar vari ati ons are just that, unpredi ctabl e
changes i n the i onosphere that can drasti cal l y affect
our abi l i ty to communi cate. The mor e common
vari ati ons are sporadi c E, i onospheri c di sturbances,
and i onospheri c storms.
Sporadic E
I r r egul ar cl oud-l i ke patches of unusual l y hi gh
i oni zati on, cal l ed the sporadi c E, often format hei ghts
near the normal E l ayer. Thei r exact cause i s not
known and thei r occur r ence cannot be pr edi cted.
However, sporadi c E i s known to vary si gni fi cantl y
wi th l ati tude. I n the northern l ati tudes, i t appears to
be cl osel y rel ated to the aurora boreal i s or northern
l i ghts.
The sporadi c E l ayer can be so thi n that radi o
waves penetrate i t easi l y and are returned to earth by
the upper l ayers, or i t can be heavi l y i oni zed and
extend up to several hundred mi l es i nto the i onosphere.
Thi s condi ti on may be ei ther harmful or hel pful to
radi o-wave propagati on.
On the harmful si de, sporadi c E may bl ank out
the use of hi gher more favorabl e l ayers or cause
addi ti onal absorpti on of radi o waves at some frequen-
ci es. I t can al so cause addi ti onal mul ti path probl ems
and del ay the arri val ti mes of the rays of RF energy.
On the hel pful si de, the cri ti cal frequency of the
sporadi c E can be greater than doubl e the cri ti cal
frequency of the normal i onospheri c l ayers. Thi s may
permi t l ong-di stance communi cati ons wi th unusual l y
hi gh frequenci es. I t may al so permi t short-di stance
communi cati ons to l ocati ons that woul d normal l y be
i n the ski p zone.
Sporadi c E can appear and di sappear i n a short
ti me duri ng the day or ni ght and usual l y does not occur
at same ti me for al l transmi tti ng or recei vi ng stati ons.
Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances
Commonl y known as SI D, these di sturbances may
occur wi thout warni ng and may l ast for a few mi nutes
to several hours. When SI D occurs, l ong-range hf
communi cati ons are al most total l y bl anked out. The
radi o operator l i steni ng duri ng thi s ti me wi l l bel i eve
hi s or her recei ver has gone dead.
The occurrence of SI D i s caused by a bri ght sol ar
er upti on pr oduci ng an unusual l y i ntense bur st of
ul travi ol et l i ght that i s not absorbed by the F1, F2,
or E l ayers. I nstead, i t causes the D-l ayer i oni zati on
densi ty to greatl y i ncrease. As a resul t, frequenci es
above 1 or 2 megahertz are unabl e to penetrate the
D l ayer and are compl etel y absorbed.
Ionospheric Storms
I onospheri c storms are caused by di sturbances i n
the earths magneti c fi el d. They are associ ated wi th
both sol ar erupti ons and the 27-day cycl e, meani ng
they are rel ated to the rotati on of the sun. The effects
of i onospheri c storms are a turbul ent i onosphere and
very errati c sky-wave propagati on. The storms affect
mostl y the F2 l ayer, reduci ng i ts i on densi ty and
causi ng the cr i ti cal fr equenci es to be l ower than
1-11
normal . What thi s means for communi cati on purposes
i s that the range of frequenci es on a gi ven ci rcui t i s
smal l er than normal and that communi cati ons are
possi bl e onl y at l ower worki ng frequenci es.
Weather
Wi nd, ai r temperature, and water content of the
atmospher e can combi ne ei ther to extend r adi o
communi cati ons or to greatl y attenuate wave propaga-
ti on. mak i ng nor mal communi cati ons extr emel y
di ffi cul t. Pr eci pi tati on i n the atmospher e has i ts
gr eatest effect on the hi gher fr equency r anges.
Frequenci es i n the hf range and bel ow show l i ttl e effect
from thi s condi ti on.
RAIN. Attenuati on because of rai ndrops i s greater
than attenuati on for any other form of preci pi tati on.
Rai ndr op attenuati on may be caused ei ther by
absorpti on, where the rai ndrop acts as a poor di el ectri c,
absorbs power from the radi o wave and di ssi pates the
power by heat l oss; or by scatter i ng (fi g. 1-13).
Rai ndrops cause greater attenuati on by scatteri ng than
by absorpti on at frequenci es above 100 megahertz.
At fr equenci es above 6 gi gaher tz, attenuati on by
rai ndrop scatter i s even greater.
Figure 1-13.Rf energy losses from
scattering.
FOG. Si nce fog r emai ns suspended i n the
atmosphere, the attenuati on i s determi ned by the
quanti ty of water per uni t vol ume (densi ty of the fog)
and by the si ze of the dropl ets. Attenuati on because
of fog has l i ttl e effect on frequenci es l ower than 2
gi gaher tz, but can cause ser i ous attenuati on by
absorpti on at frequenci es above 2 gi gahertz.
SNOW. Si nce snow has about 1/8 the densi ty
of rai n, and because of the i rregul ar shape of the
snowfl ake, the scatteri ng and absorpti on l osses are
di ffi cul t to compute, but wi l l be l ess than those caused
by rai ndrops.
HAIL. Attenuati on by hai l i s determi ned by the
si ze of the stones and thei r densi ty. Attenuati on of
radi o waves by scatteri ng because of hai l stones i s
consi derabl y l ess than by rai n.
TEMPERATURE INVERSION
When l ayers of warm ai r form above l ayers of
col d ai r, the condi ti on known as temperature i nversi on
devel ops. Thi s phenomenon causes ducts or channel s
to be formed, by sandwi chi ng cool ai r ei ther between
the surface of the earth and a l ayer of warm ai r, or
between two l ayers of warm ai r. I f a transmi tti ng
antenna extends i nto such a duct, or i f the radi o wave
enters the duct at a very l ow angl e of i nci dence, vhf
and uhf transmi ssi ons may be propagated far beyond
normal l i ne-of-si ght di stances. These l ong di stances
are possi bl e because of the di fferent densi ti es and
refracti ve qual i ti es of warm and cool ai r. The sudden
change i n densi ti es when a radi o wave enters the warm
ai r above the duct causes the wave to be refracted back
toward earth. When the wave stri kes the earth or a
warm l ayer bel ow the duct, i t i s agai n refl ected or
refracted upward and proceeds on through the duct
wi th a mul ti pl e-hop type of acti on. An exampl e of
radi o-wave propagati on by ducti ng i s shown i n fi gure
1-14.
Figure 1-14.Duct effect caused by temperature
inversion.
TRANSMISSION LOSSES
Al l radi o waves propagated over the i onosphere
undergo energy l osses before arri vi ng at the recei vi ng
si te. As we di scussed earl i er, absorpti on and l ower
1-12
atmospheri c l evel s i n the i onosphere account for a
l arge part of these energy l osses. There are two other
types of l osses that al so si gni fi cantl y affect
propagati on. These l osses are known as ground
reflection losses and freespace loss. The combi ned
effect of absorpti on ground refl ecti on l oss, and
freespace l oss account for most of the l osses of radi o
transmi ssi ons propagated i n the i onosphere.
GROUND REFLECTION LOSS
When propagati on i s accompl i shed vi a mul ti hop
refracti on, rf energy i s l ost each ti me the radi o wave
i s refl ected from the earths surface. The amount of
energy l ost depends on the frequency of the wave, the
angl e of i nci dence, ground i rregul ari ti es, and the
el ectri cal conducti vi ty of the poi nt of refl ecti on.
FREESPACE LOSS
Normal l y, the major l oss of energy i s because of
the spreadi ng out of the wavefront as i t travel s from
the transmi tter. As di stance i ncreases, the area of the
wavefront spreads out, much l i ke the beam of a
fl ashl i ght. Thi s means the amount of energy
contai ned wi thi n any uni t of area on the wavefront
decreases as di stance i ncreases. By the ti me the
energy arri ves at the recei vi ng antenna, the
wavefront i s so spread out that the recei vi ng antenna
extends i nto onl y a smal l porti on of the wavefront.
Thi s i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 1-15.
FREQUENCY SELECTION
You must have a thorough knowl edge of radi o-
wave propagati on to exerci se good judgment when
sel ecti ng transmi tti ng and recei vi ng antennas and
operati ng frequenci es. Sel ecti ng a usabl e operati ng
frequency wi thi n your gi ven al l ocati ons and
avai l abi l i ty i s of pri me i mportance to mai ntai ni ng
rel i abl e communi cati ons.
For successful communi cati on between any two
speci fi ed l ocati ons at any gi ven ti me of the day, there
i s a maxi mum frequency, a l owest frequency and an
opti mum frequency that can be used.
Figure 1-15.Freespace loss principle.
MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY
The hi gher the frequency of a radi o wave, the
l ower the rate of refracti on by the i onosphere.
Therefore, for a gi ven angl e of i nci dence and ti me of
day, there i s a maxi mum frequency that can be used
for communi cati ons between two gi ven l ocati ons. Thi s
frequency i s known as the MAXIMUM USABLE
FREQUENCY (muf).
Waves at frequenci es above the muf are
normal l y refracted so sl owl y that they return to earth
beyond the desi red l ocati on or pass on through the
i onosphere and are l ost. Vari ati ons i n the i onosphere
that can rai se or l ower a predetermi ned muf may
occur at anyti me. hi s i s especi al l y true for the hi ghl y
vari abl e F2 l ayer.
LOWEST USABLE FREQUENCY
Just as there i s a muf that can be used for
communi cati ons between two poi nts, there i s al so a
mi ni mum operati ng frequency that can be used
known as the LOWEST USABLE FREQUENCY (l uf).
As the frequency of a radi o wave i s l owered, the rate
of refracti on i ncreases. So a wave whose frequency i s
bel ow the establ i shed l uf i s refracted back to earth at
a shorter di stance than desi red, as shown i n fi gure 1-
16.
1-13
Figure 1-16.Refraction of frequencies below
the lowest usable frequency (luf).
As a frequency i s l owered, absorpti on of the radi o
wave i ncreases. A wave whose frequency i s too l ow i s
absorbed to such an extent that i t i s too weak for
recepti on. Atmospheri c noi se i s al so greater at l ower
frequenci es. A combi nati on of hi gher absorpti on and
atmospheri c noi se coul d resul t i n an unacceptabl e
si gnal -to-noi se rati o.
For a gi ven angl e i onospheri c condi ti ons, of
i nci dence and set of the l uf depends on the refracti on
properti es of the i onosphere, absorpti on
consi derati ons, and the amount of noi se present.
OPTIMUM WORKING FREQUENCY
The most practi cal operati ng frequency i s one
that you can rel y onto have the l east number of
probl ems. I t shoul d be hi gh enough to avoi d the
probl ems of mul ti path fadi ng, absorpti on, and noi se
encountered at the l ower frequenci es; but not so hi gh
as to be affected by the adverse effects of rapi d
changes i n the i onosphere.
A frequency that meets the above cri teri a i s
known as the OPTI MUM WORKI NG FREQUENCY
I t i s abbrevi ated fot from the i ni ti al l etters of the
French words for opti mum worki ng frequency,
frequence opti mum de travai l . The fot i s roughl y
about 85% of the muf, but the actual percentage
vari es and may be consi derabl y more or l ess than 85
percent.
I n thi s chapter, we di scussed the basi cs of radi o-
wave propagati on and how atmospheri c condi ti ons
determi ne the operati ng parameters needed to ensure
successful communi cati ons. I n chapter 2, we wi l l
di scuss basi c antenna operati on and desi gn to
compl ete your understandi ng of radi o-wave
propagati on.
1-14
CHAPTER 2
ANTENNAS
As an El ectroni cs Techni ci an, you are responsi bl e
for mai ntai ni ng systems that both radi ate and recei ve
el ectromagneti c energy. Each of these systems requi res
some type of antenna to make use of thi s el ectromag-
neti c energy. I n thi s chapter we wi l l di scuss antenna
characteri sti cs, di fferent antenna types, antenna tuni ng,
and antenna safety.
ANTENNA CHARACTERI STI CS
An antenna may be defi ned as a conductor or group
of conductors used ei ther for radi ati ng el ectromagneti c
energy i nto space or for col l ecti ng i t from space.
El ectri cal energy from the transmi tter i s converted
i nto el ectromagneti c energy by the antenna and radi ated
i nto space. On the recei vi ng end, el ectromagneti c
ener gy i s conver ted i nto el ectr i cal ener gy by the
antenna and fed i nto the recei ver.
The el ectromagneti c radi ati on from an antenna
i s made up of two components, the E fi el d and the
H fi el d. The total energy i n the radi ated wave remai ns
constant i n space except for some absorpti on of energy
by the earth. However, as the wave advances, the
energy spreads out over a greater area. Thi s causes
the amount of energy i n a gi ven area to decrease as
di stance from the source i ncreases.
The desi gn of the antenna system i s very i mportant
i n a transmi tti ng stati on. The antenna must be abl e
to radi ate effi ci entl y so the power suppl i ed by the
transmi tter i s not wasted. An effi ci ent transmi tti ng
antenna must have exact di mensi ons, determi ned by
the frequency bei ng transmi tted. The di mensi ons of
the recei vi ng antenna are not cri ti cal for rel ati vel y l ow
frequenci es, but thei r i mportance i ncreases drasti cal l y
as the transmi tted frequency i ncreases.
Most practi cal transmi tti ng antennas are di vi ded
i nto two basi c cl assi fi cati ons, HERTZ ANTENNAS
(hal f-wave) and MARCONI (quarter-wave) ANTEN-
NAS. Hertz antennas are general l y i nstal l ed some
di stance above the ground and are posi ti oned to radi ate
ei ther verti cal l y or hori zontal l y. Marconi antennas
operate wi th one end grounded and are mounted
perpendi cul ar to the earth or a surface acti ng as a
ground. The Hertz antenna, al so referred to as a
di pol e, i s the basi s for some of the more compl ex
antenna systems used today. Her tz antennas ar e
general l y used for operati ng frequenci es of 2 MHz
and above, whi l e Mar coni antennas ar e used for
operati ng frequenci es bel ow 2 MHz.
Al l antennas, regardl ess of thei r shape or si ze, have
four basi c characteri sti cs: reci proci ty, di recti vi ty, gai n,
and pol ari zati on.
RECI PROCI TY
RECI PROCI TY i s the abi l i ty to use the same
antenna for both transmi tti ng and recei vi ng. The
el ectri cal characteri sti cs of an antenna appl y equal l y,
r egar dl ess of whether you use the antenna for
tr ansmi tti ng or r ecei vi ng. The mor e effi ci ent an
antenna i s for transmi tti ng a certai n frequency, the
more effi ci ent i t wi l l be as a recei vi ng antenna for
the same frequency. Thi s i s i l l ustrated by fi gure 2-1,
vi ew A. When the antenna i s used for transmi tti ng,
maxi mum radi ati on occurs at ri ght angl es to i ts axi s.
When the same antenna i s used for recei vi ng (vi ew
B), i ts best recepti on i s al ong the same path; that i s,
at ri ght angl es to the axi s of the antenna.
DI RECTI VI TY
The DI RECTI VI TY of an antenna or array i s a
measure of the antennas abi l i ty to focus the energy
i n one or more speci fi c di recti ons. You can determi ne
an antennas di recti vi ty by l ooki ng at i ts radi ati on
pattern. I n an array propagati ng a gi ven amount of
energy, more radi ati on takes pl ace i n certai n di recti ons
than i n others. The el ements i n the array can be
arranged so they change the pattern and di stri bute the
energy more evenl y i n al l di recti ons. The opposi te
i s al so possi bl e. The el ements can be arranged so the
r adi ated ener gy i s focused i n one di r ecti on. The
2-1
Figure 2-1.Reciprocity of antennas.
el ements can be consi dered
fed from a common source.
GAIN
as a group of antennas
As we menti oned earl i er, some antennas are hi ghl y
di recti onal . That i s, they propagate more energy i n
certai n di recti ons than i n others. The rati o between
the amount of energy propagated i n these di recti ons
and the energy that woul d be propagated i f the antenna
were not di recti onal i s known as antenna GAI N. The
gai n of an antenna i s constant. whether the antenna
i s used for transmi tti ng or recei vi ng.
POLARI ZATI ON
Energy from an antenna i s radi ated i n the form
of an expandi ng sphere. A smal l secti on of thi s sphere
i s cal l ed a wavefront. posi ti oned perpendi cul ar to the
di recti on of the radi ati on fi el d (fi g. 2-2). Wi thi n thi s
wavefront. al l energy i s i n phase. Usual l y, al l poi nts
on the wavefront are an equal di stance from the
antenna. The farther from the antenna the wave i s,
the l ess curved i t appears. At a consi derabl e di stance,
the wavefront can be consi dered as a pl ane surface
at ri ght angl es to the di recti on of propagati on.
Figure 2-2.Horizontal and vertical polarization.
The radi ati on fi el d i s made up of magneti c and
el ectri c l i nes of force that are al ways at ri ght angl es
to each other. Most el ectromagneti c fi el ds i n space
are sai d to be l i nearl y pol ari zed. The di recti on of
pol ari zati on i s the di recti on of the el ectri c vector. That
i s, i f the el ectri c l i nes of force (E l i nes) are hori zontal ,
the wave i s sai d to be hori zontal l y pol ari zed (fi g. 2-2),
and i f the E l i nes are verti cal , the wave i s sai d to be
verti cal l y pol ari zed. Si nce the el ectri c fi el d i s paral l el
to the axi s of the di pol e, the antenna i s i n the pl ane
of pol ari zati on.
A hori zontal l y pl aced antenna produces a hori zon-
tal l y pol ari zed wave, and a verti cal l y pl aced antenna
produces a verti cal l y pol ari zed wave.
I n general , the pol ari zati on of a wave does not
change over short di stances. Therefore, transmi tti ng
and recei vi ng antennas are ori ented al i ke, especi al l y
i f they are separated by short di stances.
Over l ong di stances, pol ari zati on changes. The
change i s usual l y smal l at l ow frequenci es, but qui te
drasti c at hi gh frequenci es. (For radar transmi ssi ons,
a recei ved si gnal i s actual l y a wave refl ected from
an object. Si nce si gnal pol ari zati on vari es wi th the
type of object, no set posi ti on of the recei vi ng antenna
i s correct for al l returni ng si gnal s). Where separate
antennas are used for transmi tti ng and recei vi ng, the
recei vi ng antenna i s general l y pol ari zed i n the same
di recti on as the transmi tti ng antenna.
2-2
When the transmi tti ng antenna i s cl ose to the
gr ound, i t shoul d be pol ar i zed ver ti cal l y, because
verti cal l y pol ari zed waves produce a greater si gnal
strength al ong the earths surface. On the other hand,
when the transmi tti ng antenna i s hi gh above the
ground, i t shoul d be hori zontal l y pol ari zed to get the
greatest si gnal strength possi bl e to the earths surface.
RADI ATI ON OF ELECTROMAGNETI C
ENERGY
Vari ous factors i n the antenna ci rcui t affect the
radi ati on of el ectromagneti c energy. I n fi gure 2-3,
for exampl e, i f an al ternati ng current i s appl i ed to the
A end of wi re antenna AB, the wave wi l l travel al ong
the wi re unti l i t reaches the B end. Si nce the B end
i s free, an open ci rcui t exi sts and the wave cannot
travel further. Thi s i s a poi nt of hi gh i mpedance.
The wave bounces back (refl ects) from thi s poi nt of
hi gh i mpedance and travel s toward the starti ng poi nt,
where i t i s agai n refl ected. Theoreti cal l y, the energy
of the wave shoul d be gradual l y di ssi pated by the
resi stance of the wi re duri ng thi s back-and-forth moti on
(osci l l ati on). However, each ti me the wave reaches
the starti ng poi nt, i t i s rei nforced by an i mpul se of
energy suffi ci ent to repl ace the energy l ost duri ng i ts
travel al ong the wi re. Thi s resul ts i n conti nuous
osci l l ati ons of energy al ong the wi re and a hi gh vol tage
at the A end of the wi re. These osci l l ati ons move
al ong the antenna at a rate equal to the frequency of
the rf vol tage and are sustai ned by properl y ti med
i mpul ses at poi nt A.
Figure 2-3.Antenna and rf source.
The rate at whi ch the wave travel s al ong the wi re
i s constant at approxi matel y 300,000,000 meters per
second. The l ength of the antenna must be such that
a wave wi l l travel from one end to the other and back
agai n duri ng the peri od of 1 cycl e of the rf vol tage.
The di stance the wave travel s duri ng the peri od of
1 cycl e i s known as the wavel ength. I t i s found by
di vi di ng the rate of travel by the frequency.
Look at the current and vol tage di stri buti on on
the antenna i n fi gure 2-4. A maxi mum movement
of el ectrons i s i n the center of the antenna at al l ti mes;
ther efor e, the center of the antenna i s at a l ow
i mpedance.
Figure 2-4.Standing waves of current and voltage on
an antenna.
Thi s condi ti on i s cal l ed a STANDI NG WAVE of
current. The poi nts of hi gh current and hi gh vol tage
are known as current and vol tage LOOPS. The poi nts
of mi ni mum current and mi ni mum vol tage are known
as current and vol tage NODES. Vi ew A shows a
current l oop and two current nodes. Vi ew B shows
two vol tage l oops and a vol tage node. Vi ew C shows
2-3
the resul tant vol tage and current l oops and nodes.
The presence of standi ng waves descri bes the condi ti on
of resonance i n an antenna. At resonance, the waves
travel back and forth i n the antenna, rei nforci ng each
other, and are transmi tted i nto space at maxi mum
radi ati on. When the antenna i s not at resonance, the
waves tend to cancel each other and energy i s l ost
i n the form of heat.
RADIATION TYPES AND PATTERNS
A l ogi cal assumpti on i s that energy l eavi ng an
antenna radi ates equal l y over 360 degrees. Thi s i s
not the case for every antenna.
The energy radi ated from an antenna forms a fi el d
havi ng a defi ni te RADI ATI ON PATTERN. The
radi ati on pattern for any gi ven antenna i s determi ned
by measuri ng the radi ated energy at vari ous angl es
at constant di stances from the antenna and then pl otti ng
the energy val ues on a graph. The shape of thi s pattern
depends on the type of antenna bei ng used.
Some antennas r adi ate ener gy equal l y i n al l
di recti ons. Radi ati on of thi s type i s known as
I SOTROPI C RADI ATI ON. Th e s u n i s a good
exampl e of an i sotr opi c r adi ator . I f you wer e to
measure the amount of radi ated energy around the
suns ci rcumference, the readi ngs woul d al l be fai rl y
equal (fi g. 2-5).
Most radi ators emi t (radi ate) energy more strongl y
i n one di recti on than i n another. These radi ators are
referred to as ANI SOTROPI C radi ators. A fl ashl i ght
i s a good exampl e of an ani sotropi c radi ator (fi g. 2-6).
The beam of the fl ashl i ght l i ghts onl y a porti on of
the space surroundi ng i t. The area behi nd the fl ashl i ght
remai ns unl i t, whi l e the area i n front and to ei ther si de
i s i l l umi nated.
MAJ OR AND MINOR LOBES
The pattern shown i n fi gure 2-7, vi ew B, has
radi ati on concentrated i n two l obes. The radi ati on
i ntensi ty i n one l obe i s consi derabl y stronger than i n
the other. The l obe toward poi nt X i s cal l ed a MAJOR
LOBE; the other i s a MI NOR LOBE. Si nce the
compl ex radi ati on patterns associ ated wi th antennas
frequentl y contai n several l obes of varyi ng i ntensi ty,
Figure 2-5.Isotropic radiation graphs.
you shoul d l earn to use the appropri ate termi nol ogy,
I n general , major l obes are those i n whi ch the greatest
amount of radi ati on occurs. Mi nor l obes are those
i n whi ch the l east amount of radi ati on occurs.
ANTENNA LOADI NG
There wi l l be ti mes when you may want to use
one antenna system to transmi t on several di fferent
frequenci es. Si nce the antenna must al ways be i n
resonance wi th the appl i ed frequency, you must ei ther
l engthen i t or shorten i t to produce the requi red
2-4
Figure 2-6.Anisotropic radiator.
resonance. Changi ng the antenna di mensi ons
physi cal l y i s i mpracti cal , but changi ng them el ectri cal l y
i s rel ati vel y si mpl e. To change the el ectri cal l ength
of an antenna, you can i nsert ei ther an i nductor or a
capaci tor i n seri es wi th the antenna. Thi s i s shown
i n fi gure 2-8, vi ews A and B. Changi ng the el ectri cal
l ength by thi s method i s known as
LUMPED-I MPEDANCE TUNI NG or LOADI NG.
I f the antenna i s too short for the wavel ength bei ng
used, i t wi l l be r esonant at a hi gher fr equency.
Ther efor e, i t offer s a capaci ti ve r eactance at the
exci tati on frequency. Thi s capaci ti ve reactance can
be compensated for by i ntroduci ng a l umped i nducti ve
r eactance, as shown i n vi ew A. Si mi l ar l y, i f the
Figure 2-7.Major and minor lobes.
antenna i s too l ong for the transmi tti ng frequency, i t
wi l l be resonant at a l ower frequency and offers an
i nducti ve reactance. I nducti ve r eactance can be
compensated for by i ntroduci ng a l umped capaci ti ve
reactance, as shown i n vi ew B. An antenna wi th
normal l oadi ng i s represented i n vi ew C.
Figure 2-8.Electrical antenna loading.
GROUND EFFECTS
As we di scussed ear l i er , gr ound l osses affect
radi ati on patterns and cause hi gh si gnal l osses for some
frequenci es. Such l osses can be greatl y reduced i f
a good conducti ng ground i s provi ded i n the vi ci ni ty
of the antenna. Thi s i s the purpose of the GROUND
SCREEN (fi g. 2-9, vi ew A) and COUNTERPOI SE
(fi g. 2-9, vi ew B).
2-5
COMMUNI CATI ONS ANTENNAS
Figure 2-9.Ground screen and
counterpoise.
The ground screen i n vi ew A i s composed of a
seri es of conductors arranged i n a radi al pattern and
buri ed 1 or 2 feet bel ow the surface of the earth.
These conductors, each usual l y 1/2 wavel ength l ong,
reduce ground absorpti on l osses i n the vi ci ni ty of the
antenna.
A counterpoi se (vi ew B) i s used when easy access
to the base of the antenna i s necessary. I t i s al so used
when the ar ea bel ow the antenna i s not a good
conducti ng surface, such as sol i d rock or ground that
i s sandy. The counterpoi se serves the same purpose
as the ground screen but i s usual l y el evated above the
earth. No speci fi c di mensi ons are necessary for a
counterpoi se, nor i s the number of wi res parti cul arl y
cri ti cal . The pri mary requi rement i s that the counter-
poi se be i nsul ated from ground and form a gri d of
refl ector el ements for the antenna system.
Some antennas can be used i n both shore-based
and shi p-based appl i cati ons. Others, however, are
desi gned to be used pri mari l y i n one appl i cati on or
the other. The fol l owi ng par agr aphs di scuss, by
fr equency r ange, antennas used for shor e-based
communi cati ons.
VERY LOW FREQUENCY (VLF)
The mai n di ffi cul ty i n vl f and l f antenna desi gn
i s the physi cal di spar i ty between the maxi mum
practi cal si ze of the antenna and the wavel ength of
the frequency i t must propagate. These antennas must
be l arge to compensate for wavel ength and power
handl i ng requi rements (0.25 to 2 MW), Transmi tti ng
antennas for vl f have mul ti pl e towers 600 to 1500
feet hi gh, an extensi ve fl at top for capaci ti ve l oad-
i ng, and a copper ground system for reduci ng ground
l osses. Capaci ti ve top-l oadi ng i ncreases the bandwi dth
char acter i sti cs, whi l e the gr ound pl ane i mpr oves
radi ati on effi ci ency.
Representati ve antenna confi gurati ons are shown
i n fi gures 2-10 through 2-12. Vari ati ons of these basi c
antennas are used at the majori ty of the Navy vl f si tes.
Figure 2-10.Triatic-type antenna.
2-6
Figure 2-12.Trideco-type antenna.
Figure 2-11.Goliath-type antenna.
HIGH FREQUENCY (HF)
LOW FREQUENCY (LF)
Antennas for l f are not qui te as l arge as antennas
for vl f, but they sti l l occupy a l arge surface area. Two
exampl es of I f antenna desi gn are shown i n fi gures
2-13 and 2-14. The Pan pol ar antenna (fi g. 2-1 3) i s
an umbrel l a top-l oaded monopol e. I t has three l oadi ng
l oops spaced 120 degrees apart, i nterconnected between
the tower guy cabl es. Two of the l oops termi nate at
ground, whi l e the other i s used as a feed. The NORD
antenna (fi g. 2-14), based on the the fol ded-uni pol e
pri nci pl e, i s a verti cal tower radi ator grounded at the
base and fed by one or more wi res connected to the
top of the tower. The three top l oadi ng wi res extend
from the top of the antenna at 120-degree i nterval s
to three termi nati ng towers. Each l oadi ng wi re has
a l ength approxi matel y equal to the hei ght of the mai n
tower pl us 100 feet. The top l oadi ng wi r es ar e
i nsul ated from ground and thei r tower supports are
one-thi rd the hei ght of the transmi tti ng antenna.
Hi gh-frequency (hf) radi o antenna systems are used
to support many di fferent types of ci rcui ts, i ncl udi ng
shi p-to-shore, poi nt-to-poi nt, and gr ound-to-ai r
broadcast. These di verse appl i cati ons requi re the use
of vari ous numbers and types of antennas that we wi l l
revi ew on the fol l owi ng pages.
Yagi
The Yagi antenna i s an end-fi red parasi ti c array.
I t i s constr ucted of par al l el and copl aner di pol e
el ements arranged al ong a l i ne perpendi cul ar to the
axi s of the di pol es, as i l l ustrated i n fi gure 2-15. The
most l i mi ti ng characteri sti c of the Yagi antenna i s i ts
extremel y narrow bandwi dth. Three percent of the
center frequency i s consi dered to be an acceptabl e
bandwi dth rati o for a Yagi antenna. The wi dth of
the array i s determi ned by the l engths of the el ements.
The l ength of each el ement i s approxi matel y one-hal f
2-7
Figure 2-13.Pan polar antenna.
wavel ength, dependi ng on i ts i ntended use (dri ver,
refl ector, or di rector). The requi red l ength of the array
depends on the desi red gai n and di recti vi ty. Typi cal l y,
th e l en gth wi l l v ar y fr om 0.3 wav el en gth for
three-el ement arrays, to 3 wavel engths for arrays wi th
numerous el ements. For hf appl i cati ons, the maxi mum
practi cal array l ength i s 2 wavel engths. The arrays
hei ght above gr ound wi l l deter mi ne i ts ver ti cal
radi ati on angl e. Normal l y, array hei ghts vary from
0.25 to 2.5 wavel engths. The di pol e el ements are
usual l y constructed from tubi ng, whi ch provi des for
better gai n and bandwi dth characteri sti cs and provi des
suffi ci ent mechani cal ri gi di ty for sel f-support. Yagi
arrays of four el ements or l ess are not structural l y
compl i cated. Longer ar r ays and ar r ays for l ower
frequenci es, where the wi dth of the array exceeds 40
feet, requi re el aborate booms and supporti ng structures.
Yagi arrays may be ei ther fi xed-posi ti on or rotatabl e.
