Basic Structured Grid Generation: With an introduction to unstructured grid generation

Britain

Preface

Over the past two decades, efficient methods of grid generation, together with the power of modern digital computers, have been the key to the development of numerical finite-difference (as well as finite-volume and finite-element) solutions of linear and non-linear partial differential equations in regions with boundaries of complex shape. Although much of this development has been directed toward fluid mechanics problems, the techniques are equally applicable to other fields of physics and engineering where field solutions are important. Structured grid generation is, broadly speaking, concerned with the construction of co-ordinate systems which provide coordinate curves (in two dimensions) and co-ordinate surfaces (in three dimensions) that remain coincident with the boundaries of the solution domain in a given problem. Grid points then arise in the interior of the solution domain at the intersection of these curves or surfaces, the grid cells, lying between pairs of intersecting adjacent curves or surfaces, being generally four-sided figures in two dimensions and small volumes with six curved faces in three dimensions.

It is very helpful to have a good grasp of the underlying mathematics, which is principally to be found in the areas of differential geometry (of what is now a fairly old-fashioned variety) and tensor analysis. We have tried to present a reasonably self-contained account of what is required from these subjects in Chapters 1 to 3. It is hoped that these chapters may also serve as a helpful source of background reference equations.

The following two chapters contain an introduction to the basic techniques (mainly in two dimensions) of structured grid generation, involving algebraic methods and differential models. Again, in an attempt to be reasonably inclusive, we have given a brief account of the most commonly-used numerical analysis techniques for interpolation and for solving algebraic equations. The differential models considered cover elliptic and hyperbolic partial differential equations, with particular reference to the use of forcing functions for the control of grid-density in the solution domain. For solution domains with complex geometries, various techniques are used in practice, including the multi-block method, in which a complex solution domain is split up into simpler sub-domains. Grids may then be generated in each sub-domain (using the sort of methods we have presented), and a matching routine, which reassembles the sub-domains and matches the individual grids at the boundaries of the sub-domains, is used. We show a simple matching routine at the end of Chapter 5.

A number of variational approaches (preceded by a short introduction to variational methods in general) are presented in Chapter 6, showing how grid properties such as smoothness, orthogonality, and grid density can be controlled by the minimization of an appropriate functional (dependent on the components of a fundamental metric tensor). Surface grid generation has been considered here in the general context of harmonic maps. In Chapter 7 time-dependent problems with moving boundaries are considered. Finally, Chapter 8 provides an introduction to the currently very active area of unstructured grid generation, presenting the fundamentals of Delaunay triangulation and advancing front techniques.

Our aim throughout is to provide a straightforward and compact introduction to grid generation, covering the essential mathematical background (in which, in our view, tensor calculus forms an important part), while steering a middle course regarding the level of mathematical difficulty. Mathematical exercises are suggested from time to time to assist the reader. In addition, the companion website (www.bh.com/companions/0750650583) provides a series of easy-to-follow, clearly annotated numerical codes, closely associated with Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 8. The aim has been to show the application of the theory to the generation of numerical grids in fairly simple two-dimensional domains, varying from rectangles, circles and ellipses to more complex geometries, such as C-grids over an airfoil, and thus to offer the reader a basis for further progress in this field. Programs involve some of the most frequently used and familiar stable numerical techniques, such as the Thomas Algorithm for the solution of tridiagonal matrix equations, the Gauss-Seidel method, the Conjugate Gradient method, Successive Over Relaxation (SOR), Successive Line Over Relaxation, and the Alternating Direction Implicit (ADI) method, as well as Transfinite Interpolation and the marching algorithm (a grid generator for hyperbolic partial differential equations). The programming language is the standard FORTRAN 77/90.

Our objective in this book is to give an introduction to the most important aspects of grid generation. Our coverage of the literature is rather selective, and by no means complete. For further information and a much wider range of references, texts such as Carey (1997), Knupp and Steinberg (1993), Thompson, Warsi, and Mastin (1985), and Liseikin (1999) may be consulted. Unstructured grid generation is treated in George (1991). A very comprehensive survey ofmod-ern developments, together with a great deal of background information, is provided by Thompson, Soni, and Weatherill (1999).

