3 Theories

Three Theories of Career Development and Choice 1
(Literature Review)
Proven Practices for Recruiting Women To STEM Careers in ATE Programs
Charlene J. Allison & Mel Cossette

Edmonds Community College
20000 68th Avenue West Lynnwood, WA 98036 May, 2007 Charlene Allison (425-640-1962) charlene.allison@edcc.edu Mel Cossette (425-640-1376) mel.cossette@edcc.edu Fax: 425-640-1961
This work is part of a larger project funded by the Advanced Technological Education Program (ATE) of the National Science Foundation (DUE #0501971). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
Proven Practices for Recruiting Women to STEM Careers in ATE Programs, NSF # 0501971 Edmonds Community College, Lynnwood, WA 5/31/2007
Introduction to the Review

Charlene J. Allison Developing an understanding of how women and other underrepresented minorities choose careers requires going back to basic paradigms, extracting those approaches and constructs empirically proven to be most applicable, and viewing these from new perspectives. The literature on career choice and development, particularly for adolescents, is voluminous. However, many studies are concerned with proving, disproving, refining or extending aspects of several major theories. Because of the prominence and influence of John L. Hollands person-environment theory, Donald E. Supers life-span, life-space theory, and Robert W. Lent, Steven D. Brown and Gail Hacketts social cognitive career theory (SCCT), we chose to review these three theories in detail. Moreover, since both Supers life-span, life-space theory and SCCT claim to integrate or synthesize a number of constructs and concepts from diverse sources, a review of these theories is essentially a review (with a few limitations) of current thinking on career choice at the time these theories were developed. Knowledge of these theories and concepts aids in the evaluation of much of the career literature. Many constructs derived from these theories are used as basic terminology in reporting research results. For example, the concept of differentiated/undifferentiated personalities in terms of career interests is derived from Hollands approach, and role salience (that is, importance of any one of a persons many roles in relation to his/her other roles) from that of Super. The authors of many research reports, however, do not include definitions of the terms they use, nor the sources of these terms. This review provides definitions of some of these constructs, even though there is no way of knowing if the constructs are being used with the meanings their originators intended. According to Brown and Brooks (1996), Theories, as noted earlier, are made up of constructs that are often borrowed from other psychological theories. Although different theories may employ exactly the same terms (such as selfconcept), they do not have the same definition (p. 10). Additionally, the work of older theorists is often used as a basis for current career theories. Some of these theories are extensions of and/or variations on the work of older theorists. For example, Mark L. Savickas uses Supers life-span, lifespace approach as a basis for his own career construction theory, and Gati, Garty and Fassas 1996 work on career-related aspects expands on Hollands six personality/occupation types (RIASECRealistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional). Other researchers freely combine theories. Guindon and Richmond (2005) point out, for example, that Patton, Bartrum and Creed combine social cognitive career theory with cognitive-motivationalrelational theory in their study of Australian high school students. In another example, Jepsen and Sheu (2003) combine the life-span segment from Supers
theory with Hollands idea of person-environment congruence, using Hollands types to classify occupations (pp. 162, 168). Finally, Lent, Brown, and Hacketts (1994) social cognitive career theory (SCCT) is an adaptation of Albert Banduras social cognitive theory. Super (1990) points out that the study of career choice began with trait and factor approaches (p. 5). Hollands theory of matching each individual to a job on the basis of common traits is considered to be an important example of this type of theory. In particular, Hollands concepts of person-environment interaction and fit are still in use. Super began his own career using a trait and factor approach, but later changed to a developmental approach that recognized that career decisions are made over and over again, not just at one point in time. Both of these theorists were concerned with the application of their ideas in actual practice, and saw the need to provide empirical support. Accordingly, each developed a number of inventories to test their theories and to provide career counselors with instruments they could use to assess and advise their clients. These instruments are still in use today by researchers representing a variety of theories. For example, Betz and Voyten (1997) use Hollands Vocational Identity Scale in their research on career indecision predictors among college men and women (1997), and Lima and Guilherme (2003) use both Hollands My Vocational Situation and Supers Salience Inventory. Additionally, Hollands scales have been incorporated into other inventories such as the widely used Strong Interest Inventory (Guindon & Richmond, 2005, p. 25). There are several potential problems, however, with the proliferation of Hollandtype inventories. Holland originally formulated the occupational types during the 1970s on the basis of the percentage of employees of a given personality type in sampled organizations. Other personality types were present in the organization, but the percentage occurrence of these types was lower than that of the dominant one. Use of these inventories as an aid in career searches could have the effect of directing only those with a certain personality type into an occupation while directing others elsewhere. Further, since the occupational types are based on the majority personality type, directing people with a certain type into a profession would essentially pack a profession with even more of that personality type. Then too, the characteristics of an occupation may change with advancing technology, and people with personality types other than the dominant one might be quite happy in that occupation. According to Super (1990), teenagers often lack enough knowledge about actually existing types of work to be able to use these inventories to their best advantage.
A second potential problem was identified by Reardon, Vernick and Reed in a 2004 publication reviewed by Guindon and Richmond (2005). In the public discussion of employment and career preparation, most preparation is directed toward occupations with combinations of the Investigative, Artistic and Social 2
Holland types. These, according to Reardon, Vernick and Reed, require higher levels of cognitive complexity, and confer more prestige and income. However, fewer of these jobs are available than those classified as Realistic, Conventional and Enterprising (Guindon & Richmond, 2005, p. 103). Each of the three theories reviewed here emphasize different aspects of the process of career development and choice. Supers approach is perhaps the most comprehensive. Super focused on how children develop career interests, and takes both environmental and internal processes equally into account. While SCCT models include environment as an influence, the emphasis in SCCT is on the internal development of categories of self-knowledge (interests, goals, outcome expectations, and self-efficacy) that are considered necessary in the process of making decisions about careers. Hollands approach has a completely different aim. His matching process is aimed at promoting job satisfaction and through this, job stability. In the following, Supers comprehensive life-span, life-space theory is reviewed first, followed by Hollands approach, and then by a review of the more recent social cognitive career theory. A bibliography of all literature reviewed as part of the Projects literature search is included at the end of this document. References Betz, N. E., & Voyten, K. K. (1997). Efficacy and outcome expectations influence career exploration and decidedness [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 46, 179-189. Retrieved May 17, 2006 from ProQuest. Brown, D., & Brooks, L. (1996). Introduction to theories of career development and choice: Origins, evolution and current efforts. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career Choice & Development (3rd ed., pp. 1-13). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc. Gati, I., Garty, Y., & Fassa, N. (1996). Using career-related aspects to assess person-environment fit. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(2), 196-206. Guindon, M. H., & Richmond, L. J. (2005, Dec). Practice and research in career counseling and development--2004 [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 54, p. 90. Retrieved April 3, 2006 from ProQuest. Holland, J. L. (1997). Making vocational choices (3rd ed.). Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Jepsen, D. A., & Sheu, H.-B. (2003). General job satisfaction from a developmental perspective: Exploring choice--job matches at two career stages [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 52, 162179. Retrieved January 4, 2007 from ProQuest. Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122. Lima, M. R., & Guilherme, H. M. (2003, September). A data research related to a follow-up study with higher education students. Quality Development in 3
Vocational Counselling and Training, International Conference, Bern, Switzerland. Retrieved June 7, 2006, from http://www.subasosp.ch/Kongress/data/docs/ Savickas, M. L. (2002). Career construction: A developmental theory of vocational behavior. In D. Brown & Associates (Eds.), Career Choice and Development (4th ed., pp. 149-205). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Super, D. E. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. In D. Brown, L. Brooks, & Associates (Ed.), Career Choice and Development (2nd ed., pp. 197-261). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishing.
Donald E. Supers Life-Space, Life-Span Theory of Career Development1

Imelda Cossette & Charlene J. Allison (Editor)
Edmonds Community College, Lynnwood, WA
Many articles have been written analyzing and commenting on Donald E. Supers theories of career development and exploration, and he has in fact been referred to as a planful explorer (Savickas, 1994a). Planfulness refers to how an individual implements his/her abilities, values, and interests through many social roles, not just the work role. Individuals must foresee the life roles available in their environments and concern themselves with preparing for and patterning them. It was Supers belief that planful attitudes can be learned. Planfulness, planful attitudes, or future orientation have been cornerstones in Supers approach and are prime components in career choice readiness. It has been suggested that Supers approach, as represented in his rainbow model of simultaneous life roles, may have been Supers way of mastering and charting the lessons of his own life and the challenges he predicted lay ahead of him. According to Savickas (1994a), the rainbow model became the most attractive idea that Super conceived in his later work. In using the rainbow model to view its creator, admirers can see the brilliant colors of Supers own life course as a: devoted son loving husband caring father creative scientist popular lecturer contributive soldier and civilian avid leisurite productive pensioner proud grandfather and citizen of the world. 1
Super, Savickas, & Super (1996) note that in a 1991 review of milestones in the development of vocational psychology, Borgen concluded that Supers comprehensive conceptual work has splendidly stood the test of time. The power of Supers overarching thinking is apparent in how readily new ideas and trends are immediately compatible with his work (p. 144). Throughout his life, even following retirement, Super continued work on a number of projects. His career development and exploration approach moved from implementation of self-concept in the world of work to integrating careers with the life course. Near the end of his life, he concentrated on work values and the relationship between needs, values and interests. This review summarizes key phases and segments of Supers approach as identified by Super and other researchers during the evolution of his theory. BENCHMARKS IN SUPERS CAREER At first, Super relied heavily on what is referred to as trait-and-factor theory. According to this approach a persons abilities and interests are matched with occupational positions that offer congruent requirements and rewards (Savickas, 1997b, p. 248). His early ideas coalesced into what was, according to Super et al. (1996), a review of the literature in the publication of The Dynamics of Vocational Adjustment in 1942 (New York: Harper & Row). However, Super was searching for additional perspectives from which to improve and elaborate on the way practitioners and researchers comprehend and intervene in occupational choice and career development (Savickas, 1997b, p. 248). Super began explaining occupational choice through research in the late 1940s. According to Savickas (1994a), Super used test development as a laboratory in which to reflect on and empirically refine his theoretical conceptualization of career development (p. 5). The result of this work was his book, Appraising Vocational Fitness by Means of Psychological Tests, published in 1949 (New York: Harper & Row). After this, Super began changing his emphasis to theory, because, as noted by another researcher, the field lacked a theory (Savickas, 1994a, p. 5). Additionally, Super changed his perspective from occupations to careers. In so doing, he also changed the focus of vocational psychology as a whole to career rather than occupation (Savickas, 1994a). During 1949, Super formulated initial plans for the 20-year longitudinal Career Pattern Study (CPS). Jepson (1994) says career pattern refers to a sequence of positions common to several persons over their working lifetime (p. 2). By looking at the past, one can predict the future. The study included 100 men who were followed from ages 14 through 50 (Madrill et al., 2000, p. 17). CPS data collection began in 1951, with results first published in 1957 in the book Vocational Development: A Framework for Research by Super, Crites, Hummel, Moser, Overstreet, and Warnath, (New York: Teachers College Press). According to Savickas (1994a), Super (with Thompson, Lindeman, Jordaan, & Myers, 1981) used CPS results in developing the Career Development Inventory 2
(CDI). Savickas (1994a) describes the study as follows: CPS concentrated on describing the natural history of how adolescents develop the readiness to make suitable educational and vocational choices (p. 5). Adapting to changes in his field, Super revised and published Appraising Vocational Fitness with John Crites in 1961 (New York: Harper & Row). During this time, he also continued his exploration of the relevance of self-concept for understanding vocational behavior. This resulted in the publication of Career Development: Self-Concept Theory with Starishevsky, Matlin and Jordaan in 1963 (New York: College Entrance Examination Board). Blustein (1997) has said that this book essentially defined the research agenda on career exploration for the rest of the 20th century (p. 261). At about this same time, Super began developing the Work Values Inventory. It was first published in 1964, revised in 1970, and revised again in 1973. According to Zytowski (1994), this inventory was the first formal assessment of work values in career development research (p. 2). During the 1970s, Super began work on his lifespan, life-space theory. In 1978 Super designed the Work Importance Study (WIS). It was implemented under Supers direction in 1983, following his retirement from teaching (Savickas, 1994a, p. 7). According to Super (1990), the WIS was a twelve country project that examined the structure and content of life roles, values and their interrelationships. Cook (1994) points out that role salience, which Super (1990, p. 248) defined as the relative importance of the work role to the counselee, was a central focus of the study (p. 2). The results of the WIS were published in 1995 in Life Roles, Values and Careers: International Findings of the Work Importance Study (Super, Sverko, & Super, eds., San Francisco: Jossey-Bass). Briefly, the WIS found that the general structure of life roles and values is remarkably similar in samples from industrialized and rapidly industrializing nations [secondly,] that the particular values held, and the pattern of relationships between values and roles, vary significantly among cultural groups. Finally, a third finding is that particular groups also have, within the broadly similar structure, local variations (Super et al., 1996, p. 149). Three additional inventories emerged from WIS: the Adult Career Concerns Inventory (ACCI, 1981), the Values Scale (first published in 1985this is different from the Work Values Inventory), and the Salience Inventory (1986). Super co-wrote the ACCI with A. S. Thompson, and it was revised in 1988. The ACCI measures planfulness and foresight in looking and thinking ahead about ones work and working life (Super et al., 1988, p. 5) (Savickas, 1994b, p. 4). Dorothy Nevill and Super co-wrote the values and salience inventories, which they published in 1986. While directing the WIS, in 1983 Super developed the Career-Development Assessment and Counseling (C-DAC) model. This model sought to make possible better assessment and counseling by taking career maturity (as measured by the CDI and ACCI), the importance of work and other roles