LOG-PERIODIC ANTENNAS (LPAs)
An antenna arranged so the el ectri cal l ength and
spaci ng between successi ve el ements causes the i nput
i mpedance and pattern characteri sti cs to be repeated
peri odi cal l y wi th the l ogari thm of the dri vi ng frequency
i s cal l ed a LOG-PERI ODI C ANTENNA (LPA). The
LPA, i n gener al , i s a medi um-power , hi gh-gai n,
moder atel y-di r ecti ve antenna of extr emel y br oad
bandwi dth. Bandwi dths of up to 15:1 are possi bl e,
wi th up to 15 dB power gai n. LPAs are rather
compl ex antenna systems and are rel ati vel y expensi ve.
The i nstal l ati on of LPAs i s normal l y more di ffi cul t
than for other hf antennas because of the tower hei ghts
i nvol ved and the compl exi ty of suspendi ng the
radi ati ng el ements and feedl i nes from the towers.
Vertical Monopole LPA
The l og-peri odi c verti cal monopol e antenna (fi g.
2-16) has the pl ane contai ni ng the radi ati ng el ements
i n a verti cal fi el d. The l ongest el ement i s approxi -
matel y one-quarter wavel ength at the l ower cutoff
fr equency. The gr ound system for the monopol e
arrangement provi des the i mage equi val ent of the other
quar ter wavel ength for the hal f-di pol e r adi ati ng
el ements. A typi cal verti cal monopol e desi gned to
2-8
Figure 2-14.NORD antenna.
Figure 2-15.Yagi antenna.
Figure 2-16.Log-periodic vertical monopole
antenna.
2-9
cover a frequency range of 2 to 30 MHz requi res one
tower approxi matel y 140 feet hi gh and an antenna
l ength of around 500 feet, wi th a ground system that
covers approxi matel y 3 acres of l and i n the i mmedi ate
vi ci ni ty of the antenna.
Sector Log-Periodic Array
Thi s versi on of a verti cal l y pol ari zed fi xed-azi muth
LPA consi sts of four separate curtai ns supported by
a common central tower, as shown i n fi gure 2-17.
Each of the four curtai ns operates i ndependentl y,
provi di ng antennas for a mi ni mum of four transmi t
or recei ve systems. and a choi ce of sector coverage.
The four curtai ns are al so capabl e of radi ati ng a rosette
pattern of overl appi ng sectors for ful l coverage, as
shown by the radi ati on pattern i n fi gure 2-17. The
central supporti ng tower i s constructed of steel and
may range to approxi matel y 250 feet i n hei ght, wi th
the l ength of each curtai n reachi ng 250 feet, dependi ng
on i ts desi gned operati ng frequenci es. A sector antenna
that uses a ground pl ane desi gned to cover the enti re
hf spectrum takes up 4 to 6 acres of l and area.
Figure 2-17.Sector LPA and its horizontal radiation
pattern.
Figure 2-18.Rotatable log-periodic antenna.
Rotatable LPA (RLPA)
RL PAs (f i g. 2-18) a r e common l y u s ed i n
shi p-to-shore-to-shi p and i n poi nt-to-poi nt ecm-u-nuni ca-
ti ons. Thei r di sti nct advantage i s thei r abi l i ty to rotate
360 degrees. RLPAs are usual l y constructed wi th
ei ther tubul ar or wi re antenna el ements. The RLPA
i n fi gure 2-18 has wi re el ements strung on three
al umi num booms of equal l ength, spaced equal l y and
arranged radi al l y about a central rotator on top of a
steel tower appr oxi matel y 100 feet hi gh. The
frequency range of thi s antema i s 6 to 32 MHz. The
gai n i s 12 dB wi th respect to i sotropi c antennas.
Power handl i ng capabi l i ty i s 20 kw average, and vswr
i s 2:1 over the frequency range.
INVERTED CONE ANTENNA
I nverted cone antennas are verti cal l y pol ari zed,
omni di r ecti onal , and have an extr emel y br oad
bandwi dth. They are wi del y used for shi p-to-shore
and gr ound-to-ai r communi cati ons. I nver ted cone
antennas are i nstal l ed over a radi al ground pl ane
system and are supported by pol es, as shown i n fi gure
2-19. The equal l y-spaced ver ti cal r adi ator wi r es
termi nate i n a feed ri ng assembl y l ocated at the bottom
center, where a 50-ohm coaxi al transmi ssi on l i ne feeds
the antenna. I nverted cones usual l y have gai ns of 1
to 5 dB above i sotropi c antennas, wi th a vswr not
2-10
Figure 2-19.Inverted cone antenna.
greater than 2:1. They are consi dered medi um- to
hi gh-power radi ators, wi th power handl i ng capabi l i ti es
of 40 kW average power.
CONI CAL MONOPOLE ANTENNA
Coni cal monopol es ar e used extensi vel y i n hf
communi cati ons. A coni cal monopol e i s an effi ci ent
broadband, verti cal l y pol ari zed, omni di recti onal antenna
i n a compact si ze. Coni cal monopol es are shaped l i ke
two truncated cones connected base-to-base. The basi c
coni cal monopol e confi gurati on, shown i n fi gure 2-20,
i s composed of equal l y-spaced wi re radi ati ng el ements
arranged i n a ci rcl e around an al umi num center tower.
Usual l y, the radi ati ng el ements are connected to the
top and bottom di scs, but on some versi ons, there i s
a center wai st di sc where the top and bottom radi ators
are connected. The coni cal monopol e can handl e up
to 40 kW of average power. Typi cal gai n i s -2 to +2
dB, wi th a vswr of up to 2.5:1.
RHOMBI C ANTENNA
Rhombi c antennas can be char acter i zed as
hi gh-power , l ow-angl e, hi gh-gai n, hor i zontal l y-
pol ari zed, hi ghl y-di recti ve, broadband antennas of
si mpl e, i nexpensi ve constructi on. The rhombi c antenna
(fi g. 2-21) i s a system of l ong-wi re radi ators that
depends on radi ated wave i nteracti on for i ts gai n and
di r ecti vi ty. A pr oper l y desi gned r hombi c antenna
presents to the transmi ssi on l i ne an i nput i mpedance
i nsensi ti ve to fr equency var i ati ons up to 5:1. I t
mai ntai ns a power gai n above 9 dB anywhere wi thi n
a 2:1 fr equency var i ati on. At the desi gn-center
frequency, a gai n of 17 dB i s typi cal . The radi ati on
patter n pr oduced by the four r adi ati ng l egs of a
rhombi c antenna i s modi fi ed by refl ecti ons from the
earth under, and i mmedi atel y i n front of, the antenna.
Beca u s e of th e i mp or ta n ce of th es e gr ou n d
Figure 2-20.Conical monopole antenna.
refl ecti ons i n the proper formati on of the mai n l obe,
the rhombi c shoul d be i nstal l ed over reasonabl y smooth
and l evel ground. The mai n di sadvantage of the
rhombi c antenna i s the requi rement for a l arge l and
area, usual l y 5 to 15 acres.
QUADRANT ANTENNA
Th e h f qu adr an t an ten n a (fi g. 2-22) i s a
speci al -purpose r ecei vi ng antenna used i n
ground-to-ai r-to-ground communi cati ons. I t i s uni que
among hori zontal l y-pol ari zed antennas because i ts
2-11
Figure 2-21.Three-wire rhombic antenna.
el ement arrangement makes possi bl e a radi ati on pat-
ter n r esembl i ng that of a ver ti cal l y-pol ar i zed,
omni di recti onal antenna. Constructi on and i nstal l ati on
of thi s antenna i s compl ex because of the physi cal
rel ati onshi ps between the i ndi vi dual el ements and the
requi rement for a separate transmi ssi on l i ne for each
di pol e. Approxi matel y 2.2 acres of l and are requi red
to accommodate the quadrant antenna.
2-12
Figure 2-22.Quadrant antenna.
WHI P ANTENNAS
Hf whi p antennas (fi g. 2-23) are verti cal l y-pol ari zed
omn i di r ecti on al mon opol es th at ar e u s ed for
short-range, shi p-to-shore and transportabl e communi -
cati ons systems. Whi p antennas are made of tubul ar
metal or fi bergl ass, and vary i n l ength from 12 feet
to 35 feet, wi th the l atter bei ng the most preval ent.
Al though whi ps are not consi dered as hi ghl y effi ci ent
antennas, thei r ease of i nstal l ati on and l ow cost provi de
a compromi se for recei vi ng and l ow-to-medi um power
transmi tti ng i nstal l ati ons.
The sel f-supporti ng feature of the whi p makes i t
parti cul arl y useful where space i s l i mi ted. Whi ps can
be ti l ted, a desi gn feature that makes them sui ted for
use al ong the edges of ai rcraft carri er fl i ght decks.
Aboard submari nes, they can be retracted i nto the sai l
structure.
Most whi p antennas requi re some sort of tuni ng
system and a ground pl ane to i mprove thei r radi ati on
effi ci ency throughout the hf spectrum. Wi thout an
antenna tuni ng system, whi ps general l y have a narrow
bandwi dth and are l i mi ted i n thei r power handl i ng
2-13
Figure 2-23.Whip antennas.
capabi l i ti es. Power rati ngs for most whi ps range from
1 to 5 kW PEP.
WIRE-ROPE FAN ANTENNAS
Fi gure 2-24 shows a fi ve-wi re verti cal fan antenna.
Thi s i s a broadband antenna composed of fi ve wi res,
Figure 2-24.Vertical fan antenna.
each cut for one-quarter wavel ength at the l owest
frequency to be used. The wi res are fanned 30 degrees
between adjacent wi res. The fan antenna provi des
sati sfactory performance and i s desi gned for use as
a random shi pboard antenna i n the hf range (2-30
MHz).
DI SCAGE ANTENNA
The di scage antenna (fi g. 2-25) i s a broadband
omni di recti onal antenna. The di seage structure consi sts
of two truncated wi re rope cones attached base-to-base
and supported by a central mast. The l ower porti on
of the structure operates as a cage monopol e for the
4- to 12-MHz frequency range. The upper porti on
operates as a di scone radi ator i n the 10- to 30-MHz
frequency range. Matchi ng networks l i mi t the vswr
to not greater than 3:1 at each feed poi nt.
Vi nyl -cover ed phosphor br onze wi r e r ope i s used
for the wi re porti ons. The support mast and other
porti ons are al umi num.
VHF/UHF
At vhf and uhf frequenci es, the shorter wavel ength
makes the physi cal si ze of the antenna rel ati vel y smal l .
Aboard shi p these antennas are i nstal l ed as hi gh as
2-14
.
Figure 2-25.AS-2802/SCR discage antenna.
possi bl e and away from any obstructi ons. The reason
for the hi gh i nstal l ati on i s that verti cal conductors,
such as masts, ri ggi ng, and cabl es i n the vi ci ni ty, cause
unwanted di recti vi ty i n the radi ati on pattern.
For best resul ts i n the vhf and uhf ranges, both
transmi tti ng and recei vi ng antennas must have the same
pol ari zati on. Verti cal l y pol ari zed antennas (pri mari l y
di pol es) are used for al l shi p-to-shi p, shi p-to-shore,
and ai r-to-ground vhf and uhf communi cati ons.
The fol l owi ng par agr aphs descr i be the most
common uhf/vhf di pol e antennas. Al l the exampl es
are verti cal l y-pol ari zed, omni di recti onal , broadband
antennas.
Biconical Dipole
The bi coni cal di pol e antenna (fi g. 2-26) i s desi gned
for use at a normal rf power rati ng of around 250
watts, wi th a vswr not greater than 2:1. Al l major
components of the radi ati ng and support structures
are al umi num. The central feed secti on i s protected
and waterproofed by a l ami nated fi bergl ass cover.
Figure 2-26.AS-2811/SCR biconical dipole
antenna.
2-15
Center-Fed Dipole
The center-fed di pol e (fi g. 2-27) i s desi gned for
use at an average power rati ng of 100 watts. Al l major
components of the radi ati ng and support structures
are al umi num. The central feed secti on and radi ati ng
el ements are protected by a l ami nated fi bergl ass cover.
Center-fed di pol e antennas range from 29 to 47 i nches
i n hei ght and have a radi ator di ameter of up to 3
i nches.
Coaxial Dipole
Fi gure 2-28 shows two types of coaxi al di pol es.
The coaxi al di pol e antenna i s desi gned for use i n the
uhf range, wi th an rf power rati ng of 200 watts. The
Figure 2-27.AS-2809/RC center-fed dipole antenna.
AT-150/SRC (fi g. 2-28, vi ew A) has verti cal radi ati ng
el ements and a bal un arrangement that el ectri cal l y
bal ances the antenna to ground.
Fi gur e 2-28, vi ew B, shows an AS-390/SRC
antenna assembl y. Thi s antenna i s an unbal anced
br oadband coaxi al stub antenna. I t consi sts of a
radi ator and a ground pl ane. The ground pl ane (or
counterpoi se) consi sts of ei ght el ements bent downward
37 degrees from hori zontal . The l ower ends of the
el ements form poi nts of a ci rcl e 23 i nches i n di ameter.
The l ower secti on of the radi ator assembl y contai ns
a stub for adjusti ng the i nput i mpedance of the antenna.
The antenna i s verti cal l y pol ari zed, wi th an rf power
rati ng of 200 watts, and a vswr not greater than 2:1.
SATELLITE SYSTEMS
The Navy Satel l i te Communi cati on
(SATCOM) p r ov i d es commu n i ca ti on s
System
l i nks,
vi a satel l i tes, between desi gnated mobi l e uni ts and
shore si tes. These l i nks suppl y worl dwi de communi ca-
ti ons coverage. The fol l owi ng paragraphs descri be
some of the more common SATCOM antenna systems
to whi ch you wi l l be exposed.
AS-2815/SRR-1
The AS-2815/SSR-1 fl eet br oadcast r ecei vi ng
antenna (fi g. 2-29) has a fi xed 360-degree hori zontal
pattern wi th a maxi mum gai n of 4 dB at 90 degrees
from the antennas hori zontal pl ane. The maxi mum
l oss i n the antennas verti cal pattern sector i s 2 dB.
The vswr i s l ess than 1.5:1, referenced to 50 ohms.
Thi s antenna shoul d be posi ti oned to protect i t from
i nterference and possi bl e front end burnout from radar
and uhf transmi tters.
ANTENNA GROUPS OE-82B/WSC-1(V)
AND OE-82C/WSC-1(V)
Desi gned pri mari l y for shi pboard i nstal l ati ons, these
antenna gr oups i nter face wi th the AN/WSC-3
transcei ver. The compl ete i nstal l ati on consi sts of an
antenna, bandpass ampl i fi er-fi l ter, swi tchi ng uni t, and
antenna control (fi gs. 2-30 and 2-31), Dependi ng on
requi rements, one or two antennas may be i nstal l ed
to provi de a vi ew of the satel l i te at al l ti mes. The
antenna assembl y i s attached to a pedestal that permi ts
2-16
Figure 2-28.Coaxial dipole.
Figure 2-29.AS-2815/SSR-1 fleet broadcast
satellite receiving antenna.
i t to rotate 360 degrees and to el evate from near
hori zontal to approxi matel y 20 degrees beyond zeni th
(el evati on angl es fr om +2 to +110 degr ees). The
antenna tracks automati cal l y i n azi muth and manual l y
i n el evati on. Frequency bands are 248-272 MHz for
recei ve and 292-312 MHz for transmi t. Pol ari zati on
i s ri ght-hand ci rcul ar for both transmi t and recei ve.
Antenna gai n characteri sti cs are nomi nal l y 12 dB i n
transmi t and 11 dB i n recei ve.
AN/WSC-5(V) SHORE STATION
ANTENNA
The AN/WSC-5(V) shore stati on antenna (fi g. 2-32)
con s i s ts of fou r OE-82A/WSC-1(V) back pl an e
assembl i es i nstal l ed on a pedestal . Thi s antenna i s
i ntended for use wi th the AN/WSC-5(V) transcei ver
at major shore stati ons.
The antenna i s ori ented
manual l y and can be l ocked i n posi ti on to recei ve
maxi mum si gnal strength upon capture of the satel l i te
si gnal . Hemi spheri cal coverage i s 0 to 110 degrees
above the hori zon. Pol ari zati on i s ri ght-hand ci rcul ar
i n both transmi t and recei ve. The antennas operati ng
frequency range i s 240 to 318 MHz. Wi th i ts mount,
2-17
Figure 2-30.OE-82/WSC-1(V) antenna group.
Figure 2-31.OE-82C/WSC-1(V) antenna group.
2-18
Figure 2-32.OE-82A/WSC-1(V)/AN/WSC-5(V) shore
station antenna.
the antenna wei ghs 2500 pounds and i s 15 feet hi gh,
10 feet wi de, and 10 feet deep. The gai n characteri s-
ti cs of thi s antenna are nomi nal l y 15 dB i n transmi t
and 18 dB i n recei ve.
ANDREW 58622 SHORE ANTENNA
The Andrew 58622 antenna (fi g. 2-33) i s a bi fi l ar,
16-turn hel i cal antenna ri ght-hand ci rcul arl y pol ari zed,
wi th gai n varyi ng between 11.2 and 13.2 dB i n the
240-315 MKz frequency band. I t has a 39-i nch ground
pl ate and i s about 9 feet, 7 i nches l ong. I t can be
adjusted manual l y i n azi muth and el evati on. Thi s
antenna i s used at vari ous shore i nstal l ati ons, other
than NCTAMS, for transmi t and recei ve operati ons.
AN/WSC-6(V) SHF SATCOM
ANTENNA
The antennas used on cur r ent shf SATCOM
shi pboar d ter mi nal s ar e par abol i c r efl ector s wi th
casseegrai n feeds. These antennas provi de for LPI (l ow
probabi l i ty of i ntercept), wi th beamwi dths l ess than
2.5 degrees (fi g. 2-34). The refl ectors are mounted
on three-axi s pedestal s and provi de autotracki ng of
a beacon or communi cati on si gnal by coni cal scanni ng
Figure 2-33.Andrew 58622 shore antenna.
Figure 2-34.AN/WSC-6(V) attenuation
scale.
techni ques. The antennas are radome encl osed and
i ncl ude vari ous el ectroni c components. Both a 7-foot
model (fi g. 2-35) and a 4-foot model (fi g. 2-36) are
operati onal i n the fl eet.
2-19
Figure 2-35.Seven-foot shf SATCOM antenna.
Figure 2-36.Four-foot shf SATCOM antenna.
MATCHI NG NETWORKS
An antenna matchi ng network consi sts of one or
more parts (such as coi l s, capaci tors, and l engths of
transmi ssi on l i ne) connected i n seri es or paral l el wi th
the transmi ssi on l i ne to reduce the standi ng wave rati o
on the l i ne. Matchi ng networks are usual l y adjusted
when they ar e i nstal l ed and r equi r e no fur ther
adjustment for proper operati on. Fi gure 2-37 shows
a matchi ng network outsi de of the antenna feedbox,
wi th a sampl e matchi ng network schemati c.
Matchi ng networks can al so be bui l t wi th vari abl e
components so they can be used for i mpedance
matchi ng over a range of frequenci es. These networks
are cal l ed antenna tuners.
Antenna tuners are usual l y adjusted automati cal l y
or manual l y each ti me the operati ng frequency i s
changed. Standard tuners are made wi th i ntegral
encl osures. I nstal l ati on consi sts si mpl y of mounti ng
2-20
Figure 2-37.Matching network.
the tuner, assembl i ng the connecti ons wi th the antenna
and transmi ssi on l i ne, and pressuri zi ng the tuner,
i f necessary. Access must be provi ded to the pressure
gauge and pressuri zi ng and purgi ng connecti ons.
ANTENNA TUNI NG
For every frequency i n the frequency spectrum,
there i s an antenna that i s perfect for radi ati ng at that
frequency. By that we mean that al l of the power
bei ng transmi tted from the transmi tter to the antenna
wi l l be radi ated i nto space. Unfortunatel y, thi s i s the
i deal and not the rul e. Normal l y, some power i s l ost
between the transmi tter and the antenna. Thi s power
l oss i s the resul t of the antenna not havi ng the perfect
di mensi ons and si ze to radi ate perfectl y al l of the
power del i vered to i t from the transmi tter. Natural l y,
i t woul d be unreal i sti c to carry a separate antenna for
ever y fr equency that a communi cati ons center i s
capabl e of r adi ati ng; a shi p woul d have to have
mi l l i ons of antennas on board, and that woul d be
i mpossi bl e.
To overcome thi s probl em, we use ANTENNA
TUNI NG to l engthen and shorten antennas el ectri cal l y
to better match the frequency on whi ch we want to
transmi t. The rf tuner i s connected el ectri cal l y to the
antenna and i s used to adjust the apparent physi cal
l ength of the antenna by el ectri cal means. Thi s si mpl y
means that the antenna does not physi cal l y change
l ength; i nstead, i t i s adapted el ectri cal l y to the output
frequency of the transmi tter and appears to change
i ts physi cal l ength. Antenna tuni ng i s done by usi ng
antenna coupl ers, tuners, and mul ti coupl ers.
Antenna coupl ers and tuners are used to match
a si ngl e transmi tter or recei ver to one antenna whereas
antenna mul ti coupl ers are used to match more than
one tr ansmi tter or r ecei ver to on e antenna for
si mul taneous operati on. Some of the many antenna
coupl ers that are i n present use are addressed i n the
fol l owi ng paragraphs. For speci fi c i nformati on on
a parti cul ar coupl er, refer to the appropri ate equi pment
techni cal manual .
Antenna Coupler Group AN/URA-38
An ten n a Cou pl er Gr ou p AN/URA-38 i s an
automati c antenna tuni ng system i ntended pri mari l y
for use wi th the AN/URT-23(V) oper ati ng i n the
hi gh-frequency range. The equi pment al so i ncl udes
pr ovi si ons for manual and semi automati c tuni ng,
maki ng the system readi l y adaptabl e for use wi th other
radi o transmi tters. The manual tuni ng feature i s useful
when a fai l ure occurs i n the automati c tuni ng ci rcui try.
Tuni ng can al so be done wi thout the use of rf power
(si l ent tuni ng). Thi s method i s useful i n i nstal l ati ons
where radi o si l ence must be mai ntai ned except for
bri ef transmi ssi on peri ods.
The antenna coupl er matches the i mpedance of
a 15-, 25-, 28-, or 35-foot whi p antenna to a 50-ohm
transmi ssi on l i ne, at any frequency i n the 2-to 30-MHz
r ange. Wh en th e cou pl er i s u s ed wi th th e
AN/URT-23(V), control si gnal s from the associ ated
antenna coupl er control uni t automati cal l y tune the
coupl ers matchi ng network i n l ess than 5 seconds.
Duri ng manual and si l ent operati on, the operator uses
the control s mounted on the antenna coupl er control
uni t to tune the antenna. A l ow-power (l ess than 250
watts) cw si gnal i s requi red for tuni ng. Once tuned,
the CU 938A/URA-38 i s capabl e of handl i ng 1000
watts PEP.
Antenna Coupler Groups
AN/SRA-56, -57, and -58
Antenna coupl er gr oups AN/SRA-56, -57, and
-58 are desi gned pri mari l y for shi pboard use. Each
2-21
coupl er group permi ts several transmi tters to operate
si mul taneousl y i nto a si ngl e, associ ated, broadband
antenna, thus reduci ng the total number of antennas
requi red i n the l i mi ted space aboard shi p.
These antenna coupl er groups provi de a coupl i ng
path of prescri bed effi ci ency between each transmi tter
and the associ ated antenna. They al so provi de i sol ati on
between tr ansmi tter s, tunabl e bandpass fi l ter s to
suppress harmoni c and spuri ous transmi tter outputs,
and matchi ng networks to reduce antenna i mpedances.
The three antenna coupl er groups (AN/SRA-56,
-57, -58) are si mi l ar i n appearance and functi on, but
they di ffer i n frequency ranges. Antenna coupl er group
AN/SRA-56 operates i n the 2- to 6-MHz frequency
range. The AN/SRA-57 operates from 4 to 12 MHz,
and the AN/SRA-58 operates from 10 to 30 MHz.
When more than one coupl er i s used i n the same
frequency range, a 15 percent frequency separati on
must be mai ntai ned to avoi d any i nterference.
Antenna Coupler Group AN/SRA-33
Antenna coupl er group AN/SRA-33 operates i n
the uhf (225-400 Mhz) frequency range. I t provi des
i sol ati on between as many as four transmi tter and
recei ver combi nati ons operati ng si mul taneousl y i nto
a common uhf antenna wi thout degradi ng operati on.
The AN/SRA-33 i s desi gned for oper ati on wi th
shi pboar d r adi o set AN/WSC-3. The AN/SRA-33
consi sts of four antenna coupl ers (CU-1131/SRA-33
through CU-1134/SRA-33), a control power suppl y
C-4586/SRA-33, an el ectr oni c equi pment cabi net
CY-3852/SRA-33, and a set of speci al -purpose cabl es.
OA-9123/SRC
The OA-9123/SRC mul ti coupl er enabl es up to four
uhf transcei vers, transmi tters, or recei vers to operate
on a common antenna. The mul ti coupl er provi des
l ow i nserti on l oss and hi ghl y sel ecti ve fi l teri ng i n each
of the four ports. The uni t i s i nterface compati bl e
wi th the channel sel ect control si gnal s from radi o sets
AN/WSC-3(V) (ex cept (V)1). Th e u n i t i s s el f-
contai ned and i s confi gured to fi t i nto a standard
19-i nch open equi pment rack.
The OA-9123/SRC consi sts of a cabi net assembl y,
control power suppl y assembl y, and four i denti cal fi l ter
assembl i es. Thi s mul ti coupl er i s a state-of-the-art
repl acement for the AN/SRA-33 and onl y requi res
about hal f of the space.
RECEI VI NG ANTENNA
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Recei vi ng antenna di stri buti on systems operate
at l ow power l evel s and ar e desi gned to pr event
mul ti pl e si gnal s fr om bei ng r ecei ved. The basi c
di stri buti on system has several antenna transmi ssi on
l i nes and several recei vers, as shown i n fi gure 2-38.
The system i ncl udes two basi c patch panel s, one that
termi nates the antenna transmi ssi on l i nes, and the other
that termi nates the l i nes l eadi ng to the recei vers. Thus,
any antenna can be patched to any recei ver vi a patch
cor ds.
Figure 2-38.Receive signal distribution system.
2-22
Some di stri buti on systems wi l l be more compl ex.
That i s, four antennas can be patched to four recei vers,
or one antenna can be patched to more than one
recei ver vi a the mul ti coupl ers.
RECEI VI NG MULTI COUPLER
AN/SRA-12
The AN/SRA-12 fi l ter assembl y mul ti coupl er
provi des seven radi o frequency channel s i n the 14-kHz
to 32-MHz frequency range. Any of these channel s
may be used i ndependentl y of the other channel s, or
they may operate si mul taneousl y. Connecti ons to the
recei ver are made by coaxi al patch cords, whi ch are
short l engths of cabl e wi th a pl ug attached to each
end.
ANTENNA COUPLER GROUPS
AN/SRA-38, AN/SRA-39, AN/SRA-40,
AN/SRA-49, AN/SRA-49A, and AN/SRA-50
These groups are desi gned to connect up to 20
mf and hf recei vers to a si ngl e antenna, wi th a hi ghl y
sel ecti ve degree of frequency i sol ati on. Each of the
si x coupl er groups consi sts of 14 to 20 i ndi vi dual
antenna coupl ers and a si ngl e-power suppl y modul e,
al l are sl i de-mounted i n a speci al el ectroni c equi pment
rack. An antenna i nput di stri buti on l i ne termi nati on
(dummy l oad) i s al so suppl i ed. I n addi ti on, there are
provi si ons for patchi ng the outputs from the vari ous
antenna coupl ers to external recei vers.
RADAR ANTENNAS
Radar antennas are usual l y di recti onal antennas
that radi ate energy i n one l obe or beam. The two most
i mportant characteri sti cs of di recti onal antennas are
di recti vi ty and power gai n. Most radar systems use
parabol i c antennas. These antennas use parabol i c
refl ectors i n di fferent vari ati ons to focus the radi ated
energy i nto a desi red beam pattern.
Whi l e most radar antennas are parabol i c, other
types such as the corner refl ector, the broadsi de array,
and horn radi ators may al so be used.
PARABOLI C REFLECTORS
To understand why parabol i c refl ectors are used
for most radar antennas, you need to understand how
r adi o waves behave. A poi nt sour ce, such as an
omni di recti onal antenna produces a spheri cal radi ati on
pattern, or spheri cal wavefront. As the sphere expands,
the energy contai ned i n a gi ven surface area decreases
r api dl y. At a r el ati vel y shor t di stance fr om the
antenna, the energy l evel i s so smal l that i ts refl ecti on
from a target woul d be usel ess i n a radar system.
A sol uti on to thi s probl em i s to form the energy
i nto a PLANE wavefront, I n a pl ane wavefront, al l
of the energy travel s i n the same di recti on, thus
provi di ng more energy to refl ect off of a target. To
concentr ate the ener gy even fur ther , a par abol i c
refl ector i s used to shape the pl ane wavefronts energy
i nto a beam of energy. Thi s concentrati on of energy
provi des a maxi mum amount of energy to be refl ected
off of a target, maki ng detecti on of the target much
more probabl e.
How does the parabol i c refl ector focus the radi o
waves? Radi o waves behave much as l i ght waves do.
Mi crowaves travel i n strai ght l i nes as do l i ght rays.
They may be focused or refl ected, just as l i ght rays
may be. I n fi gure 2-39, a poi nt-radi ati on source i s
pl aced at the focal poi nt F. The fi el d l eaves thi s
antema wi th a spheri cal wavefront. As each part of
the wavefront movi ng toward the refl ector reaches
the refl ecti ng surface, i t i s shi fted 180 degrees i n phase
and sent outward at angl es that cause al l parts of the
fi el d to travel i n paral l el paths. Because of the shape
of a parabol i c surface, al l paths from F to the refl ector
and back to l i ne XY are the same l ength. Therefore,
al l parts of the fi el d arri ve at l i ne XY at the same ti me
after refl ecti on.
Figure 2-39.Parabolic reflector radiation.
Energy that i s not di rected toward the parabol oi d
(dotted l i nes i n fi g. 2-39) has a wi de-beam characteri s-
2-23
ti c that woul d destroy the narrow pattern from the
parabol i c refl ector. Thi s destructi on i s prevented by
the use of a hemi spheri cal shi el d (not shown) that
di rects most of what woul d otherwi se be spheri cal
radi ati on toward the parabol i c surface. Wi thout the
shi el d, some of the radi ated fi el d woul d l eave the
radi ator di rectl y, woul d not be refl ected, and woul d
ser ve no useful pur pose. The shi el d makes the
beamsharper, and concentrates the majori ty of the
power i n the beam. The same resul ts can be obtai ned
by usi ng ei ther a parasi ti c array to di rect the radi ated
fi el d back to the refl ector, or a feed horn poi nted at
the parabol oi d.
The radi ati on pattern of the parabol oi d contai ns
a major l obe, whi ch i s di rected al ong the axi s of the
parabol oi d, and several mi nor l obes, as shown i n fi gure
2-40. Very narrow beams are possi bl e wi th thi s type
of refl ector. Vi ew A of fi gure 2-41 i l l ustrates the
parabol i c refl ector.