The authors would like to express their gratitude to Mr. Thomas Sippel-Dau, LINUX Service Manager at Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine for help with computer administration.

M. Farrashkhalvat and J.P. Miles

1

Mathematical preliminaries – vector and tensor analysis

1.1 Introduction

In this chapter we review the fundamental results of vector and tensor calculus which form the basis of the mathematics of structured grid generation. We do not feel it necessary to give derivations of these results from the perspective of modern differential geometry; the derivations provided here are intended to be appropriate to the background of most engineers working in the area of grid generation. Helpful introductions to tensor calculus may be found in Kay (1988), Kreyzig (1968), and Spain (1953), as well as many books on continuum mechanics, such as Aris (1962). Nevertheless, we have tried to make this chapter reasonably self-contained. Some of the essential results were presented by the authors in Farrashkhalvat and Miles (1990); this book started at an elementary level, and had the restricted aim, compared with many of the more wide-ranging books on tensor calculus, of showing how to use tensor methods to transform partial differential equations of physics and engineering from one co-ordinate system to another (an aim which remains relevant in the present context). There are some minor differences in notation between the present book and Farrashkhalvat and Miles (1990).

1.2 Curvilinear co-ordinate systems and base vectors in E³

We consider a general set of curvilinear co-ordinates xi, i = 1, 2, 3, by which points in a three-dimensional Euclidean space E³ may be specified. The set {x¹, x², x³} could stand for cylindrical polar co-ordinates {r,θ, z}, spherical polars {r,θ,ϕ}, etc. A special case would be a set of rectangular cartesian co-ordinates, which we shall generally denote by {y1, y2, y3} (where our convention of writing the integer indices as subscripts instead of superscripts will distinguish cartesian from other systems), or sometimes by {x, y, z} if this would aid clarity. Instead of {x¹, x², x³}, it may occasionally be clearer to use notation such as {ξ, η, ς} without indices.

The position vector r of a point P in space with respect to some origin O may be expressed as

(1.1)

where {i1, i2, i3,}, alternatively written as {i, j, k}, are unit vectors in the direction of the rectangular cartesian axes. We assume that there is an invertible relationship between this background set of cartesian co-ordinates and the set of curvilinear co-ordinates, i.e.

(1.2)

with the inverse relationship

(1.3)

We also assume that these relationships are differentiable. Differentiating eqn (1.1) with respect to xi gives the set of covariant base vectors

(1.4)

with background cartesian components

(1.5)

At any point P each of these vectors is tangential to a co-ordinate curve passing through P, i.e. a curve on which one of the xi s varies while the other two remain constant (Fig. 1.1). In general the gis are neither unit vectors nor orthogonal to each other. But so that they may constitute a set of basis vectors for vectors in E³ we demand that they are not co-planar, which is equivalent to requiring that the scalar triple product {g1 · (g2 × g3)} ≠ 0. Furthermore, this condition is equivalent to the requirement that the Jacobian of the transformation (1.2), i.e. the determinant of the matrix of partial derivatives (∂yi/∂xJ), is non-zero; this condition guarantees the existence of the inverse relationship (1.3).

Fig. 1.1 Covariant base vectors at a point P in three dimensions.

Given the set {g1, g2, g3} we can form the set of contravariant base vectors at P, {g¹, g², g³}, defined by the set of scalar product identities

(1.6)

is the Kronecker symbol given by

(1.7)

Exercise 1.

Deduce from the definitions (1.6) that the gi s may be expressed in terms of vector products as

(1.8)

where V = {g1 · (g2 × g3)}. (Note that V represents the volume of a parallelepiped (Fig. 1.2) with sides g1, g2, g3.)

Fig. 1.2 Parallelepiped of base vectors at point P.

The fact that g¹ is perpendicular to g2 and g3, which are tangential to the co-ordinate curves on which x² and x³, respectively, vary, implies that g¹ must be perpendicular to the plane which contains these tangential directions; this is just the tangent plane to the co-ordinate surface at P on which x¹ is constant. Thus gl must be normal to the co-ordinate surface xi = constant.