(Salience Inventory), and the values sought in life and work (Values Scale) into account (Savickas, 1994a, p. 7). Instruments developed on the basis of previous research and which operationalized his theories constituted an integral part of this model. During the 1970s, Super began work on organizing the systematically isolated, classified facts and important variables from his previous research, plus synthesized knowledge, into one model. In 1980, Super developed his rainbow model as an overarching framework meant to aid in exploring career development. This model was not intended to be a comprehensive integrated theory, but rather a segmental theory. With further refinements, the rainbow model evolved into what Super referred to as the archway model. STAGES OF THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT In 1994 Super succumbed to his final illness without completing his lifes work. Through most of his career, Supers purpose was to produce a segmental theory of career developmentthat is, a loosely unified set of theories dealing with specific aspects of career development, taken from developmental, differential, social, personality, and phenomenological psychology and held together by selfconcept and learning theory (Super, 1990, p. 199). Super believed that both learning and decision making are career development processes (Savickas, 1997b, p. 252). At first, Super called his approach career development theory. As time passed, he changed the name to developmental self-concept theory and, finally, to life-span, life-space theory. It is difficult to summarize Supers work chronologically, since multiple theoretical changes and data collection activities overlapped throughout his lifetime. Segments (and concepts) developed in the context of one iteration of his theory were refined and carried over into later iterations. These iterations reflect changes in theoretical emphases over time, and are described below. This list also reflects the overall evolution of his approach. Career Development Theory This approach added a developmental perspective on careers to the traditional individual differences view of occupations, that is, to trait-and-factor theory. Super added the concepts of career maturity, career adaptability, and life stages as part of this first attempt to formulate a theory of career development. Career Maturity/Adaptability Segment Super began developing a major segment of his approach, career maturity, through studying the work of sociologists and psychologists on adolescent development. In 1955, Super identified maturation as the central process in adolescent career development (Savickas, 1997b, p. 254). An adolescents level of career maturity expresses his/her readiness to make educational and vocational choices. Super identified the following factors as underlying the concepts of career maturity in adolescence and career adaptability in adults: planfulness or time perspective, exploration, information, decision making, and
reality orientation (Herr, 1997, p. 239). According to Super (1990), socioeconomic status and sex play only small roles in career maturity, whereas career salience is an important influence (p. 235). Savickas (1997b) describes career maturity as consisting of four dimensions. Two attitudinal dimensions deal with dispositional response tendencies for foresight and curiosity: attitudes toward career planning and career exploration. Two cognitive dimensions deal with fund of information and rational decision making: knowledge about occupations and careers and knowledge about the principles and practice of career decision making. (p. 250) Since the concept of career maturation did not really apply to adults, Super (with E. G. Knasel) introduced the idea of career adaptability in a 1979 article, with further explanation provided in a 1981 article co-authored with Watts and Kid (Goodman, 1994, p. 2). According to Savickas (1997b), career adaptability is the quality of being able to change, without great difficulty, to fit new or changed circumstances (p. 254). It is the readiness to cope with changing work and working conditions. Life Stages During an individuals life span, s/he goes through a series of career stages. Each stage allows for specific lines of development. The major stages are growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement. Super referred to the entire cycle as a maxi-cycle. Each stage consists of several substages. The stages and substages were developed more fully in Supers later life-span, life-space theory and are thus included as a part of that discussion. Developmental Self-Concept Theory This second iteration of Supers approach articulates the processes involved in the formation, translation, and implementation of self-concept as well as how self-concept affects vocational behavior. In 1963, Super defined self-concept as a picture of the self in some role, situation, or position, performing some set of functions, or in some web of relationships (p. 18) (Savickas, 2002, p. 163). Self-concept is formed through social, experiential, and interactive learning, plus reflective self-awareness.
Once formed, an organized self-concept functions to control, guide, and evaluate behavior. An individual possesses a general self-concept that includes a number of more specific and limited self-concepts expressed in various roles. The selfconcept system consists of all of the individuals roles (self-concepts). Super viewed occupational choice as an attempt to implement self-concept and stated, the occupation thus makes possible the playing of a role appropriate to the self-concept (1963, p. 1) (Savickas, 2002, p. 166). Super et al. (1996) say career self-concept theory concentrates on the personal meaning of abilities, interests, values and choices as well as how they coalesce into life themes (p. 139). Career self-concept provides a subjective view. Vocational identity, on the other hand, constitutes an objective view. It is the view of the persons abilities, interests and values seen by counselors and assessed by tests. It identifies a persons similarities to others rather than his/her uniqueness, as does career self-concept. Super et al. (1996) distinguished between attributes of the self called selfconcept dimensions (e.g. personality traits such as gregariousness, hardworking), and characteristics of those dimensions, called self-concept metadimensions (e.g., clarity, realism), that describe the arrangement and structure of the self-concept dimensions (pp. 140-141). Dimensions refer to the qualities of a single trait whereas meta-dimensions may apply to either a single trait or a constellation of traits (structure). In examining the implications of self-concept dimensions and meta-dimensions for vocational behavior, he presaged the insights of later self theorists from the disciplines of sociology and psychology (Savickas, 1997b, p. 250). Super (1990) considered self-esteem a meta-dimension, and protested use of the term self-concept by some researchers to mean self-esteem (p. 224). Super believed that individuals who possess high self-esteem are better able to act on their interests, and individuals with clear, stable, realistic, and certain occupational self-concepts are better able to make career choices. Those who lack self-esteem are less likely to make good matches between self-concept and occupational concept. He found it difficult to see how people who have unclear self-concepts can perceive themselves adequately in any occupational role. Since self-concept may change over time, the matching process of self-concept and occupation is never really completed. The series of changing preferences should progress, through successive approximations, toward a better fit between worker and work. Super stated in 1990 that self-concept theory might better be called personal construct theory (p. 222). Self-concept theory was carried over into Supers later life-span, life-space theory as the third segment of that theory. Life-Span, Life-Space Theory Supers final version of his approach to career development is represented by his life-span, life-space theory. According to Super et al. (1996), this theory brings together life-stage psychology and social role theory (p. 126). The life-span, life-
space theory includes refinements of previously developed concepts and illustrates the importance of context in career development. It shows how the work role is situated among other life roles and how the resulting life structure fulfills personal values. The life-span, life-space theory as described by Super et al. (1996) consists of three segments: life-space, life-span, and self-concept (p. 128). The self-concept segment, described above in the section Developmental Self-Concept Theory, provides the individuals point of view. Life-Space Segment. The life-space segment provides the constellation of social positions occupied and roles enacted by an individual (Super, 1990, p. 218). Life-space does not assume that work is the central role in a persons life; instead it highlights the importance of the work role in relation to other roles. Super et al. (1996) identify six major roles a person may play during his or her lifetime: child, student, leisurite, citizen, worker, and homemaker. Cook (1994) expands these to nine by adding the roles of spouse, parent, and annuitant or pensioner. The arrangement or pattern of core and peripheral roles is referred to as the life structure (Super et al., 1996, p. 128). Salience refers to the importance of a role to a person. Super et al. (1996) say that the importance of a role is determined by three components: (1) commitment the degree of emotional attachment to and identification with the role; (2) participation the amount of time and energy invested in the role; and (3) value expectations the amount of satisfaction and sense of purpose sought from each role (p. 152). Cook (1994) adds a fourth criterion of role importance -- knowledge (gained through direct or vicarious experience). Cook (1994) also notes that Super implies that a minimal level of work role salience is essential in career decision making. Persons with low work role salience may need to increase their awareness of or interest in work prior to making career decisions (Cook, 1994, p. 2). Super added the construct of values to his approach during the 1980s, although he began exploring their impact much earlier with the publication of The Work Values Inventory in 1964. Super et al. (1996) say that Super defined values as desirable ends or means to an end.Values provide a sense of purpose (p. 138). Super thought that values are more basic than interests. Interests are activities or objects in which values are expressed, whereas values indicate qualities or goals sought. Super et al. (1996) consider that Supers insistence on the importance of measuring values as well as abilities and interests provided a major contribution to the trait-and factor-model of vocational appraisal (p. 138).
Life-Span Segment. Super refined and carried over his concepts of career maturity and career adaptability into the life-span segment. The life-span segment depicts life stages. These stages coincide with childhood, adolescence, adulthood, middlessence and senescence (Super et al., 1996, p. 126). Super believed that, at each stage, vocational development tasks and career concerns should mesh, with the degree of mesh indicating the level of career maturity in adolescence (and adaptability in adults). Skipping a task in the normative sequence may result in difficulties at a later stage. For example, failure to explore during adolescence can cause unrealistic occupational choices later in life. During transitions, individuals adopt new roles, drop outdated roles and modify roles as they redesign their lives. The strengths of the life-span, life-space theory include emphases on empirical findings, propositions that summarize data, and reluctance to prematurely postulate logico-deductive explanatory principles. These strengths were also considered its weaknesses (Super et al., 1996, p. 144). Life Stages and Career Maturity Career maturity generally increases but is only loosely associated with chronological age and school grade. The timing of transitions from one stage to another is a function of both an individuals personality and abilities and his or her situation (Super, 1990, p. 237). Because Supers concepts were constantly evolving, the following description of Supers conception of vocational life stages is necessarily a composite from a variety of sources. Growth (Ages 4 - 13). The growth stage involves forming an occupational self-concept. It includes four career development tasks. The label associated with each of these four tasks changes in different summaries of Supers work. 1. 2. 3. 4. Career concern includes acquisition of future orientation. Control consists of increasing personal control over ones own life. Career conviction involves increasing confidence in ones ability to do well at tasks and to make own decisions. Competence includes acquisition of competent work habits and attitudes.
Exploration (Ages 14 - 24). Exploration involves fitting oneself into society in a way that unifies ones inner and outer worlds. This information-seeking behavior moves the adolescent from occupational daydreams to employment in a job through three processes: 1. Crystallization occurs when the four tasks of the growth phase are completed and coalesce with occupational daydreams into a publicly recognized vocational identity with corresponding preferences for a
group of occupations at a particular ability level (Super et al., 1996, p. 132). 2. Specification of an occupational choice requires the individual to explore deeply to sift through tentative preferences in preparation for declaring an occupational choice. Translating private vocational selfconcepts into public occupational roles involves the psychosocial process of vocational identity formation (Savickas, 2002, p. 175). 3. Implementation/Actualization requires that the individual make a choice by converting ideas into actions that make it a fact. Actualizing a choice usually involves completing the necessary training and experiencing trial jobs in the specified occupation. Establishment (Ages 25 44). Establishment includes implementation of self-concept in an occupational role. The goal of the establishment years is to effect cohesion between ones inner and outer worlds. The three vocational development tasks under establishment are: 1. Stabilizing -- making ones position secure by assimilating organizational culture and performing job duties satisfactorily; 2. Consolidating demonstrating positive work attitudes and work habits, and cultivating good relationships with co-workers; 3. Advancing to higher levels of responsibility. Maintenance (Ages 45 - 65). Essentially, an individual asks him- or herself or others, should s/he continue in the same occupation? If the answer is no, the individual cycles through the stages of exploration and establishment before again reaching the maintenance stage. Super (Super et al., 1996) refers to recycling through one or more of the life stages as mini-cycles (p.135). If the individual decides to remain in the same occupation, s/he then enters the maintenance stage. The three developmental tasks to be accomplished in this stage in include: 1. Holding on to what one has achieved so far; 2. Updating skills and knowledge; and, 3. Innovating by doing tasks differently, doing different tasks, or discovering new challenges. Disengagement (Over age 65). Disengagement includes the vocational development tasks of decelerating, retirement planning, and retirement living. Retirement planning leads eventually to separation from occupation and commencement of retirement living with its
challenges of organizing a new life structure and different life-style (Super et al., 1996, p. 134). Models of Theoretical Integration While continuing to refine the life-span, life-space segments of his approach, Super began trying to integrate his ideas into a single model. Super first developed his rainbow model in 1980. In the late 1980s, Super decided that the rainbow was not as clear as he desired, so he sought to design a more descriptive model (Herr, 1997, p. 240), which he called the archway model. The Rainbow Model Herr (1997) says that, according to a 1980 article by Super, the Life-Career Rainbow was intended to convey the notion that the simultaneous combination of life roles constitutes the life style; their sequential combination structures the life space and constitutes the life-cycle. The total structure is the career pattern (p. 288) (p. 240). The rainbow emphasizes the integration of life stages (lifespan) with the six major life roles (life-space). Although situational determinants and historical and socioeconomic factors were included as the background for the rainbow, and personal determinants and psychological and biological factors were included at the base, Super (1990) complained that readers ignored these aspects of the model. A copy of the rainbow model reproduced from Super et al. (1996) is included at the end of this paper. The Archway Model Since Super was interested in architecture, he drew on that knowledge to design the archway model. The archway model incorporates the material in the lifecareer rainbow as well as psychological and contextual factors. It includes biographical and geographical factors in the two bases of the archway and has two vertical columns illustrating the dynamic interaction between the individual and society. It also shows how the life-span, life-space segments can be united with the self as decision maker, represented as the keystone of the arch (Herr, 1997, p. 240). The archway model of career determinants was designed to emphasize the different elements (such as needs, values, community, the economy, etc.) contributing to career decisions. According to Herr (1997), in the archway model, Super attempted to illustrate: How the status of natural resources, the economy, the family and other environmental factors influence the development of aptitudes, interests and values; How these are integrated at various life stages; and
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How, ultimately, the person, the decision maker, brings all of these personal and social forces together and organizes them in terms of concepts of self and of roles in society. (p. 240).