Truncated Paraboloid
Whi l e the compl ete parabol i c refl ector produces
a penci l -shaped beam, parti al parabol i c refl ectors
Figure 2-40.Parabolic radiation pattern.
produce di fferentl y shaped beams. Vi ew B of fi gure
2-41 shows a hori zontal l y truncated, or verti cal l y
shortened, parabol oi d. Thi s type of r efl ector i s
desi gned to produce a beam that i s narrow hori zontal l y
but wi de verti cal l y. Si nce the beam i s wi de verti cal l y,
i t wi l l detect ai rcraft at di fferent al ti tudes wi thout
changi ng the ti l t of the antenna. I t al so works wel l
for surface search radars to overcome the pi tch and
rol l of the shi p.
Figure 2-41.Reflector shapes.
2-24
The truncated parabol oi d refl ector may be used
i n hei ght-fi ndi ng systems i f the refl ector i s rotated
90 degrees, as shown i n vi ew C of fi gure 2-41. Thi s
type of r efl ector pr oduces a beam that i s wi de
hori zontal l y but narrow verti cal l y. The beam pattern
i s spread l i ke a hori zontal fan. Such a fan-shaped
beam can be used to deter mi ne el evati on ver y
accuratel y.
Orange-Peel Paraboloid
A secti on of a compl ete ci rcul ar parabol oi d, often
cal l ed an ORANGE-PEEL REFLECTOR because of
i ts shape, i s shown i n vi ew D of fi gure 2-41. Si nce
the refl ector i s narrow i n the hori zontal pl ane and wi de
i n the verti cal , i t produces a beam that i s wi de i n the
hori zontal pl ane and narrow i n the verti cal . I n shape,
the beam resembl es a huge beaver tai l . Thi s type of
antenna system i s general l y used i n hei ght-fi ndi ng
equi pment.
Cylindrical Paraboloid
When a beam of radi ated energy noti ceabl y wi der
i n one cross-secti onal di mensi on than i n the other i s
desi red, a cyl i ndri cal parabol oi d secti on approxi mati ng
a r ectangl e can be used. Vi ew E of fi gur e 2-41
i l l ustrates thi s antenna. A parabol i c cross secti on i s
i n one di mensi on onl y; ther efor e, the r efl ector i s
di recti ve i n one pl ane onl y. The cyl i ndri cal parabol oi d
refl ector i s ei ther fed by a l i near array of di pol es, a
sl i t i n the si de of a wavegui de, or by a thi n wavegui de
radi ator. Rather than a si ngl e focal poi nt, thi s type
of refl ector has a seri es of focal poi nts formi ng a
strai ght l i ne. Pl aci ng the radi ator, or radi ators, al ong
thi s focal l i ne produces a di rected beam of energy.
As the wi dth of the parabol i c secti on i s changed,
di fferent beam shapes are produced. Thi s type of
antenna system i s used i n search systems and i n ground
control approach (gca) systems.
CORNER REFLECTOR
The corner-refl ector antenna consi sts of two fl at
conducti ng sheets that meet at an angl e to form a
cor ner , as shown i n vi ew F of fi gur e 2-41. Thi s
refl ector i s normal l y dri ven by a hal f-wave radi ator
l ocated on a l i ne that bi sects the angl e formed by the
sheet refl ectors.
BROADSI DE ARRAY
Desi red beam wi dths are provi ded for some vhf
radars by a broadsi de array, such as the one shown
i n fi gure 2-42. The broadsi de array consi sts of two
or more hal f-wave di pol e el ements and a fl at refl ector.
The el ements are pl aced one-hal f wavel ength apart
and paral l el to each other. Because they are exci ted
i n phase, most of the radi ati on i s perpendi cul ar or
br oadsi de to the pl ane of the el ements. The fl at
refl ector i s l ocated approxi matel y one-ei ghth wave-
l ength behi nd the di pol e el ements and makes possi bl e
the uni di recti onal characteri sti cs of the antenna system.
HORN RADIATORS
Horn radi ators, l i ke parabol i c refl ectors, may be
used to obtai n di r ecti ve r adi ati on at mi cr owave
frequenci es. Because they do not i nvol ve resonant
el ements, horns have the advantage of bei ng usabl e
over a wi de frequency band.
The operati on of a horn as an el ectromagneti c
di recti ng devi ce i s anal ogous to that of acousti c horns.
However, the throat of an acousti c horn usual l y has
di mensi ons much smal l er than the sound wavel engths
for whi ch i t i s used, whi l e the throat of the el ectromag-
neti c horn has di mensi ons that are comparabl e to the
wavel ength bei ng used.
Horn radi ators are readi l y adaptabl e for use wi th
wavegui des because they serve both as an i mpedance-
Figure 2-42.Broadside array.
2-25
matchi ng devi ce and as a di recti onal radi ator. Horn
radi ators may be fed by coaxi al or other types of l i nes.
Horns are constructed i n a vari ety of shapes as
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 2-43. The shape of the horn and
the di mensi ons of the l ength and mouth l ar gel y
determi ne the fi el d-pattern shape. The rati o of the
horn l ength to mouth openi ng si ze determi nes the beam
angl e and, thus, the di recti vi ty. I n general , the l arger
the openi ng of the horn, the more di recti ve i s the
resul ti ng fi el d pattern.
Figure 2-43.Horn radiators.
FEEDHORNS
A wavegui de horn, cal l ed a FEEDHORN, may
be used to feed energy i nto a parabol i c di sh. The
di recti vi ty of thi s feedhorn i s added to that of the
parabol i c di sh. The resul ti ng pattern i s a very narrow
and concentrated beam. I n most radars, the feedhorn
i s covered wi th a wi ndow of pol ystyrene fi bergl ass
to prevent moi sture and di rt from enteri ng the open
end of the wavegui de.
One probl em associ ated wi th feedhorns i s the
SHADOW i ntroduced by the feedhorn i f i t i s i n the
path of the beam. (The shadow i s a dead spot di rectl y
i n front of the feedhorn.) To sol ve thi s probl em the
feedhor n can be offset fr om center . Thi s l ocati on
change takes the feedhorn out of the path of the rf
beam and el i mi nates the shadow. An offset feedhorn
i s shown i n fi gure 2-44.
RADAR SYSTEMS
Now that you have a basi c understandi ng of how
radar antennas operate, we wi l l i ntroduce you to a few
of the radar systems currentl y i n use.
Figure 2-44.Offset feedhorn.
AN/GPN-27(ASR-8) AIR
SURVEI LLANCE RADAR
The AN/GPN-27(ASR-8) (fi g. 2-45) antenna
radi ates a beam 1.5 degrees i n azi muth and shaped
i n el evati on to produce coverage of up to approxi -
matel y 32 degrees above the hori zon. Thi s provi des
a mapl i ke presentati on of ai rcraft wi thi n 55 nauti cal
mi l es of an ai rport termi nal . The antenna azi muth
Figure 2-45.AN/GPN-27(ASR-8) air
surveillance radar.
2-26
pul se generator (APG), l ocated i n the rotary joi nt,
transmi ts to the radar i ndi cator azi muth i nformati on
correspondi ng to beam di recti on. Pol ari zati on of the
radi ated energy can be remotel y swi tched to ei ther
l i near or ci rcul ar pol ari zati on. The refl ector has a
modi fi ed par abol i c shape desi gned to pr oduce an
approxi matel y cosecant squared beam i n the el evati on
pl ane. The refl ector surface, covered wi th expanded
al umi num screen, i s 16.1 feet wi de and 9 feet hi gh.
The antenna feedhorn, whi ch mounts on the pol ari zer,
provi des i mpedance matchi ng between the wavegui de
system and free space, and produces the desi red feed
pattern to i l l umi nate the refl ector. A radome over
the horn aperture excl udes moi sture and forei gn matter,
and provi des a pressure seal .
pedestal assembl y, the feedhorn and feedhorn support
boom, and the refl ector assembl y.
The base assembl y provi des a surface for mounti ng
the antenna to the shi p. I t al so contai ns the azi muth
dri ve gearbox. The gearbox i s dri ven by the azi muth
dri ve motor, whi ch dri ves the pedestal i n azi muth
through a pi ni on gear mated to a ri ng gear l ocated
at the bottom of the cone-shaped pedestal assembl y,
The azi muth dri ve ci rcui ts rotate the antenna through
360 degrees at speeds of 6 rpm and 12 rpm.
The refl ector and the feedhorn support boom are
mounted on a trunni on, al l owi ng the el evati on angl e
of the rf beam to be control l ed by a jackscrew l ocated
behi nd the refl ector. The jackscrew i s rotated by the
el evati on dri ve gearbox, whi ch i s connected to two
dc motors. The rf energy to the feedhorn i s routed
through el evati on and azi muth rotary joi nts l ocated
wi thi n the pedestal .
AS-3263/SPS-49(V)
The AS-3263/SPS-49(V) antenna (fi g. 2-46)
consi sts of three major secti ons: the antenna base and
Figure 2-46.AS-3263/SPS-49(V) antenna.
2-27
The refl ector i s 24 feet wi de and has a
doubl e-cur ved sur face composed of a ser i es of
hori zontal members that form a refl ecti ng surface for
the hori zontal l y pol ari zed C-band energy. The antenna
has a 28-dB gai n, wi th a beamwi dth of 9 degrees
mi ni mum verti cal l y and approxi matel y 3.3 degrees
hori zontal l y. Antenna rol l and pi tch stabi l i zati on l i mi ts
are pl us or mi nus 25 degrees, Stabi l i zati on accuracy
i s pl us or mi nus 1 degree wi th the hori zontal pl ane.
The antenna i s equi pped wi th a safety swi tch
l ocated near the antenna pedestal area. The safety
swi tch di sabl es the azi muth and el evati on functi ons
i n the antenna and the radi ate functi on i n the transmi t-
ter to provi de protecti on for personnel worki ng on
the antenna.
OE-172/SPS-55
The OE-172/SPS-55 antenna group consi sts of the
antenna and the antenna pedestal . The antenna group
i s mast-mounted by means of four bol t hol es on the
base of the pedestal .
The antenna consi sts of two wavegui de sl otted
arrays mounted back-to-back. One array provi des
l i near pol ari zati on, whi l e the other provi des ci rcul ar
pol ari zati on. The array used i s sel ected by means of
a remotel y control l ed wavegui de swi tch l ocated on
the pedestal . Li near pol ari zati on i s used for most
condi ti ons. Ci rcul ar pol ari zati on i s used to reduce
return echoes from preci pi tati on. Each antenna forms
a fan beam that i s narrow i n the azi muth pl ane and
moderatel y broad i n the el evati on pl ane.
Fi gure 2-47 shows a cross-secti on of the SPS-55
antenna. Duri ng transmi ssi on, the rf si gnal enters the
antenna through a feed wavegui de and then enters a
feed mani fol d regi on of 80 peri odi c narrow-wal l sl ots.
The sl ots ar e skewed i n angl e and al ter nated i n
di recti on of skew. They are separated by approxi -
matel y one-hal f wavel ength, resul ti ng i n broadsi de
radi ati on i nto the sectoral horn regi on of the antenna.
The hori zontal l y pol ari zed radi ati on from the mani fol d
travel s i n the horn regi on toward the aperture, where
i t encounters an array of verti cal sheet metal sl ats.
Figure 2-47.SPS-55 antenna cross section.
2-28
Thi s array i s a pol ari zi ng fi l ter, whi ch ensures that
onl y hori zontal l y pol ari zed energy travel s from the
horn regi on. The antenna scans at a rate of 16 rpm
and produces an absol ute gai n of 31 dB at mi dband.
AN/SPN-35A AI RCRAFT CONTROL
APPROACH RADAR
The AN/SPN-35A (fi g 2-48) i s a
carri er-control l ed-approach (CCA) radar set used for
preci si on l andi ng approaches duri ng adverse weather
condi ti ons. The r adar di spl ays both azi muth and
el evati on data, whi ch enabl es the radar operator to
di rect ai rcraft al ong a predetermi ned gl i de path and
azi muth course l i ne to a transi ti on poi nt approxi matel y
2 mi l es from the ramp of the fl i ght deck.
The azi muth antenna, AS-1292/TPN-8, functi ons
i n the azi muth rf l i ne for radi ati on and recepti on of
X-band rf pul ses. The azi muth antenna compri ses
a truncated parabol oi d-type refl ector wi th an offset
feedhorn and a pol ari zer assembl y that provi des
remote-control l ed sel ecti on of ei ther hori zontal or
ci rcul ar pol ari zati on. The antenna i s l ocated above
the azi muth dri ve assembl y on the stabi l i zed yoke.
The azi muth dri ve can rotate the antenna i n ei ther 360
degrees or i n l i mi ted-sector modes of operati on i n the
hori zontal pl ane.
Figure 2-48.AN/SPN-3SA aircraft control approach radar.
2-29
The el evati on antenna, AS-1669/SPN-35, i s a
truncated parabol oi d-type refl ector wi th a dual -channel
feedhor n and a pol ar i zer assembl y pr ovi di ng
monopul se-type radi ati on and recepti on of X-band
r f pul ses. The hor i zontal shape of the l ami nated
fi bergl ass refl ector i s cosecanted. The dual -channel
feedhorn and pol ari zer are fi xed i n ci rcul ar pol ari zati on
by an external gri d devi ce. The el evati on antenna i s
stabi l i zed-yok e mounted on the el evati on dr i ve
assembl y adjacent to the azi muth antenna. The
el evati on dri ve provi des the requi red moti on for the
el evati on antenna and l ocks el ectri cal l y wi th the search
dri ve when the radar set operates i n the preci si on
mode.
The radar operates i n three modes, fi nal , survei l -
l ance, and si mul taneous, wi th each antenna acti ng
i ndependentl y. I n the fi nal (preci si on) mode, the
azi muth antenna scans a 30-degree sector (60-degree
sector opti onal ) whi l e the el evati on antenna scans a
10-degree sector (35-degree sector opti onal ). I n the
survei l l ance mode the azi muth antenna rotates through
the ful l 360-degree search pattern at 16 rpm whi l e
the el evati on antenna scans a 10-degree sector. I n
the si mul taneous mode, the azi muth antenna rotates
thr ough the ful l 360-degr ees sear ch patter n i n
60-degree i ncrements whi l e the el evati on antenna scans
a 10-degree sector. The data rate i n thi s mode i s
approxi matel y 16 azi muth sweeps and 24 el evati on
sweeps every 60 seconds.
The antenna pedestal control stabi l i zes the azi muth
and el evati on antennas for pl us or mi nus 3 degrees
of pi tch and pl us or mi nus 10 degrees of rol l .
RF SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Al though radi o frequency emi ssi ons are usual l y
harml ess, there are sti l l certai n safety precauti ons you
shoul d fol l ow whenever you are near hi gh-power rf
sources. Normal l y, el ectromagneti c radi ati on from
transmi ssi on l i nes and antennas i snt strong enough
to el ectrocute personnel . However, i t may l ead to other
acci dents and can compound i njuri es. Vol tages may
be i nduced i nto metal objects both above and bel ow
ground, such as wi re guys, wi re cabl e, hand rai l s, and
l adders. I f you come i nto contact wi th these objects,
you may recei ve a shock or an rf burn. The shock
can cause you to jump i nvol untari l y, to fal l i nto nearby
equi pment, or, when worki ng al oft, to fal l from the
el evated work area. Take care to ensure that al l
transmi ssi on l i nes or antennas are de-energi zed before
worki ng on or near them.
When worki ng al oft aboard shi p, be sure to use
a worki ng al oft chi t. Thi s wi l l ensure that al l radi ators,
not onl y those on your own shi p but al so those nearby
are secured whi l e you are al oft.
ALWAYS obey rf radi ati on warni ng si gns and
keep a safe di stance from radi ati ng antennas. The
si x types of warni ng si gns for rf radi ati on hazards are
shown i n fi gure 2-49.
The two pri mary safety concerns associ ated wi th
rf fi el ds are rf burns and i njuri es caused by di el ectri c
heati ng.
RF BURNS
Cl ose or di rect contact wi th rf transmi ssi on l i nes
or antennas may resul t i n rf burns caused by i nduced
vol tages. These burns are usual l y deep, penetrati ng,
thi rd-degree burns. To heal properl y, rf burns must
heal from the i nsi de toward the ski ns surface. Do
NOT take rf burns l i ghtl y. To prevent i nfecti on, you
must gi ve proper attenti on to ALL rf burns, i ncl udi ng
the smal l pi nhol e burns. ALWAYS seek treatment
for any rf burn or shock and report the i nci dent to
your supervi sor so appropri ate acti on can be taken
to correct the hazard.
DIELECTRIC HEATING
Whi l e the severi ty of rf burns may vary from mi nor
to major, burns or other damage done by DI ELEC-
TRI C HEATI NG may resul t i n l ong-term i njury, or
even death. Di el ectri c heati ng i s the heati ng of an
i nsul ati ng mater i al caused by pl aci ng i t i n a
hi gh-frequency el ectri c fi el d. The heat resul ts from
the rapi d reversal of mol ecul ar pol ari zati on di el ectri c
materi al .
When a human i s i n an rf fi el d, the body acts as
the di el ectri c. I f the power i n the rf fi el d exceeds 10
mi l l i watts per centi meter, the i ndi vi dual wi l l have a
noti ceabl e ri se i n body temperature. Basi cal l y, the
body i s cooki ng i n the rf fi el d. The vi tal organs
2-30
Figure 2-49.Rf radiation warning signs
2-31
of the body are hi ghl y suscepti bl e to di el ectri c heati ng.
The eyes are al so hi ghl y suscepti bl e to di el ectri c
heati ng. Do NOT l ook di rectl y i nto devi ces radi ati ng
rf energy. Remember, rf radi ati on can be dangerous.
For your own safety, you must NOT stand di rectl y
i n the path of rf radi ati ng devi ces.
PRECAUTI ONS WHEN WORKI NG
ALOFT
As we menti oned earl i er, i t i s extremel y i mportant
to fol l ow al l safety precauti ons when worki ng al oft.
Before you work on an antenna, ensure that i t i s tagged
out properl y at the swi tchboard to prevent i t from
becomi ng operati onal . Al ways be sure to secure the
motor safety swi tches for rotati ng antennas. Have
the swi tches tagged and l ocked open before you begi n
worki ng on or near the antenna.
When worki ng near a stack, draw and wear the
recommended oxygen breathi ng apparatus. Among
other toxi c substances, stack gas contai ns carbon
monoxi de. Carbon monoxi de i s too unstabl e to bui l d
up to a hi gh concentrati on i n the open, but prol onged
exposure to even smal l quanti ti es i s dangerous.
For mor e detai l ed i nfor mati on concer ni ng the
dangers and hazards of rf radi ati on, refer to the
NAVEL EX tech n i cal man u al , El ectr omagneti c
Radiation Hazards. NAVELEX 0967-LP-624-6010.
Thi s compl etes chapter 2. I n chapter 3, we wi l l
di scuss transmi ssi on l i nes and wavegui des.
2-32
CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION TO
TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES
A TRANSMI SSI ON LI NE i s a devi ce desi gned
to gui de el ectri cal energy from one poi nt to another.
I t i s used, for exampl e, to transfer the output rf energy
of a transmi tter to an antenna. Thi s energy wi l l not
travel through normal el ectri cal wi re wi thout great
l osses. Al though the antenna can be connected
di rectl y to the transmi tter, the antenna i s usual l y
l ocated some di stance away from the transmi tter. On
board shi p, the transmi tter i s l ocated i nsi de a radi o
room, and i ts associ ated antenna i s mounted on a mast.
A transmi ssi on l i ne i s used to connect the transmi tter
and the antenna.
The transmi ssi on l i ne has a si ngl e purpose for both
the transmi tter and the antenna. Thi s purpose i s to
transfer the energy output of the transmi tter to the
antenna wi th the l east possi bl e power l oss. How wel l
thi s i s done depends on the speci al physi cal and
el ectri cal characteri sti cs (i mpedance and resi stance)
of the transmi ssi on l i ne.
TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY
The el ectr i cal char acter i sti cs of a two-wi r e
transmi ssi on l i ne depend pri mari l y on the constructi on
of the l i ne. The two-wi r e l i ne acts l i ke a l ong
capaci tor. The change of i ts capaci ti ve reactance i s
noti ceabl e as the frequency appl i ed to i t i s changed.
Si nce the l ong conductors have a magneti c fi el d about
them when el ectri cal energy i s bei ng passed through
them, they al so exhi bi t the properti es of i nductance.
The val ues of i nductance and capaci tance presented
depend on the var i ous physi cal factor s that we
di scussed earl i er. For exampl e, the type of l i ne used,
the di el ectri c i n the l i ne, and the l ength of the l i ne
must be consi dered. The effects of the i nducti ve and
capaci ti ve r eactance of the l i ne depend on the
frequency appl i ed. Si nce no di el ectri c i s perfect,
el ectrons manage to move from one conductor to the
other through the di el ectri c. Each type of two-wi re
transmi ssi on l i ne al so has a conductance val ue. Thi s
conductance val ue represents the val ue of the current
fl ow that may be expected through the i nsul ati on,
I f the l i ne i s uni form (al l val ues equal at each uni t
l ength), then one smal l secti on of the l i ne may
represent several feet. Thi s i l l ustrati on of a two-wi re
transmi ssi on l i ne wi l l be used throughout the di scussi on
of transmi ssi on l i nes; but, keep i n mi nd that the
pri nci pl es presented appl y to al l transmi ssi on l i nes.
We wi l l expl ai n the theori es usi ng LUMPED CON-
STANTS and DI STRI BUTED CONSTANTS to further
si mpl i fy these pri nci pl es.
LUMPED CONSTANTS
A transmi ssi on l i ne has the properti es of i nduc-
tance, capaci tance, and resi stance just as the more
conventi onal ci r cui ts have. Usual l y, however , the
constants i n conventi onal ci rcui ts are l umped i nto a
si ngl e devi ce or component. For exampl e, a coi l of
wi re has the property of i nductance. When a certai n
amount of i nductance i s needed i n a ci rcui t, a coi l of
the proper di mensi ons i s i nserted. The i nductance
of the ci rcui t i s l umped i nto the one component. Two
metal pl ates separated by a smal l space, can be used
to suppl y the requi red capaci tance for a ci rcui t. I n
such a case, most of the capaci tance of the ci rcui t i s
l umped i nto thi s one component. Si mi l arl y, a fi xed
resi stor can be used to suppl y a certai n val ue of ci rcui t
resi stance as a l umped sum. I deal l y, a transmi ssi on
l i ne woul d al so have i ts constants of i nductance,
capaci tance, and resi stance l umped together, as shown
i n fi gure 3-1. Unfortunatel y, thi s i s not the case.
Transmi ssi on l i ne constants are as descri bed i n the
fol l owi ng paragraphs.
DISTRIBUTED CONSTANTS
Transmi ssi on l i ne constants, cal l ed di stri buted
constants, are spread al ong the enti re l ength of the
transmi ssi on l i ne and cannot be di sti ngui shed sepa-
ratel y. The amount of i nductance, capaci tance, and
resi stance depends on the l ength of the l i ne, the si ze
of the conducti ng wi res, the spaci ng between the
3-1
Figure 3-1.Two-wire transmission line.
wi res, and the di el ectri c (ai r or i nsul ati ng medi um)
between the wi res. The fol l owi ng paragraphs wi l l
be useful to you as you study di stri buted constants
on a transmi ssi on l i ne.
Inductance of a Transmission Line
When current fl ows through a wi re, magneti c l i nes
of force are set up around the wi re. As the current
i ncreases and decreases i n ampl i tude, the fi el d around
the wi r e expands and col l apses accor di ngl y. The
ener gy pr oduced by the magneti c l i nes of for ce
col l apsi ng back i nto the wi re tends to keep the current
fl owi ng i n the same di recti on. Thi s represents a certai n
amou n t of i n du ctan ce, wh i ch i s ex pr es s ed i n
mi crohenrys per uni t l ength. Fi gure 3-2 i l l ustrates
the i nductance and magneti c fi el ds of a transmi ssi on
l i ne.
Capacitance of a Transmission Line
Capaci tance al so exi sts between the transmi ssi on
l i ne wi res, as i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-3. Noti ce that
the two paral l el wi res act as pl ates of a capaci tor and
that the ai r between them acts as a di el ectri c. The
capaci tance between the wi res i s usual l y expressed
i n pi cofar ads per uni t l ength. Thi s el ectr i c fi el d
between the wi res i s si mi l ar to the fi el d that exi sts
between the two pl ates of a capaci tor.
Figure 3-2.Distributed inductance.
Figure 3-3.Distributed capacitance.
Resistance of a Transmission Line
The transmi ssi on l i ne shown i n fi gure 3-4 has
el ectri cal resi stance al ong i ts l ength. Thi s resi stance
i s usual l y expressed i n ohms per uni t l ength and i s
shown as exi sti ng conti nuousl y from one end of the
l i ne to the other.
Figure 3-4.Distributed resistance.
Leakage Current
Si nce any di el ectri c, even ai r, i s not a perfect
i nsul ator , a smal l cur r ent known as LEAKAGE
CURRENT fl ows between the two wi res. I n effect,
the i nsul ator acts as a resi stor, permi tti ng current to
pass between the two wi res. Fi gure 3-5 shows thi s
l eakage path as resi stors i n paral l el connected between
the two l i nes. Thi s pr oper ty i s cal l ed CONDUC-
TANCE (G) and i s the opposi te of r esi stance.
Conductance i n transmi ssi on l i nes i s expressed as the
r eci pr ocal of r esi stance and i s usual l y gi ven i n
mi cromhos per uni t l ength.
Figure 3-5.Leakage in a transmission line.
3-2
ELECTROMAGNETI C FI ELDS CHARACTERI STI C I MPEDANCE
The di stri buted constants of resi stance, i nductance,
and capaci tance are basi c properti es common to al l
transmi ssi on l i nes and exi st whether or not any current
fl ow exi sts. As soon as current fl ow and vol tage exi st
i n a transmi ssi on l i ne, another property becomes qui te
evi dent. Thi s i s the presence of an el ectromagneti c
fi el d, or l i nes of for ce, about the wi r es of the
transmi ssi on l i ne. The l i nes of force themsel ves are
not vi si bl e; however, understandi ng the force that an
el ectron experi ences whi l e i n the fi el d of these l i nes
i s very i mportant to your understandi ng of energy
transmi ssi on.
There are two ki nds of fi el ds; one i s associ ated
wi th vol tage and the other wi th current. The fi el d
associ ated wi th vol tage i s cal l ed the ELECTRI C (E)
FI ELD. I t exerts a force on any el ectri c charge pl aced
i n i t. The fi el d associ ated wi th current i s cal l ed a
MAGNETI C (H) FI ELD, because i t tends to exert
a force on any magneti c pol e pl aced i n i t. Fi gure 3-6
i l l ustrates the way i n whi ch the E fi el ds and H fi el ds
tend to ori ent themsel ves between conductors of a
typi cal two-wi re transmi ssi on l i ne. The i l l ustrati on
shows a cross secti on of the transmi ssi on l i nes. The
E fi el d i s represented by sol i d l i nes and the H fi el d
by dotted l i nes. The arrows i ndi cate the di recti on of
the l i nes of force. Both fi el ds normal l y exi st together
and are spoken of col l ecti vel y as the el ectromagneti c
fi el d.
Figure 3-6.Fields between conductors.
You can descri be a transmi ssi on l i ne i n terms of
i ts i mpedance. The rati o of vol tage to current (E
i n
/I
i n
)
at the i nput end i s known as the I NPUT I MPEDANCE
(Z
i n
). Thi s i s the i mpedance presented to the transmi t-
ter by the transmi ssi on l i ne and i ts l oad, the antenna.
The rati o of vol tage to current at the output (E
OUT
/I
OUT
)
end i s known as the OUTPUT I MPEDANCE (Z
OUT
).
Thi s i s the i mpedance presented to the l oad by the
transmi ssi on l i ne and i ts source. I f an i nfi ni tel y l ong
transmi ssi on l i ne coul d be used, the rati o of vol tage
to current at any poi nt on that transmi ssi on l i ne woul d
be some parti cul ar val ue of i mpedance. Thi s i mped-
ance i s known as the CHARACTERI STI C I MPED-
ANCE.
The maxi mum (and most effi ci ent) transfer of
el ectri cal energy takes pl ace when the source i mped-
ance i s matched to the l oad i mpedance. Thi s fact i s
very i mportant i n the study of transmi ssi on l i nes and
antennas. I f the char acter i sti c i mpedance of the
transmi ssi on l i ne and the l oad i mpedance are equal ,
energy from the transmi tter wi l l travel down the
transmi ssi on l i ne to the antenna wi th no power l oss
caused by refl ecti on.
LINE LOSSES
The di scussi on of transmi ssi on l i nes so far has not
di rectl y addressed LI NE LOSSES; actual l y some l osses
occur i n al l l i nes. Li ne l osses may be any of three
typesCOPPER, DI ELECTRI C, and RADI ATI ON
or I NDUCTI ON LOSSES.
NOTE: Transmi ssi on l i nes are someti mes referred
to as rf l i nes. I n thi s text the terms are used i nter-
changeabl y.
Copper Losses
One type of copper l oss i s I
2
R LOSS. I n rf l i nes
the resi stance of the conductors i s never equal to zero.
Whenever current fl ows through one of these conduc-
tors, some energy i s di ssi pated i n the form of heat.
Thi s heat l oss i s a POWER LOSS. Wi th copper brai d,
whi ch has a resi stance hi gher than sol i d tubi ng, thi s
power l oss i s hi gher.
3-3
Another type of copper l oss i s due to SKI N
EFFECT. When dc fl ows through a conductor, the
movement of el ectrons through the conductors cross
secti on i s uni form, The si tuati on i s somewhat di fferent
when ac i s appl i ed. The expandi ng and col l apsi ng
fi el ds about each el ectron enci rcl e other el ectrons.
Thi s phenomenon, cal l ed SELF I NDUCTI ON, retards
the movement of the enci rcl ed el ectrons. The fl ux
densi ty at the center i s so great that el ectron movement
at thi s poi nt i s reduced. As frequency i s i ncreased,
the opposi ti on to the fl ow of current i n the center of
the wi re i ncreases. Current i n the center of the wi re
becomes smal l er and most of the el ectron fl ow i s on
the wi re surface. When the frequency appl i ed i s 100
megahertz or hi gher, the el ectron movement i n the
center i s so smal l that the center of the wi re coul d
be removed wi thout any noti ceabl e effect on current.
You shoul d be abl e to see that the effecti ve cross-
secti onal area decreases as the frequency i ncreases.
Si nce r esi stance i s i nver sel y pr opor ti onal to the
cross-secti onal area, the resi stance wi l l i ncrease as the
fr equency i s i ncr eased. Al so, si nce power l oss
i ncreases as resi stance i ncreases, power l osses i ncrease
wi th an i ncrease i n frequency because of ski n effect.
Copper l osses can be mi ni mi zed and conducti vi ty
i ncreased i n an rf l i ne by pl ati ng the l i ne wi th si l ver.
Si nce si l ver i s a better conductor than copper, most
of the current wi l l fl ow through the si l ver l ayer. The
tubi ng then serves pri mari l y as a mechani cal support.
Dielectric Losses
DI ELECTRI C LOSSES resul t from the heati ng
effect on the di el ectri c materi al between the conductors.
Power from the source i s used i n heati ng the di el ectri c.