Comparison between eqn (1.6), with the scalar product expressed in terms of cartesian components, and the chain rule

(1.9)

for partial derivatives shows that the background cartesian components of gl are given by

(1.10)

In eqn (1.9) we have made use of the summation convention, by which repeated indices in an expression are automatically assumed to be summed over their range of values. (In expressions involving general curvilinear co-ordinates the summation convention applies only when one of the repeated indices appears as a subscript and the other as a superscript.) The comparison shows that

(1.11)

where the gradient operator ∇, or grad, is defined in cartesians by

(1.12)

For a general scalar field ϕ we have

(1.13)

making use of a chain rule again and eqn (1.11); this gives the representation of the gradient operator in general curvilinear co-ordinates.

1.3 Metric tensors

Given a set of curvilinear co-ordinates {xi} with covariant base vectors gi and con-travariant base vectors gi, we can define the covariant and contravariant metric tensors respectively as the scalar products

(1.14)

(1.15)

where i and J can take any values from 1 to 3. From eqns (1.5), (1.10), for the background cartesian components of gi and gi, it follows that

(1.16)

and

(1.17)

If we write (x, y, z) for cartesians and (ξ, η, ζ) for curvilinear co-ordinates, we have the formulas

(1.18)

has been written as xξ, and the superscript 2 now represents squaring.

Exercise 2.

For the case of spherical polar co-ordinates, with ξ = r, η= θ, ζ= ϕ, and

show that

(1.19)

where (r,θ,ϕ) take the place of (ξ,η,ζ).

Formulas for giJ are, similarly,

(1.20)

The metric tensor gij provides a measure of the distance ds between neighbouring points. If the difference in position vectors between the two points is dr and the infinitesimal differences in curvilinear co-ordinates are dx¹, dx², dx³, then

(1.21)

making use of the summation convention. As previously remarked, the summation convention may be employed in generalized (curvilinear) co-ordinates only when each of the repeated indices appears once as a subscript and once as a superscript.

We can form the 3 × 3matrix L whose row i contains the background cartesian components of gi and the matrix M whose row i contains the background cartesian components of gi. We may write, in shorthand form,

(1.22)

it may be seen directly from eqn (1.6) that

(1.23)

where I is the 3 × 3 identity matrix. Thus L and MT are mutual inverses. Moreover

(1.24)

as previously defined in eqn (1.8). Since MT = L −1, it follows that

(1.25)

It is easy to see that the symmetric matrix arrays (gij) and (gij) for the associated metric tensors are now given by

(1.26)

Since MT = L−1 and M = (LT)−1, it follows that

(1.27)

In component form this is equivalent to

(1.28)

From the properties of determinants it also follows that

(1.29)

(1.30)

and

(1.31)

where g must be a positive quantity.

Thus in place of eqn (1.8) we can write

(1.32)

From eqn (1.27) and standard 3 × 3 matrix inversion, we can also deduce the following formula:

(1.33)

where the co-factors of (gij) are given by

(1.34)

The cofactors of the matrix L in eqn (1.22) are the various background cartesian components of (gj × gk), which may be expressed, with the notation used in eqn (1.18), as

(1.35)

so that

(1.36)

and

(1.37)

Since M = L −1, we also have, in the same notation, the matrix elements of M:

(1.38)

Exercise 3.

Using eqn (1.29) and standard determinant expansions, derive the following formulas for the determinant g:

(1.39)

From eqn (1.32) it follows that

where {l, j, k} and {p, q, r} are in cyclic order {1, 2, 3}. Using the standard Lagrange vector identity

(1.40)

we have

(1.41)

For example,

1.4 Line, area, and volume elements

Lengths of general infinitesimal line-elements are given by eqn (1.21). An element of the x¹ co-ordinate curve on which dx² = dx³ = 0 is therefore given by (ds)² = g11(dx¹)². Thus arc-length along the xi-curve