Super contends in the archway model that interactive learning is what brings all of these factors, influences, and segments of the Archway model together in the weighing and making of career decisions (Herr, 1997, p. 240). In 1990, Super referred to social-learning theory as the cement holding the stones (or segments) of the archway together (p. 221). A copy of the archway model reproduced from Super (1990) is included at the end of this paper. PROPOSITIONS Super summarized much of his approach in a number of theoretical propositions. The ten propositions originally presented in 1953 were expanded to twelve in 1957 and to fourteen propositions in 1990. These fourteen propositions are presented below as listed in Super et al.s 1996 exposition of Supers life-span, life-space approach to careers. 1. People differ in their abilities and personalities, needs, values, interests, traits, and self-concepts. 2. People are qualified, by virtue of these characteristics, each for a number of occupations. 3. Each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities and personality traits, with tolerances wide enough to allow some variety of occupations for each individual as well as some variety of individuals in each occupation. 4. Vocational preferences and competencies, the situations in which people live and work, and hence their self-concepts change with time and experience, although self-concepts as products of social learning are increasingly stable from late adolescence until late maturity, providing some continuity in choice and adjustment.
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5. The process of change may be summed up in a series of life stages (a maxi-cycle) characterized as a sequence of Growth, Exploration, Establishment, Maintenance, and Disengagement, and those stages may in turn be subdivided into periods characterized by developmental tasks. A small (mini) cycle takes place during career transitions from one stage to the next or each time an individuals career is destabilized by illness or injury, employers reduction in force, social changes in human resource needs, or other socioeconomic or personal events. Such unstable or multiple-trial careers involve the recycling of new growth, re-exploration, and re-establishment. 6. The nature of the career patternthat is, the occupational level attained and the sequence, frequency, and duration of trial and stable jobsis determined by the individuals parental socioeconomic level, mental ability, education, skills, personality characteristics (needs, values, interests, and self-concepts), and career maturity and by the opportunities to which he or she is exposed. 7. Success in coping with the demands of the environment and of the organism in that context at any given life-career stage depends on the readiness of the individual to cope with these demands (that is, on his or her career maturity). 8. Career maturity is a psychosocial construct that denotes an individuals degree of vocational development along the continuum of life stages and substages from Growth through Disengagement. From a social or societal
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perspective, career maturity can be operationally defined by comparing the developmental tasks being encountered to those expected based on the individuals chronological age. From a psychological perspective, career maturity can be operationally defined by comparing an individuals resources, both cognitive and affective, for coping with a current task to the resources needed to master that task. 9. Development through the life stages can be guided, partly by facilitating the maturing of abilities, interests, and coping resources and partly by aiding in reality testing and in the development of self-concepts. 10. The process of career development is essentially that of developing and implementing occupational self-concepts. It is a synthesizing and compromising process in which the self-concept is a product of the interaction of inherited aptitudes, physical makeup, opportunity to observe and play various roles, and evaluations of the extent to which the results of role-playing meet with the approval of supervisors and peers. 11. The process of synthesis or compromise between individual and social factors, between self-concepts and reality, is one of role-playing and of learning from feedback, whether the role is played in fantasy, in the counseling interview, or in such real-life activities as classes, clubs, parttime work, and entry jobs. 12. Work satisfactions and life satisfactions depend on the extent to which an individual finds adequate outlets for abilities, needs, values, interests, personality traits, and self-concepts. Satisfactions depend on
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establishment in a type of work, a work situation, and a way of life in which one can play the kind of role that growth and exploratory experiences have led one to consider congenial and appropriate. 13. The degree of satisfaction people attain from work is proportional to the degree to which they have been able to implement self-concepts. 14. Work and occupation provide a focus for personality organization for most men and women, although for some individuals this focus is peripheral, incidental, or even nonexistent. Then other foci, such as leisure activities and homemaking, may be central. Social traditions, such as sex-role stereotyping and modeling, racial and ethnic biases, and the opportunity structure, as well as individual differences are important determinants of preferences for such roles as worker, student, leisurite, homemaker, and citizen. (Super et al., 1996, pp. 123-126) APPLICABILITY In Supers 1990 summary of his theory, Super discusses the applicability of several of his constructs -- career maturity, role salience, values, and selfconcept -- to various socio-economic conditions and groups of people. He describes several studies that support the applicability of these constructs to all socioeconomic groups and social classes. In the Career Pattern Study, implemented in 1951, Super and his colleagues investigated the contribution of socioeconomic status to career exploration and career maturity, primarily among White males. Interim results of the Career Pattern Study published by Jordaan and Hyde (1979) showed that socioeconomic status (SES) did not have much relationship to career exploration among high school boys (Super 1990, p. 227). The researchers did find, however, that SES was somewhat related to career maturity, especially in the cognitive domain of occupational information, but only during the last high school years. Super (1990) also mentions the results of a study he conducted with P. L. Overstreet (1960). They found theoretically important but small correlations between parental occupational level and various indices of career maturity. Super (1990) notes that socioeconomic and environmental factors may influence
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career development in two ways: by opening or closing opportunities and by shaping occupational concepts and self-concepts. The Work Importance Study, implemented in 1983, was designed to examine internationally the applicability of two of his constructs, values and work role salience (the importance to the individual of the work role and their commitment to it). According to Herr (1997), study results for these two constructs yielded three groupings of values: the North American or new world grouping (including an Australian sample); the European cluster (which included two other Australian samples); and the Japanese cluster. Briefly, the study found that in the new world cluster the most important value was a drive for upward mobility, material success and prestige, with little attention given to the less worldly aspects of life (Herr, 1997, p. 242). The most important life roles identified were work and homemaking. In the European cluster, people highly valued relationships and understanding between people, an autonomous life style, and strong rejection of authority. The Japanese cluster rated aesthetics and creativity as highly valued, with low ratings for values such as upward mobility, material success, and all liferole activities. Thus, the value assigned to life roles in general and work roles in particular vary cross-culturally. Super and a colleague also investigated the effect of urbanization on work salience. After collecting Career Development Inventory data from US populations located in three different areas of New Jersey, in 1984 Super and Nevill analyzed data for urban poor Blacks; a rural area sample (race unspecified); and a heterogeneous sample in a suburb of Trenton. They found differences between the three in work salience (Super, 1990, p. 235). As a caveat, Cook (1994) adds that the nature of role priorities (role salience) and their enactment over time are influenced by gender, and degree of involvement in a role is not necessarily the result of active choice (p. 3). Super (1990) presents the results of several studies that support the applicability of career maturity to diverse ethnic groups, especially to Blacks, although he does note that one study (Locasio, 1974) found that career maturity does not apply to disadvantaged blacks (p. 235). According to Fouad and Arbona (1994), Westbrook and Sanford (1991) found a lack of relationship between cognitive measures of career maturity and appropriateness of choice and accuracy of selfappraisal for blacks (p. 2). Fouad and Arbona (1994) also report on research carried out by Fouad and Keely (1992) among Black high school students in a summer employment program (p. 2). Fouad and Keely (1992) found that career maturity attitudes were not significantly related to behaviors considered critical to occupational maturity. On the other hand, studies conducted in other countries have found that adolescents move through the same developmental stages, but at different rates. The studies also found that career maturity increases across grade level, although it differed by gender (boys scoring higher than did girls) and location (urban students scoring higher than did rural students) (Fouad & Arbona, 1994, p. 3).
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Super (1990) discusses other research that confirms the applicability of his approach to both males and females, if modified to take child-bearing into account (p. 234). He says that both sexes appear to make decisions on the basis of their self-concepts and their concepts of the circumstances in which they live. Differences in applicability for males and females are differences of degree, not of kind, and these differences are associated with child-bearing and sex-role stereotypes. Yet Super (1990) does say that we know nothing about the development of interests in women. The research has not been done, despite Strongs data on women (p. 253). CAREER COUNSELING Super (1990) has stated that the objective of developmental vocational counseling is self-fulfillment (p. 253). To help counselors apply his theory, he developed the career development assessment and counseling (C-DAC) model in 1983. In this model, data for assessment is collected primarily through interviews. During an interview, the counselees experiences, his/her evaluation of the outcomes, plus the persons own willingness to use this information in formulating occupational objectives, are developed and/or identified. Interview data may be supplemented with results from the various inventories Super designed for this purpose (see Instruments below). According to Darcy (2005), the C-DAC model includes five phases of assessment: 1. Gather background information on the persons life structure (constellation of roles) and work role salience through interviewing the person requesting assistance; 2. Determine the persons career development statusdetermine his/her life stage and level of developmental task completion; 3. Determine the counselees resources; 4. Assess the persons values, interests and abilities to establish vocational identity; 5. Determine occupational self-concept and life themes. According to Jepsen (1994), life themes are developed by examining a persons vocational history for recurrent patterns that explain the past and may predict the persons occupational future. According to Savickas (2002), after completing the five phases of assessment, the counselors role is to organize and interpret the data about life space, career maturity or adaptability, occupational self-concept, and vocational identity for the person being counseled (p. 190), and, together with that person, implement a plan of action. Super (1990) notes that counseling interviews may be either directive, and provide confrontations with reality, or non-directive (p. 255). For self-directed people, provision of career information may be adequate. For others, counseling may have to play a more direct role in fostering clarification and implementation of occupational self-concept. Other growth and exploratory resources, which are sometimes more important and sometimes less important
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than the interview itself, include pamphlets, books, filmstrips, computerized guidance, talks with school or college officials, talks or demonstrations by members of occupations, exploratory courses, active involvement in an occupationally relevant club or association, observation of someone at work, or part-time or vacation jobs in situations where appropriate work can be observed or even performed (Super, 1990, p. 254-255). Super (1990) recommended that counselors conduct a series of interviews at different times, which he referred to as cyclical counseling. FURTHER DEVELOPMENT Over the years, many theorists interested in career choice and development have critiqued Supers work. A few of these researchers have suggested further evaluation, refinement, and expansion of Supers constructs. Herr (1977), for example, lists several such areas (pp. 241-244). He has determined that it would be helpful if: Specific aspects of vocational self-concept and how they relate to vocational behavior could be delineated. Supers concepts could be updated to include new theoretical developments in psychology and sociology. Supers measures for assessing career development need to be integrated into counseling. In particular, Herr recommends incorporation of the C-DAC model, which includes the types of steps useful in preparing and delivering career counseling. The number of segmental theories to explore career barriers, received messages, and other variables affecting the career behavior of underrepresented groups (such as women, racial and ethnic groups) should be increased. And, Increased incorporation of the impact of economic changes [such as shifting availability of work and downsizing] across the world and of ideas regarding gender and cultural differences in career behavior is needed (Herr, 1997, p. 241).
Others, such as Jepsen, continue to work with various aspects of Supers approach. Jepson (1994) has continued work on Supers ThematicExtrapolation Method, the development of themes using a persons past work history to predict future career patterns. Still others, such as Savickas, use Supers approach as a base for the development of their own theories. Savickas (2002) rewrites and reorganizes Supers 14 propositions, dropping one (Supers proposition # 9 on guided development), and adding several of his own. The first new proposition is a summary of basic assumptions underlying Supers approach. Another is a summary of Supers ideas on transitions and minicycles. The added propositions are listed below.
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1. A society and its institutions structure an individuals life course through social roles. The life structure of an individual, shaped by social processes such as gendering, consists of core and peripheral roles. Balance among core roles, such as work and family, promotes stability, whereas imbalances produce strain. 2. A minicycle of growth, exploration, establishment, management, and disengagement occurs during transitions from one career stage to the next, as well as each time an individuals career is destabilized by socioeconomic and personal events such as illness and injury, plant closings and company layoffs, and job redesign and automation. 3. Career construction is prompted by vocational development tasks and produced by responses to these tasks; 4. Career construction, at any given stage, can be fostered by conversations. For example, through use of general counseling processes such as coaching, educating, facilitating, guiding, influencing, mentoring, modifying, organizing, planning and restructuring (Stone, 1986), counselors can introduce meaningful conversations to bring about change. (Savickas, 2002, pp. 154-157). Savickas (2002) says that the edited list of propositions underlies his own approach, career construction theory. In this theory, the term career denotes a reflection of the course of ones vocational behavior, not vocational behavior itself (Savickas, 2002, p. 152). The construction approach shares with Super an interest in how individuals fit into different occupations at particular points in their lives.