The heat produced i s di ssi pated i nto the surroundi ng
medi um. When ther e i s no potenti al di ffer ence
between two conductors, the atoms i n the di el ectri c
materi al between them are normal and the orbi ts of
the el ectrons are ci rcul ar. When there i s a potenti al
di fference between two conductors, the orbi ts of the
el ectrons change. The excessi ve negati ve charge on
one conductor repel s el ectrons on the di el ectri c toward
the posi ti ve conductor and thus di storts the orbi ts of
the el ectr ons. A change i n the path of el ectr ons
requi res more energy, i ntroduci ng a power l oss.
The atomi c structure of rubber i s more di ffi cul t
to di stort than the structure of some other di el ectri c
materi al s. The atoms of materi al s, such as pol yethyl -
ene, di stort easi l y. Therefore, pol yethyl ene i s often
used as a di el ectri c because l ess power i s consumed
when i ts el ectron orbi ts are di storted.
Radiation and Induction Losses
RADI AI ON an d I NDUCTI ON LOSSES ar e
si mi l ar i n that both are caused by the fi el ds surround-
i ng the conductors. I nducti on l osses occur when the
el ectromagneti c fi el d about a conductor cuts through
any nearby metal l i c object and a current i s i nduced
i n that object. As a resul t, power i s di ssi pated i n the
object and i s l ost.
Radi ati on l osses occur because some magneti c l i nes
of for ce about a conductor do not r etur n to the
conductor when the cycl e al ternates. These l i nes of
force are projected i nto space as radi ati on, and thi s
resul ts i n power l osses. That i s, power i s suppl i ed
by the source, but i s not avai l abl e to the l oad.
VOLTAGE CHANGE
I n an el ectri c ci rcui t, energy i s stored i n el ectri c
and magneti c fi el ds. These fi el ds must be brought
to the l oad to transmi t that energy. At the l oad, energy
contai ned i n the fi el ds i s converted to the desi red form
of energy.
Transmission of Energy
When the l oad i s connected di rectl y to the source
of energy, or when the transmi ssi on l i ne i s short,
probl ems concerni ng current and vol tage can be sol ved
by appl yi ng Ohms l aw. When the transmi ssi on l i ne
becomes l ong enough so the ti me di fference between
a change occurri ng at the generator and a change
appeari ng at the l oad becomes appreci abl e, anal ysi s
of the transmi ssi on l i ne becomes i mportant.
Dc Applied to a Transmission Line
I n fi gure 3-7, a battery i s connected through a
rel ati vel y l ong two-wi re transmi ssi on l i ne to a l oad
at the far end of the l i ne. At the i nstant the swi tch
3-4
i s cl osed, nei ther current nor vol tage exi sts on the l i ne.
When the swi tch i s cl osed, poi nt A becomes a posi ti ve
potenti al , and poi nt B becomes negati ve. These poi nts
of di ffer ence i n potenti al move down the l i ne.
However, as the i ni ti al poi nts of potenti al l eave poi nts
A and B, they are fol l owed by new poi nts of di fference
i n potenti al , whi ch the battery adds at A and B. Thi s
i s merel y sayi ng that the battery mai ntai ns a constant
potenti al di fference between poi nts A and B. A short
ti me after the swi tch i s cl osed, the i ni ti al poi nts of
di fference i n potenti al have reached poi nts A and B;
the wi re secti ons from poi nts A to A and poi nts B
to B are at the same potenti al as A and B, respec-
ti vel y. The poi nts of charge are represented by pl us
(+) and mi nus (-) si gns al ong the wi res, The di recti ons
of the currents i n the wi res are represented by the
arrowheads on the l i ne, and the di recti on of travel i s
i ndi cated by an arrow bel ow the l i ne. Conventi onal
l i nes of force represent the el ectri c fi el d that exi sts
between the opposi te ki nds of charge on the wi re
secti ons from A to A and B to B. Crosses (tai l s of
arrows) i ndi cate the magneti c fi el d created by the
el ectr i c fi el d movi ng down the l i ne. The movi ng
el ectri c fi el d and the accompanyi ng magneti c fi el d
consti tute an el ectromagneti c wave that i s movi ng from
the generator (battery) toward the l oad. Thi s wave
travel s at approxi matel y the speed of l i ght i n free
space. The energy reachi ng the l oad i s equal to that
devel oped at the battery (assumi ng there are no l osses
i n the transmi ssi on l i ne). I f the l oad absorbs al l of
the energy, the current and vol tage wi l l be evenl y
di stri buted al ong the l i ne.
Ac Applied to a Transmission Line
When the battery of fi gure 3-7 i s repl aced by an
ac generator (fi g. 3-8), each successi ve i nstantaneous
val ue of the generator vol tage i s propagated down the
Figure 3-7.Dc voltage applied to a line.
Figure 3-8.Ac voltage applied to a line.
l i ne at the speed of l i ght. The acti on i s si mi l ar to the
wave created by the battery, except the appl i ed vol tage
i s si nusoi dal i nstead of constant. Assume that the
swi tch i s cl osed at the moment the generator vol tage
i s passi ng through zero and that the next hal f cycl e
makes poi nt A posi ti ve. At the end of one cycl e of
generator vol tage, the current and vol tage di stri buti on
wi l l be as shown i n fi gure 3-8.
I n thi s i l l ustrati on the conventi onal l i nes of force
r epr esent the el ectr i c fi el ds. For si mpl i ci ty, the
magneti c fi el ds are not shown. Poi nts of charge are
i ndi cated by pl us (+) and mi nus (-) si gns, the l arger
si gns i ndi cati ng poi nts of hi gher ampl i tude of both
vol tage and current. Short arrows i ndi cate di recti on
of current (el ectron fl ow). The waveform drawn bel ow
the transmi ssi on l i ne represents the vol tage (E) and
current (I ) waves. The l i ne i s assumed to be i nfi ni te
i n l ength so there i s no refl ecti on. Thus, travel i ng
si nusoi dal vol tage and current waves conti nual l y travel
i n phase from the generator toward the l oad, or far
end of the l i ne. Waves travel i ng from the generator
to the l oad are cal l ed I NCI DENT WAVES. Waves
travel i ng from the l oad back to the generator are cal l ed
REFLECTED WAVES and wi l l be expl ai ned i n l ater
par agr aphs.
STANDING-WAVE RATIO
The measurement of standi ng waves on a transmi s-
si on l i ne yi el ds i nformati on about equi pment operati ng
3-5
condi ti ons. Maxi mum power i s absorbed by the l oad
when Z
L
= Z
0
. I f a l i ne has no standi ng waves, the
termi nati on for that l i ne i s correct and maxi mum power
transfer takes pl ace.
You have probabl y noti ced that the vari ati on of
standi ng waves shows how near the rf l i ne i s to bei ng
termi nated i n Z
0
. A wi de vari ati on i n vol tage al ong
the l ength means a termi nati on far from Z
0
. A smal l
vari ati on means termi nati on near Z
0
. Therefore, the
rati o of the maxi mum to the mi ni mum i s a measure
of the perfecti on of the termi nati on of a l i ne. Thi s
rati o i s cal l ed the STANDI NG-WAVE RATI O (swr)
and i s al ways expressed i n whol e numbers. For
exampl e, a rati o of 1:1 descri bes a l i ne termi nated i n
i ts characteri sti c i mpedance (Z
0
).
Voltage Standing-Wave Ratio
The rati o of maxi mum vol tage to mi ni mum vol tage
on a l i ne i s cal l ed the VOLTAGE STANDI NG-WAVE
RATI O (vswr ). Ther efor e:
The verti cal l i nes i n the formul a i ndi cate that the
encl osed quanti ti es are absol ute and that the two val ues
are taken wi thout regard to pol ari ty, Dependi ng on
the nature of the standi ng waves, the numeri cal val ue
of vswr ranges from a val ue of 1 (Z
L
= Z
0
, no standi ng
waves) to an i nfi ni te val ue for theoreti cal l y compl ete
refl ecti on. Si nce there i s al ways a smal l l oss on a
l i ne, the mi ni mum vol tage i s never zero and the vswr
i s al ways some fi ni te val ue. However, i f the vswr
i s to be a useful quanti ty. the power l osses al ong the
l i ne must be smal l i n compari son to the transmi tted
power.
vol tage. Si nce power i s proporti onal to the square
of the vol tage, the rati o of the square of the maxi mum
and mi ni mum vol tages i s cal l ed the power stand-
i ng-wave rati o. I n a sense, the name i s mi sl eadi ng
because the power al ong a transmi ssi on l i ne does not
vary.
Current Standing-Wave Ratio
The rati o of maxi mum to mi ni mum current al ong
a tr ansmi ssi on l i ne i s cal l ed CURRENT STAND-
I NG- WAVE RATI O (i swr). Therefore:
Thi s rati o i s the same as that for vol tages. I t can be
used where measurements are made wi th l oops that
sampl e the magneti c fi el d al ong a l i ne. I t gi ves the
same resul ts as vswr measurements.
TRANSMI SSI ON MEDI UMS
The Navy uses many di fferent types of TRANS-
MI SSI ON MEDI UMS i n i ts el ectroni c appl i cati ons.
Each medi um (l i ne or wavegui de) has a cer tai n
char acter i sti c i mpedance val ue, cur r ent-car r yi ng
capaci ty, and physi cal shape and i s desi gned to meet
a parti cul ar requi rement.
The fi ve types of transmi ssi on medi ums that we
wi l l di scuss i n thi s topi c i ncl ude PARALLEL-LI NE,
TWI STED PAI R, SHI ELDED PAI R, COAXI AL
LI NE, and WAVEGUI DES. The use of a parti cul ar
l i ne depends, among other thi ngs, on the appl i ed
frequency, the power-handl i ng capabi l i ti es, and the
type of i nstal l ati on.
Power Standing-Wave Ratio
Parallel Line
The square of the vswr i s cal l ed the POWER
One type of paral l el l i ne i s the TWO-WI RE OPEN
STANDI NG-WAVE RATI O (pswr ). Ther efor e:
LI NE, i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-9. Thi s l i ne consi sts of
two wi res that are general l y spaced from 2 to 6 i nches
apart by i nsul ati ng spacers. Thi s type of l i ne i s most
often used for power l i nes, rural tel ephone l i nes, and
tel egraph l i nes. I t i s someti mes used as a transmi ssi on
Thi s rati o i s useful because the i nstruments used to
l i ne between a transmi tter and an antenna or between
detect standi ng waves react to the square of the
an antenna and a recei ver. An advantage of thi s type
3-6
Figure 3-9.Two-wire open
of l i ne i s i ts si mpl e constr ucti on.
line.
The pri nci pal
di sadvantages of thi s type of l i ne are the hi gh radi ati on
l osses and el ectri cal noi se pi ckup because of the l ack
of shi el di ng. Radi ati on l osses are produced by the
changi ng fi el ds created by the changi ng current i n each
conductor.
Another type of paral l el l i ne i s the TWO-WI RE
RI BBON (TWI N LEAD) LI NE, i l l ustrated i n fi gure
3-10. Thi s type of transmi ssi on l i ne i s commonl y used
to connect a tel evi si on recei vi ng antenna to a home
tel evi si on set. Thi s l i ne i s essenti al l y the same as the
two-wi re open l i ne except that uni form spaci ng i s
assured by embeddi ng the two wi res i n a l ow-l oss
di el ectri c, usual l y pol yethyl ene. Si nce the wi res are
embedded i n the thi n ri bbon of pol yethyl ene, the
di el ectri c space i s partl y ai r and partl y pol yethyl ene.
Twisted Pair
The TWI STED PAI R transmi ssi on l i ne i s i l l ustrated
i n fi gure 3-11. As the name i mpl i es, the l i ne consi sts
of two i nsul ated wi res twi sted together to form a
fl exi bl e l i ne wi thout the use of spacers. I t i s not used
for transmi tti ng hi gh frequency because of the hi gh
di el ectri c l osses that occur i n the rubber i nsul ati on.
When the l i ne i s wet, the l osses i ncrease greatl y.
Figure 3-10.Two-wire ribbon line.
Figure 3-11.Twisted pair.
Shielded Pair
The SHI ELDED PAI R, shown i n fi gur e 3-12,
consi sts of paral l el conductors separated from each
other and sur r ounded by a sol i d di el ectr i c. The
conductors are contai ned wi thi n a brai ded copper
tubi ng that acts as an el ectri cal shi el d. The assembl y
i s cover ed wi th a r ubber or fl exi bl e composi ti on
coati ng that pr otects the l i ne fr om moi stur e and
mechani cal damage. Outwardl y, i t l ooks much l i ke
the power cord of a washi ng machi ne or refri gerator.
Figure 3-12.Shielded pair.
The pri nci pal advantage of the shi el ded pai r i s that
the conductors are bal anced to ground; that i s, the
capaci tance between the wi res i s uni form throughout
the l ength of the l i ne. Thi s bal ance i s due to the
uni form spaci ng of the grounded shi el d that surrounds
the wi res al ong thei r enti re l ength. The brai ded copper
shi el d i sol ates the conductors from stray magneti c
fi el ds.
Coaxial Lines
There are two types of COAXI AL LI NES, RI GI D
(AI R) COAXI AL LI NE and FLEXI BLE (SOLI D)
COAXI AL LI NE. The physi cal constructi on of both
types i s basi cal l y the same; that i s, each contai ns two
concentri c conductors.
3-7
The ri gi d coaxi al l i ne consi sts of a central , i nsul ated
wi re (i nner conductor) mounted i nsi de a tubul ar outer
conductor. Thi s l i ne i s shown i n fi gure 3-13. I n some
appl i cati ons, the i nner conductor i s al so tubul ar. The
i nner conductor i s i nsul ated from the outer conductor
by i nsul ati ng spacers or beads at regul ar i nterval s.
The spacers are made of Pyrex, pol ystyrene, or some
other materi al that has good i nsul ati ng characteri sti cs
and l ow di el ectri c l osses at hi gh frequenci es.
Figure 3-13.Air coaxial line.
The chi ef advantage of the ri gi d l i ne i s i ts abi l i ty
to mi ni mi ze radi ati on l osses. The el ectri c and magneti c
fi el ds i n a two-wi re paral l el l i ne extend i nto space for
rel ati vel y great di stances and radi ati on l osses occur.
However, i n a coaxi al l i ne no el ectri c or magneti c
fi el ds extend outsi de of the outer conductor. The fi el ds
are confi ned to the space between the two conductors,
resul ti ng i n a perfectl y shi el ded coaxi al l i ne. Another
advantage i s that i nterference from other l i nes i s
reduced.
The ri gi d l i ne has the fol l owi ng di sadvantages:
(1) i t i s expensi ve to construct; (2) i t must be kept
dry to prevent excessi ve l eakage between the two
conductors; and (3) al though hi gh-frequency l osses
are somewhat l ess than i n previ ousl y menti oned l i nes,
they are sti l l excessi ve enough to l i mi t the practi cal
l ength of the l i ne.
Leakage caused by the condensati on of moi sture
i s prevented i n some ri gi d l i ne appl i cati ons by the use
of an i nert gas, such as ni trogen, hel i um, or argon.
I t i s pumped i nto the di el ectri c space of the l i ne at
a pressure that can vary from 3 to 35 pounds per
square i nch. The i nert gas i s used to dry the l i ne when
i t i s fi rst i nstal l ed and pressure i s mai ntai ned to ensure
that no moi sture enters the l i ne.
Fl exi bl e coaxi al l i nes (fi g. 3-14) are made wi th
an i nner conductor that consi sts of fl exi bl e wi r e
i nsul ated fr om the outer conductor by a sol i d,
conti nuous i nsul ati ng materi al . The outer conductor
i s made of metal brai d, whi ch gi ves the l i ne fl exi bi l i ty.
Earl y attempts at gai ni ng fl exi bi l i ty i nvol ved usi ng
r ubber i nsul ator s between the two conductor s.
However, the rubber i nsul ators caused excessi ve l osses
at hi gh frequenci es.
Figure 3-14.Flexible coaxial line.
Because of the hi gh-frequency l osses associ ated
wi th r ubber i nsul ator s, pol yethyl ene pl asti c was
devel oped to repl ace rubber and el i mi nate these l osses.
Pol yethyl ene pl asti c i s a sol i d substance that remai ns
fl exi bl e over a wi de r ange of temper atur es. I t i s
unaffected by seawater, gasol i ne, oi l , and most other
l i qui ds that may be found aboard shi p. The use of
pol yethyl ene as an i nsul ator r esul ts i n gr eater
hi gh-fr equency l osses than the use of ai r as an
i nsul ator. However, these l osses are sti l l l ower than
the l osses associ ated wi th most other sol i d di el ectri c
materi al s.
Thi s concl udes our study of transmi ssi on l i nes.
The rest of thi s chapter wi l l be an i ntroducti on i nto
the study of wavegui des.
WAVEGUIDE THEORY
The two-wi re transmi ssi on l i ne used i n conventi onal
ci rcui ts i s i neffi ci ent for transferri ng el ectromagneti c
energy at mi crowave frequenci es. At these frequenci es,
energy escapes by radi ati on because the fi el ds are not
confi ned i n al l di recti ons, as i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-15.
Coaxi al l i nes are more effi ci ent than two-wi re l i nes
for transferri ng el ectromagneti c energy because the
fi el ds are compl etel y confi ned by the conductors, as
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-16. Wavegui des are the most
3-8
effi ci ent way to tr ansfer el ectr omagneti c ener gy.
WAVEGUI DES are essenti al l y coaxi al l i nes wi thout
center conductor s. They ar e constr ucted fr om
conducti ve materi al and may be rectangul ar, ci rcul ar,
or el l i pti cal i n shape, as shown i n fi gure 3-17.
Figure 3-15.Fields confined in two directions only.
Figure 3-16.Fields confined in all directions.
WAVEGUIDE ADVANTAGES
Wavegui des have several advantages over two-wi re
and coaxi al transmi ssi on l i nes. For exampl e, the l arge
surface area of wavegui des greatl y reduces COPPER
(1
2
R) LOSSES. Two-wi re transmi ssi on l i nes have l arge
copper l osses because they have a rel ati vel y smal l
surface area. The surface area of the outer conductor
Figure 3-17.Waveguide shapes.
of a coaxi al cabl e i s l arge, but the surface area of the
i nner conductor i s rel ati vel y smal l . At mi crowave
frequenci es, the current-carryi ng area of the i nner con-
ductor i s restri cted to a very smal l l ayer at the
surface of the conductor by an acti on cal l ed SKI N
EFFECT.
Ski n effect tends to i ncrease the effecti ve resi stance
of the conductor. Al though energy transfer i n coaxi al
cabl e i s caused by el ectromagneti c fi el d moti on, the
magni tude of the fi el d i s l i mi ted by the si ze of the
current-carryi ng area of the i nner conductor. The smal l
si ze of the center conductor i s even further reduced
by ski n effect, and energy transmi ssi on by coaxi al
cabl e becomes l ess effi ci ent than by wavegui des.
DI ELECTRI C LOSSES are al so l ower i n wavegui des
than i n two-wi r e and coaxi al tr ansmi ssi on l i nes.
Di el ectri c l osses i n two-wi re and coaxi al l i nes are
caused by the heati ng of the i nsul ati on between the
conductors. The i nsul ati on behaves as the di el ectri c
of a capaci tor for med by the two wi r es of the
transmi ssi on l i ne. A vol tage potenti al across the two
wi res causes heati ng of the di el ectri c and resul ts i n
a power l oss. I n practi cal appl i cati ons, the actual
breakdown of the i nsul ati on between the conductors
of a transmi ssi on l i ne i s more frequentl y a probl em
than i s the di el ectri c l oss.
Thi s breakdown i s usual l y caused by stati onary
vol tage spi kes or nodes, whi ch ar e caused by
standi ng waves. Standi ng waves are stati onary and
occur when part of the energy travel i ng down the l i ne
3-9
i s refl ected by an i mpedance mi smatch wi th the l oad.
The vol tage potenti al of the standi ng waves at the
poi nts of greatest magni tude can become l arge enough
to break down the i nsul ati on between transmi ssi on
l i ne conductors.
The di el ectri c i n wavegui des i s ai r, whi ch has a
much l ower di el ectri c l oss than conventi onal i nsul ati ng
materi al s. However, wavegui des are al so subject to
di el ectr i c br eakdown caused by standi ng waves.
Standi ng waves i n wavegui des cause arci ng, whi ch
decreases the effi ci ency of energy transfer and can
sever el y damage the wavegui de. Al so si nce the
el ectromagneti c fi el ds are compl etel y contai ned wi thi n
the wavegui de, radi ati on l osses are kept very l ow.
Power-handl i ng capabi l i ty i s another advantage
of wavegui des. Wavegui des can handl e more power
th an coax i al l i n es of th e s ame s i ze becau s e
power-handl i ng capabi l i ty i s di rectl y rel ated to the
di stance between conductors. Fi gure 3-18 i l l ustrates
the gr eater di stance between conductor s i n a
wavegui de.
Figure 3-18.Comparison
and a circular waveguide.
of spacing in coaxial cable
I n vi ew of the advantages of wavegui des, you
woul d thi nk that wavegui des shoul d be the onl y type
of transmi ssi on l i nes used. However, wavegui des have
certai n di sadvantages that make them practi cal for use
onl y at mi crowave frequenci es.
WAVEGUIDE DISADVANTAGES
Physi cal si ze i s the pr i mar y l ower -fr equency
l i mi tati on of wavegui des. The wi dth of a wavegui de
must be appr oxi matel y a hal f wavel ength at the
frequency of the wave to be transported. For exampl e,
a wavegui de for use at 1 megahertz woul d be about
700 feet wi de. Thi s makes the use of wavegui des at
fr equenci es bel ow 1000 megaher tz i ncr easi ngl y
i mpracti cal . The l ower frequency range of any system
usi ng wavegui des i s l i mi ted by the physi cal di mensi ons
of the wavegui des.
Wavegui des are di ffi cul t to i nstal l because of thei r
ri gi d, hol l ow-pi pe shape. Speci al coupl i ngs at the
joi nts are requi red to assure proper operati on. Al so,
the i nsi de surfaces of wavegui des are often pl ated wi th
si l ver or gol d to r educe ski n effect l osses. These
requi rements i ncrease the costs and decrease the
practi cal i ty of wavegui de systems at any other than
mi crowave frequenci es.
DEVELOPING THE WAVEGUIDE
FROM PARALLEL LINES
You may better understand the transi ti on from
ordi nary transmi ssi on l i ne concepts to wavegui de
theor i es by consi der i ng the devel opment of a
wavegui de from a two-wi re transmi ssi on l i ne. Fi gure
3-19 shows a secti on of a two-wi re transmi ssi on l i ne
supported on two i nsul ators. At the juncti on wi th the
l i ne, the i nsul ators must present a very hi gh i mpedance
to ground for proper operati on of the l i ne. A l ow
i mpedance i nsul ator woul d obvi ousl y short-ci rcui t the
l i ne to ground, and thi s i s what happens at very hi gh
frequenci es. Ordi nary i nsul ators di spl ay the character-
i sti cs of the di el ectri c of a capaci tor formed by the
wi re and ground. As the frequency i ncreases, the
overal l i mpedance decreases. A better hi gh-frequency
i nsul ator i s a quarter-wave secti on of transmi ssi on
l i ne shorted at one end. Such an i nsul ator i s shown
i n fi gure 3-20. The i mpedance of a shorted quar-
ter-wave secti on i s very hi gh at the open-end juncti on
wi th the two-wi re transmi ssi on l i ne. Thi s type of
i nsul ator i s known as a METALLI C I NSULATOR
and may be pl aced anywhere al ong a two-wi re l i ne.
3-10
Figure 3-19.Two-wire transmission line.
Figure 3-20.Quarter-wave section of transmission
line shorted at one end.
Note that quarter-wave secti ons are i nsul ators at onl y
one frequency. Thi s severel y l i mi ts the bandwi dth,
effi ci ency, and appl i cati on of thi s type of two-wi re
l i ne.
Fi gure 3-21 shows several metal l i c i nsul ators on
each si de of a two-wi re transmi ssi on l i ne. As more
i nsul ators are added, each secti on makes contact wi th
the next, and a rectangul ar wavegui de i s formed. The
l i nes become part of the wal l s of the wavegui de, as
i l l ustr ated i n fi gur e 3-22. The ener gy i s then
conducted wi thi n the hol l ow wavegui de i nstead of
al ong the two-wi re transmi ssi on l i ne.
The compari son of the way el ectromagneti c fi el ds
work on a transmi ssi on l i ne and i n a wavegui de i s
not exact. Duri ng the change from a two-wi re l i ne
to a wavegui de, the el ectromagneti c fi el d confi gurati ons
al so undergo
changes, the
many changes. As a resul t of these
wavegui de does not actual l y operate
Figure 3-21.Metallic insulator on each side
two-wire line.
Figure 3-22.Forming a waveguide by adding
quarter-wave sections.
l i ke a two-wi re l i ne that i s compl etel y shunted
quarter-wave secti ons. I f i t di d, the use of a wave-
gui de woul d be l i mi ted to a si ngl e-frequency wave
l ength that was four ti mes the l ength of the quarter-
wave secti ons. I n fact, waves of thi s l ength cannot
pass effi ci entl y through wavegui des. Onl y a smal l
range of frequenci es of somewhat shorter wavel ength
(hi gher frequency) can pass effi ci entl y.
of a
by
3-11
As shown i n fi gure 3-23, the wi dest di mensi on
of a wavegui de i s cal l ed the a di mensi on and
determi nes the range of operati ng frequenci es. The
narrowest di mensi on determi nes the power-handl i ng
capabi l i ty of the wavegui de and i s cal l ed the b
di mensi on.
Figure 3-23.Labeling waveguide dimensions,
NOTE: Thi s method of l abel i ng wavegui des i s
not standard i n al l texts, Di fferent methods may be
used i n other texts on mi crowave pri nci pl es, but thi s
method i s i n accordance wi th Navy Mi l i tary Standards
(MI L-STDS).
I n theory, a wavegui de coul d functi on at an i nfi ni te
number of fr equenci es hi gher than the desi gned
frequency; however, i n practi ce, an upper frequency
l i mi t i s caused by modes of operati on, whi ch wi l l be
di scussed l ater.
I f the frequency of a si gnal i s decreased so much
that two quarter-wavel engths are l onger than the wi de
di mensi on of a wavegui de, energy wi l l no l onger pass
through the wavegui de. Thi s i s the l ower frequency
l i mi t, or CU TOFF FRE QU E NCY of a gi v en
wavegui de. I n pr acti cal appl i cati ons, the wi de
di mensi on of a wavegui de i s usual l y 0.7 wavel ength
at the operati ng frequency. Thi s al l ows the wavegui de
to handl e a smal l range of frequenci es both above and
bel ow the operati ng frequency. The b di mensi on
i s gover ned by the br eak down potenti al of the
di el ectri c, whi ch i s usual l y ai r. Di mensi ons rangi ng
from 0.2 to 0.5 wavel ength are common for the b
si des of a wavegui de.
ENERGY PROPAGATION IN
WAVEGUIDES
Si nce energy i s transferred through wavegui des
by el ectromagneti c fi el ds, you need a basi c understand-
i ng of fi el d theor y. Both el ectr i c (E FI ELD) and
magneti c fi el ds (H FI ELD) are present i n wavegui des,
and the i nteracti on of these fi el ds causes energy to
travel through the wavegui de. Thi s acti on i s best
understood by fi rst l ooki ng at the properti es of the
two i ndi vi dual fi el ds.
E Field
An el ectr i c fi el d exi sts when a di ffer ence of
potenti al causes a stress i n the di el ectri c between two
poi nts. The si mpl est el ectri c fi el d i s one that forms
between the pl ates of a capaci tor when one pl ate i s
made posi ti ve compared to the other, as shown i n vi ew
A of fi gure 3-24. The stress created i n the di el ectri c
i s an el ectri c fi el d.
El ectri c fi el ds are represented by arrows that poi nt
from the posi ti ve toward the negati ve potenti al . The
number of arrows shows the rel ati ve strength of the
fi el d. I n vi ew B, for exampl e, evenl y spaced arrows
i ndi cate the fi el d i s evenl y di stri buted. For ease of
expl anati on, the el ectri c fi el d i s abbrevi ated E fi el d,
and the l i nes of stress are cal l ed E l i nes.
H Field
The magneti c fi el d i n a wavegui de i s made up of
magneti c l i nes of force that are caused by current fl ow
through the conducti ve materi al of the wavegui de.
Magneti c l i nes of force, cal l ed H l i nes, are conti nuous
cl osed l oops, as shown i n fi gure 3-25. Al l of the H
l i nes associ ated wi th current are col l ecti vel y cal l ed
a magneti c fi el d or H fi el d. The strength of the H
fi el d, i ndi cated by the number of H l i nes i n a gi ven
area, vari es di rectl y wi th the amount of current.
Al though H l i nes enci rcl e a si ngl e, strai ght wi re,
they behave di fferentl y when the wi re i s formed i nto
a coi l , as shown i n fi gure 3-26. I n a coi l the i ndi vi dual
H l i nes tend to form around each turn of wi re. Si nce
3-12
Figure 3-24.Simple electric fields.
Figure 3-25.Magnetic field on a single wire.
the H l i nes take opposi te di recti ons between adjacent
turns, the fi el d between the turns i s cancel ed. I nsi de
and outsi de the coi l , where the di recti on of each H
fi el d i s the same, the fi el ds joi n and form conti nuous
H l i nes around the enti re coi l . A si mi l ar acti on takes
pl ace i n a wavegui de.
Figure 3-26.Magnetic field on a coil.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS IN
A WAVEGUIDE
The travel of energy down a wavegui de i s si mi l ar,
but not i denti cal , to the travel of el ectromagneti c waves
i n free space. The di fference i s that the energy i n a
wavegui de i s confi ned to the physi cal l i mi ts of the
gui de. Two condi ti ons, k nown as BOUNDARY
CONDI TI ONS, must be sati sfi ed for energy to travel
through a wavegui de.
The fi rst boundary condi ti on (i l l ustrated i n fi g.
3-27, vi ew A can be stated as fol l ows:
For an electric field to exist at the surface
of a conductor, it must be perpendicular
to the conductor.
The
i n vi ew
Figure 3-27.E field boundary condition.
opposi te of thi s boundary condi ti on, shown
B, i s al so true. An el ectri c fi el d CANNOT
exi st paral l el to a perfect conductor.
The second boundary condi ti on, whi ch i s i l l ustrated
i n fi gure 3-28, can be stated as fol l ows:
For a varying magnetic field to exist, it must
form closed loops in parallel with the
conductors and be perpendicular to the
electric field.
3-13
Figure 3-28.H field boundary condition.
Si nce an E fi el d causes a current fl ow that i n turn
produces an H fi el d, both fi el ds al ways exi st at the
same ti me i n a wavegui de. I f a system sati sfi es one
of these boundary condi ti ons, i t must al so sati sfy the
other si nce nei ther fi el d can exi st al one.
WAVEFRONTS WITHIN A
WAVEGUIDE
El ectromagneti c energy transmi tted i nto space
consi sts of el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds that are at ri ght
angl es (90 degrees) to each other and at ri ght angl es
to the di recti on of propagati on. A si mpl e anal ogy to
establ i sh thi s rel ati onshi p i s by use of the ri ght-hand
r ul e for el ectr omagneti c ener gy, based on the
POYNTI NG VECTOR. I t i ndi cates that a scr ew
(ri ght-hand thread) wi th i ts axi s perpendi cul ar to the
el ectr i c and magneti c fi el ds wi l l advance i n the
di recti on of propagati on i f the E fi el d i s rotated to
the ri ght (toward the H fi el d). Thi s rul e i s i l l ustrated
i n fi gure 3-29.