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INSTRUMENTS The following is a list of instruments developed by Super and his colleagues to measure an individuals level of career maturity/adaptability, his/her values and interests, and the importance to a person of various life roles Career Development Inventory (CDI) The Career Development Inventory (CDI) was designed to measure career choice readiness. The School Form is designed for students grades 8-12, and the College and University Form is designed for higher education use. Both formats measure career development and vocational/career maturity. These tools produce results in 8 areas: (1) career planning, (2) career exploration, (3) decision making, (4) world of work information, (5) knowledge of preferred occupation, (6) career development attitudes, (7) career development knowledge and skills, and (8) career orientation total (Career Development Inventory (CDI), 2006). The Inventory is out of print as of December, 2001, and was reviewed in Impara and Plake (1998). The following is a list of publications associated with the development and revision of the CDI: D. E. Super, R. S. Zelkowitz and A. S. Thompson (1975). Preliminary Manual, Career Development Inventory (Adult Form 1); New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. This is a preliminary version of the CDI manual. D. E. Super, A, S. Thompson, R. H. Linderman, J. P. Jordaan, and R. A. Meyers (1981). Career Development Inventory, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press). S. Thompson. and R. H. Linderman (1982). Career Development Inventory: College and University Form: Supplement to Users Manual, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. S. Thompson, R. H. Linderman, D. E. Super, J. P. Jordaan and R. A. Meyers (1984). Career Development Inventory: Technical Manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Adult Career Concerns Inventory (ACCI) The ACCI measures an adults degree of concern with the tasks of career exploration, establishment, management, and disengagement, plus awareness of adaptation to changes in work and working conditions during the four later stages of the life-span (Savickas, 1994b, p. 4). The ACCI consists of a 15-item scale for each of the four career development stages, with subscales addressing issues important during each stage. For example, the Exploration scale has three five-item subscales that measure
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concern with crystallization [identifying general preferences], specification [exploring an occupational group in order to narrow ones choice], and implementation [seeking relevant training and employment] (Super et al., 1996, p. 153). For more information see: D. E. Super and A. S. Thompson (1981), Manual for the Adult Career Concerns Inventory, New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. D. E. Super, A. S. Thompson, and R. H. Linderman (1988), Adult Career Concerns Inventory: Manual for Research and Exploratory Use in Counseling, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Salience Inventory The purpose of the Salience Inventory is to determine the importance of the work role in the context of other life roles and to understand the values that people seek or hope to find in various life roles (P. W. Boswell & Associates, 2004). The Inventory focuses on five of the six life-career roles: studying, working, community service, home and family, and leisure activities. It includes questions about the three components of role salience--participation, commitment and value expectations, and determines the levels of each. According to Cook (1994), the Inventory can be used for analyzing individual and cultural differences in role salience, tracing changes for an individual over time, understanding multiple role issues, and considering values involved in roles (p. 2) The inventory is out of print as of December 2001, but was reviewed in Kramer and Conoley (1992). However, a related inventory, the Work Importance Profiler v.3.0. (2002) is available online from http://www.onetcenter.org/tools/html. According to Madill et al. (2000) both the Salience Inventory and the Values Scale were marketed together in Canada as the Life Roles Inventory but were subsequently separated (p. 19). A full description of The Salience Inventory is available in the following publication: D. D. Nevill & D. E. Super, 1986. The Salience Inventory: Theory, application, and research. Palo Alto: CA: Consulting Psychologists Press). Work Values Inventory This inventory was first published in 1964 (D. E. Super, The Work Values Inventory, Boston: Houghton Mifflin). Supers 1970 version (Manual, Work Values Inventory, Chicago: Riverside Publishing) consisted of 15 scales of three items each, with responses on a five-point scale from Unimportant to Very Important. The scales were: altruism, esthetics, creativity, intellectual stimulation, achievement, independence, prestige, management, economic
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returns, security, surroundings, supervisory relations, associates, way of life, and variety (Zytowski, 2006, Assessment, para 3). D. G. Zytowski of National Career Assessment Services has revised Supers 1970 edition. The Work Values Inventory, version 1.0 (May, 2006) is available only on-line at http://kuder.com/publicweb/swv_manual.aspx . In 1973, Super rearranged the inventory to include Likert-type rating scales for each value. For more information see The Work Values Inventory in: D. G. Zytowski (Ed.) (1973), Contemporary Approaches to Interest Measurement (pp. 189-205). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minneapolis Press. Values Scale (VS) Dorothy Nevill and Super incorporated work values and several other general values into their Values Scale in 1985. The purpose of the Values Scale was to assess the general values a person seeks to satisfy through various life roles. A persons values are objectives sought in behavior. If these values cannot be satisfied through one particular career role, then a person must consider other ways of satisfying them (Nevill, 1996). According to Madill et al. (2000), the VS consists of 20 values such as economics, autonomy, life style, and prestige (pp. 19, 22). Each value has five items, each of which is answered using a four-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = little or no importance to 4 = very important (Madrill, 2000, p. 19). The VS may be used in cross-cultural research on vocational behavior in a number of languages. It is available through www.cppdb.com/detail/detailprod.asp?pc=11. Madill et al. (2000) say that both the Values Scale and the Salience Inventory were marketed together in Canada as the Life Roles Inventory but were subsequently separated (p. 19). For more information see: D. D. Nevill and D. E. Super (1985). Values Scale, Palo Alto: CA: Consulting Psychologists Press D. D. Nevill & D. E. Super 1986. The Values Scale: Theory, application, and research: Manual (research edition). Palo Alto: CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. D. D. Nevill and D. E. Super (1989), The Values Scale (2nd edition), Palo Alto: CA: Consulting Psychologists Press
Student Career Concerns Inventory (SCCI) This inventory was intended to serve as a measure of career development. It contains several scales from the ACCI as well as new subscales developed from reviewing literature on the development of work attitudes and behaviors during
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childhood and other topics. Savickas (1994b) states that the inventory was undergoing field testing during 1994 (p. 5). The major reference for this inventory is: M. L. Savickas and D. E. Super (1993). Can life stages be identified by students? In Man and Work: Journal of labor Studies, 4, 71-78). SUMMARY This review provides a description of the major concepts and segments included in Supers approach to career development and choice. However, this review skims only the surface. Supers life-span, life-space approach evolved over four decades, and both Super and others explored in-depth various aspects of Supers approach. Super worked collaboratively, and colleagues and supporters not only aided in theory development, but also explored and tested many of his concepts. From a reviewers point of view, this has proven problematic. Often, researchers single out one or more areas of Supers research for further investigation, but neglect to identify which of Supers segments and/or concepts they are addressing and/or how their own conception differs from his. For example, Savickas (2002) largely rewrites and reorganizes Supers summary propositions as presented in Super et al. (1996), but in some of the propositions includes exact wording from the 1996 summary. Super (1990) himself complains about the lack of reference to and implicit redefinition of some of his concepts by others (p. 242-243). As complicated as Supers work and research is, it is still applicable today and is widely used as a basis for further research. The present review can serve as a guide for exploration of the vast literature on Supers lifespace, life-space theory of career development. NOTES This work is part of a larger project funded by the Advanced Technological Education Program of the National Science Foundation (DUE #0501971) REFERENCES Blustein, D. L. (1997). A context-rich perspective of career exploration across the life roles [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 45, 260-274. Retrieved April 11, 2006 from ProQuest. Career Development Inventory (2006). Retrieved February 5, 2007 from http://iseek.org/sv/81002.jsp Cook, E. P. (1994). Role salience and multiple roles: A gender perspective [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 43, 85 ff. Retrieved August 1, 2006 from ProQuest. Darcy, M. (2005). Super's life-span life-space theory. Overview of Major Theories of Career Choice and Development (SDS 6345.) Retrieved February 7, 2007 from http://uwf.edu/mdarcy/documents/
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Fouad, N. A., & Arbona, C. (1994). Careers in a cultural context [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 43, 96 ff. Retrieved August 1, 2006 from ProQuest. Goodman, J. (1994). Career adaptability in adults: A construct whose time has come [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 43, 74 ff. Retrieved August 1, 2006 from ProQuest. Herr, E. L. (1997). Super's life-span, life-space approach and its outlook for refinement [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 45, 238-243. Retrieved April 11, 2006 from ProQuest. Impara, J. C. and Plake, B. S. (eds.), 1998. The Thirteenth Mental Measurements Yearbook. Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements. Accessed February 5, 2007, http://buros.unl.edu/buros/jsp/reviews.jsp?item=05000405 Jepsen, D. A. (1994). The thematic-extrapolation method: incorporating career patterns into career counseling [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 43, 43. Retrieved August 1, 2006 from ProQuest. Kramer, J. J. & Conoley, J. C. (eds), (1992). The Eleventh Mental Measurements Yearbook. Lincoln NE: Burros Institute of Mental Measurements, (2/5/2007, http://buros.unl.edu/buros/jsp/reviews.jsp?) Nevill, Dorothy D. (1996). Career assessment and the Values Scale [Abstract]. Journal of Career Assessment, v4, 383. Accessed February 06, 2007 from http://jca.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/4/4/383 P. W. Boswell & Associates (2004). Salience Inventory Accessed February 6, 2007, http://www.employment-training.org/vocational assessment index.html Savickas, M. L. (1994a). Donald Edwin Super: the career of a planful explorer [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 43, 4 ff. Retrieved August 1,2006 from ProQuest. Savickas, M. L. (1994b). Measuring career development: Current status and future directions [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 43, 54 ff. Retrieved August 1, 2006 from ProQuest. Savickas, M. L. (1997a). Advancing life-span, life-space theory: Introduction to the special section [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 45, 236-237. Retrieved April 11, 2006 from ProQuest. Savickas, M. L. (1997b). Career adaptability: An integrative construct for lifespan, life-space theory [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 45, 247-259. Retrieved April 11, 2006 from ProQuest. Savickas, M. L. (2002). Career construction: A developmental theory of vocational behavior. In D. Brown & Associates (Eds.), Career Choice and Development (4th ed., pp. 149-205). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Super, D. E. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. In D. Brown, L. Brooks, & Associates (Ed.), Career Choice and Development (2nd ed., pp. 197-261). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishing. Super, D. E., Savickas, M. L., & Super, C. M. (1996). The life-span, life-space approach to careers. In D. Brown, L. Brooks & Associates (Eds.), Career Choice and Development (3rd ed., pp. 121-178). San Francisco: Jossey-
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Bass. Zytowski, D. G. (1994). A super contribution to vocational theory: Work values [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 43, 25 ff. Retrieved August 1, 2006 from ProQuest. Zytowski, D. G. (2006). Supers Work Values Inventory-Revised. Accessed February 6, 2007, http://www.kuder.com/publicweb/swv_manual.aspx
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APPENDIX-- MODELS
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R& Brooks,RRainbow Model 1976, p.127)
(Super et al., 1996, p. 127)

Used with permission of John Wiley & Sons
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Archway Model (Super, 1990, p. 200)

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Person-Environment Theory of John L. Holland1

Charlene J. Allison (Editor)2 Edmonds Community College Lynnwood, WA
In the preface to Making Vocational Choices John Holland (1997) states, This book is my sixth attempt to create a more satisfying theory of careers. I never seem to get it quite right (p. v). These simple statements emphasize the difficulty in developing and testing career theories. Hollands first presentation of his theory in 1959 emphasized the search for personenvironment fit. Holland believed that people seek a career environment that lets them use their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and undertake satisfying problems and roles (Spokane, 1996, p. 39). Further, people are more satisfied if their work is congruent with their personality. Holland suggested that it is incomplete to focus on personal characteristics and neglect environmental characteristics of the workplace. Each environmental type attracts its associated personality type. Consistency of the environmental pattern promotes stability of vocational choice. Hollands work organizes a vast amount of information about people and occupations in a single typological-interactive theory. In Hollands approach, the term type refers to broad personality-based dispositions reflecting the full range of behavior, attitudes and so on (Spokane, Luchetta & Richwine, 2002, p. 401). Hollands theory can also be described as a fulfillment theory, in that people usually look for enjoyment and seek goals that use their talents, skills, and abilities. Some activities are conscious and others are not; however, psychological stimuli (e.g., prior learning, genes, physiological conditions, developmental processes, psychological/sociological influences) give direction to behavior (Holland 1997, p. 12). Since Holland was a logical positivist, he developed and tested his approach on the basis of empirical research. Holland (1998) noted that he was skeptical about speculations and strategies that have tenuous relation to evidence (p. 555). The following review of Hollands theory presents an overview of its key components, summarizes some of the research testing these components, and concludes with practical applications and instruments. Characteristics of Hollands Theory Hollands theory of vocational personalities and work environments has three major components. First, the theory characterizes people by their resemblance to six personality 1
types: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. This full set of types is often referred to in career literature by the acronym RIASEC. When a person closely resembles a type, s/he will show traits and behaviors associated with the type. The second major component of the theory is that environments in which people work and live can also be characterized by their resemblance to six model environments: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. Third, the pairing of persons and environments leads to predictable outcomes. These outcomes include vocational choice, vocational stability and achievement, educational choice and achievement, personal competence, social behavior, and susceptibility to influence (Holland, 1997, p. 2). Holland (1997) used four working assumptions in developing his approach: 1. In our culture, most persons can be categorized as one of six personality types: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, or Conventional. 2. There are six model environments: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. 3. People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles. 4. Behavior is determined by an interaction between personality and environment. (Holland 1997, pp. 2-4) He (Holland, 1997) also used six additional background principles: 1. The choice of a vocation is an expression of personality. Ones vocational interests stem from ones life history and personality. 2. Interest inventories are personality inventories. Vocational preferences are indicators of personality traits. Interest scales are related to ones values, academic achievement, adventurousness, and other personal characteristics. 3. Vocational stereotypes have reliable and important psychological and sociological meanings. Occasionally these judgments can be inaccurate; however, they can often be useful. Ones vocational choices rely to some extent on vocational stereotypes. 4. The members of a vocation have similar personalities and similar histories of personal development. Vocations attract and retain people with similar personalities. 5. Because people in a vocational group have similar personalities, they will respond to many situations and problems in similar ways, and they will create characteristic interpersonal environments. It is possible to describe a vocation by a census of its members. 6. Vocational satisfaction, stability, and achievement depend on the congruence between ones personality and the environment in which one works. A person is more comfortable and works well in a vocation that fits psychologically. (Holland 1997, pp. 7-11) Holland organized and interpreted information on both personality and environmental types through use of four constructs. Each construct represents a continuum of possibilities. The four constructs are: consistency, differentiation, identity and congruence. Holland (1997) describes the constructs and their interaction (calculus) as follows.
1. Consistency the degree of relatedness or internal coherence between personality types or between environmental models (Holland, 1997, p. 4). Some pairs of types are more closely related to one other than they are to the other types. As can be seen on the diagram in Figure 1, when types are beside each other, they have more in common than types that are across from each other in the diagram. 2. Differentiation the degree to which a person or environment is well defined. A person or environment that closely resembles a single type is defined as highly differentiated. For example, there may be a crystallization of interests in a persons profile. On the other hand, some people or environments could resemble all six RIASEC types or equal numbers of a subset of the six types. In this case, the person or environment would be referred to as poorly defined or undifferentiated. It is important to note that the terms differentiated or undifferentiated are often used in career literature without reference to their source or meaning. 3. Identity the degree of clarity and stability of a persons or environments identity. Personal identity is the possession of a clear and stable picture of ones goals, interests, and talents.[Environmental identity is] when an environment or an organization has clear and integrated goals, tasks, and rewards that are stable over long time intervals (Holland, 1997, p. 5). 4. Congruence the degree of correspondence of personality types with different environments. This is also referred to as degree of fit. Social types thrive in social environments, as these environments provide the types of opportunities and rewards they need. On the other hand, a social type would be incongruent with a realistic environment as opportunities and rewards in this environment would be inconsistent with that persons preferences and abilities. This assumption is illustrated in Hollands hexagonal model as types next to each other are most congruent and those opposite each other are least congruent (see Figure 1). These four constructs together contribute to a detailed theoretical-empirical calculus or diagnostic system (Spokane et al., 2002, p. 380). This diagnostic system organizes and describes the totality of interactions between the RIASEC types and their diagnostic constructs. Holland (1997) states that the relationships within and between personality types or environments can be ordered according to a hexagonal model in which distances among the types or environments are inversely proportional to the theoretical relationships between them. This spatial arrangement provides explicit definitions of both consistency of a person or an environment () and congruence of person and environment (). In this way, the internal relationships of the theory are defined and organized by a single geometrical model (Holland, 1997, p. 5).
Figure 1. Hollands Hexagonal Model (used with permission of John Wiley and Sons)
Realistic
Investigative
Conventional
Artistic
Enterprising
Social
Holland (1997) also emphasizes that some characteristics of person and environment age, gender, ethnicity, geography, social class, physical assets or liabilities, educational level attained, intelligence, influence, effort required are incorporated indirectly in the theory, but direct assessments of these variables are also required to secure more positive applications (p. 13). Variables may reduce the range of careers considered by an individual. However, in todays world of career possibilities, even after the range of careers is limited, there is still a large variety to consider. A childs biology and experiences lead to preferences for some activities and avoidance of others. For example, sheer size, gender, and coordination influence the choice of sport, role in that sport, etc. (Holland, 1997, p. 19). As a child matures, preferences become welldefined interests and the pursuit of interests leads to the development of competencies. At the same time, values are developing and becoming clearer. These events an increasing differentiation of preferred activities, interests, competencies, and values create a characteristic disposition or personality type that is predisposed to exhibit characteristic behavior and to develop characteristic personality traits, attitudes, and behaviors that, in turn, form collections of skills and coping mechanisms (Holland, 1997, p. 18). Hollands conception of the development of personality types is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: How Personality Develops
(Holland, 1997, page 19. Reproduced by special permission of the Publisher, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc., 16204 North Florida Avenue, Lutz, FL 33549, from Making Vocational Choices. Third Edition, Copyright 1973, 1985, 1992, 1997 by Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. All rights reserved.)
Personality Typology Hollands personality types are theoretical organizers or groupings to help us understand how people differ in their personalities, interests, and behaviors. These types originate in heredity, direct activities that yield interests and competencies, and cumulate in a disposition or propensity to act in certain predictable ways (repertories) (Spokane, 1996, p. 40). Each individuals personality reflects a combination of all the Holland types, yet we individually have a unique representation. The pattern of types for each person is referred to as a subtype. Through extensive research, Holland found that types reliably show patterns of behavior and values. Types are measured using interest items but actually are expressions of our personality (Holland, 1992) (Spokane, 1996, p. 40). Spokane (1996) has also suggested that Holland saw interests as comprehensive, broad dispositions or orientations that are somewhat fluid in that they can be altered through learning (p. 41). A persons dominant type determines the primary direction of his/her vocational choices. Types can be assessed qualitatively by a persons expressed vocational preferences or employment held. Various quantitative instruments were developed to assess a persons resemblance to the types, such as the Self-Directed Search (SDS) or the Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI). The results of the SDS yield a rank ordering of type codes. Spokane (1996) uses the following example to illustrate how this works (p. 41). A persons full code could be IRCAES. The first three letters are referred to as the summary code. In this example, the first three letters are Investigative, Realistic, and Conventional. According to the Assessing Women in Engineering Project (AWE) (2005), many occupations encompass several of the Holland types. People in the field of engineering, for example, are a combination of the Realistic and Investigative types (AWE, 2005, p. 7). However, practitioners have been known to use only the first letter or the first two letters as the summary code. No single assessment technique is the most advantageous for all purposes, and no single measure can capture an ideal type. Hollands six personality types and their attributes, reproduced from Hollands (1996) article, are explained in Table 1. Briefly, the types include: Realistic (practical, self-controlled), Investigative (analytical, logical), Artistic (imaginative, self-expression), Social (friendly, service to others), Enterprising (persuasive, ambitious), and Conventional (content, obedient).
Table 1. Personality Typology

Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Helping, teaching, treating, counseling or serving others through personal interaction Enterprising Conventional Establishing or maintaining orderly routines, application of standards Material or financial accomplishment & power in social, business, or political arenas Having technical skills in business or production lacking artistic competencies Careful, conforming
Preferen -ces for activeties and occupations
Manipulation of machines, tools & things
Exploration, understanding & prediction or control of natural & social phenomena
Literary, musical, or artistic activities
Persuading, manipulating, or directing others
Values
Material rewards for tangible accomplishments
Development or acquisition of knowledge
Creative expressions of ideas, emotions or sentiments
Fostering the welfare of others, social service
Material accomplishment & social status
Sees self as
Practical, conservative & having manual & mechanical skills lacking social skills Normal, frank
Analytical, intelligent, skeptical, & having academic talent lacking interpersonal skills Asocial, intellectual
Open to experience innovative, intellectual lacking clerical or office skills Unconventional, disorderly, creative Routines & conformity to established rules
Empathic, patient, and having interpersonal skills lacking mechanical ability Nurturing, agreeable, extroverted Mechanical & technical activity
Having sales & persuasive ability lacking scientific ability
Others see as
Energetic, gregarious Scientific, intellectual, or abstruse topics
Avoids
Interaction with people
Persuasion or sales activities
Ambiguous or unstructured undertakings (Holland, 1996, p. 398)
Environmental Typology Holland conducted extensive research on the interactions of people in environments. A persons career development over a life span can be visualized as a series of personenvironment interactions and their outcomes. Basically, because human behavior depends upon both personality and the environment in which a person lives and works, the personality types must be supplemented by environmental information (Holland, 1997, p. 41). Environments are rarely homogeneous and usually are complex. Initially, Holland and his colleagues defined the character of a work environment by the number of individuals of a certain type present in that environment. This approach to environmental types was later revised to incorporate both the types of individuals comprising the staff, but also what those individuals actually do (Spokane, 1996, p. 38). 7
The typology of work environments is summarized in Table 2. Briefly, work environments are categorized into the same six types (with occupational examples included for each type): Realistic (farmer, police officer), Investigative (chemist, dentist), Artistic (graphic designer, dancer), Social (teacher, nurse), Enterprising (sales manager, TV newscaster), and Conventional (bookkeeper, bank teller).
Table 2. Environmental Typology

Realistic Manual & mechanical competencies, interaction with machines, tools, & objects Investigative Analytical, technical, scientific, & verbal competencies Skepticism & persistence in problem solving, documentation of new knowledge or understanding or solution of problems Acquisition of knowledge through scholarship or investigation Analytical or intellectual activity aimed at troubleshooting or creation & use of knowledge Psychologist, microbiologist Artistic Innovation or creative ability, emotionally expressive interaction with others Social Interperson -al competencies, skill in mentoring, treating, healing, or teaching others Enterprising Conventional Clerical skills, skills in meeting precise standards for performance
Requires
Skills in persuasion & manipulation of others
Demands and rewards the display of
Conforming behavior, practical accomplishment
Imagination in literary, artistic or musical accomplishment
Empathy, humanitarianism. sociability, friendliness
Initiative in pursuit of financial or material accomplishments, dominance, selfconfidence
Organizational ability, conformity, dependability
Values or personal styles allowed expression
Practical, productive & concrete values; robust, risky, adventurous styles
Unconventional ideas or manners, aesthetic values Creative work in music, writing, performance, sculpture or unstructured intellectual endeavors Musician, interior designer
Concern for the welfare of others
Acquisitive or poweroriented styles, responsibility
Conventional outlook & concern for orderliness & routines Working with things, numbers, or machines to meet predictable, organizational demands or specified standards Production editor, bookkeeper
Occupations or other environments involve
Concrete, practical activity; use of machines, tools, materials
Working with others in a helpful or facilitative way
Selling, leading, manipulating others to attain personal or organizational goals
Sample occupations
Carpenter, truck operator
Counselor, clergy member
Lawyer, retail store manager
(Holland, 1996, p. 399) Real environments can be assessed by comparing them to the six environmental types. To do this, Holland developed the Environmental Assessment Technique (EAT) collaboratively with Alexander Astin in 1961. At first, Holland and Astin used the EAT to assess college environments. Later, when Holland changed his emphasis to work environments and vocational intervention, he applied it to any institution or group. To assist with classification of 9
work environments, Gottfredson, Holland, and Ogawa published their Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes in 1982, which Gottfredson and Holland updated in 1996 (Spokane et al., 2002, p. 377). Gottfredson and Holland later developed (in 1991) the Position Classification Inventory (PCI) to assign three-letter codes to specific occupations or positions, which then can be used to assess occupational environments. Research on Hollands Theory A vast amount of empirical research over the past four decades has been done on Hollands person-environment theory. Spokane (1996) says that empirical research supports the existence of a limited set of vocational personality types and a unique pattern of competencies, identifications, and values (p. 51). Spokane (1996) also notes that Hollands theory has evolved over time and currently represents person-environment interactions that reflect the interaction of largely stable traits with complex environments (p. 35). As people interact in their work environment, they usually find it satisfying when it resembles their personality traits. Congruent environments encourage job stability. Usually incongruent personality-environment interactions initiate either change in behavior people become similar to the dominant persons in the environment, or change in the environment people seek a new, more congruent environment (Spokane et al., 2002). Throughout his research, Holland found that people strive for career stability. The following five sections provide information on research categories related to Hollands theory: The Types, The Hexagonal Model, Interests, Congruence and Satisfaction, and Heredity and Applicability. Hollands 1997 book, Making Vocational Choices, includes a complete list of supporting research. The following summaries of some of the literature are largely from this book, unless otherwise noted. The Types Extensive research supports the existence of a set of personality types (Holland, 1996; Spokane et al., 2002). According to Holland (1997), using data from annual freshman surveys, Alexander Astin (1993) created a typology of seven types (see An Empirical Typology of College Students, Journal of College Student Development, 34, 1, January, 1993). Astin (1993) found that five of the student types resembled five of Hollands types Investigative, Social, Artistic, Enterprising, and Conventional (Holland, 1997, p. 190). In another study, Holland (1997) reports, Gottfredson, Jones, and Holland (1993) compared the scales of Hollands Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) with those of the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PIR), which was developed as part of the Neuroticism-ExtroversionOpenness model of personality. They established that, despite years of independent development, the two inventories were significantly related in two to four factors and thus overlapped. Social and Enterprising vocational preferences are correlated with Extroversion; Investigative and Artistic preferences with Openness; and Conventional preferences with Conscientiousness. Although these correlations were low, the patterns of significant correlations were similar to those obtained by other investigators (Costa et al., 1984; Holland, Johnston, & Asama, 1994) (Holland, 1997. p. 142). Holland also supported his approach through conducting his own research on personality types. He administered the Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) in two large samples of National Merit finalists over one and two year intervals. He found that a range of personal 10
characteristicsacademic aptitudes, self-ratings, extracurricular activities, academic interests, nonacademic achievements, and personality variableswere associated with the types. Holland published the results of these studies in 1962 (Some explorations of a theory of vocational choice: I. One- and two-year longitudinal studies, Psychological Monographs, 76 (whole No. 545)). There is, of course, some research that does not support Hollands personality types. A recent study reported by Spokane et al. (2002) found that birth order correlates with Holland type and occupational interests in a sample of medical students. First-born students were lower in Realistic and Artistic than their second-born counterparts, and only children were higher on Investigative. Later-born children scored higher on music, athletics and nature (Spokane et al., 2002, p. 395). However, as indicated above, supportive results are more usual. Less empirical evidence is available on the environmental types (Spokane et al., 2002, p. 394). Spokane et al. (2002) report that three studies on academic environments found that faculty actively create environments consistent with Hollands theory and then require, reinforce, and reward students differentially according to their patterns of behavior (p. 395). Others have studied the distribution of RIASEC jobs available in the actual workforce. In a review article, Guindon and Richmond (2005) summarize the results of a study published in 2004 by Reardon, Vernick and Reed. Reardon et al. mapped Hollands six occupational types onto the actual distribution of occupations in United States census data for 1960 to 1990 as well as onto labor market data from four decades. Their first step was to look at the distribution of occupational titles in US census employment data for kinds of work classified by the RIASEC model. They found that overall the distributions of employment were quite similar from 1960 to 1990 despite some major shifts within categories (Guindon & Richmond, 2005, p. 101). The Realistic area included more titles (almost 50% of the titles) than each of the other five areas over the 40 year period, even though Realistic employment fell by 18% from 1960 to 1990. Titles in the Enterprising category increased 300% from the 1960s to the 1990s. On the other hand, only 2% of the occupational titles were identified as Artistic and their percentage remained low during the four decades. According to Guindon and Richmond (2005), Reardon et al. then analyzed actual employment (using labor market data) and found that the distribution of the number of people employed in the six different work environments resembled the distribution of titles in the US census data, with Realistic having the greatest number of occupational titles and greatest number of people employed. The order of magnitude of employment is: Realistic, Enterprising, Conventional, Social, Investigative, and then Artistic. In working with 1990 census data, Reardon et al. also found that work labeled as Realistic or Enterprising had the most diverse levels of cognitive complexity. Yet most people are employed in Realistic or Enterprising occupations requiring low to medium levels of cognitive complexity. The order of ratings of cognitive complexity required for occupations in various codes from lowest to highest was RCESAI and the order for income levels was CRASEI, with Investigative jobs providing the highest incomes (Guindon & Richmond, 2005, p. 103). Reardon et al. also identified a potential problem in the public discussion of employment and career preparation. Most preparation is directed toward occupations with combinations of 11