Figure 3-29.The Poynting vector.
The combi ned el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds form
a wavefront that can be represented by al ternate
negati ve and posi ti ve peaks at hal f-wavel ength
i nterval s, as i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-30. Angl e i s
the di recti on of travel of the wave wi th respect to some
reference axi s.
Figure 3-30.Wavefronts in space.
The refl ecti on of a si ngl e wavefront off the b
wal l of a wavegui de i s shown i n fi gure 3-31. The
wavefront i s shown i n vi ew A as smal l parti cl es, I n
vi ews B and C parti cl e 1 stri kes the wal l and i s
bounced back from the wal l wi thout l osi ng vel oci ty.
I f the wal l i s perfectl y fl at, the angl e at whi ch i t the
wal l , known as the angl e of i nci dence i s the same
as the angl e of refl ecti on An i nstant after parti cl e
1 stri kes the wal l , parti cl e 2 stri kes the wal l , as shown
Figure 3-31.Reflection of a single wavefront.
3-14
i n vi ew C, and refl ects i n the same manner. Because
al l the parti cl es are travel i ng at the same vel oci ty,
parti cl es 1 and 2 do not change thei r rel ati ve posi ti on
wi th respect to each other. Therefore, the refl ected
wave has the same shape as the or i gi nal . The
remai ni ng parti cl es as shown i n vi ews D, E, and F
refl ect i n the same manner. Thi s process resul ts i n
a refl ected wavefront i denti cal i n shape, but opposi te
i n pol ari ty, to the i nci dent wave.
Fi gure 3-32, vi ews A and B, each i l l ustrate the
di recti on of propagati on of two di fferent el ectromag-
neti c wavefronts of di fferent frequenci es bei ng radi ated
i nto a wavegui de by a probe. Note that onl y the
di recti on of propagati on i s i ndi cated by the l i nes and
arrowheads. The wavefronts are at ri ght angl es to
the di recti on of propagati on. The angl e of i nci dence
and the angl e of refl ecti on of the wavefronts
vary i n si ze wi th the frequency of the i nput energy,
but the angl es of refl ecti on are equal to each other
i n a wavegui de. The CUTOFF FREQUENCY i n a
wavegui de i s a frequency that woul d cause angl es of
i nci dence and refl ecti on to be perpendi cul ar to the
wal l s of the gui de. At any frequency bel ow the cutoff
frequency, the wavefronts wi l l be refl ected back and
forth across the gui de (setti ng up standi ng waves) and
no energy wi l l be conducted down the wavegui de.
Figure 3-32.Different frequencies in a waveguide.
The vel oci ty of propagati on of a wave al ong a
wavegui de i s l ess than i ts vel oci ty through free space
(speed of l i ght). Thi s l ower vel oci ty i s caused by the
zi gzag path tak en by th e wav efr on t. The
for war d-pr ogr ess vel oci ty of the wavefr ont i n a
wavegui de i s cal l ed GROUP VELOCI TY and i s
somewhat sl ower than the speed of l i ght.
The group vel oci ty of energy i n a wavegui de i s
determi ned by the refl ecti on angl e of the wavefronts
off the b wal l s. The refl ecti on angl e i s determi ned
by the fr equency of the i nput ener gy. Thi s basi c
pri nci pl e i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-33. As frequency
i s decreased. the refl ecti on angl e i ncreases, causi ng
the group vel oci ty to decrease. The opposi te i s al so
true; i ncreasi ng frequency i ncreases the group vel oci ty.
Figure 3-33.Reflection angle at various frequencies.
WAVEGUIDE MODES OF
OPERATI ON
The wavegui de anal yzed i n the previ ous paragraphs
yi el ds an el ectri c fi el d confi gurati on known as the
hal f-si ne el ectri c di stri buti on. Thi s confi gurati on,
cal l ed a MODE OF OPERATI ON, i s shown i n fi gure
3-34. Recal l that the strength of the fi el d i s i ndi cated
by the spaci ng of the l i nes; that i s, the cl oser the l i nes,
the stronger the fi el d. The r egi ons of maxi mum
vol tage i n thi s fi el d move conti nuousl y down the
wavegui de i n a si ne-wave pattern. To meet boundary
condi ti ons. the fi el d must al ways be zero at the b
wal l s.
3-15
Figure 3-34.Half-sine E field distribution.
The hal f-si ne fi el d i s onl y one of many fi el d
confi gurati ons, or modes, that can exi st i n a rectangul ar
wavegui de. A ful l -si ne fi el d can al so exi st i n a
rectangul ar wavegui de because, as shown i n fi gure
3-35, the fi el d i s zero at the b wal l s.
Figure 3-35.Full-sine E field distribution.
The magneti c fi el d i n a rectangul ar wavegui de i s
i n the form of cl osed l oops paral l el to the surface of
the conductors. The strength of the magneti c fi el d
i s pr opor ti onal to the el ectr i c fi el d. Fi gur e 3-36
i l l ustrates the magneti c fi el d pattern associ ated wi th
a hal f-si ne el ectri c fi el d di stri buti on. The magni tude
of the magneti c fi el d vari es i n a si ne-wave pattern
down the center of the wavegui de i n ti me phase wi th
the el ectri c fi el d. TI ME PHASE means that the peak
H l i nes and peak E l i nes occur at the same i nstant i n
ti me, al though not necessari l y at the same poi nt al ong
the l ength of the wavegui de.
The domi nant mode i s the most effi ci ent mode.
Wavegui des are normal l y desi gned so that onl y the
domi nant mode wi l l be used. To oper ate i n the
domi nant mode, a wavegui de must have an a (wi de)
di mensi on of at l east one hal f-wavel ength of the
frequency to be propagated. The a di mensi on of
the wavegui de must be kept near the mi ni mum
al l owabl e val ue to ensure that onl y the domi nant mode
wi l l exi st. I n practi ce, thi s di mensi on i s usual l y 0.7
wavel ength.
Figure 3-36.Magnetic field caused by a half-sine
E field.
Of the possi bl e modes of operati on avai l abl e for
a gi ven wavegui de, the domi nant mode has the l owest
cutoff fr equency. The hi gh-fr equency l i mi t of a
rectangul ar wavegui de i s a frequency at whi ch i ts a
di mensi on becomes l arge enough to al l ow operati on
i n a mode hi gher than that for whi ch the wavegui de
has been desi gned.
Ci rcul ar wavegui des are used i n speci fi c areas of
radar and communi cati ons systems, such as rotati ng
joi nts used at the mechani cal poi nt where the antennas
rotate. Fi gure 3-37 i l l ustrates the domi nant mode of
a ci rcul ar wavegui de. The cutoff wavel ength of a
ci r cul ar gui de i s 1.71 ti mes the di ameter of the
wavegui de. Si nce the a di mensi on of a rectangul ar
wavegui de i s approxi matel y one hal f-wavel ength at
the cutoff frequency, the di ameter of an equi val ent
ci rcul ar wavegui de must be 2/1.71, or approxi matel y
Figure 3-37.Dominant mode in a circular
waveguide.
3-16
1.17 ti mes the a di mensi on of a r ectangul ar
wavegui de.
MODE NUMBERI NG SYSTEMS
So far, onl y the most basi c types of E and H fi el d
arrangements have been shown. More compl i cated
arrangements are often necessary to make possi bl e
coupl i ng, i sol ati on, or other types of operati on. The
fi el d arrangements of the vari ous modes of operati on
ar e di vi ded i nto two categor i es: TRANSVERSE
ELECTRI C (TE) and TRANSVERSE MAGNETI C
(TM).
In the transverse electric (TE) mode, the entire
electric field is in the transverse plane, which is
perpendicular to the waveguide, (direction of energy
travel). Part of the magnetic field is parallel to
the length axis.
In the transverse magnetic (TM) mode, the
entire magnetic field is in the transverse plane and
has no portion parallel to the length axis.
Si nce ther e ar e sever al TE and TM modes,
subscri pts are used to compl ete the descri pti on of the
fi el d pattern. I n rectangul ar wavegui des, the fi rst
subscri pt i ndi cates the number of hal f-wave patterns
i n the a di mensi on, and the second subscri pt i ndi cates
the number of hal f-wave patterns i n the b di mensi on.
The domi nant mode for rectangul ar wavegui des
i s shown i n fi gure 3-38. I t i s desi gnated as the TE
mode because the E fi el ds are perpendi cul ar to the
a wal l s. The fi rst subscri pt i s 1, si nce there i s onl y
one hal f-wave pattern across the a di mensi on. Ther e
Figure 3-38.Dominant mode in a rectangular
are no E-fi el d patterns across the b di mensi on, so
the second subscr i pt i s 0. The compl ete mode
descr i pti on of the domi nant mode i n r ectangul ar
wav egu i des i s TE
1,0
. Subsequent descr i pti on of
wavegui de operati on i n thi s text wi l l assume the
domi nant (TE
1,0
) mode unl ess otherwi se noted.
A si mi l ar system i s used to i denti fy the modes of
ci rcul ar wavegui des. The general cl assi fi cati on of TE
and TM i s true for both ci rcul ar and rectangul ar
wavegui des. I n ci rcul ar wavegui des the subscri pts
have a di fferent meani ng. The fi rst subscri pt i ndi cates
the number of fi l l -wave patterns around the ci rcumfer-
ence of the wavegui de. The second subscri pt i ndi cates
the number of hal f-wave patterns across the di ameter.
I n the ci rcul ar wavegui de i n fi gure 3-39, the E
fi el d i s perpendi cul ar to the l ength of the wavegui de
wi th no E l i nes paral l el to the di recti on of propagati on.
Thus, i t must be cl assi fi ed as operati ng i n the TE
mode. I f you fol l ow the E l i ne pattern i n a counter-
cl ockwi se di recti on starti ng at the top, the E l i nes
go fr om zer o, thr ough maxi mum posi ti ve (tai l of
arrows), back to zero, through maxi mum negati ve
(head of arrows), and then back to zero agai n. Thi s
i s one ful l wave, so the fi rst subscri pt i s 1. Al ong
the di ameter , the E l i nes go fr om zer o thr ough
maxi mum and back to zer o, maki ng a hal f-wave
vari ati on. The second subscri pt, therefore, i s al so 1.
TE
1,1
i s the compl ete mode descri pti on of the domi nant
mode i n ci r cul ar wavegui des. Sever al modes ar e
possi bl e i n both ci rcul ar and rectangul ar wavegui des.
Fi gure 3-40 i l l ustrates several di fferent modes that
can be used to veri fy the mode numberi ng system.
Figure 3-39.Counting wavelengths in a circular
waveguide.
waveguide.
3-17
Figure 3-40.Various modes of operation for rectangular and circular waveguides.
WAVEGUIDE INPUT/OUTPUT
METHODS
A wavegui de, as expl ai ned earl i er i n thi s topi c,
operates di fferentl y from an ordi nary transmi ssi on l i ne.
Therefore, speci al devi ces must be used to put energy
i nto a wavegui de at one end and remove i t from the
other end.
The three devi ces used to i njector remove energy
from wavegui des are PROBES, LOOPS, and SLOTS.
Sl ots may al so be cal l ed APERTURES or WI NDOWS.
When a smal l probe i s i nserted i nto a wavegui de
and suppl i ed wi th mi crowave energy, i t acts as a
quarter-wave antenna. Current fl ows i n the probe and
sets up an E fi el d such as the one shown i n fi gure
3-41, vi ew A. The E l i nes detach themsel ves from
the probe. When the probe i s l ocated at the poi nt of
hi ghest effi ci ency, the E l i nes set up an E fi el d of
consi derabl e i ntensi ty.
The most effi ci ent pl ace to l ocate the probe i s i n
the center of the a wal l , paral l el to the b wal l , and
one quarter-wavel ength from the shorted end of the
wavegui de, as shown i n fi gure 3-41, vi ews B and
C. Thi s i s the poi nt at whi ch the E fi el d i s maxi mum
i n the domi nant mode. Therefore, energy transfer
(coupl i ng) i s maxi mum at thi s poi nt. Note that the
quarter-wavel ength spaci ng i s at the frequency requi red
to propagate the domi nant mode.
I n many appl i cati ons a l esser degree of energy
tr ansfer , cal l ed l oose coupl i ng, i s desi r abl e. The
amount of energy transfer can be reduced by decreasi ng
the l ength of the probe, by movi ng i t out of the center
of the E fi el d, or by shi el di ng i t. Where the degree
of coupl i ng must be vari ed frequentl y, the probe i s
made retractabl e so the l ength can be easi l y changed.
The si ze and shape of the probe determi nes i ts
frequency, bandwi dth, and power-handl i ng capabi l i ty.
As the di ameter of a probe i ncreases, the bandwi dth
i ncreases. A probe si mi l ar i n shape to a door knob
i s capabl e of handl i ng much hi gher power and a l arger
bandwi dth than a conventi onal probe. The greater
power-handl i ng capabi l i ty i s di rectl y rel ated to the
i ncr eased sur face ar ea. Tw o e x a mp l e s of
broad-bandwi dth probes are i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-41,
vi ew D. Removal of ener gy fr om a wavegui de i s
si mpl y a reversal of the i njecti on process usi ng the
same type of probe.
Another way of i njecti ng energy i nto a wavegui de
i s by setti ng up an H fi el d i n the wavegui de. Thi s
can be accompl i shed by i nserti ng a smal l l oop that
carri es a hi gh current i nto the wavegui de, as shown
i n fi gure 3-42, vi ew A. A magneti c fi el d bui l ds up
around the l oop and expands to fi t the wavegui de, as
shown i n vi ew B. I f the frequency of the current i n
the l oop i s wi thi n the bandwi dth of the wavegui de,
energy wi l l be transferred to the wavegui de.
3-18
Figure 3-41.Probe coupling in a rectangular waveguide.
Figure 3-42.Loop coupling in a rectangular
waveguide.
For the most effi ci ent coupl i ng to the wavegui de,
the l oop i s i nserted at one of several poi nts where the
magneti c fi el d wi l l be of greatest strength. Four of
those poi nts are shown i n fi gure 3-42, vi ew C.
When l ess effi ci ent coupl i ng i s desi red, you can
rotate or move the l oop unti l i t enci rcl es a smal l er
number of H l i nes. When the di ameter of the l oop
i s i ncr eased, i ts power -handl i ng capabi l i ty al so
i ncreases. The bandwi dth can be i ncr eased by
i ncreasi ng the si ze of the wi re used to make the l oop.
When a l oop i s i ntroduced i nto a wavegui de i n
whi ch an H fi el d i s present, a current i s i nduced i n
the l oop. When thi s condi ti on exi sts, ener gy i s
removed from the wavegui de.
Sl ots or apertures are someti mes used when very
l oose (i neffi ci ent) coupl i ng i s desi red, as shown i n
fi gure 3-43. I n thi s method energy enters through
a smal l sl ot i n the wavegui de and the E fi el d expands
i nto the wavegui de. The E l i nes expand fi rst across
the sl ot and then across the i nteri or of the wavegui de.
3-19
Figure 3-43.Slot coupling in a waveguide.
Mi ni mum refl ecti ons occur when energy i s i njected
or removed i f the si ze of the sl ot i s properl y propor-
ti oned to the frequency of the energy.
After l earni ng how energy i s coupl ed i nto and out
of a wavegui de wi th sl ots, you mi ght thi nk that l eavi ng
the end open i s the most si mpl e way of i njecti ng or
removi ng energy i n a wavegui de. Thi s i s not the case,
however, because when energy l eaves a wavegui de,
fi el ds form around the end of the wavegui de. These
fi el ds cause an i mpedance mi smatch whi ch, i n turn,
causes the devel opment of standi ng waves and a drasti c
l oss i n effi ci ency. Vari ous methods of i mpedance
matchi ng and termi nati ng wavegui des wi l l be covered
i n the next secti on.
WAVEGUIDE IMPEDANCE
MATCHI NG
Wavegui de transmi ssi on systems are not al ways
perfectl y i mpedance matched to thei r l oad devi ces.
The standi ng waves that resul t from a mi smatch cause
a power l oss, a reducti on i n power-handl i ng capabi l i ty,
and an i ncr ease i n fr equency sensi ti vi ty. I mped-
ance-changi ng devi ces are therefore pl aced i n the
wavegui de to match the wavegui de to the l oad. These
devi ces are pl aced near the source of the standi ng
waves.
Fi gure 3-44 i l l ustrates three devi ces, cal l ed i ri ses,
that are used to i ntroduce i nductance or capaci tance
i nto a wavegui de. An i ri s i s nothi ng more than a metal
pl ate that contai ns an openi ng through whi ch the waves
may pass. The i ri s i s l ocated i n the transverse pl ane
of ei ther the magneti c or el ectri c fi el d.
An i nducti ve i ri s and i ts equi val ent ci rcui t are
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-44, vi ew A. The i ri s pl aces a
shunt i nducti ve reactance across the wavegui de that
i s di rectl y proporti onal to the si ze of the openi ng.
Noti ce that the i nducti ve i ri s i s i n the magneti c pl ane.
The shunt capaci ti ve reactance, i l l ustrated i n vi ew
B, basi cal l y acts the same way. Agai n, the reactance
i s di rectl y proporti onal to the si ze of the openi ng, but
the i r i s i s pl aced i n the el ectr i c pl ane. The i r i s,
i l l ustrated i n vi ew C, has porti ons i n both the magneti c
Figure 3-44.Waveguide irises.
3-20
and el ectri c transverse pl anes and forms an equi val ent
par al l el -LC ci r cui t acr oss the wavegui de. At the
resonant frequency, the i ri s acts as a hi gh shunt
resi stance. Above or bel ow resonance, the i ri s acts
as a capaci ti ve or i nducti ve reactance.
POSTS and SCREWS made fr om conducti ve
materi al can be used for i mpedance-changi ng devi ces
i n wavegui des. Vi ews A and B of fi gur e 3-45,
i l l ustrate two basi c methods of usi ng posts and screws.
A post or screw that onl y parti al l y penetrates i nto the
wavegui de acts as a shunt capaci ti ve reactance. When
the post or screw extends compl etel y through the
wavegui de, maki ng contact wi th the top and bottom
wal l s, i t acts as an i nducti ve reactance. Note that when
screws are used, the amount of reactance can be vari ed.
Figure 3-45.Conducting posts and screws.
WAVEGUIDE TERMINATIONS
El ectromagneti c energy i s often passed through
a wavegui de to transfer the energy from a source i nto
space. As previ ousl y menti oned, the i mpedance of
a wavegui de does not match the i mpedance of space,
and wi thout proper i mpedance matchi ng standi ng waves
cause a l ar ge decr ease i n the effi ci ency of the
wavegui de.
Any abrupt change i n i mpedance causes standi ng
waves, but when the change i n i mpedance at the end
of a wavegui de i s gradual , al most no standi ng waves
are formed. Gradual changes i n i mpedance can be
obtai ned by ter mi nati ng the wavegui de wi th a
funnel -shaped HORN, such as the three types i l l ustrated
i n fi gure 3-46. The type of horn used depends upon
the frequency and the desi red radi ati on pattern.
Figure 3-46.Waveguide horns.
As you may have noti ced, horns are real l y si mpl e
antennas. They have several advantages over other
i mpedance-matchi ng devi ces, such as thei r l ar ge
bandwi dth and si mpl e constructi on.
A wavegui de may al so be termi nated i n a resi sti ve
l oad that i s matched to the characteri sti c i mpedance
of the wavegui de. The resi sti ve l oad i s most often
cal l ed a DUMMY LOAD, because i ts onl y purpose
i s to absorb al l the energy i n a wavegui de wi thout
causi ng standi ng waves.
There i s no pl ace on a wavegui de to connect a
fi xed termi nati on resi stor; therefore, several speci al
arrangements are used to termi nate wavegui des. One
method i s to fi l l the end of the wavegui de wi th a
graphi te and sand mi xture, as i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-47,
vi ew A. When the fi el ds enter the mi xture, they
i nduce a current fl ow i n the mi xture that di ssi pates
the energy as heat. Another method (vi ew B) i s to
use a hi gh-resi stance rod pl aced at the center of the
E fi el d. The E fi el d causes current to fl ow i n the rod,
and the hi gh resi stance of the rod di ssi pates the energy
as a power l oss, agai n i n the form of heat.
Sti l l another method for termi nati ng a wavegui de
i s the use of a wedge of hi ghl y resi sti ve materi al , as
shown i n vi ew C of fi gure 3-47. The pl ane of the
wedge i s pl aced perpendi cul ar to the magneti c l i nes
3-21
Figure 3-47.Terminating waveguides.
of force. When the H l i nes cut through the wedge,
current fl ows i n the wedge and causes a power l oss.
As wi th the other methods, thi s l oss i s i n the form
of heat. Si nce very l i ttl e energy reaches the end of
the wavegui de, refl ecti ons are mi ni mum.
Al l of the ter mi nati ons di scussed so far ar e
desi gned to radi ate or absorb the energy wi thout
refl ecti ons. I n many i nstances, however, al l of the
ener gy must be r efl ected fr om the end of the
wavegui de. The best way to accompl i sh thi s i s to
permanentl y wel d a metal pl ate at the end of the
wavegui de, as shown i n vi ew D of fi gure 3-47.
WAVEGUIDE PLUMBING
Si nce wavegui des are real l y onl y hol l ow metal
pi pes, the i nstal l ati on and the physi cal handl i ng of
wavegui des have many si mi l ar i ti es to or di nar y
pl umbi ng. I n l i ght of thi s fact, the bendi ng, twi sti ng,
joi ni ng, and i nstal l ati on of wavegui des i s commonl y
cal l ed wavegui de pl umbi ng. Natural l y, wavegui des
are di fferent i n desi gn from pi pes that are desi gned
to carry l i qui ds or other substances. The desi gn of
a wavegui de i s determi ned by the frequency and power
l evel of the el ectromagneti c energy i t wi l l carry. The
fol l owi ng par agr aphs expl ai n the physi cal factor s
i nvol ved i n the desi gn of wavegui des.
Waveguide Bends
The si ze, shape, and di el ectr i c mater i al of a
wavegui de must be constant throughout i ts l ength for
energy to move from one end to the other wi thout
refl ecti ons. Any abrupt change i n i ts si ze or shape
can cause refl ecti ons and a l oss i n overal l effi ci ency.
When such a change i s necessary, the bends, twi sts,
and joi nts of the wavegui des must meet cer tai n
condi ti ons to prevent refl ecti ons.
Wavegui des maybe bent i n several ways that do
not cause refl ecti ons. One way i s the gradual bend
shown i n fi gure 3-48. Thi s gradual bend i s known
as an E bend because i t di storts the E fi el ds. The E
bend must have a radi us greater than two wavel engths
to prevent refl ecti ons.
Figure 3-48.Gradual E bend.
Another common bend i s the gradual H bend (fi g.
3-49). I t i s cal l ed an H bend because the H fi el ds
are di storted when a wavegui de i s bent i n thi s manner.
Agai n, the radi us of the bend must be greater than
two wavel engths to prevent refl ecti ons. Nei ther the
E bend i n the a di mensi on nor the H bend i n the
b di mensi on changes the normal mode of operati on.
Figure 3-49.Gradual H bend.
3-22
A sharp bend i n ei ther di mensi on may be used
i f i t meets cer tai n r equi r ements. Noti ce the two
45-degree bends i n fi gure 3-50; the bends are 1/4
apart. The refl ecti ons that occur at the 45-degree bends
cancel each other, l eavi ng the fi el ds as though no
refl ecti ons have occurred.
Figure 3-50.Sharp bends.
Someti mes the el ectromagneti c fi el ds must be
rotated so that they are i n the proper phase to match
the phase of the l oad. Thi s may be accompl i shed by
twi sti ng the wavegui de as shown i n fi gure 3-51. The
twi st must be gradual and greater than
Figure 3-51.Waveguide twist.
The fl exi bl e wavegui de (fi g. 3-52) al l ows speci al
bends, whi ch some equi pment appl i cati ons mi ght
r equi r e. I t consi sts of a speci al l y wound ri bbon of
conducti ve materi al , the most commonl y used i s brass,
wi th the i nner surface pl ated wi th chromi um. Power
l osses are greater i n the fl exi bl e wavegui de because
the i nner surfaces are not perfectl y smooth. Therefore,
i t i s onl y used i n shor t secti ons wher e no other
reasonabl e sol uti on i s avai l abl e.
Waveguide J oints
be
Si nce an enti re wavegui de system cannot possi bl y
mol ded i nto one pi ece, the wavegui de must be
Figure 3-52.Flexible waveguide.
constructed i n secti ons and the secti ons connected wi th
joi nts. The three basi c types of wavegui de joi nts are
the PERMANENT, the SEMI PERMANENT, and the
ROTATI NG JOI NTS. Si nce the permanent joi nt i s
a factory-wel ded joi nt that requi res no mai ntenance,
onl y the semi permanent and rotati ng joi nts wi l l be
di scussed.
Secti ons of wavegui de must be taken apart for
mai ntenance and repai r. A semi permanent joi nt, cal l ed
a CHOKE JOI NT, i s most commonl y used for thi s
purpose. The choke joi nt provi des good el ectromag-
neti c conti nui ty between the secti ons of the wavegui de
wi th very l i ttl e power l oss.
A cross-secti onal vi ew of a choke joi nt i s shown
i n fi gure 3-53. The pressure gasket shown between
the two metal surfaces forms an ai rti ght seal . Noti ce
i n vi ew B that the sl ot i s exactl y from the a
wal l of the wavegui de. The sl ot i s al so deep,
as shown i n vi ew A, and because i t i s shorted at poi nt
1, a hi gh i mpedance resul ts at poi nt 2. Poi nt 3 i s
from poi nt 2. The hi gh i mpedance at poi nt 2 resul ts
i n a l ow i mpedance, or short, at poi nt 3. Thi s effect
creates a good el ectri cal connecti on between the two
secti ons that permi ts energy to pass wi th very l i ttl e
refl ecti on or l oss.
Whenever a stati onary rectangul ar wavegui de i s
to be connected to a rotati ng antenna, a rotati ng joi nt
must be used. A ci rcul ar wavegui de i s normal l y used
i n a rotati ng joi nt. Rotati ng a rectangul ar wavegui de
woul d cause fi el d pattern di storti on. The rotati ng
secti on of the joi nt, i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-54, uses a
choke joi nt to compl ete the el ectri cal connecti on wi th
the stati onary secti on. The ci rcul ar wavegui de i s
desi gned so that i t wi l l operate i n the TM
0,1
mode.
3-23
The rectangul ar secti ons are attached as shown i n the
i l l ustrati on to prevent the ci rcul ar wavegui de from
operati ng i n the wrong mode. Di stance O i s
so that a hi gh i mpedance wi l l be presented to any
unwanted modes. Thi s i s the most common desi gn
used for rotati ng joi nts, but other types may be used
i n speci fi c appl i cati ons.
WAVEGUIDE MAINTENANCE
The i nstal l ati on of a wavegui de system presents
probl ems that are not normal l y encountered when
deal i ng wi th other types of transmi ssi on l i nes. These
probl ems often fal l wi thi n the techni ci ans area of
responsi bi l i ty. A br i ef di scussi on of wavegui de
handl i ng, i nstal l ati on, and mai ntenance wi l l hel p
pr epar e you for thi s mai ntenance r esponsi bi l i ty,
Detai l ed i nformati on concerni ng wavegui de mai nte-
nance i n a parti cul ar system may be found i n the
techni cal manual s for the system.
Figure 3-53.Choke joint.
Figure 3-54.Rotating joint.
Si nce a wavegui de natural l y has a l ow l oss rati o,
most l osses i n a wavegui de system are caused by other
factors. I mproperl y connected joi nts or damaged i nner
surfaces can decrease the effi ci ency of a system to
the poi nt that i t wi l l not work at al l . Therefore, you
must take great care when worki ng wi th wavegui des
to prevent physi cal damage. Si nce wavegui des are
made from a soft, conducti ve materi al , such as copper
or al umi num, they are very easy to dent or deform.
Even the sl i ghtest damage to the i nner surface of a
wavegui de wi l l cause standi ng waves and, often,
i nternal arci ng. I nternal arci ng causes further damage
to th e wav egu i de i n an acti on th at i s often
sel f-sustai ni ng unti l the wavegui de i s damaged beyond
use. Part of your job as a techni ci an wi l l be to i nspect
the wavegui de system for physi cal damage. The
pr evi ousl y menti oned dents ar e onl y one type of
physi cal damage that can decrease the effi ci ency of
the system. Another pr obl em occur s because
wavegui des are made from a conducti ve materi al such
as copper whi l e the structures of most shi ps are made
fr om steel . When two di ssi mi l ar metal s, such as
copper and steel , are i n di rect contact, an el ectri cal
acti on cal l ed ELECTROLYSI S takes pl ace that causes
very rapi d corrosi on of the metal s. Wavegui des can
be compl etel y destroyed by el ectrol yti c corrosi on i n
a rel ati vel y short peri od of ti me i f they are not i sol ated
from di rect contact wi th other metal s. Any i nspecti on
3-24
of a wavegui de system shoul d i ncl ude a detai l ed
i nspecti on of al l support poi nts to ensure that el ectro-
l yti c corrosi on i s not taki ng pl ace. Any wavegui de
that i s exposed to the weather shoul d be pai nted and
al l joi nts seal ed. Proper pai nti ng prevents natural
corrosi on, and seal i ng the joi nts prevents moi sture from
enteri ng the wavegui de.
Moi sture can be one of the worst enemi es of a
wavegui de system. As previ ousl y di scussed, the
di el ectri c i n wavegui des i s ai r, whi ch i s an excel l ent
di el ectri c as l ong as i t i s free of moi sture. Wet ai r,
however, i s a very poor di el ectri c and can cause seri ous
i nternal arci ng i n a wavegui de system. For thi s reason,
care i s taken to ensure that wavegui de systems are
pressuri zed wi th ai r that i s dry. Checki ng the pressure
and moi sture content of the wavegui de ai r may be one
of your dai l y system mai ntenance duti es.
More detai l ed wavegui de i nstal l ati on and mai nte-
nance i nfor mati on can be found i n the techni cal
manual s that appl y to your parti cul ar system. Another
good sour ce i s the El ectroni cs I nstal l ati on and
Maintenance Handbooks (EI MB) publ i shed by Naval
Sea Systems Command. I nstallation Standards (EI MB)
Handbook, NAVSEA 0967-LP-000-0110, i s the vol ume
that deal s wi th wavegui de i nstal l ati on and mai ntenance.
WAVEGUIDE DEVICES
The di scussi on of wavegui des, up to thi s poi nt,
has been concerned onl y wi th the transfer of energy
from one poi nt to another. Many wavegui de devi ces
have been devel oped, however, that modi fy the energy
i n some fashi on duri ng the transmi ssi on. Some devi ces
do nothi ng more than change the di recti on of the
energy. Others have been desi gned to change the basi c
characteri sti cs or power l evel of the el ectromagneti c
energy.
Thi s secti on wi l l expl ai n the basi c oper ati ng
pri nci pl es of some of the more common wavegui de
dev i ces , s u ch as DI RECTI ONAL COUPL ERS,
CAVI TY RESONATORS, and HYBRI D JUNCTI ONS.
Directional Couplers
The di recti onal coupl er i s a devi ce that provi des
a method of sampl i ng energy from wi thi n a wavegui de
for measur ement or use i n another ci r cui t. Most
coupl ers sampl e energy travel i ng i n one di recti on onl y.
However, di recti onal coupl ers can be constructed that
sampl e energy i n both di recti ons. These are cal l ed
BI DI RECTI ONAL coupl ers and are wi del y used i n
radar and communi cati ons systems.
Di recti onal coupl ers may be constructed i n many
ways. The coupl er i l l ustr ated i n fi gur e 3-55 i s
constructed from an encl osed wavegui de secti on of
the same di mensi ons as the wavegui de i n whi ch the
energy i s to be sampl ed. The b wal l of thi s encl osed
secti on i s mounted to the b wal l of the wavegui de
from whi ch the sampl e wi l l be taken. There are two
hol es i n the b wal l between the secti ons of the
coupl er. These two hol es are apart. The upper
secti on of the di r ecti onal coupl er has a wedge
-
of
energy-absorbi ng materi al at one end and a pi ckup
probe connected to an output jack at the other end.
The absorbent materi al absorbs the energy not di rected
at the probe and a porti on of the overal l energy that
enters the secti on.
Figure 3-55.Directional coupler.
Fi gure 3-56 i l l ustrates two porti ons of the i nci dent
wavefront i n a wavegui de. The waves travel down
the wavegui de i n the di recti on i ndi cated and enter the
coupl er secti on through both hol es. Si nce both porti ons
of the wave travel the same di stance, they are i n phase
when they arri ve at the pi ckup probe. Because the
waves are i n phase, they add together and provi de a
sampl e of the energy travel i ng down the wavegui de.
The sampl e taken i s onl y a smal l porti on of the energy
that i s travel i ng down the wavegui de. The magni tude
of the sampl e, however , i s pr opor ti onal to the
magni tude of the ener gy i n the wavegui de. The
absorbent materi al i s desi gned to ensure that the rati o
3-25
between the sampl e energy and the energy i n the
wavegui de i s constant. Otherwi se, the sampl e woul d
contai n no useful i nformati on. The rati o i s usual l y
stamped on the coupl er i n the form of an attenuati on
factor .
and the probe are i n opposi te posi ti ons from the
di recti onal coupl er desi gned to sampl e the i nci dent
energy. Thi s posi ti oni ng causes the two porti ons of
the refl ected energy to arri ve at the probe i n phase,
pr ovi di ng a sampl e of the r efl ected ener gy. The
tr ansmi tted ener gy i s absor bed by the absor bent
materi al .
Figure 3-56.Incident wave in a directional coupler
designed to sample incident waves.
The effect of a di recti onal coupl er on any refl ected
energy i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-57. Note that these
two waves do not travel the same di stance to the
pi ckup probe. The wave represented by the dotted
l i ne travel s further and arri ves at the probe 180
degrees out of phase wi th the wave, represented by
the sol i d l i ne. Because the waves are 180 degrees
out of phase at the probe, they cancel each other and
no energy i s i nduced i nto the pi ckup probe. When
the refl ected energy arri ves at the absorbent materi al ,
i t adds and i s absorbed by the materi al .
Figure 3-57.Reflected wave in a directional
coupler.
A di recti onal coupl er desi gned to sampl e refl ected
energy i s shown i n fi gure 3-58. The absorbent materi al
Figure 3-58.Directional coupler designed to sample
retlected energy.
A si mpl e bi di recti onal coupl er for sampl i ng both
transmi tted and refl ected energy can be constructed
by mounti ng two di recti onal coupl ers on opposi te si des
of a wavegui de, as shown i n fi gure 3-59.
Figure 3-59.Bidirectional coupler.
Resonators
defi ni ti on, a resonant cavi ty i s any space
Cavity
By
compl etel y encl osed by conducti ng
-
wal l s that can
contai n osci l l ati ng el ectromagneti c fi el ds and possess
resonant properti es. The cavi ty has many advantages
3-26
and uses at mi crowave frequenci es. Resonant cavi ti es
have a ver y hi gh Q and can be bui l t to handl e
rel ati vel y l arge amounts of power. Cavi ti es wi th a
Q val ue i n excess of 30,000 are not uncommon. The
hi gh Q gi ves these devi ces a narrow bandpass and
al l ows very accurate tuni ng. Si mpl e, rugged construc-
ti on i s an addi ti onal advantage.
Al though cavi ty r esonator s, bui l t for di ffer ent
frequency ranges and appl i cati ons, have a vari ety of
shapes, the basi c pri nci pl es of operati on are the same
for al l .
One exampl e of a cavi ty resonator i s the rectangul ar
box shown i n fi gure 3-60, vi ew A. I t may be thought
of as a secti on of rectangul ar wavegui de cl osed at both
ends by conducti ng pl ates. The frequency at whi ch
the r esonant mode occur s i s of the di stance
between the end pl ates. The magneti c fi el d patterns
i n the rectangul ar cavi ty are shown i n vi ew B.
There are two vari abl es that determi ne the pri mary
frequency of any resonant cavi ty. The fi rst vari abl e
i s PHYSI CAL SI ZE. I n gener al , the smal l er the
cavi ty, the hi gher i ts resonant frequency. The second
control l i ng factor i s the SHAPE of the cavi ty. Fi gure
3-61 i l l ustrates several cavi ty shapes that are commonl y
used. Remember from the previ ousl y stated defi ni ti on
of a resonant cavi ty that any compl etel y encl osed
conducti ve surface, regardl ess of i ts shape, can act
as a cavi ty resonator.
Energy can be i nserted or removed from a cavi ty
by the same methods that are used to coupl e energy
i nto and out of wavegui des. The operati ng pri nci pl es
of probes, l oops, and sl ots are the same whether used
i n a cavi ty or a wavegui de. Therefore, any of the three
methods can be used wi th cavi ti es to i nject or remove
ener gy.
The resonant frequency of a cavi ty can be vari ed
by changi ng any of the thr ee par ameter s: cavi ty
vol ume, cavi ty capaci tance, or cavi ty i nductance.
Changi ng the frequenci es of a cavi ty i s known as
TUNI NG. The mechani cal methods of tuni ng a cavi ty
may vary wi th the appl i cati on, but al l methods use
the same el ectri cal pri nci pl es.
Figure 3-60.Rectangular waveguide cavity
resonator.
Waveguide J unctions
You may have assumed that when energy travel i ng
down a wavegui de reaches a juncti on i t si mpl y di vi des
and fol l ows the juncti on. Thi s i s not stri ctl y true.
3-27
Figure 3-61.Types of cavities.
Di ffer ent types of juncti ons affect the ener gy i n
di vi ded i nto two basi c types, the E TYPE and the H
di fferent ways. Si nce wavegui de juncti ons are used
TYPE. HYBRI D JUNCTI ONS are more compl i cated
extensi vel y i n most systems, you need to understand
devel opments of the basi c T juncti ons. The MAGI C-T
the basi c operati ng pri nci pl es of those most commonl y
and the HYBRI D RI NG are the two most commonl y
used.
used hybri d juncti ons.
The T JUNCTI ON i s the most si mpl e of the
E-TYPE T J UNCTION. An E-type T juncti on
commonl y used wavegui de juncti ons. T juncti ons are
i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-62, vi ew A.
Figure 3-62.E fields in an E-type T junction.
3-28
I t i s cal l ed an E-type T juncti on because the juncti on
arm extends from the mai n wavegui de i n the same
di recti on as the E fi el d i n the wavegui de.
Fi gure 3-62, vi ew B, i l l ustrates cross-secti onal
vi ews of the E-type T juncti on wi th i nputs fed i nto
the vari ous arms. For si mpl i ci ty, the magneti c l i nes
that are al ways present wi th an el ectri c fi el d have been
omi tted. I n vi ew K, the i nput i s fed i nto arm b and
the outputs are taken from the a and c arms. When
the E fi el d arri ves between poi nts 1 and 2, poi nt 1
becomes posi ti ve and poi nt 2 becomes negati ve. The
posi ti ve charge at poi nt 1 then i nduces a negati ve
charge on the wal l at poi nt 3. The negati ve charge
at poi nt 2 i nduces a posi ti ve charge at poi nt 4. These
charges cause the fi el ds to form 180 degrees out of
phase i n the mai n wavegui de; therefore, the outputs
wi l l be 180 degrees out of phase wi th each other.
I n vi ew L, two i n-phase i nputs of equal ampl i tude are
fed i nto the a and c arms. The si gnal s at poi nts 1 and
2 have the same phase and ampl i tude. No di fference
of potenti al exi sts across the entrance to the b arm,
and no energy wi l l be coupl ed out. However, when
the two si gnal s fed i nto the a and c arms are 180
degrees out of phase, as shown i n vi ew M, poi nts
1 and 2 have a di fference of potenti al . Thi s di fference
of potenti al i nduces an E fi el d from poi nt 1 to poi nt
2 i n the b arm, and energy i s coupl ed out of thi s arm.
Vi ews N and P i l l ustrate two methods of obtai ni ng
two outputs wi th onl y one i nput.
H-TYPE T J UNCTION. An H-type T juncti on
i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-63, vi ew A. I t i s cal l ed an
H-type T juncti on because the l ong axi s of the b
arm i s paral l el to the pl ane of the magneti c l i nes of
force i n the wavegui de. Agai n, for si mpl i ci ty, onl y
the E l i nes are shown i n thi s fi gure. Each X i ndi cates
an E l i ne movi ng away from the observer. Each dot
i ndi cates an E l i ne movi ng toward the observer.
Figure 3-63.E field in an H-type T junction.
3-29
I n vi ew 1 of fi gure 3-63, vi ew B, the si gnal i s fed
i nto arm b and i n-phase outputs are obtai ned from
the a and c arms. I n vi ew 2, i n-phase si gnal s are fed
i nto arms a and c and the output si gnal i s obtai ned
from the b arm because the fi el ds add at the juncti on
and i nduce E l i nes i nto the b arm. I f
180-degree-out-of-phase si gnal s are fed i nto arms a
and c, as shown i n vi ew 3, no output i s obtai ned from
the b arm because the opposi ng fi el ds cancel at the
juncti on. I f a si gnal i s fed i nto the a arm, as shown
i n vi ew 4 , outputs wi l l be obtai ned from the b and
c arms. The reverse i s al so true. I f a si gnal i s fed
i nto the c arm, outputs wi l l be obtai ned from the a
and b arms.
MAGIC-T HYBRID J UNCTION. A si mpl i -
fi ed versi on of the magi c-T hybri d juncti on i s shown
i n fi gure 3-64. The magi c-T i s a combi nati on of the
H-type and E-type T juncti ons. The most common
appl i cati on of thi s type of juncti on i s as the mi xer
secti on for mi crowave radar recei vers.
Figure 3-64.Magic-T hybrid junction.
I f a si gnal i s fed i nto the b arm of the magi c-T,
i t wi l l di vi de i nto two out-of-phase components. As
shown i n fi gure 3-65, vi ew A, these two components
wi l l move i nto the a and c arms. The si gnal enteri ng
the b arm wi l l not enter the d arm because of the zero
potenti al exi sti ng at the entrance of the d arm. The
potenti al must be zero at thi s poi nt to sati sfy the
boundary condi ti ons of the b arm. Thi s absence of
potenti al i s i l l ustrated i n vi ews B and C where the
magni tude of the E fi el d i n the b arm i s i ndi cated by
the l ength of the arrows. Si nce the E l i nes are at
maxi mum i n the center of the b arm and mi ni mum
at the edge where the d arm entrance i s l ocated, no
potenti al di fference exi sts across the mouth of the d
arm.
Figure 3-65.Magic-T with input to arm b.
I n summary, when an i nput i s appl i ed to arm b
of the magi c-T hybri d juncti on, the output si gnal s from
arms a and c are 180 degrees out of phase wi th each
other, and no output occurs at the d arm.
The acti on that occurs when a si gnal i s fed i nto
the d arm of the magi c-T i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-66.
As wi th the H-type T juncti on, the si gnal enteri ng the
d arm di vi des and moves down the a and c arms as
outputs that are i n phase wi th each other and wi th the
i nput. The shape of the E fi el ds i n moti on i s shown
by the numbered curved sl i ces. As the E fi el d moves
down the d arm, poi nts 2 and 3 are at an equal
potenti al . The energy di vi des equal l y i nto arms a and
c, and the E fi el ds i n both arms become i denti cal i n
shape. Si nce the potenti al s on both si des of the b arm
are equal , no potenti al di fference exi sts at the entrance
to the b arm, resul ti ng i n no output.
3-30
Figure 3-66.Magic-T with input to arm d.
When an i nput si gnal i s fed i nto the a arm as
shown i n fi gure 3-67, a porti on of the energy i s
coupl ed i nto the b arm as i t woul d be i n an E-type
T juncti on. An equal porti on of the si gnal i s
coupl ed through the d arm because of the acti on of
the H-type juncti on. The c arm has two fi el ds
across i t that are out of phase wi th each other.
Therefore, the fi el ds cancel , resul ti ng i n no output
at the c arm. The reverse of thi s acti on takes pl ace
i f a si gnal i s fed i nto the c arm, resul ti ng i n
outputs at the b and d arms and no output at the a
arm.
Figure 3-67.Magic-T with input to arm a.
Unfortunatel y, when a si gnal i s appl i ed to any
arm of a magi c-T, the fl ow of energy i n the output
arms i s affected by refl ecti ons. Refl ecti ons are
caused by i mpedance mi smatchi ng at the
juncti ons. These refl ecti ons are the cause of the
two major di sadvantages of the magi c-T. Fi rst, the
refl ecti ons represent a power l oss si nce al l the
energy fed i nto the juncti on does not reach the
l oad that the arms feed. Second, the refl ecti ons
produce standi ng waves that can resul t i n i nternal
arci ng. Thus, the maxi mum power a magi c-T can
handl e i s greatl y reduced.
Refl ecti ons can be reduced by usi ng some
means of i mpedance matchi ng that does not
destroy the shape of the juncti ons. One method i s
shown i n fi gure 3-68. A post i s used to match the
H pl ane, and an i ri s i s used to match the E pl ane.
Even though thi s method reduces refl ecti ons, i t
l owers the power-handl i ng capabi l i ty even further.
Figure 3-68.Magic-T impedance matching.
HYBRID RING. A type of hybri d juncti on
that overcomes the power l i mi tati on of the magi c-
T i s the hybri d ri ng, al so cal l ed a RAT RACE. The
hybri d ri ng, i l l ustrated i n fi gure 3-69, vi ew A, i s
actual l y a modi fi cati on of the magi c-T. I t i s
constructed of rectangul ar wavegui des mol ded
i nto a ci rcul ar pattern. The arms are joi ned to the
ci rcul ar wavegui de to form E-type T juncti ons.
Vi ew B shows, i n wavel engths, the di mensi ons
requi red for a hybri d ri ng to operate properl y.
The hybri d ri ng i s used pri mari l y i n hi gh-
powered radar and communi cati ons systems to
perform two functi ons. Duri ng the transmi t
peri od, the hybri d ri ng coupl es mi crowave energy
from the transmi tter to the antenna and al l ows no
energy to reach the recei ver. Duri ng the recei ve
cycl e, the hybri d ri ng coupl es energy from the
antenna to the recei ver and al l ows no energy to
reach the transmi tter. Any devi ce that performs
both of these functi ons i s cal l ed a DUPLEXER. A
dupl exer permi ts a system to use the same
antenna for both transmi tti ng and recei vi ng.
SUMMARY
Thi s concl udes our di scussi on on transmi ssi on
l i nes and wavegui des. I n thi s vol ume you have
been gi ven a basi c i ntroducti on on wave
propagati on from the ti me i t l eaves the
transmi tter to the poi nt of recepti on. I n vol ume 8
you wi l l be i ntroduced to a vari ety of el ectroni c
support systems.
3-31
Figure 3-69.Hybrid ring with wavelength
measurements.
3-32
APPENDIX I
GLOSSARY
ABSORPTI ON(1) Absor bi ng l i ght waves. Does
not al l ow any r efl ecti on or r efr acti on; (2)
Atmospher i c absor pti on of r f ener gy wi th no
refl ecti on or refracti on (adversel y affects l ong-
di stance communi cati ons).
ACOUSTI CSThe sci ence of sound.
AMPLI TUDEThe porti on of a cycl e measured from
a reference l i ne to a maxi mum val ue above (or
to a maxi mum val ue bel ow) the l i ne.
ANGLE OF I NCI DENCEThe angl e between the
i nci dent wave and the normal .
ANGLE OF REFLECTI ONThe angl e between
the refl ected wave and the normal .
ANGLE OF REFRACTI ONThe angl e between
the normal and the path of a wave through the
second medi um.
ANGSTROM UNI TThe uni t used to defi ne the
wavel ength of l i ght waves.
ANI SOTROPI CThe property of a radi ator to emi t
strong radi ati on i n one di recti on.
ANTENNAA conductor or set of conductors used
ei ther to radi ate rf energy i nto space or to col l ect
rf energy from space.
APERTURESee SLOT.
ARRAY OF ARRAYSSe e COMBI N ATI ON
ARRAY.
BAYPart of an antenna array.
BEARI NGAn angul ar measurement that i ndi cates
the di recti on of an object i n degrees from true
north. Al so cal l ed azi muth.
BEVERAGE ANTENNAA hor i zontal , l ongwi r e
antenna desi gned for recepti on and transmi ssi on
of l ow-fr equency, ver ti cal l y pol ar i zed gr ound
waves. Al so known as WAVE ANTENNA.
BI DI RECTI ONAL ARRAYAn array that radi ates
i n opposi te di recti ons al ong the l i ne of maxi mum
radi ati on.
BROADSI DE ARRAYAn ar r ay i n wh i ch th e
di recti on of maxi mum radi ati on i s perpendi cul ar
to the pl ane contai ni ng the el ements.
BOUNDARY CONDI TI ONSThe two condi ti ons
that the E-fi el d and H-fi el d wi thi n a wavegui de
must meet before energy wi l l travel down the
wavegui de. The E-fi el d must be perpendi cul ar
to the wal l s and the H-fi el d must be i n cl osed
l oops, paral l el to the wal l s, and perpendi cul ar to
the E-fi el d.
CAVI TY RESONATORA space total l y encl osed
by a metal l i c conductor and suppl i ed wi th energy
i n such a way that i t becomes a sour ce of
el ectromagneti c osci l l ati ons. The si ze and shape
of the encl osure determi ne the resonant frequency.
CENTER-FEED METHODConnecti ng the center
of an antenna to a transmi ssi on l i ne, whi ch i s then
connected to the fi nal (output) stage of the
transmi tter. Al so known as CURRENT-FEED
METHOD.
CHARACTERI STI C I MPEDANCEThe r ati o of
vol tage to cur r ent at any gi ven poi nt on a
tr ansmi ssi on l i ne. Repr esented by a val ue of
i mpedance.
CHOKE JOI NTA joi nt between two secti ons of
wavegui de that pr ovi des a good el ectr i cal
connecti on wi thout power l osses or refl ecti ons.
AI-1
COAXI AL LI NEA type of transmi ssi on l i ne that
contai ns two concentri c conductors.
COL L I NEAR ARRAYAn ar r ay wi th al l th e
el ements i n a strai ght l i ne. Maxi mum radi ati on
i s perpendi cul ar to the axi s of the el ements.
COMBI NATI ON ARRAYAn ar r ay system that
uses the characteri sti cs of more than one array.
Al so known as ARRAY OF ARRAYS.
COMPLEX WAAEA wave produced by combi ni ng
two or more pure tones at the same ti me.
CONDUCTANCEThe opposi te of r esi stance i n
transmi ssi on l i nes. The mi nute amount of
resi stance that i s present i n the i nsul ator of a
transmi ssi on l i ne.
CONNE CTE D ARRAYs ee DRI VE N ARRAY
COPPER LOSSPower l oss i n copper conductor s
caused by the i nternal resi stance of the conductors
to current fl ow. Al so know as 1
2
R LOSS.
CORNER-REFL ECTOR ANTENNAA hal f-wave
antenna wi th a refl ector consi sti ng of two fl at
metal surfaces meeti ng at an angl e behi nd the
radi ator.
COUNTERPOI SEA n etwor k of wi r e th at i s
connected to a quarter-wave antenna at one end
and provi des the equi val ent of an addi ti onal
wavel ength.
COUPLI NG DEVI CEA coupl i ng coi l that con-
nects the transmi tter to the feeder.
CREST (TOP)The peak of the posi ti ve al ternati on
(maxi mum val ue above the l i ne) of a wave.
CRI TI CAL ANGLEThe maxi mum angl e at whi ch
r adi o waves can be tr ansmi tted and sti l l be
refracted back to earth.
CRI TI CAL FREQUENCYTh e max i mu m fr e-
quency at whi ch a radi o wave can be transmi tted
verti cal l y and sti l l be refracted back to earth.
CURRENT-FEED METHODSee CENTER-FEED
METHOD.
C U R R E N T S TA N D I N G - WA V E R A TI O
(I SWR)The r ati o of maxi mum to mi ni mum
current al ong a transmi ssi on l i ne.
CUTOFF FREQUENCYThe fr equency at whi ch
the attenuati on of a wavegui de i ncreases sharpl y
and bel ow whi ch a travel i ng wave i n a gi ven
mode cannot be mai ntai ned. A frequency wi th
a hal f wavel ength that i s greater than the wi de
di mensi on of a wavegui de.
CYCLEOne compl ete al ternati on of a si ne wave
that has a maxi mum val ue above and a maxi mum
val ue bel ow the reference l i ne.
DAMPI NGReducti on of ener gy by absor pti on.
DENSI TY(1) The compactness of a substance;
(2) Mass per uni t vol ume.
DETECTORThe devi ce that responds to a wave
or di sturbance.
DI EL ECTRI C HEATI NGTh e h eati n g of an
i nsul ati ng mater i al by pl aci ng i t i n a hi gh
frequency el ectri c fi el d.
DI ELECTRI C LOSSESThe l osses resul ti ng from
the heati ng effect on the di el ectr i c mater i al
between conductors.
DI ELECTRI C CONSTANTThe r ati o of a gi ven
di el ectri c to the di el ectri c val ue of a vacuum.
DI FFRACTI ONThe bendi ng of the paths of waves
when the waves meet some form of obstructi on.
DI POLEA common type of hal f-wave antenna
made from a strai ght pi ece of wi re cut i n hal f.
Each hal f operates at a quarter wavel ength of the
output.
AI-2
DI RECTI ONAL.Radi ati on that vari es wi th di recti on.
DI RECTI ONAL COUPLERA devi ce that sampl es
the energy travel i ng i n a wavegui de for use i n
another ci rcui t.
DI RECTORThe parasi ti c el ement of an array that
rei nforces energy comi ng from the dri ver toward
i tsel f.
DI RECTI VI TYThe property of an array that causes
more radi ati on to take pl ace i n certai n di recti ons
than i n others.
DI STRI BUTED CONSTANTSThe constants of
i nductance, capaci tance, and r esi stance i n a
transmi ssi on l i ne. The constants are spread al ong
the enti r e l ength of the l i ne and cannot be
di sti ngui shed separatel y.
DOMI NANT MODEThe easi est mode to produce
i n a wavegui de, and al so, the most effi ci ent mode
i n terms of energy transfer.
DOPPL ER EFFECTTh e appar en t ch an ge i n
frequency or pi tch when a sound source moves
ei ther toward or away from a l i stener.
DOUBLETAnother name for the di pol e antenna.
DRI VEN ARRAYAn ar r ay i n whi ch al l of the
el ements are dri ven. Al so k nown as CON-
NECTED ARRAY
DRI VEN ELEMENTAn el ement of an antenna
(tr ansmi tti ng or r ecei vi ng) that i s connected
di rectl y to the transmi ssi on l i ne.
DUMMY LOADA devi ce used at the end of a
tr ansmi ssi on l i ne or wavegui de to conver t
transmi tted energy i nto heat so no energy i s
radi ated outward or refl ected back.
E-FI ELDEl ectri c fi el d that exi sts when a di fference
i n el ectr i cal potenti al causes a str ess i n the
di el ectri c between two poi nts. Al SO known as
ELECTRI C FI ELD.
E-TYPE T-JUNCTI ONA wavegui de juncti on i n
whi ch the juncti on arm extends from the mai n
wavegui de i n the same di recti on as the E-fi el d
i n the wavegui de.
ECHOThe refl ecti on of the ori gi nal sound wave
as i t bounces off a di stant surface.
ELECTROMAGNETI C FI ELDThe combi nati on
of an el ectri c (E) fi el d and a magneti c (H) fi el d.
ELECTROMAGNETI C I NTERFERENCEMan-
made or natural i nterference that degrades the
qual i ty of recepti on of radi o waves.
E L E C TR OMA G N E TI C R A D I A TI ON Th e
radi ati on of radi o waves i nto space.
ELECTRI C FI ELDSee E-FI ELD.
ELEMENTA part of an antenna that can be ei ther
an acti ve radi ator or a parasi ti c radi ator.
END-FEED METHODConnecti ng one end of an
antenna through a capaci tor to the fi nal output
stage of a tr ansmi tter . Al s o k n own a s
VOLTAGE-FEED METHOD.
END-FI RE ARRAYAn array i n whi ch the di recti on
of radi ati on i s paral l el to the axi s of the array.
ELEVATI ON ANGLEThe angl e between the l i ne
of si ght to an object and the hori zontal pl ane.
FADI NGVar i ati ons i n si gnal str ength by atmo-
spheri c condi ti ons.
FEEDERA transmi ssi on l i ne that carri es energy
to the antenna.
FLAT LI NEA tr ansmi ssi on l i ne that has no
standi ng waves. Thi s l i ne requi res no speci al
tuni ng devi ce to transfer maxi mum power.
FLEXI BLE COAXI AL LI NE coaxi al l i ne made
wi th a fl exi bl e i nner conductor i nsul ated from
the outer conductor by a sol i d, conti nuous
i nsul ati ng materi al .
FOLDED DI POLEAn ordi nary hal f-wave antenna
(di pol e) that has one or more addi ti onal conduc-
tors connected across the ends paral l el to each
other .
AI-3
FOUR-ELEMENT ARRAYAn ar r ay wi th thr ee
parasi ti c el ements and one dri ven el ement.
FREE-SPACE LOSSThe l oss of energy of a radi o
wave because of the spreadi ng of the wavefront
as i t travel s from the transmi tter.
FREQUENCYThe number of cycl es that occur i n
one second. Usual l y expressed i n Hertz.
FREQUENCY DI VERSI TYTr an s mi tti n g (an d
r ecei vi ng) of r adi o waves on two di ffer ent
frequenci es si mul taneousl y.
FRONT-TO-BACK RATI OThe rati o of the energy
radi ated i n the pri nci pal di recti on to the energy
radi ated i n the opposi te di recti on.
F U N DAME N TAL F RE QU E N CYTh e b a s i c
frequency or fi rst harmoni c frequency.
GAI NThe r ati o between the amount of ener gy
propagated from an antenna that i s di recti onal
to the energy from the same antenna that woul d
be propagated i f the antenna were not di recti onal .
GENERATOR ENDSee I NPUT END
GROUND PLANEThe por ti on of a gr oundpl ane
antenna that acts as ground.
GROUND-PLANE ANTENNAA type of antenna
that uses a ground pl ane as a si mul ated ground
to produce l ow-angl e radi ati on.
GROUND REFLECTI ON LOSSThe l oss of r f
energy each ti me a radi o wave i s refl ected from
the earths surface.
GROUND SCREENA seri es of conductors buri ed
bel ow the surface of the earth and arranged i n
a radi al pattern. Used to reduce l osses i n the
ground.
GROUND WAVESRadi o waves that travel near the
surface of the earth.
GROUP VELOCI TYThe forward progress vel oci ty
of a wave front i n a wavegui de.
H-FI ELDAny space or regi on i n whi ch a magneti c
for ce i s exer ted. The magneti c fi el d may be
produced by a current-carryi ng coi l or conductor,
by a permanent magnet, or by the earth i tsel f.
Al so known as MAGNETI C FI ELD.
H-TYPE T-JUNCTI ONA wavegui de juncti on i n
whi ch the juncti on arm i s paral l el to the magneti c
l i nes of force i n the mai n wavegui de.
HALF-WAVE DI POLE ANTENNAAn antenna
consi sti ng of two rods ( wavel ength h) i n a
strai ght l i ne, that radi ates el ectromagneti c energy.
HARMONI CA frequency that i s a whol e number
mul ti pl e of a smal l er base frquency.
HERTZ ANTENNAA hal f-wave antenna i nstal l ed
some di stance above ground and posi ti oned ei ther
verti cal l y or hori zontal l y.
HORNA funnel -shaped secti on of wavegui de used
as a termi nati on devi ce and as a radi ati ng antenna.
HORI ZONTAL AXI SOn a graph, the strai ght l i ne
axi s pl otted from l eft to ri ght.
HORI ZONTAL PATTERNThe part of a radi ati on
pattern that i s radi ated i n al l di recti ons al ong the
hori zontal pl ane.
HORI ZONTALLY POLARI ZEDWaves that ar e
radi ated wi th thei r E-fi el d component paral l el
to the earths surface.
HYBRI D JUNCTI ONA wavegui de juncti on that
combi nes two or more basi c T-juncti ons.
HYBRI D RI NGA hybri d-wavegui de juncti on that
combi nes a seri es of E-type T-juncti ons i n a ri ng
confi gurati on.
I
2
R LOSSSee COPPER LOSS.
AI-4
I NCI DENT WAVE(1) The wave that stri kes the
surface of a medi um; (2) The wave that travel s
from the sendi ng end to the recei vi ng end of a
transmi ssi on l i ne.
I NDUCTI ON FI ELDThe el ectr omagneti c fi el d
produced about an antenna when current and
vol tage are present on the same antenna.
I NDUCTI ON LOSSESThe l osses that occur when
the el ectromagneti c fi el d around a conductor cuts
through a nearby metal l i c object and i nduces a
current i nto that object.
I NPUT ENDThe end of a two-wi re transmi ssi on
l i ne that i s connected to a source. Al so known
as a GENERATOR END or a TRANSMI TTER
END.
I NPUT I MPEDANCEThe i mpedance pr esented
to the transmi tter by the transmi ssi on l i ne and
i ts l oad.
I NTERFERENCEAny di sturbance that produces
an undesi rabl e response or degrades a wave.
I ONOSPHEREThe most i mportant regi on of the
atmosphere extendi ng from 31 mi l es to 250 mi l es
above the earth. Contai ns four cl oud-l i ke l ayers
that affect radi o waves.
I ONOSPHERI C STORMSDi stur bances i n the
earths magneti c fi el d that make communi cati ons
practi cal onl y at l ower frequenci es.
I ONI ZATI ONThe pr ocess of upsetti ng el ectr i cal
neutral i ty.
I RI SA metal pl ate wi th an openi ng through whi ch
el ectromagneti c waves may pass. Used as an
i mpedance matchi ng devi ce i n wavegui des.
I SOTROPI C RADI ATI ONThe radi ati on of energy
equal l y i n al l di recti ons.
L E AKAGE CU RRE NTTh e s ma l l a mou n t of
current that fl ows between the conductors of a
transmi ssi on l i ne through the di el ectri c.
LOAD ENDSee OUTPUT END.