codes in the Investigative, Artistic and Social areas which require higher levels of cognitive complexity, prestige and income. However, fewer of these jobs are available than those classified as Realistic, Conventional and Enterprising areas. Reardon et al. concluded that Hollands theory and typology can be useful in workforce and career planning, and encouraged school counselors to use data such as job availability when working with students (Guindon & Richmond, 2005). Hexagonal Model Holland discovered in 1973 that a regular statistical structure underlies interest inventories (Spokane, 1996, p. 53). Using this discovery, Holland developed the hexagonal model as a way to organize personal and occupational data. It serves to illustrate the relationship between types. A series of articles published by Ryan, Tracey, and Rounds (and others) in the early through mid-1990s challenged the hexagonal model by proving that a circle with the types in Hollands positions works just as well as the hexagon for Western culture but possibly not for non-Western cultures. Holland (1997) notes that a study carried out by Yu and Alvi (1996) in four technical secondary schools in China reported clear support for the hexagonal model. Data from 192 males and 217 females formed near perfect hexagons (Holland, 1997, p. 157). Ryan, Tracey, and Rounds (1996) also found that Hollands hexagon is applicable across gender and for both White- and African-Americans (p. 336). Interests According to Spokane (1996), Holland maintained that interest inventories are really personality inventories. Holland collaborated with Costa and McCrea, the originators of the Neuroticism-Extroversion-Openness Personality Inventory (NEO-PIR), to compare the relationship between Hollands typology in the Self-Directed Search (SDS) and the typology used with the NEO. As reported by Spokane et al. (2002), they found that correlations between interests and personality were substantial for men and women of all ages (p. 402). Holland also believed that individuals inherit interests (i.e. physical attributes, personality type) and that the development of interests is more of an activation process than a learning process (Spokane, 1996, pp. 51-52). Activation is influenced by opportunity and social structure, and is affected by external factors such as parents, teachers, and family. On the other hand, Holland (1997) notes that another researcher (Swanson, 1993), found that interests, abilities and skills are independent constructs, yet at the same time cohere within the same personality type (p. 145). Considerable controversy continues over the relationship between interests and personality (see Spokane et al., 2002, p.402). Congruence and Satisfaction Congruence refers to the degree of fit or interaction between an individuals personality type and occupational type. In Hollands approach, high congruence translates into high wellbeing. Other researchers, such as Meir, Melamed and Dinur (1995), note that well-being is composed of stability, achievements, and satisfaction. In a longitudinal study of bank tellers, Gottfredson and Holland (1990) found that person-job congruence had a consistent but moderate correlation with job satisfaction (Spokane, 1996, p. 58). They also found that workers in Social, Enterprising, and Conventional categories had the highest job satisfaction. In his 1997 book, Holland reports that Helms and Williams designed and carried out a study to test Hollands person-environment congruency hypothesis. In this study, high school 12
students interests were assessed and represented as one of Hollands six types of interests (personality). Additionally, each student was assigned to try out each of six simulated work experiences representing Hollands six work environment types. After each simulation, each student completed a scale to assess whether the simulated occupation would be congruent with the students competencies, interests, values and personality traits. The results of this study (Helms & Williams, 1973; data reanalyzed and published in Helms, 1996) indicated that students found the simulated occupational environment that paralleled their interest type to be the most compatible (Holland, 1997, p. 126). Measuring congruence between personality type and occupational type, however, has proven difficult. Most studies have found 30% or less correlation between job congruence and job satisfaction (Spokane, 1985, p. 335 in Meir et al., 1995. p. 1). Several researchers provide possible explanations for this. Spokane et al. (2002) note that recent studies on congruence have shown that methodological problems in calculating congruence can affect the degree of fit found (p. 398). In a longitudinal study, Jepsen and Sheu (2003) found that congruence increases over adult years, with those in midlife experiencing the highest congruence between occupational choices and the job currently held (p. 177). Meir et al. (1995) identify three types of congruence: vocational congruence, leisure (or avocational) congruence, and skill utilization. They (Meir et al., 1995) also break satisfaction down into three components: satisfaction with occupational choice, work satisfaction and self esteem (p. 2). In their study of 120 Israeli male professionals, Meir et al. (1995) conclude that job satisfaction as well as other employee outcomes are a product of congruence in different domains. Hence, one could not expect the correlation of one congruence aspect (e.g., occupational congruence) with employee outcomes to be high (p. 5). They (Meir et al., 1995) also found that the addition of any congruence aspect is related to an increase in well-being (p. 4). Holland himself had doubts about the relationship between congruence and satisfaction. He (Holland, 1996) notes that a study by Carson and Mowsesian (1990) reveals that a sense of vocational identity was more predictive of job satisfaction than congruence of interests and job (p. 401). Indeed, Spokane et al. (2002) note the prominent role of identity in Hollands 1997 revision of his theory (p. 410). According to Spokane (1996), researchers such as Gottfredson and Holland (1990) and Meir and Navon (1992) have confirmed the tendency of individuals to search for and remain in congruent work environments (p. 55). Holland (1996) found that job searching activities appear to be stimulated by job dissatisfaction (p. 402). Holland (1996) also reports that a study by Gottfredson (1977) supports the conclusion that the average career has substantial continuity, as people tend to move among similar careers; and that career stability increases with age for both men and women (p. 397). Nonetheless, incongruent decisions are often made based on a variety of factors, such as the labor market, social pressure, or things outside a persons control. Heredity and Applicability A number of studies on the effects of heredity (including gender and race) on career choice have been done to test the applicability of Hollands theory and measurement instruments across groups. In his 1997 book, Holland argues that far more factors in career choice originate from heredity than from socialization. He (Holland, 1997) says that heredity clearly 13
has a comprehensive and substantial array of effects that belie many common beliefs about the potency of family and other environmental influences (p. 151). In support of this idea, Holland (1997) discusses several studies reporting that between 30-50% of the variance in occupational interests can be attributed to genetic sources (p. 151; see also Spokane, 1996, p. 38). Culture, Race and Ethnicity. Hollands theory and instruments have been used all over the world. Spokane et al. (2002) note several of the problems involved, such as linguistically appropriate inventories and comparability of sampling with respect to demographic variables (p. 408). Holland recognized that his theory of six types of personalities and environments is set within a particular culture, the culture of the United States. In an interview, Holland himself says, Do not blindly assume that this will work well in your culture. Do some research-oriented evaluation to find out. Then, make what adaptations seem necessary, or use something else (Feller, Honaker and Zagzebski, 2001, p. 214). However, Holland believed that the ordering of types of occupational categories is similar in different countries, even when the data vary by gender and culture. Other studies have found that there is little difference in the applicability of Hollands approach to African Americans and White Americans. Holland (1997) provides Walsh & Hollands (1992) summary of eight studies that focused on occupational codes generated by adult workers and college students taking the Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) (p. 191). He (Holland, 1997) reports that Walsh and Holland (1992) found that the codes for men and women and for Blacks and Whites in the same field were both similar and in agreement with Hollands typological formulations and other data (p. 191). Ryan et al. (1996) also conclude in their study that Hollands model is applicable to both African Americans and White Americans, men and women, and people of high as well as low socioeconomic status (SES), even though African American men and women differ in differentiation on two dimensions (see Gender and the Types, below). Ryan et al. (1996) also point out that many studies on the applicability of Hollands theory to African Americans are based on small sample sizes and thus do not provide conclusive proof (p. 336). Gender and the Types. The results of studies investigating the relationship between gender and career interest in occupations by Holland type are mixed. As noted previously, Reardon et al. (2004) found that most men between 1960 and 1990 (between 79% and 85%) were employed in Realistic occupations, followed by Enterprising ones (Guidon and Richmond, 2005). Women were employed in more varied work including Conventional, Realistic, Social and more recently, Enterprising positions. Notably, Reardon et al. (2004) concluded that income for women is lower than for men in all six categories, and the discrepancy becomes greater as income levels rise (p. 107) (Guindon & Richmond, 2005, p. 102). Ji, Lapan and Tate (2004) carried out a study on the sex-typing of occupations among 8th grade students in three Midwestern, suburban middle schools. Results indicated that the students believed that men are more likely to be employed in Realistic careers (Ji, Lapan, & Tate, 2004, p. 150). This corresponds with Reardon et al.s (2004) findings that a greater percentage of men are actually employed in Realistic type jobs (Guindon & Richmond, 2005, p. 102). Ji, Lapan and Tate (2004) also found that the students believed that women are 14
more likely to be employed in social occupations (p. 150). In actuality, according to Reardon et al. (2004), most women were employed in Conventional and Realistic positions. Since the Realistic type includes more occupational categories and employs a greater number of people than any of the other Holland types (Guindon & Richmond, 2005, p. 102), this difference may be partly due to the greater availability of Realistic jobs. Or, the perception that women tend to choose Social occupations may be incorrect. Ryan et al. (1996) administered Hollands Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) to 370 students (177 males, 193 females) in three urban, Midwestern high schools. The sample included 109 African-American students and 261 White students. In this study, AfricanAmerican males and females differed from one another in which dimension was most salient. African-American women showed more variation on the data-ideas dimension and AfricanAmerican men showed more variation on the people-things dimension (Ryan et al., 1996, p. 336). Ryan et al. (1996) say This may suggest that although both African-American male and female students may be fit by the RIASEC structure, there may be other differences across gender for this population (p. 336). According to Holland (1997), The 1994 revision of the SDS [Self-Directed Search] reveals again that the largest mean differences are for gender not ethnicity for large and small samples of Whites, African Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans, Native Americans, and others (p. 156). Women are more similar in interest to women in other cultures or races than they are to men of the same culture or race. Holland (1997) also notes that inventories that use normative data are seen as less desirable because they adjust interest scores on the basis of sex (p. 156). Some women, Holland (1997) says, are therefore misclassified or misidentified. Practical Applications Holland (1997) says that the average person has little career knowledge, has at least a moderate degree of career identity, and needs to rationalize decisions or situationThe average person knows so little about careers that almost any career information is new and helpful (p. 204). He thought it most likely that people with more information could make better career choices (Spokane, 1996, p. 35). Accordingly, Holland and others developed a number of tools based on his theory to help with career assistance and decision making. The results provided by some of these tools are of use to counselors in helping individuals interpret their interests (e.g., Self-Directed Search), predict the categories of occupations that appear congruent for them (e.g., Vocational Preference Inventory), identify some sources of current job dissatisfaction, and discover potentially compatible jobs. Other tools, such as the Position Classification Inventory (PCI) were developed to characterize occupations. Individuals can use many of the tools for career planning. They can actively search for congruent occupations and identify informational gaps and needed skills. According to Holland (1997), Holland, Johnston, and Asama (1993) summarized the research on the reliability and validity of the Vocational Identity Scale (VI). Their results indicated that the VI measures clusters of positive characteristics. High scorers are vocationally mature people who possess many constructive beliefs about career decision-making; are interpersonally competent; are relatively free of disabling psychological problems; are conscientious, hopeful, and responsible; have a clear sense of vocational identity; and are 15
not easily put off by barriers or environmental difficulties.These findings hold for both men and women (Holland, 1997, p. 149). Taken together, Hollands theoretical approach and associated instruments organize the assessment of the person and the world of occupations within the same framework. Instruments Based on Hollands Approach Hollands theory has found significant application and use by career counselors and others who work with both men and women in the career decision process. Holland and others have produced a number of instruments to measure constructs for making career decisions. All of the products are currently (5/2007) available online through the publisher at http://www3.parinc.com/products Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory (CASI) This inventory consists of 130-items with nine subscales (Job Satisfaction, Work Involvement, Skill Development, Dominant Style, Career Worries, Interpersonal Abuse, Family Commitment, Risk-Taking Style and Geographical Barriers) (Spokane et al., 2002). The CASI provides a comprehensive inventory of a person's current work situation that includes common attitudes and beliefs as well as strategies for coping with job, family, co-workers, and supervisors. Spokane et al. (2002) say that Holland and Gottfredson developed the CASI in 1994 to assess some common attitudes, feelings, experiences and obstacles that influence the careers of adults (p. 392). This inventory also assesses the likelihood of job stability and helps to clarify situations the individual may perceive as career obstacles. It takes 35 minutes to complete and is self-scoring (BCWINS, 1998). For more information see: Holland, J. L. and Gottfredson, G. D. (1994). CASI: Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory: An Inventory For Understanding Adult Careers. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes This listing characterizes work environments for all occupations in the U.S. economy. The volume allows individuals to locate occupations and fields of study matching their own vocational personalities or resembling a current or previous occupation. For more information see: Gottfredson, Gary D. & Holland, John L. (1996). Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes, 3rd edition. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. Position Classification Inventory (PCI) An 84-item inventory, the PCI is the only assessment in Hollands system that classifies work environments (Spokane et al., 2002, p. 391). It assesses job requirements, skills, perspectives, values, personal characteristics, talents, and key behaviors. For example, sample position descriptors for the question, What skills, abilities, or personal characteristics must be exercised by a person in this position? include: direct the work of others; engage in heavy physical activity; or follow directions. Individuals respond by indicating the degree to which each descriptor applies to their work position by marking Often, Sometimes, or Seldom/Never. 16