LOAD I SOLATORA passi ve attenuator i n whi ch
the l oss i n one di recti on i s much greater than that
i n the opposi te di recti on. An exampl e i s a ferri te
i sol ator for wavegui des that al l ow energy to travel
i n onl y one di recti on.
LOADI NGSee LUMPED-I MPEDANCE TUNI NG.
LOBEAn area of a radi ati on pattern pl otted on a
pol ar-coordi nate graph that represents maxi mum
r adi ati on.
LONG-WI RE ANTENNAAn antenna that i s a
wavel ength or more l ong at i ts operati ng fre-
quency.
LONGI TUDI NAL WAVESWaves i n whi ch the
di sturbance (back and forth moti on) takes pl ace
i n the di recti on of propagati on. Someti mes cal l ed
compressi on waves.
LOOP(1) The curves of a standi ng wave or antenna
that represent ampl i tude of current or vol tage;
(2) A curved conductor that connects the ends
of a coaxi al cabl e or other transmi ssi on l i ne and
projects i nto a wavegui de or resonant cavi ty for
the purpose of i njecti ng or extracti ng energy.
LOWEST USABLE FREQUENCYThe mi ni mum
operati ng frequency that can be used for commu-
ni cati ons between two poi nts.
L U MPE D CON STAN TSTh e p r op e r t i e s of
i nductance, capaci tance, and r esi stance i n a
transmi ssi on l i ne.
L UMPED-I MPEDANCE TUNI NGTh e i n s er -
ti on of an i nductor or capaci tor i n seri es wi th an
antenna to l engthen or shor ten the antenna
el ectr i cal l y. Al so known as LOADI NG.
LOOSE COUPLI NGI neffi ci ent coupl i ng of energy
from one ci rcui t to another that i s desi rabl e i n
some appl i cati ons. Al so cal l ed weak coupl i ng.
AI-5
MAGI C-T J UNCTI ONA combi n ati on of th e
H-type and E-type T-juncti ons.
MAGNETI C FI ELDSee H-FI ELD.
MAJOR LOBEThe l obe i n whi ch the gr eatest
amount of radi ati on occurs.
MARCONI ANTENNAA quar ter -wave antenna
ori ented perpendi cul ar to the earth and operated
wi th one end gr ounded. Al s o k n own as
QUARTER-WAVE ANTENNA.
MAXI MUM USABLE FREQUENCYMaxi mum
frequency that can be used for communi cati ons
between two l ocati ons for a gi ven ti me of day
and a gi ven angl e of i nci dence.
MEDI UMThe substance thr ough whi ch a wave
travel s from one poi nt to the next. Ai r, water,
wood, etc., are exampl es of a medi um.
METALLI C I NSULATORA shorted quarter-wave
secti on of transmi ssi on l i ne.
MI CROWAVE RE GI ONTh e p or ti on of th e
el ectromagneti c spectrum from 1,000 megahertz
to 100,000 megahertz.
MI NOR LOBEThe l obe i n whi ch the r adi ati on
i ntensi ty i s l ess than a major l obe.
MULTI ELEMENT ARRAYAn ar r ay consi sti ng
of one or mor e ar r ays and cl assi fi ed as to
di recti vi ty.
MULTI ELEMENT PARASI TI C ARRAYAn ar r ay
that contai ns two or more parasi ti c el ements and
a dri ven el ement.
MULTI PATHThe mul ti pl e paths a radi o wave may
fol l ow between transmi tter and recei ver.
NEGATI VE ALTERNATI ONThe por ti on of a
si ne wave bel ow the reference l i ne.
NODEThe fi xed mi ni mum poi nts of vol tage or
current on a standi ng wave or antenna.
NONDI RECTI ONALSee OMNI DI RECTI ONAL,
NONRESONANT LI NEA tr ansmi ssi on l i ne that
has no standi ng waves of current or vol tage.
NORMALThe i magi nary l i ne perpendi cul ar to the
poi nt at whi ch the i nci dent wave stri kes the
refl ecti ng surface. Al so cal l ed the perpendi cul ar.
NULLOn a pol ar-coordi nate graph, the area that
represents mi ni mum or 0 radi ati on.
OMNI DI RECTI ONALTr ansmi tti ng i n al l di r ec-
ti ons. Al so known as NONDI RECTI ONAL.
OPEN-ENDED LI NEA transmi ssi on l i ne that has
an i nfi ni tel y l arge termi nati ng i mpedance.
OPTI MUM WORKI NG FREQUENCYThe most
practi cal operati ng frequency that can be used
wi th the l east amount of probl ems; roughl y 85
percent of the maxi mum usabl e frequency.
ORI GI NThe poi nt on a graph where the verti cal
and hori zontal axes cross each other.
OUTPUT ENDThe end of a transmi ssi on l i ne that
i s opposi te the source. Al so known as RECEI V-
I NG END.
OUTPUT I MPEDANCEThe i mpedance presented
to the l oad by the transmi ssi on l i ne and i ts source.
PARALLEL RESONANT CI RCUI TA ci rcui t that
acts as a hi gh i mpedance at resonance.
PARALLEL-WI REA type of tr ansmi ssi on l i ne
consi sti ng of two paral l el wi res.
PARASI TI C ARRAYAn ar r ay that has one or
more parasi ti c el ements.
PARASI TI C ELEMENTThe passi ve el ement of
an antenna array that i s connected to nei ther the
transmi ssi on l i ne nor the dri ven el ement.
PERI ODThe amount of ti me requi red for compl e-
ti on of one ful l cycl e.
AI-6
PHASE SHI FTERA devi ce used to change the
phase rel ati onshi p between two ac si gnal s.
PLANE OF POLARI ZATI ONThe pl ane (ver ti cal
or hori zontal ) wi th respect to the earth i n whi ch
the E-fi el d propagates.
POSI TI VE AL TERNATI ONTh e por ti on of a
si ne wave above the reference l i ne.
POWER GAI NThe r ati o of the r adi ated power
of an antenna compared to the output power of
a standard antenna. A measur e of antenna
effi ci ency usual l y expr essed i n deci bel s. Al so
referred to as POWER RATI O.
POWER LOSSThe heat l oss i n
current fl ows through i t.
a conductor as
POWER RATI OSee POWER GAI N.
P O W E R S T A N D I N G W A V E R A T I O
(PSWR)The rati o of the square of the maxi -
mum and mi ni mum vol tages of a transmi ssi on
l i ne.
PROPAGATI ONWa v es tr a v el i n g th r ou gh a
medi um.
PROBEA metal r od that pr ojects i nto, but i s
i nsul ated from, a wavegui de or resonant cavi ty
and used to i nject or extract energy.
QUARTER-WAVE ANTENNASee MARCONI
ANTENNA.
RADI ATI ON FI ELDThe el ectromagneti c fi el d that
detaches i tsel f fr om an antenna and tr avel s
through space.
RADI ATI ON LOSSESThe l osses that occur when
magneti c l i nes of force about a conductor are
projected i nto space as radi ati on and are not
returned to the conductor as the cycl e al ternates.
RADI ATI ON PATTERNA pl ot of the r adi ated
energy from an antenna.
RADI ATI ON RESI STANCEThe resi stance, whi ch
i f i nserted i n pl ace of an antenna, woul d consume
the same amount of power as that radi ated by
the antenna.
RADI O FREQUENCI ESEl ectromagneti c frequen-
ci es that fal l between 3 ki l oher tz and 300
gi gahertz and are used for radi o communi cati ons.
RADI O HORI ZONTh e bou n dar y bey on d th e
natural hori zon i n whi ch radi o waves cannot be
propagated over the earths surface.
RADI O WAVE(1) A form of radi ant energy that
can nei ther be seen nor fel t; (2) An el ectromag-
neti c wave generated by a transmi tter.
RAREFI ED WAVEA l ongi tudi nal wave that has
been expanded or r ar efi ed (made l ess dense) as
i t moves away from the source.
RECEI VERThe object that responds to a wave or
di sturbance. Same as detector.
RECEI VI NG ANTENNAThe devi ce used to pi ck
up an rf si gnal from space.
RECEI VI NG ENDSee OUTPUT END.
RECI PROCI TYThe abi l i ty of an antenna to both
transmi t and recei ve el ectromagneti c energy wi th
equal effi ci ency.
REFLECTED WAVE(1) The wave that r efl ects
back from a medi um; (2) Waves travel i ng from
the l oad back to the generator on a transmi ssi on
l i ne; (3) The wave movi ng back to the sendi ng
end of a transmi ssi on l i ne after refl ecti on has
occur r ed.
REFLECTI ON WAVESWaves that ar e nei ther
transmi tted nor absorbed, but are refl ected from
the surface of the medi um they encounter.
AI-7
REFLECTORThe par asi ti c el ement of an ar r ay
that causes maxi mum ener gy r adi ati on i n a
di recti on toward the dri ven el ement.
REFRACTI ONThe changi ng of di recti on as a wave
l eaves one medi um and enters another medi um
of a di fferent densi ty.
REFRACTI VE I NDEXThe r ati o of the phase
vel oci ty of a wave i n free space to the phase
vel oci ty of the wave i n a gi ven substance
(di el ectr i c).
RERADI ATI ONThe recepti on and retransmi ssi on
of r adi o waves caused by tur bul ence i n the
troposphere.
RESONANCEThe condi ti on pr oduced when the
frequency of vi brati ons are the same as the natural
frequency (of a cavi ty), The vi brati ons rei nforce
each other.
RESONANT LI NEA tr ansmi ssi on l i ne that has
standi ng waves of current and vol tage.
RHOMBI C ANTENNAA di amond-shaped antenna
used wi del y for l ong-di stance, hi gh-frequency
transmi ssi on and recepti on.
RI GI D COAXI AL LI NEA coxi al l i ne consi st-
i ng of a central , i nsul ated wi re (i nner conductor)
mounted i nsi de a tubul ar outer conductor.
ROTATI NG JOI NTA joi nt that permi ts one sec-
ti on of a transmi ssi on l i ne or wavegui de to rotate
conti nuousl y wi th respect to another whi l e passi ng
energy through the joi nt. Al so cal l ed a rotary
coupl er.
SCATTE R ANGL E Th e a n gl e a t wh i ch th e
recei vi ng antenna must be ai med to capture the
scattered energy of tropospheri c scatter.
SELF-I NDUCTI ONThe phenomenon caused by
the expandi ng and col l apsi ng fi el ds of an el ectron
that enci rcl es other el ectrons and retards the
movement of the enci rcl ed el ectrons.
SERI ES RESONANT CI RCUI TA ci r cui t that
acts as a l ow i mpedance at resonance.
SHI ELDED PAI RA l i ne consi sti ng of par al l el
conductor s separ ated fr om each other and
surrounded by a sol i d di el ectri c.
SHORT-CI RCUI TED LI NEA tr ansmi ssi on l i ne
that has a termi nati ng i mpedance equal to 0.
SKI N EFFECTThe tendency for al ternati ng current
to concentrate i n the surface l ayer of a conductor.
The effect i ncreases wi th frequency and serves
to i ncrease the effecti ve resi stance of the conduc-
tor .
SKI P DI STANCEThe di stance from a transmi tter
to the poi nt where the sky wave i s fi rst returned
to earth.
SKI P ZONEA zone of si l ence between the poi nt
where the ground wave becomes too weak for
recepti on and the poi nt where the sky wave i s
fi rst returned to earth.
SKY WAVESRadi o waves refl ected back to earth
from the i onosphere.
SLOTNarrow openi ng i n a wavegui de wal l used
to coupl e energy i n or out of the wavegui de. Al so
cal l ed an APERTURE or a WI NDOW.
SOURCE(1) The object that pr oduces waves or
di sturbance; (2) The name gi ven to the end of
a two-wi re transmi ssi on l i ne that i s connected
to a source.
SPACE DI VERSI TYRecepti on of radi o waves by
two or more antennas spaced some di stance apart,
SPACE WAVEA radi o wave that travel s di rectl y
from the transmi tter to the recei ver and remai ns
i n the troposphere.
SPECTRUM(1) The enti re range of el ectromagneti c
waves; (2) VI SI BLE. The range of el ectromag-
neti c waves that sti mul ate the sense of si ght;
AI-8
(3) ELECTROMAGNETI C. The enti r e r ange of
el ectr omagneti c waves ar r anged i n or der of thei r
frequenci es.
SPORADI C E LAYERI rregul ar cl oud-l i ke patches
of unusual l y hi gh i oni zati on. Often for ms at
hei ghts near the normal E-l ayer.
SPREADERI nsul ator used wi th transmi ssi on l i nes
and antennas to keep the paral l el wi res separated.
STANDI NG WAVEThe di stri buti on of vol tage and
current formed by the i nci dent and refl ected
waves, whi ch have mi ni mum and maxi mum
poi nts on a resul tant wave that appears to stand
sti l l .
STANDI NG-WAVE RATI O (SWR)The r ati o of
the maxi mum to the mi ni mum ampl i tudes of
correspondi ng components of a fi el d, vol tage,
or current al ong a transmi ssi on l i ne or wavegui de
i n the di recti on of propagati on measured at a
gi ven frequency. Measures the perfecti on of the
termi nati on of the l i ne.
STRATOSPHERELocated between the troposphere
and the i onosphere. Has l i ttl e effect on radi o
waves.
STUBShort secti on of a transmi ssi on l i ne used to
match the i mpedance of a transmi ssi on l i ne to
an antenna. Can al so be used to produce desi red
phase rel ati onshi ps between connected el ements
of an antenna.
SUDDEN I ONOSPHERI C DI STURBANCEAn
i rregul ar i onospheri c di sturbance that can total l y
bl ank out hf radi o communi cati ons.
SURFACE WAVEA radi o wave that travel s al ong
the contours of the earth, thereby bei ng hi ghl y
attenuated.
TEMPERATURE I NVERSI ONThe condi ti on i n
whi ch warm ai r i s formed above a l ayer of cool
ai r that i s near the earths surface.
THREE-ELEMENT ARRAYAn ar r ay wi th two
parasi ti c el ements (refl ector and di rector) and a
dri ven el ement.
TRANSMI SSI ON LI NEA devi ce desi gned to gui de
el ectri cal energy from one poi nt to another.
TRANSMI TTI NG ANTENNAThe devi ce used
to send the transmi tted si gnal energy i nto space.
TRANSMI SSI ON MEDI UMSThe var i ous types
of l i nes and wavegui des used as transmi ssi on
l i nes.
TRANSMI TTER ENDSee I NPUT END.
TRANSVERSE WAVE MOTI ONTh e u p an d
down moti on of a wave as the wave moves
outward.
TRANSVERSE EL ECTRI C MODETh e en ti r e
el ectri c fi el d i n a wavegui de i s perpendi cul ar to
the wi de di mensi on and the magneti c fi el d i s
paral l el to the l ength. Al so cal l ed the TE mode.
TRANSVERSE MAGNETI C MODEThe enti r e
magneti c fi el d i n a wavegui de i s perpendi cul ar
to the wi de di mensi on (a wal l ) and some porti on
of the el ectri c fi el d i s paral l el to the l ength. Al so
cal l ed the TM mode.
TROPOSPHEREThe por ti on of the atmospher e
cl osest to the earths surface, where al l weather
phenomena take pl ace.
TROPOSPHERI C SCATTERTh e pr opagati on
of radi o waves i n the troposphere by means of
scatter.
TROUGH (BOTTOM)The peak of the negati ve
al ternati on (maxi mum val ue bel ow the l i ne).
TUNED LI NEAnother name for the resonant l i ne.
Thi s l i ne uses tuni ng devi ces to el i mi nate the
reactance and to transfer maxi mum power from
the source to the l i ne.
TURNSTI LE ANTENNAA type of antenna used
i n vhf communi cati ons that i s omni di recti onal
AI-9
and consi sts of two hori zontal hal f-wave antennas
mounted at ri ght angl es to each other i n the same
hori zontal pl ane.
TWI STED PAI RA l i ne consi sti ng of two i nsul ated
wi res twi sted together to form a fl exi bl e l i ne
wi thout the use of spacers.
TWO-WI RE OPEN LI NEA paral l el l i ne consi sti ng
of two wi res that are general l y spaced from 2
to 6 i nches apart by i nsul ati ng spacers.
TWO-WI RE RI BBON (TWI N LEAD)A par al l el
l i ne si mi l ar to a two-wi re open l i ne except that
uni form spaci ng i s assured by embeddi ng the two
wi res i n a l ow-l oss di el ectri c.
UNI DI RECTI ONAL ARRAYAn array that radi ates
i n onl y one general di recti on.
UNTUNED LI NEAnother name for the fl at or
nonresonant l i ne.
V ANTENNAA bi di recti onal antenna, shaped l i ke
a V, whi ch i s wi del y used for communi cati ons.
VELOCI TYThe rate at whi ch a di sturbance travel s
through a medi um.
VERTI CAL AXI SOn a graph, the strai ght l i ne axi s
ori ented from bottom to top.
VERTI CAL PATTERNThe par t of a r adi ati on
pattern that i s radi ated i n the verti cal pl ane.
VERTI CAL PLANEAn i magi nar y pl ane that i s
perpendi cul ar to the hori zontal pl ane.
VERTI CALLY POLARI ZEDWaves radi ated wi th
the E-fi el d component perpendi cul ar to the earths
surface.
VOL TAGE -FE E D ME TH ODSee E ND-FE E D
METHOD.
V O L TA G E S TA N D I N G - WA V E R A TI O
(VSWR)The rati o of maxi mum to mi ni mum
vol tage of a transmi ssi on l i ne.
WAVE ANTENNASee BEVERAGE ANTENNA.
WAVE MOTI ONA recurri ng di sturbance advanc-
i ng through space wi th or wi thout the use of a
physi cal medi um.
WAVE TRAI NA conti nuous seri es of waves wi th
the same ampl i tude and wavel ength.
WAVEFRONTA smal l secti on of an expandi ng
sphere of el ectromagneti c radi ati on, perpendi cul ar
to the di recti on of travel of the energy.
WAVEGUI DEA rectangul ar, ci rcul ar, or el l i pti cal
metal pi pe desi gned to transport el ectro-magneti c
waves through i ts i nteri or.
WA V E G U I DE MODE OF OPE R A TI ON
Parti cul ar fi el d confi gurati on i n a wavegui de that
sati sfi es the boundary condi ti ons. Usual l y di vi ded
i nto two broad types: the transverse el ectri c (TE)
and the transverse magneti c (TM).
WAVEGUI DE POSTSA rod of conducti ve materi al
u s ed a s i mp ed a n ce-ch a n gi n g d ev i ces i n
wavegui des.
WAVEGUI DE SCREWA screw that projects i nto
a wavegui de for the purpose of changi ng the
i mpedance.
WAVELENGTH(1) The di stance i n space occupi ed
by 1 cycl e of a radi o wave at any gi ven i nstant;
(2) The di stance a di sturbance travel s duri ng one
peri od of vi brati on.
WI NDOWSee Sl ot.
YAGI ANTENNAA mul ti el ement parasi ti c array.
El ements l i e i n the same pl ane as those of the
end-fi re array.
AI-10
APPENDIX II
REFERENCES USED TO DEVELOP THIS TRAMAN
Shi pboard Antenna Systems, Vol 1, Communications Antenna Fundamentals, NAVSEA 0967-LP-177-3010, Naval Sea
Systems Command, Washi ngton, DC, 1972.
Shi pboard Antenna Systems, Vol 2, I nstatallation Details Communications Antenna Systems, NAVSEA
0967-LP-177-3020, Naval Sea Systems Command, Washi ngton, DC, 1973.
Shi pboard Antenna Systems, Vol 3, Antenna Couplers Communications Antenna Systems, NAVSEA
0967-LP-177-3030, Naval Sea Systems Command, Washi ngton, DC, 1973.
Shi pboard Antenna Systems, Vol 4, Testing and Maintenance Communications Antenna Systems, NAVSEA
0967-LP-177-3040, Naval Sea Systems Command, Washi ngton, DC, 1972.
Navy El ectri ci ty and El ectroni cs Trai ni ng Seri es, Modul e 10, I ntroduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines,
and Antennas, NAVEDTRA B72-10-00-93, Naval Educati on and Trai ni ng Program Management Support
Acti vi ty, Pensacol a FL, 1993.
Navy El ectri ci ty and El ectroni cs Trai ni ng Seri es, Modul e 11, Microwave Principles, NAVEDTRA 172-11-00-87,
Naval Educati on and Trai ni ng Program Management Support Acti vi ty, Pensacol a FL, 1987.
Navy UHF Satel l i te Communi cati on System Descri pti on, FSCS-200-83-1, Naval Ocean Systems Center, San Di ego,
CA, 1991.
AII-1
INDEX
A
Antennas/antenna radi ati on
ani sotropi c radi ati on, 2-4
characteri sti cs, 2-1
counterpoi se, 2-5, 2-6
di recti vi ty, 2-1
gai n, 2-2
ground screen, 2-5, 2-6
Hertz antennas, 2-1
i sotropi c radi ati on, 2-4
l oadi ng, 2-4
l obe, 2-4
l oop, 2-3
l ow probabi l i ty of i ntercept (LPI ), 2-19
l umped-i mpedance tuni ng, 2-5
major l obe, 2-4
Marconi antennas, 2-1
mi nor l obe, 2-4
node, 2-3, 3-9
peri od, 2-3
pol ari zati on, 2-2
reci proci ty, 2-1
standi ng wave, 2-3
wavel ength, 2-3
Atmosphere, 1-1
i onosphere, 1-1
stratosphere, 1-1
temperature i nversi on, 1-12
troposphere, 1-1
weather, 1-12
l og-per i odi c (LPA), 2-8, 2-16
l ong-wi re, 2-11
l ow frequency (l f), 2-7
NORD, 2-9
pan pol ar, 2-8
parasi ti c array, 2-7
quadrant, 2-11, 2-13
rhombi c, 2-11, 2-12
rotatabl e LPA (RLPA), 2-10
sector l og-peri odi c array, 2-10
Tri deco, 2-7
tuni ng system, 2-13
ul tra hi gh frequency (uhf), 2-14
verti cal monopol e LPA, 2-8, 2-9
very hi gh frequency (vhf), 2-14
very l ow frequency (vl f), 2-6
whi p, 2-13, 2-14
wi re rope fan, 2-14
Yagi , 2-7, 2-9
Coupl er groups, 2-21 to 23
coupl er gr oup AN/SRA-33, 2-22
coupl er gr oup AN/SRA-39, 2-23
coupl er gr oup AN/SRA-40, 2-23
coupl er gr oup AN/SRA-49, 2-23
coupl er gr oup AN/SRA-49A, 2-23
coupl er gr oup AN/SRA-50, 2-23
coupl er gr oup AN/SRA-56, 2-21, 2-22
coupl er gr oup AN/SRA-57, 2-21, 2-22
coupl er gr oup AN/SRA-58, 2-21, 2-22
coupl er gr oup AN/URA-38, 2-21, 2-23
mul ti coupl er (r ecei ve fi l ter ) AN/SR4-12, 2-23
mul ti coupl er OA-9123/SRC, 2-22
C
I
Communi cati ons antennas, 2-6
bi coni cal di pol e, 2-15
boom, 2-10
center-fed di pol e, 2-16
coaxi al di pol e, 2-16, 2-17
coni cal monopol e, 2-11
di scage, 2-14, 2-15
Gol i ath, 2-7
ground pl ane, 2-10, 2-13
hi gh frequency (hf), 2-7
i nverted cone, 2-10, 2-11
I onosphere, 1-1
D l ayer, 1-3
E l ayer, 1-4
F/F1/F2 l ayer, 1-4
i oni zati on 1-2
i oni zed l ayers, 1-2, 1-3
i onospheri c storms, 1-11
i ons, 1-2
regul ar vari ati ons, 1-1
seasonal vari ati ons, 1-10
INDEX-1
sol ar fl are, 1-4
sporadi c E, 1-4, 1-11
sudden i onospheri c di sturbances (SI D), 1-11
sunspot acti vi ty. 1-4, 1-10
sunspots cycl es, 1-11
M
Matchi ng networks, 2-20
antenna coupl ers, 2-21
antenna tuners, 2-20
antenna tuni ng, 2-21
recei ve di stri buti on system, 2-22
P
Propagati on, 1-4
angl e of i nci dence 1-6, 3-14
angl e of refl ecti on 3-14
cri ti cal angl e, 1-6
cri ti cal frequency, 1-5, 1-11
escape poi nt, 1-5
fadi ng, 1-7
frequency di versi ty. 1-8
l ayer densi ty, 1-5
mul ti path fadi ng, 1-8
refl ecti on, 1-7
refracti on, 1-4
sel ecti ve fadi ng, 1-8
ski p di stance, 1-7
ski p zone, 1-7
sky wave, 1-7
space di versi ty, 1-8
R
Radar antennas, 2-23
AN/GPN-27 (ASR-8), 2-26
AN/SPN-35A, 2-29
AS-1292/TPN-8, 2-29
AS-32631SPS-49(V), 2-27
azi muth pul se generator (APG), 2-27
broadsi de array, 2-25
carri er-control l ed approach (CCA), 2-29
corner refl ector, 2-24, 2-25
cyl i ndri cal parabol oi d, 2-24, 2-25
feedhorn, 2-26
focal poi nt, 2-23
hei ght-fi ndi ng, 2-25
horn radi ator, 2-25, 2-26
OE-172/SPS-55, 2-28
orange-peel parabol oi d, 2-24, 2-25
parabol i c refl ector, 2-23
parabol oi d, 2-24
truncated parabol oi d, 2-24
AS-1669/SPN-35, 2-29, 2-30
RF safety, 2-30
di el ectri c heati ng, 2-30
radi ati on warni ng si gns, 2-31
rf burns, 2-30
worki ng al oft, 2-32
S
Satel l i te communi cati ons antennas, 2-16
AN/WSC-6(V), 2-19, 2-20
Andr ew 58622, 2-19
AS-2815/SRR-1, 2-16, 2-17
backpl ane, 2-17, 2-19
OE-82A/WSC-1(V), 2-17, 2-19
OE-82B/WSC-1(V), 2-16, 2-18
0E-82C/WSC-1(V), 2-16, 2-18
T
Transmi ssi on, 1-12
absorpti on, 1-14
freespace l osses, 1-13
frequency sel ecti on, 1-13
ground refl ecti on l osses, 1-13
l owest usabl e frequency (l uf), 1-13
maxi mum usabl e frequency (muf), 1-13
opti mum worki ng frequency (fot), 1-14
pl ane wavefront, 2-23
wavefront, 1-13, 2-2, 2-23, 3-14
Transmi ssi on l i ne, 3-1
ac, 3-5
capaci tance, 3-1, 3-2
characteri sti c i mpedance (Z
0
), 3-3
coaxi al l i ne (fl exi bl e/ri gi d), 3-6, 3-7
conductance (G), 3-1, 3-2
copper l osses (I
2
R), 3-3, 3-9
current standi ng-wave rati o (i swr), 3-6
dc, 3-4, 3-5
di el ectri c l osses, 3-3, 3-4, 3-9
di stri buted constants, 3-1
INDEX-2
el ectri c (E) fi el d, 3-3, 3-12
el ectromagneti c fi el ds, 3-3
i nci dent wave, 3-5
i nductance, 3-1, 3-2
i nducti on l osses, 3-3, 3-4
i nput i mpedance (Z
i n
), 3-3
l eakage current, 3-2
l i ne l osses, 3-3
l umped constants, 3-1
magneti c (H) fi el d, 3-3, 3-12
output i mpedance (Z
out
), 3-3
paral l el l i ne, 3-6
power l oss, 3-3
power standi ng-wave rati o (pswr), 3-6
radi ati on l osses, 3-3, 3-4
refl ected wave, 3-5
resi stance, 3-1
sel f-i nducti on, 3-4
shi el ded pai r, 3-6, 3-7
ski n effect, 3-4, 3-9
standi ng-wave rati o (SWR), 3-5
twi sted pai r, 3-6, 3-7
two-wi re, 3-1
two-wi re open l i ne, 3-6
two-wi re ri bbon l i ne, 3-7
vol tage standi ng-wave rati o, (vswr), 3-6
wavegui des, 3-6
W
Wavegui de i nput/output, 3-18
apertures, 3-18, 3-19
bi di recti onal coupl er, 3-25, 3-26
cavi ty resonators, 3-25, 3-26, 3-27
di recti onal coupl er, 3-25, 3-26
dummy l oad, 3-21
dupl exer, 3-31
horn, 3-21
hybri d juncti ons, 3-25, 3-28, 3-30
hybri d ri ng, 3-28, 3-31, 3-32
i mpedance matchi ng, 3-19
i ri s, 3-20
juncti ons, 3-27
l oop, 3-19
magi c-T, 3-28, 3-30
posts, 3-20
probes, 3-18
resi sti ve l oad, 3-21, 3-22
screws, 3-21
sl ots, 3-18, 3-19
T juncti on (E and H type), 3-28, 3-29
termi nati ons, 3-20
wi ndows, 3-18
Wavegui des, 3-6
a di mensi on, 3-12
b di mensi on, 3-12
angl e of i nci dence 3-14, 3-15
angl e of refl ecti on 3-14, 3-15
arci ng, 3-10
bends, 3-22
boundary condi ti ons, 3-13
choke joi nt, 3-23, 3-24
ci rcul ar, 3-16
cutoff frequency, 3-12, 3-15
domi nant mode, 3-16
E bend, 3-22
el ectrol ysi s, 3-24
group vel oci ty, 3-15
H bend, 3-22
joi nts, 3-23
metal l i c i nsul ator, 3-10, 3-11
mode numberi ng, 3-17
mode of operati on, 3-12, 3-15
pl umbi ng, 3-22
Poynti ng vector, 3-14
rotati ng joi nt, 3-23, 3-24
sharp bend, 3-23
si ze, 3-10
transverse el ectri c (TE), 3-17
transverse magneti c (TM), 3-17
twi st, 3-23
INDEX-3
Assignment Questions
Information: The text pages that you are to study are
provided at the beginning of the assignment questions.


ASSIGNMENT 1
Textbook Assignment: Wave Propagation, chapter 1, pages 1-1 through 1-14.
1-1.
1-2.
1-3.
1-4.
1-5.
Which of the following
can affect atmospheric
conditions?
1. Geographic height
factors
2. Geographic location
3. Changes in time
4. All of the above
In what portion of the
atmosphere does the majority
of weather phenomena take
place?
1. Ionosphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Troposphere
4. Hydrosphere
Because the stratosphere is a
relatively calm region with
little or no temperature
change, it will have almost no
effect on radio wave
propagation.
1. True
2. False
Variations in the ionosphere
resulting from changes in the
suns activity are known as
1. regular variations
2. irregular variations
3. both 1 and 2 above
4. seasons
The regular variations in the
ionosphere can be separated
into how many classes?
1. One
2. Two
3. Three
4. Four
1-6. In ionization, when an electron
is knocked free from a neutral
gas atom, what is the overall
charge of the atom?
1. Negative
2. Positive
3. Neutral
4. Inverted
1-7. The frequency of ultraviolet
light passing through the
atmosphere has what
relationship to the ionospheric
layer it ionizes?
1. It is inversely
proportional
2. It is directly proportional
3. It is inversely
proportional during the day
and directly proportional
at night
4. It is directly proportional
during the day and
inversely proportional at
night
1-8. What term best describes the
process that returns positive
ions to their original neutral
state?
1. Refraction
2. Recombination
3. Ionization
4. Polarization
1-9. At what approximate time of day
is the density of the
ionospheric layers at its
lowest level?
1. Just before sunrise
2. Mid-morning
3. Afternoon
4. Sunset
110. How many distinct layers make
up
1.
2.
3.
4.
the ionosphere?
One
Two
Three
Four
1
1-11. At what frequencies does the
combination of the earths
surface and the D layer act as
a waveguide?
1. Vlf
2. Lf
3. Mf
4. Hf
1-12. The D layer loses its
absorptive qualities at
frequencies above what level?
1. 30 MHz
2. 20 MHz
3. 10 MHz
4. 3 MHz
1-13. What is the approximate range
of the E layer above the
earths surface?
1. 3054 miles
2. 5590 miles
3. 91130 miles
4. 131160 miles
1-14. Frequencies above what level
pass through the E layer
unaffected?
1. 50 MHz
2. 100 MHz
3. 150 MHz
4. 200 MHz
1-15. During daylight hours, the F
layer will divide into how many
separate layers?
1. Five
2. Two
3. Three
4. Four
1-16. Most highfrequency, long-range
communications occur in what
layer(s) of the ionosphere?
1. D
2. E
3. F
4. H
1-17. Which of the following is NOT a
factor for radio wave
refraction?
1. Ionization density of the
layer
2. Frequency of the radio wave
3. Angle of incidence
4. Transmitter power
1-18. For any given ionized layer,
the critical frequency is just
below the escape point.
1. True
2. False
1-19. The critical angle for radio
wave propagation depends on
what two factors?
1. Angle of incidence and
layer density only
2. Layer density and
wavelength only
3. Angle of incidence and
wavelength only
4. Wavelength and antenna
height only
1-20. What term best describes the
area located between the
transmitting antenna and the
point where the sky wave first
returns to the earth?
1. Ground wave
2. Skip zone
3. Skip distance
4. Ace area
1-21. Which of the following factors
will affect the outer limits of
the skip zone?
1. Frequency
2. Sunspot activity
3. Angle of transmission
4. All of the above
1-22. Radio waves reflecting from the
earths surface or the
ionosphere, 180 degrees out of
phase, have what effect, if
any, at the receiving station?
1. The signal will be weak or
faded
2. The signal will be stronger
3. The signal will be garbled
4. None
2
1-23.
1-24.
1-25.
1-26.
1-27.
1-28.
For ionospheric reflection to
occur, the ionized layer must
not be thicker than how many
wavelengths of the transmitted
frequency?
1. One
2. Two
3. Three
4. Four
The ability of radio waves to
turn sharp corners and bend
around obstacles is known as
1. reflection
2. refraction
3. diffraction
4. waveshaping
Which of the following
definitions best describes a
shadow zone?
1. The area of complete
coverage at vlf frequencies
2. The area within the
diameter of an obstruction
3. The area ranging the height
of the obstruction
4. The area on the opposite
side of the obstruction, in
line-of-site from the
transmitter to the receiver
What type of fading occurs for
the longest amount of time?
1. Phase shift
2. Absorption
3. Multipath
4. Diffraction
Which of the following are
examples of multipath radio
wave transmissions?
1. Groundwaves
2. Ionospheric refractions
3. Reflection from the earths
surface
4. All of the above
Fading on the majority of the
ionospheric circuits is a
result of what particular type
of fading?
1. Selective
2. Absorption
3. Multipath
4. Weather
IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 1-29 AND 1-30,
SELECT FROM THE FOLLOWING LIST THE
DEFINITION OF THE INDICATED TERM.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Two or more receiving
antennas spaced apart to
produce a usable signal
Two or more receiving
antennas of varying heights
located together
The use of two separate
transmitters and receivers
on different frequencies
transmitting the same
information
The use of two separate
transmitters and receivers
on the same frequency
transmitting the same
information
1-29. Space diversity.
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
1-30. Frequency diversity.
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
1-31. A wide band of frequencies is
transmitted and selective
fading occurs. Which of the
following statements best
describes the effect of the
fading on the signal?
1. It affects various
frequencies
2. It can cause changes in
phase and amplitude
3. It can cause severe
distortion and limit total
signal strength
4. All of the above
1-32. Which ionospheric layer is most
dense during the winter?
1. E
2. D
3. F2
4. F1
3
1-33. During the 27day sunspot
cycle, which ionospheric layer
experiences the greatest
fluctuations in density?
1. D
2. E
3. F1
4. F2
IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 134 THROUGH
1-38, SELECT FROM THE FOLLOWING LIST
THE DEFINITION OF THE INDICATED TERM.
A. Depends on the angle of the
sun; refracts hf waves
during the day, up to 20
MHz, to distances of 1200
miles; greatly reduced at
night
B. Reflects vlf waves for
longrange communications;
refracts lf and mf for
shortrange communications;
has little effect on vhf
and above; gone at night
C. Density depends on the
angle of the sun; its main
effect is absorption of hf
waves passing through to
the F2 layer
D. Provides long-range hf
communications; very
variable; height and
density change with time of
day, season, and sunspot
activity
E. Structure and density
depend on the time of day
and the angle of the sun;
consists of one layer at
night and two layers during
the day
134. D layer.
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
1-35. E layer.
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. E
1-36. F layer.
1. B
2. C
3. D
4. E
1-37. F1 layer.
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
1-38. F2 layer.
1. A
2. C
3. D
4. E
1-39. During periods of maximum
sunspot activity within the
eleven-year cycle, critical
frequencies for all layers
increase.
1. True
2. False
1-40. Which of the following problems
is NOT a negative side effect
of the sporadic E layer?
1. Causes increased multipath
problems
2. Provides additional
absorption
3. Blanks out more favorable
layers
4. Increased static in line of
sight communications
1-41. When sudden ionospheric
disturbances (SID) occurs,
which ionospheric layer is
affected the most?
1. D
2. E
3. F1
4. F2
1-42. What effect do ionospheric
storms have on (a) the range of
frequencies and (b) the working
frequency used for
communications?
1. (a) Increase (b) increase
2. (a) Decrease (b) decrease
3. (a) Increase (b) decrease
4. (a) Decrease (b) increase
4
1-43.
1-44.
What form of precipitation has
the greatest absorption effect
on RF energy?
1. Fog
2. Snow
3. Rain
4. Hail
The duct effect produced by
temperature inversion allows
for long-distance
communications over what
frequency band?
1. Vlf
2. Lf
3. Hf
4. Vhf
1-45. Which of the following factors
affect(s) the amount of ground
reflection loss when a radio
wave is reflected from the
earths surface?
1. Angle of incidence
2. Ground irregularities
3. Electrical conductivity at
the point of reflection
4. All of the above
1-46. As an RF wave increases in
distance, the wavefront spreads
out, reducing the amount of
energy available within any
given unit of area. This
action produces what type of
energy loss?
1. Absorption
2. Ground reflection
3. Freespace
4. Spread
1-47. Radio waves above the MUF will
experience what effect when
refracted from the ionosphere?
1. They will fall short of the
desired location
2. They will overshoot the
desired location
3. They will be absorbed by
lower layers
4. They will experience
multipath fading
1-48. Variations in the ionosphere
may change a preexisting muf.
This is especially true because
of the volatility of which of
the following layers?
1. F1
2. F2
3. D
4. E
1-49. Radio waves that are propagated
below the LUF are affected by
what problem(s)?
1. Increased absorption
2. Higher levels of
atmospheric noise
3. Higher rate of refraction
4. All of the above
1-50. The frequency that will avoid
the problems of multipath
fading, absorption, noise, and
rapid changes in the ionosphere
is known by what term?
1. LUF
2. MUF
3. FOT
4. LOS
5
ASSIGNMENT 2
Textbook Assignment: Antennas, chapter 2, pages 2-1 through 232.
2-1.
2-2.
2-3.
2-4.
25.
2-6.
Electromagnetic radiation from
an antenna is made up of what
two components?
1. E and H fields
2. Ground and sky waves
3. Vertical and horizontal
wavefronts
4. Reflected and refracted
energy
What determines the size of a
transmitting antenna?
1. Transmitter power
2. Available space
3. Operating frequency
4. Distance to be
transmitted
Most practical transmitting
antennas are divided into two
classifications, Hertz and
Marconi.
1. T
2. F
Hertz antennas are designed to
operate at what wavelength in
relationship to their
operating frequency?
1. Quarterwave
2. Halfwave
3. Three quarterwave
4. Full-wave
Marconi antennas are used for
operating frequencies below
what level?
1. 10 MHz
2. 6 MHz
3. 4 MHz
4. 2 MHz
All antennas regardless of
their shape or size have how
many basic characteristics?
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
2-7. The ability to use the same
antenna for both transmitting
and receiving is known by what
term?
1.
2.
3.
4.
2-8. The
Gain
Reciprocity
Directivity
Polarization
ability of an antenna or
2-9.
2-10.
2-11.
array to focus energy in one
or more specific directions is
represented by a measurement
of what antenna property?
1. Signal Strength
2. Reciprocity
3. Directivity
4. Polarization
The gain of a transmitting
antenna is 9 dB, what will the
gain be for the same antenna
used for receiving?
1. 9 dB
2. 6 dB
3. 4 dB
4. 3 dB
Which, if any, of the
following components of a
radiated electromagnetic field
determines its direction of
polarization?
1. H lines
2. E lines
3. Angle of Propagation
4. None of the above
Over long distances the
polarization of a radiated
wave changes, at what
frequencies will this change
be the most dramatic?
1. VLF
2. LF
3. MF
4. HF
6
2-12. A transmitting antenna at 2-18. An antenna that radiates
ground level should be energy more strongly in one
polarized in what manner to direction than another is said
achieve best signal strength? to have what type of radiation
pattern?
1. Horizontally
2. Vertically 1. Isotropic
3. Circularly 2. Anisotropic
4. Linearly 3. Bysotropic
4. Circumstropic
2-13. What term describes the
distance a wave travels during
the
1.
2.
3.
4.
period of one cycle?
Wavelength
Frequency
Travel time
Radiation rate
IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 2-14 AND 2-15,
REFER TO FIGURE 24 OF THE TEXT.
2-14. The points of high current and
voltage are best described by
which of the following terms?
1. Peaks
2. Crescents
3. Loops
4. Highs
2-15. The points of minimum voltage
and minimum current are
represented by which of the
following terms?
1. Lows
2. Valleys
3. Descents
4. Nodes
2-16. An antenna at resonance will
transmit at maximum
efficiency; an antenna that is
not at resonance will lose
power in which of the
following ways?
1. Skin effect loss
2. Heat loss
3. Ground absorption
4. Wave scattering
2-17. An antenna that radiates
energy in all directions is
said to have what type of
radiation pattern?
1. Isotropic
2. Anisotropic
3. Bysotropic
4. Circumstropic
2-19. When viewing a radiation
pattern graph, you can expect
the areas of maximum and
minimum radiation be
identified by which of the
following terms?
1. High and low probes
2. Maximum and minimum
points
3. Major and minor lobes
4. Positive and negative
lobes
2-20. If an antenna is too short for
the wavelength being used,
what electrical compensation
must be introduced for the
antenna to achieve resonance?
1. Lumped resistance
2. Lumped capacitive
reactance
3. Lumped inductive
reactance
4. More power
2-21. If an antenna is too long for
the wavelength being used,
what electrical compensation
must be introduced for the
antenna to achieve resonance?
1. Lumped resistance
2. Lumped capacitive
reactance
3. Lumped inductive
reactance
4. Less power
2-22. A ground screen is a series of
conductors buried 1 or 2 feet
below the surface in a radial
pattern and is usually of what
length in comparison to the
wavelength being used?
1. One-quarter wavelength
2. Onehalf wavelength
3. Three-quarter wavelength
4. Full wavelength
7
2-29. The most distinct advantage of 2-23. When would a counterpoise be
used?
1. When easy access to the
antenna base is necessary
2. When the surface below is
solid rock
3. When the surface below is
sandy ground
4. All the above
2-24. Capacitive top-loading helps
to increase which of the
following antenna
characteristics?
1. Bandwidth
2. Power-handling
3. Directivity
4. Radiation efficiency
2-25. What is the most limiting
characteristic of the Yagi
antenna?
1. Power-handling
2. Narrow bandwidth
3. Physical size
4. Lack of directivity
2-26. In general, log-periodic
antennas have which of the
following characteristics?
1. Medium power handling
capabilities
2. High gain
3. Extremely broad bandwidth
4. All the above
2-27. A typical vertical monopole
log periodic antenna designed
to cover a frequency range of
2 to 30 MHz will require
approximately how many acres
of land for its ground plane
system?
1. 1 acre
2. 2 acres
3. 3 acres
4. 4 acres
2-28. A sector logperiodic array
can act as an antenna for a
minimum of what number of
transmit or receive systems?
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
2-30.
231.
2-32.
2-33.
2-34.
the rotatable logperiodic
antenna is its ability to
perform what function?
1. Rotate 360 degrees
2. Rotate from horizontal to
vertical and back
3. Ability to handle high
transmitter power
4. Ability to produce high
antenna gain
What is the average power
handling capability of an
Inverted Cone antenna?
1. 20 kw
2. 30 kw
3. 40 kw
4. 50 kw
What determines the gain and
directivity of a Rhombic
antenna?
1. Transmitter power
2. Antenna height
3. Radiated wave interaction
4. Transmitted frequency
Most Whip antennas require
some kind of a tuning system
to improve bandwidth and power
handling capabilities.
1. T
2. F
Why are UHF and VHF antennas
on board ship installed as
high as possible?
1. To prevent radiation
hazard to personnel
2. To prevent radiation
hazard to ordinance
3. To increase power
handling capabilities
4. To prevent unwanted
directivity in the
radiation pattern from
mast structures
The central feed section for
both the biconical and center-
fed dipole are protected by
what type of covering?
1. SCOTCHCOAT
2. RTV
3. Laminated fiberglass
4. Rubber shield
8
2-35.
2-36.
2-37.
2-38.
2-39.
2-40.
The adjustable stub on the
AS-390/SRC uhf antenna is used
to adjust what antenna
characteristic?
1. The counterpoise angle
2. The input impedance
3. The radiation angle
4. The feed point
The OE-82B/WSC-I(V) antenna
group uses what type of
polarization?
1. Vertical
2. Horizontal
3. Righthand circular
4. Left-hand circular
The AN/WSC-5 (V) shore station
antenna consists of what
number of OE-82A/WSC-1 (V)
assemblies?
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
What does the acronym LPI
stand for?
1. Low power interference
2. Low probability of
intercept
3. Low phase intercept
4. Last pass intercept
The reflectors for the AN/WSC-
6 (V) are mounted on three-
axis pedestals and provide
auto tracking using what
scanning technique?
1. Conical
2. Peripheral
3. Vertical
4. Horizontal
Antenna tuning is accomplished
using what piece or pieces of
equipment?
1. Couplers
2. Tuners
3. Multicouplers
4. All the above
2-41.
2-42.
2-43.
2-44.
2-45.
2-46.
Antenna multicouplers are used
to match more than one
transmitter or receiver to
what number of antennas?
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
The AN/URA-38 antenna coupler
is an automatic tuning system
primarily used with which
radio transmitter?
1. AN/WSC-3
2. AN/URT23
3. AN/URC-80
4. AN/FRT-84
The AN/SRA-57 coupler group
operates in which of the
following frequency ranges?
1. 2 6 Mhz
2. 4-12 Mhz
3. 10-30 Mhz
4. 4060 Mhz
How many channels are provided
with the AN/SRA-12
multicoupler?
1. 4
2. 5
3. 6
4. 7
What type of radar would use a
truncated paraboloid reflector
that has been rotated 90
degrees?
1. A surface search
2. An air search
3. A navigation
4. A height-finder
Of the following methods,
which is NOT used to feed a
cylindrical paraboloid
reflector?
1. A linear array of dipoles
2. A slit in the side of a
waveguide
3. A thin waveguide radiator
4. A quarterwave stub
9
2-47. The elements of a broadside
array are spaced one-half
wavelength apart and are
spaced how many wavelengths
away from the reflector? 1.
1. Oneeighth
2. One-quarter
3. Onehalf
4. Three-quarter
2-48. What is the advantage, if any,
to offsetting a feedhorn
radiator for a parabolic dish?
1. A broader beam angle
2. The elimination of
shadows
3. A narrower beam angle
4. No advantage
2-49. What is the range in nautical
miles of the AN/GPN-27 radar?
1. 55
2. 75
3. 105
4. 155
2-50. What is the purpose of the
jackscrew on the
AS3263/SPS49(V) antenna?
1. To adjust the beam width
2. To vary the antenna feed
horn focal distance
3. To adjust the beam
elevation angle
4. To lockdown the antenna
for PM
2-51. The OE-172/SPS55 antenna
normally operates in the
linearly polarized mode, for
what reason would you use the
circular polarized mode?
2-52. Which of the following is NOT
a mode of operation for the
AN/SPN-35A radar set?
Final
2. Dual
3. Surveillance
4. Simultaneous
2-53. The two primary safety
concerns associated with rf
fields are rf burns and
injuries caused by dielectric
heating.
1. T
2. F
2-54. When a person is standing in
an rf field, power in excess
of what level will cause a
noticeable rise in body
temperature?
1. 5 milliwatts
2. 10 milliwatts
3. 15 milliwatts
4. 20 milliwatts
2-55. When working aloft, what
safety precaution(s) must be
followed?
1. Tag out the antenna at
the switchboard to
prevent it from becoming
operational
2. Secure motor safety
switches for rotating
antennas
3. Wear the proper oxygen
breathing apparatus when
working near a stack
4. All the above
1. To compensate for the
ships pitch and roll
2. To prevent jamming
3. To reduce return echoes
from precipitation
4. To achieve over the
horizon coverage
10
ASSIGNMENT 3
Textbook Assignment: Transmission Lines and Waveguides, chapter 3, pages 3-1
through 3-32.
3-1. A transmission line is designed
to perform which of the
following functions?
1. Disperse energy in all
directions
2. Detune a transmitter to
match the load
3. Guide electrical energy
from point to point
4. Replace the antenna in a
communications system
3-2. The conductance value of a
transmission line represents
which of the following values?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Expected value of current
flow through the insulation
Expected value of voltage
supplied by the transmitter
Value of the lump and
distributed constants of
the line divided by
impedance
Value of the lumped
constants of the line as
seen by the source and the
load
3-3. Distributed constants in a
transmission line are
distributed in which of the
following ways?
1. Between ground and any
single point on the line
2. Along the length of the
line
3. According to the thickness
of the line
4. According to the cross-
sectional area of the line
3-4. Leakage current in a twowire
transmission line is the
current that flows through what
component?
1. The resistor
2. The inductor
3. The insulator
3-5. Conductance is the reciprocal
of what electrical property?
1. Inductance
2. Resistance
3. Capacitance
4. Reciprocity
3-6. A transmission line that has
current flowing through it has
which of the following fields
about it?
1. Electric only
2. Magnetic only
3. Both electric and magnetic
4. Capacitive
3-7. A measurement of the voltage to
current ratio (E
in
/ I
out
) at the
input end of a transmission
line is called the
1. inputgain rate
2. voltagegain ratio
3. output impedance
4. input impedance
3-8. The characteristic impedance
(2.) of a transmission line is
calculated by using which of
the following ratios?
1. R
source
to R
load
of the line
2. I
max
to I
m i n
at every point
along the line
3. E to I at every point along
the line
4. E
in
to E
out
of the line
4. The conductor
11
3-9. Maximum transfer of energy from
the source to the transmission
line takes place when what
impedance relationship exists
between the source and the
transmission line?
1. When the load impedance
equals the source impedance
2. When the load impedance is
twice the source impedance
3. When the load impedance is
half the source impedance
4. When the load impedance is
one-fourth the source
impedance
3-10. Which of the following sets of
terms represents a type of loss
in a transmission line?
1. I
2
R and induction only
2. Induction and dielectric
only
3. Dielectric and radiation
only
4. I
2
R , induction, and
dielectric
3-11. Skin effect is classified as
which of the following types of
loss?
1. Copper
2. Voltage
3. Induction
4. Dielectric
3-12. What transmission-line loss is
caused by magnetic lines of
force not returning to the
conductor?
1. Copper
2. Radiation
3. Induction
4. Dielectric
3-13. When a dc voltage is applied to
a transmission line and the
load absorbs all the energy,
what is the resulting
relationship between current
and voltage?
1. They are in phase with each
other
2. They are equal to Z
O
of the
line
3. They are out of phase with
each other
4. They are evenly distributed
along the line
3-14. The initial waves that travel
from the generator to the load
of a transmission line are
referred to as what type of
waves?
1. Incident
2. Refracted
3. Reflected
4. Diffracted
3-15. Waves that travel from the
output end to the input end of
a transmission line are
referred to as what type of
waves?
1. Incident
2. Refracted
3. Reflected
4. Diffracted
3-16. The ratio of maximum voltage to
minimum voltage on a
transmission line is referred
to as the
1. rswr
2. pswr
3. vswr
4. iswr
3-17. Which of the following ratios
samples the magnetic field
along a line?
1. Vswr
2. Pswr
3. Iswr
4. Rswr
3-18. Which of the following lines is
NOT a transmission medium?
1. Load line
2. Coaxial line
3. Two-wire open line
4. Twisted-pair line
3-19. Electrical power lines are most
often made of which of the
following types of transmission
lines?
1. Twin-lead line
2. Shielded-pair line
3. Twowire open line
4. Twowire ribbon line
12
3-20. Uniform capacitance throughout
the length of the line is an
advantage of which of the
following transmission lines?
1. Coaxial line
2. Twisted pair
3. Shielded pair
4. Two-wire open line
3-21. What is the primary advantage
of a rigid coaxial line?
1. Low radiation losses
2. Inexpensive construction
3. Low highfrequency losses
4. Easy maintenance
3-22. The most efficient transfer of
electromagnetic energy can be
provided by which of the
following mediums?
1. Waveguides
2. Twinlead flat lines
3. Single-conductor lines
4. Coaxial transmission lines
3-23. Copper I
2
R losses are reduced
by what physical property of
waveguides?
1. Small surface area
2. Large surface area
3. Shape of the waveguides
4. Waveguide material being
used
3-24. In a coaxial line, the current-
carrying area of the inner
conductor is restricted to a
small surface layer because of
which of the following
properties?
1. Skin effect
2. Copper loss
3. Conductor density
4. Waveguide material being
used
3-25. Which of the following
dielectrics is used in
waveguides?
1. Air
2. Mica
3. Insulating oil
4. Insulating foam
3-26. Which of the following
characteristics of a waveguide
cause its lowerfrequency
limitation?
1. I
2
R loss
2. Physical size
3. Wall thickness
4. Dielectric loss
3-27. At very high frequencies,
ordinary insulators in a two-
wire transmission line display
the characteristics of what
electrical component?
1. An inductor
2. A resistor
3. A capacitor
4. A transformer
3-28. At high frequencies, which of
the following devices works
best as an insulator?
1. An open half-wave section
2. An open quarterwave
section
3. A shorted halfwave section
4. A shorted quarter-wave
section
3-29. The range of operating
frequencies is determined by
which of the following
waveguide dimensions?
1. The widest (height/width)
2. The narrowest (height/
width)
3. The shortest (length)
4. The longest (length)
330. The cutoff frequency for a
waveguide is controlled by the
physical dimensions of the
waveguide and is defined as the
frequency at which two quarter
wavelengths are
1. shorter than the a
dimension
2. shorter than the b
dimension
3. longer than the a
dimension
4. longer than the b
dimension
13
3-31. In practical applications,
which of the following
dimensions describes the wide
dimension of the waveguide at
the operating frequency?
1. 0.1 wavelength
2. 0.2 wavelength
3. 0.5 wavelength
4. 0.7 wavelength
3-32. Which of the following fields
is/are present in waveguides?
1. E field only
2. H field only
3. E and H fields
4. Stationary fields
3-33. A difference in potential
across a dielectric causes
which of the following fields
to develop?
1. Electric only
2. Magnetic only
3. Electromagnetic
3-34. H lines have which of the
following distinctive
characteristics?
1. They are continuous
straight lines
2. They are generated by
voltage
3. They form closed loops
4. They form only in the
waveguide
3-35. For an electric field to exist
at the surface of a conductor,
the field must have what
angular relationship to the
conductor?
1. 0
2. 30
3. 45
4. 90
3-36. If the wall of a waveguide is
perfectly flat, the angle of
reflection is equal to which of
the
1.
2.
3.
4.
following angles?
Cutoff
Incidence
Refraction
Penetration
3-37.
338.
3-39.
340.
3-41.
The cutoff frequency in a
waveguide occurs at exactly
what angle of reflection?
1. 10
2. 30
3. 45
4. 90
How does the group velocity of
an electromagnetic field in a
waveguide compare to the
velocity of a wavefront through
free space?
1. Group velocity is somewhat
faster
2. Group velocity is somewhat
slower
3. Group velocity is twice
that of free velocity
4. Free velocity is twice that
of group velocity
The group velocity of a
wavefront in a waveguide may be
increased by which of the
following actions?
1. Decreasing the frequency of
the input energy
2. Increasing the frequency of
the input energy
3. Increasing the power of the
input energy
4. Decreasing the power of the
input energy
The various field configura
tions that can exist in a
waveguide are referred to as
1.
2.
3.
4.
The
wavefronts
modes of operation
fields of operation
fields of distribution
most efficient transfer of
energy occurs in a waveguide in
what mode?
1. Sine
2. Dominant
3. Transverse
4. Timephase
14
3-42. How is the cutoff wavelength
for a circular waveguide
computed?
1. 1.17 times the radius of
the waveguide
2. 1.17 times the diameter of
the waveguide
3. 1.71 times the diameter of
the waveguide
4. 1.71 times the radius of
the waveguide
3-43. The field configuration in
waveguides is divided into what
two categories?
1. Half-sine and dominant
2. Transverse electric and
transverse magnetic
3. Transverse electric and
dominant
4. Transverse magnetic and
half-sine
3-44. With a mode description of
TE
1,0
, what maximum number of
half-wave patterns exist across
the a dimension of a
waveguide?
1. One
2. Two
3. Three
4. Four
345. With the mode description,
TE
1,1
, what maximum number of
half-wave patterns exist across
the diameter of a circular
waveguide?
1. One
2. Two
3. Three
4. Four
3-46. Which of the following devices
CANNOT be used to inject or
remove energy from a waveguide?
1. A slot
2. A loop
3. A probe
4. A horn
3-47. Loose coupling is a method used
to reduce the amount of energy
being transferred from a
waveguide. How is loose
coupling achieved when using a
probe?
1. By doubling the size of the
probe
2. By increasing the length of
the probe
3. By decreasing the length of
the probe
4. By placing the probe
directly in the center of
the energy field
3-48. Increasing the size of the loop
wire increases which of the
following loop capabilities?
1. Efficiency
2. Bandwidth coverage
3. Powerhandling capability
4. Each of the above
3-49. A waveguide that is not
perfectly impedance matched to
its load is not efficient.
Which of the following
conditions in a waveguide
causes this inefficiency?
1. Sine waves
2. Dominant waves
3. Standing waves
4. Transverse waves
3-50. A waveguide iris that covers
part of both the electric and
magnetic planes acts as what
type of equivalent circuit at
the resonant frequency?
1. As an inductive reactance
2. As a shunt resistance
3. As a capacitive reactance
4. As a shorted 1/4 wave stub
3-51. A horn can be used as a
waveguide termination device
because it provides which of
the following electrical
functions?
1. A reflective load
2. An absorptive load
3. An abrupt change in
impedance
4. A gradual change in
impedance
15
3-52. For a waveguide to be
terminated with a resistive
load, that load must be matched
to which of the following
properties of the waveguide?
1. The bandwidth
2. The frequency
3. The inductance
4. The characteristic
impedance
3-53. A resistive device with the
sole purpose of absorbing all
the energy in a waveguide
without causing reflections is
a/an
1. iris
2. horn
3. antenna
4. dummy load
3-54. A resistive load most often
dissipates energy in which of
the following forms?
1. Heat
2. Light
3. Magnetic
4. Electrical
3-55. Reflections will be caused by
an abrupt change in which of
the following waveguides
physical characteristics?
1. Size and shape only
2. Size and dielectric
material only
3. Dielectric material and
shape only
4. Size, shape, and dielectric
material
3-56. A waveguide bend that in the E
and H plane must be greater
than two wavelengths to prevent
1. cracking
2. reflections
3. energy gaps
4. electrolysis
3-57. A flexible waveguide is used in
short sections because of the
power-loss disadvantages. What
is the cause of this power
loss?
1. Walls are not smooth
2. E and H fields are not
perpendicular
3. Cannot be terminated in its
characteristic impedance
4. Wall size cannot be kept
consistent
3-58. The choke joint is used for
what purpose in a waveguide?
1. To reduce standing waves
2. To restrict the volume of
electron flow
3. To prevent the field from
rotating
4. To provide a joint that can
be disassembled during
maintenance
3-59. A circular waveguide is
normally used in a rotating
joint because rotating a
rectangular waveguide would
cause which of the following
unwanted conditions?
1. Oscillation
2. Large power loss
3. Decrease in bandwidth
4. Fieldpattern distortion
3-60. In your waveguide inspection,
you should be alert for which
of the following problems?
1. Corrosion
2. Damaged surfaces
3. Improperly sealed joints
4. Each of the above
361. What type of corrosion occurs
when dissimilar metals are in
contact with each other?
1. Contact
2. Metallic
3. Electrical
4. Electrolytic
16
362. Internal arcing in a waveguide
is usually a symptom of which
of the following conditions?
1. Change in mode
2. Electrolysis at a joint
3. Moisture in the waveguide
4. Gradual change in frequency
3-63. What is the primary purpose of
a directional coupler?
1. To sample the energy in a
waveguide
2. To change the phase of the
energy in the waveguide
3. To change the direction of
energy travel in the
waveguide
4. To allow energy in the
waveguide to travel in one
direction only
3-64. What is the electrical distance
between the two holes in a
simple directional coupler?
1. 1/8 wavelength
2. 1/4 wavelength
3. 1/2 wavelength
4. 3/4 wavelength
3-65. Of the following
characteristics, which is NOT
required for a device to be
considered a resonant cavity?
1. Be enclosed by conducting
walls
2. Possess resonant properties
3. Contain oscillating
electromagnetic fields
4. Be round or elliptical in
shape
3-66. What property gives a resonant
cavity a narrow bandpass and
allows very accurate tuning?
1. Low Q
2. High Q
3. Inductive reactance
4. Capacitive reactance
3-67. What factor(s) determine(s) the
primary frequency of a resonant
cavity?
3-68. Tuning is the process of
changing what property of a
resonant cavity?
1. The Q
2. The power
3. The cutoff frequency
4. The resonant frequency
3-69. What are the two basic types of
waveguide T junctions?
1. H and T
2. H and E
3. Hybrid Ring and magic T
4. Q and magic T
3-70. A waveguide junction in which
the arm area extends from the
main waveguide in the same
direction as the electric field
is an example of what type
junction?
1. Etype T
2. H-type T
3. H-type T junction
4. Htype junction
3-71. Low power handling capabilities
and internal power losses are
the primary disadvantages of
which of the following
junctions?
1. Magic T
2. Rat race
3. Duplexer
4. Hybrid ring
3-72. The hybrid ring is usually used
as what type of device in radar
systems?
1. Mixer
2. Detector
3. Duplexer
4. Impedance matcher
1. Size only
2. Shape only
3. Size and shape
4. Q of the cavity
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