For more information see: Gottfredson, G. D. & Holland, J. L. (1991). Position Classification Inventory: Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. Self-Directed Search (SDS) The most widely used interest inventory, with over a dozen studies documenting its utility, the SDS can help individuals understand more about themselves and how skills and interests are related to career choices. The SDS is self-administered and self-scored. Taking the SelfDirected Search will determine a 3-letter Holland code (the first three letters of a persons full code) which will help find the careers that best match interests and abilities. A list of occupations and college majors that match a persons code are available with the results (Spokane et al., 2002). The SDS is now marketed as Self-Directed Search Career Explorer (CE). An on-line version of the SDS is available at http://www.self-directed-search.com For more information see: Holland, J. L. & Powell, A. B. (1994). SDS Career Explorer. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. Holland, J. L., Fritzche, B. A., & Powell, A. B. (1994). Technical Manual for the SelfDirected Search. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. Holland (1997) notes that SDS profiles can be used to organize a schools counseling resources in several ways to: Structure career education around the six career clusters of information. Provide students with translations of personal characteristics and jobs that are readily accessible and easily comprehended. Provide students with relevant school and non-school experiences. Provide the opportunity to experience the six types of work environments. Provide students with accurate and accessible information about themselves and the world of work over a long time span rather than a few critical decision points. (Holland, 1997, p. 214)
For businesses, Hollands (1997) classification can be used in human resource planning: Recruit and select workers for similar jobs or totally new jobs. Create training programs. Redesign jobs. Improve communication & cooperation within and between work groups. Use interest profiles to design more satisfying jobs. Create congenial work groups. Match supervisors and employees. Plan for career ladders. (Holland, 1997, p. 216)
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Vocational Identity Scale (VI) An 18-item, true/false scale, the VI generates an image of ones goals, interests, and talents. The VI can be used as a screening instrument and to evaluate the effectiveness of treatments. For more information see: Holland, J. L., Johnston, J. A., & Asama, N. E. (1993). The Vocational Identity Scale: A diagnostic and treatment tool, Journal of Career Assessment, 1, 1-12. J. L. Holland, D. C. Daiger, and P. G. Power (1980). My Vocational Situation (MVS) Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. The VI scale is included in the MVS, which is currently published by Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc., Odessa, FL. Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) The VPI contains 160 occupational titles, six type scales, and five supplemental scales to assess career interests. Individuals respond Yes for occupations that are appealing, No for occupations that are unappealing, and leave blank those for which they have no opinion (Spokane et al., 2002). For more information see: Holland, J. L., 1985, 7th edition, Manual for the Vocational Preference Inventory. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. Notes This work is part of a larger project funded by the Advanced Technological Education Program (ATE) of the National Science Foundation (DUE #0501971). Laura J. Collins of the Center for Research and Learning, Snohomish, WA wrote the first two drafts of this report. It was later revised and edited by Charlene J. Allison.
References Assessing Women in Engineering Project (AWE) (2005). Overview: Self-efficacy and women in engineering. AWE Research Overviews. Retrieved January 2, 2006, from http://www.aweonline.org BCWins (1998). Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory (CASI). Career Resources Guide 98. Retrieved 5/03/2007 from http://www.kin.bc.ca/JVH/EdNav/GATEWAYS/PUBL/CRG98/RES1080.HTM BCWins (1998). Career Development Inventory (CDI). Career Resources Guide 98. Retrieved 5/03/2007 from http://www.kin.bc.ca/JVH/EdNav/GATEWAYS/PUBL/CRG98/RES1080.HTM Feller, R. W., Honaker, S. L., & Zagzebski, L. M. (2001). Theoretical voices directing the career development journey: Holland, Harris-Bowlesbey, and Krumboltz [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 49, 212-224. Retrieved May 31, 2006 from ProQuest. Guindon, M. H., & Richmond, L. J. (2005, Dec). Practice and research in career counseling and development--2004 [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 54, 18
p. 90. Retrieved April 3, 2006 from ProQuest. Holland, J. L. (1996). Exploring careers with a typology: What we have learned and some new directions [Electronic Version]. American Psychologist, 51, 397-406. Retrieved April, 20, 2006 from PsycArticles. Holland, J. L. (1997). Making vocational choices (3rd ed.). Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Holland, J. L. (1998). New and old perspectives [Electronic Version]. British Journal of Guidance & Counseling, 26, 555-558. Retrieved April 10, 2006 from ProQuest. Jepsen, D. A., & Sheu, H.-B. (2003). General job satisfaction from a developmental perspective: Exploring choice--job matches at two career stages [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 52, 162-179. Retrieved January 4, 2007 from ProQuest. Meir, E. I., Melamed, S., & Dinur, C. (1995). The benefits of congruence [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 43, 257. Retrieved August 1, 2006 from ProQuest. Ryan, J. M., Tracey, T. J. G., & Rounds, J. (1996). Generalizability of Holland's structure of vocational interests across ethnicity, gender and socioeconomic status [Electronic Version]. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 330-337. Retrieved 1/13/06 from Ovid Online. Spokane, A. R. (1996). Holland's theory. In D. Brown, L. Brooks & Associates (Eds.), Career Choice & Development (3rd ed., pp. 33-74). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Spokane, A. R., Luchetta, E. J., & Richwine, M. H. (2002). Holland's theory of personalities in work environments. In D. Brown & Associates (Eds.), Career Choice and Development (4th ed., pp. 373-426). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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THE MANY SIDES OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE CAREER THEORY1 Charlene J. Allison Edmonds Community College Lynnwood, WA This paper provides a description of social cognitive career theory (SCCT). Although at first the originators of SCCT, Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1994), thought their approach would be relevant to both academic choice and career development outside of academia (p. 81), they later state (2002) that SCCT applies primarily to career development within the framework of academia. They say that SCCT encompasses conceptually and developmentally related processes of academic interests, choices, and performances, [their emphasis] even though they sometimes refer to these processes as career development processes (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 2002, p. 264). SCCT combines aspects of sociological, learning, psychological, and decision-making theories, with an emphasis on the psychological constructs that play a prominent role in career decision-making. Lent, Brown, and Hackett (2002) also see SCCT as a general framework or umbrella that integrates many other theoretical viewpoints and hypotheses that have generated support in career literature (p. 296; see also, 1994, p. 80). This integrative aspect could be considered one of SCCTs strong points. Yet, sometimes their use of SCCT as a framework creates tension and contradictions with the specifics of SCCT constructs and models. The practical application of SCCT to counseling will be discussed within this context. The following description of SCCT begins with an overview of the primary theoretical source for SCCT and a brief summary of the three SCCT models interest, choice, and performance. This is followed by a detailed explanation of each SCCT construct, and a discussion of the relationships between constructs as designated in the SCCT models. Models and Constructs The Source of SCCT SCCT concepts are primarily derived and adapted from Albert Banduras social cognitive theory (SCT). SCT is a learning theory that emphasizes the role of a persons cognitive processes and mechanisms in guiding motivation and behavior. Overt behavior is a byproduct of the interchange between a persons
experience and self-system (e.g. interests, conceptions of ability, needs). However, experience is formed through continual interaction with a surrounding environment. Environmental Information can be transmitted to an individual directly, vicariously, and/or symbolically. The individual centrally processes this information, the results of which contribute to the formation of a persons internal qualities (Bandura, 1977). According to Lent, Brown and Hackett (1994), Bandura explains the interaction of person, environment and behavior in terms of his triadic reciprocal model of causality. In this scheme, (a) personal attributes, such as internal cognitive and affective states and physical attributes; (b) external environmental factors; and (c) overt behavior (as distinct from internal and physical qualities of the person) all operate as interlocking mechanisms that affect one another bidirectionally (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994, p. 82). One essential point of Banduras approach is that individuals are seen as exercising personal agency (or self-direction) rather than being totally at the mercy of their environment. Bandura emphasizes observation as a major source of environmental information (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). When a person enacts specific behavior, s/he is modeling it for an observer. That is, the first persons behavior serves as a model of how to behave for any observer. One type of modeling is called vicarious modeling. It consists of observing a persons actions and noting other peoples positive or negative responses to these actions. If one copies the behavior oneself and notes reactions, it is referred to as participant modeling. Participation in classes and workshops are also examples of participant modeling. The degree to which a person succeeds or fails in these learning experiences contributes to what Bandura refers to as mastery experiences. Other sources of learning include persuasion and emotional arousal. The SCCT Models In their original 1994 paper, Lent, Brown, and Hackett present SCCT in terms of three interrelated career development models. The authors refer to these models as segmental models since each model covers a specific developmental time span and interlocks with the other two. The interest development model is concerned with childhood and early adolescence; the choice model covers late adolescence and early adulthood; and the performance model covers primarily the time from a persons first job to later in life. Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1994) say, Within each model, we highlight the sociocognitive mechanisms that we believe exert important influences on career and academic development (p. 87). Each of the models uses the same constructs and illustrates the predominant hypothetical pathways in the process of career decision-making in each stage. The interest model focuses on the development of patterns of likes, dislikes and indifference with regard to career-related activities. These patterns are formed through interactions with environmental influences, and particularly through learning experiences. Childrens cognitive mechanisms, such as beliefs about their own abilities, develop through these experiences as well. The performance model addresses performance attainments, accomplishments, and persistence in
ones chosen field. The choice model focuses on the factors and processes involved in making vocational decisions. As the choice model includes aspects of the two other models, and was the one most applicable to our Project, we examined it in detail. A diagram of the choice model is attached. Key Constructs in the Choice Model The three key constructs of SCCT are described below. According to Lent, Brown and Hackett (2002), they constitute the key mechanisms by which people are able to exercise personal agency (p. 262). Note that in SCCT the constructs are used both as categories (that is, the content of each category is different for each person) and mechanisms. Self-Efficacy Many researchers using SCCT quote Albert Banduras definition of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to beliefs in ones capabilities to both organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1986, p. 391, cited in Lent, & Brown, 1996, p. 380). Although self-efficacy is not the same as confidence, the two terms are often used interchangeably in the literature (Assessing Women in Engineering (AWE), 2005, pp. 2). Thus, many of the instruments developed to ascertain self-efficacy are actually assessing confidence. Confidence refers only to the strength of certainty of ones beliefs [italics added] and is just one component of self-efficacy (AWE, 2005, p. 3). The other two components of self-efficacy are magnitude of task difficulty mastered and generality, or degree of extension of mastery experiences to domains other than the one(s) in which mastery was experienced (Bandura, 1977, p. 194). In the literature, researchers have also recently begun using the term competence interchangeably with self-efficacy (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2002, p. 267, Betz & Voyten, 1997, p. 180). According to SCCT, feelings of self-efficacy are derived from four sources of information. 1. Mastery experiences: this refers to personal performance and accomplishments. When one carries out a task, one not only learns how to do it, one gains a feeling of success (or failure). When one repeats a task, one increases his or her skills in it. SCCT gives particular weight to these experiences. One of the assumptions of SCCT is that people will pursue activities in which they are successful and not pursue activities in which they do poorly. 2. Verbal persuasion: this includes feedback from important others such as family members and teachers, especially on ones interests and abilities. Verbal persuasion guides development by providing positive and/or negative reinforcement. 3. Vicarious experience: even if one does not have direct experience, one can learn from other peoples experiences through reading and/or
observing their progress in some activity or other--that is, following role models. 4. Physiological responses: these include emotional states such as anxiety, composure, and exhilaration, and overall affective reactions of liking or disliking something. Information is transmitted from these sources to the individual through social interactions (e.g. with family, teachers, peers) and contexts (e.g. neighborhood, economic status) during childhood. The implications of this stance in SCCT are enormous. If self-efficacy is established during childhood, before or during the formation of interests, career interventions aimed at increasing self-efficacy after this point should have no effect. Bandura, however, allows for the direct effect of contextual influences on a persons perception of self-efficacy at any point in development (Lent, Brown, Brenner et al., 2001, p. 475). Additionally, Britner and Pajares (2006) carried out a study in a small Midwestern city with 319 middle school students (155 boys, 164 girls) to determine which of the four sources contribute the most to self-efficacy. The study revealed that all four sources make a contribution, but that mastery experiences contribute the most to science self-efficacy in both boys and girls, but particularly in girls (Britner & Pajares, 2006, p. 493). There are many types of self-efficacy. In their 1996 and 2002 summaries of SCCT, Lent, Brown and Hackett tend to discuss self-efficacy in general terms. Researchers attempting to implement this concept found that they could not measure overall global self-efficacy, only task- or domain-specific self-efficacy (AWE, 2005, pp. 3, 6, 13). Task self-efficacy is defined as the perceived capability to perform particular behaviors required for success within a given domain under ordinary, optimal, or unspecified performance conditions (Lent, Brown, Brenner et al., 2001, p. 476). Thus, one can possess mathematics selfefficacy, science self-efficacy, language self- efficacy and so forth. Nevertheless, it is obvious that Lent, Brown and Hackett prefer using self-efficacy more generally. In their 2000 paper on contextual supports and barriers, they introduce coping efficacy as a type of self-efficacy. Coping efficacy is defined as ones perceived capability to negotiate particular situational features that obstruct or complicate performance (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2000, p. 46). In a 2001 study, Lent, Brown, Brenner et al. distinguished coping efficacy from taskor content-specific self-efficacy, and collected data on both. They found that coping efficacy explained an additional, statistically significant amount of variability beyond task self-efficacy in predicting interests (Lent, Brown, Brenner et al., 2001, p.479). According to Lent, Brown, Brenner et al. (2001), this finding also revealed that coping self-efficacy and task self-efficacy are conceptually distinct and that coping self-efficacy is more inclusive than task self-efficacy, even though the two may overlap to some extent.
Outcome Expectations. Outcome Expectations are the anticipated consequences of performing particular behaviors. SCCT assumes that if a person has negative outcome expectations about an activity, s/he will avoid it. There are three categories of positive outcome expectations: 1. Physical rewards, such as money 2. Social rewards, such as approval or status 3. Self-evaluative rewards, such as satisfaction or fulfilling values Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1996) incorporate values within the category of outcome expectations. Values are preferences for particular reinforcers or work conditions, such as status, money or autonomy (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1996, p. 386). Lent, Brown, and Hackett extend SCCT somewhat in their paper Contextual Supports and Barriers to Career Choice: A Social Cognitive Analysis (2000). They acknowledge in this paper that outcome expectations can also be negative and describe these negative expectations as a type of barrier. They say, Outcome expectations may thus be classified along several dimensions, such as their valence (positivity vs. negativity), locus (self-administered versus otheradministrated outcomes), or relative importance to the individual (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2000, p. 44). Further, they divide outcome expectations into short-term process expectations and long-term outcome expectations. Short-term process expectations consist of the perceived supports and barriers encountered while pursuing a particular course of action at the time of decision-making. Lent, Brown, and Hackett (2000) refer to these as proximal expectations. The term proximal refers to influences and expectations that are current at the time of making vocational decisions. Long-term outcome expectations are related to a persons ultimate goal. These expectations are referred to as distal outcome expectations. The term distal indicates that these expectations are relevant to a point in time distant from the decision-making event. Goals. Goals are referred to as Choice Goals in Lent, Brown, and Hacketts choice model. The term refers to expressed career choice intentions. Bandura defines a goal as the determination to engage in a particular activity or to bring about a particular outcome (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994, p. 85; Lent, Brown, Brenner et al., 2001, p. 475). In their 1994 paper, Lent, Brown, and Hackett refer to expressed intentions, along with career plans, career decisions, and aspirations, as goal mechanisms. All of these mechanisms are presumed to be motivating factors in behavior. Adherence to goals can vary in clarity, specificity, intensity and commitment. Goals may have sub-goalsthe proximal goals one must attain in order to reach ones ultimate (distal) goal. To set goals, one must have established internal standards for behavior, be able to self-evaluate and have a vision of a future outcome. In particular, goals organize and guide behavior,
sustain it over long periods of time, and increase the likelihood that long-term goals will be attained (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994, p. 84). Lent, Brown and Hackett do not dwell on explaining goals. They say that goals (defined in various ways) are represented in a variety of psychological theories, such as Locke and Lathams (1990) recent theory of work motivation and performance (1996, p. 382). Some researchers using SCCT have called for a deeper understanding of the process of career goal setting within the framework of the SCCT (Perrone, Sedlacek, & Alexander, 2001, p. 6). Other researchers testing SCCT constructs have found that self-efficacy and outcome expectations have some predictive value for intentions to explore career-related activities (that is, choice goals) and to enter STEM careers. See, for example, studies by Betz and Voyten (1997), Natua and Epperson (2003), and Ochs and Roessler (2004). Other Constructs The other constructs used in SCCTs choice model are contextual influences (environment), person inputs, learning experiences, interest, choice actions and performance domains and attainments. Contextual Influences (Background, Environment). Context is the environment within which a person operates. Culture is considered both an environmental influence and a person input (Lent & Worthington, 2000, p. 4). Culture becomes a person input through an individuals own perceptions and reactions to culturally constructed concepts in his or her environment. The choice model includes two points in time at which contextual influences and factors have particular impact. Childhood is one of these timepoints. The other time-point is when an individual begins the process of career decision-making; that is, when a person tries to convert interests into career aspirations and then to act on those aspirations. Contextual influences at this later time-point are referred to in SCCT as moderating influences. Contextual influences include what Lent, Brown and Hackett refer to as contextual affordances. These are the resources one perceives as being provided by ones environment (1996, p. 392; 2002, p. 274). In their 1996 statement on SCCT they say the concept is similar to Astins notion of the perceived structure of opportunity (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1996, p. 392). The opportunity structure includes such things as access to education, the state of the economy, and job availability. When a factor in the opportunity structure is negative it is usually referred to as a barrier. For example, the costs in time or money involved in entering certain occupations may be barriers. The environment also includes a persons support system. The support system consists of financial, emotional and instrumental support received from a persons family, friends and community. Someone who has financial assistance may have an easier time pursuing her/his aspirations than a person who does not. Because Lent, Brown, and Hackett include community as part of an
individuals support system, there is some overlap between the concepts contextual affordances and support system in SCCT. Regarding emotional support, SCCT assumes that the more encouragement a person receives, the more likely s/he is to pursue a particular occupation. The third factor is instrumental support. This may consist of such things as parents making sure their children have access to resources in their areas of interest. There are two major shortcomings in the SCCT view of contextual influences. The first shortcoming is that SCCT limits the influence of contextual factors to essentially two time periods. Secondly, it does not place enough emphasis on the fact that everyone fills multiple roles in life simultaneously. Since the literature emphasizes that women are primarily responsible for everyday childcare and other household responsibilities (Bussey & Bandura, 1999, p. 703; Eccles, 1987; Farmer, 1984, 1976), the exclusion of multiple roles from contextual influences seems particularly inappropriate for women. Person Inputs The SCCT choice model lists predispositions as part of person input. Predispositions can be cognitive and/or affective. An example of a cognitive predisposition is patterns of thought that influence the way incoming information is perceived, weighted and remembered (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994, p. 103). An example of an affective state is having a positive or negative mood or outlook (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994, p. 102). Person inputs also include a persons own perceptions of and reactions to culturally constructed concepts of gender, race, ethnicity, and health status and/or disability. Although Lent, Brown, and Hackett do not include intellectual ability or aptitudes in their choice model diagram, these are categorized as person inputs in summaries of SCCT (1994, pp. 104 & 105; 1996, p. 390; 2002, p. 271). Learning Experiences A person learns a great deal through participating in social interactions and activities while growing up. Some of these activities are potentially relevant to future career choices. Such activities may include developing particular mental and physical skills, being exposed to various occupational tasks and/or developing patterns of likes and dislikes. Interests Interests are ones patterns of likes and dislikes. These patterns guide a person in considering vocational choices. According to SCCT, context and person inputs both contribute to learning experiences during childhood. Learning experiences in turn contribute to feelings of self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Self-efficacy and outcome expectations shape vocational interests and are co-determinants of choice (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2002, p. 274). SCCT de-emphasizes the role of interests in career choice by noting that career interventions should target the underlying processes which form interests rather than interests themselves.
Choice Actions The term choice actions refers to career entry behaviors. These behaviors may include taking courses in ones field of interest, declaring a major, and/or seeking to participate in internships, apprenticeships or other hands-on activities. Such participation may positively or negatively influence a persons commitment to continue in her or his chosen path. Performance Domains and Attainments Finally we come to the last construct in the choice model--performance domains and attainments. Once a person has chosen a career, obtained the necessary training and found a job, SCCT researchers look at how the person performs in her/his chosen career and at the achievements s/he attains. Experience in a career may also lead to choosing a new career. In this case, participation in the first career can be seen as a learning experience. According to the SCCT choice model, learning experience feeds directly back into self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations, both of which determine interests (except that selfefficacy beliefs are supposedly formed only during childhood). Interests influence choice goals and choice actions, which in turn lead once more to performance domains and attainments. Relationships Between the Constructs Central Processes SCCTs key constructs (self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goal representations) are viewed as cognitive mechanisms (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994, p. 83). One might think of them as microprocesses activated during decision-making. In focusing ones interests, developing ones goals and choosing a career, a person takes both self-efficacy and outcome expectations into account (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2002, p. 287). Additionally, there may be other microprocesses unspecified by SCCT that are also involved in career decision-making. Then too, some people may lack a basic internal framework around which to organize their thoughts on career decision-making. In short, while SCCT stresses two or three mechanisms, there may be others just as or more important. Causality The words influences, moderates, mediates, promotes or predicts are often used in the SCCT literature to describe the relationship between one construct and another. However, it is apparent from an examination of the three SCCT models that the relationship between constructs is considered both sequential and causal. For example, interests precede goals in the choice model and are seen as a direct cause of the formation of goals. In their 1994 article, Lent, Brown, and Hackett say, We should also note that the directional arrows in our framework illustrate what we believe are predominant causal pathways (p. 88). This formulation of causality is retained in Lent, Brown, and Hacketts later summaries of SCCT (1996, 2000, 2002). Additionally, relationships between the
constructs as illustrated in the models are primarily linear and one-way. Only two constructs in the choice model are diagrammed as mutually influencing each othercontextual factors and person inputs. A few other constructs (e.g. selfefficacy) send unidirectional arrows forward in the sequence to more than one other construct. Performance is the only construct that feeds back to a construct earlier in the sequence. The SCCT conception of sequential, lineal causality could possibly be derived from the statistical method Lent, Brown, and Hackett use to prove that the proposed causal pathways in their models are correct. Structural equation modeling rests on the assumption that the relationship between constructs is both lineal and causal (Garrison, 2006, p. 6). It thus seems one could drop the assumptions underlying structural equation modeling and path analysis, use the same SCCT constructs and overarching framework, and develop entirely different models. Lent, Brown and Hacketts descriptions of the relationships between SCCT constructs are further complicated by their stated incorporation of Banduras triadic reciprocal model of causality into SCCT (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994, p. 82; 1996, p. 379; 2002, p. 261). In Banduras social cognitive theory, internal variables, environmental factors and overt behavior mutually interact with one another (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Only two constructs in the SCCT models are mutually interactive. If one were to distribute SCCT constructs into Banduras three categories, (1) internal variables would include person input, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, interests and goals; (2) environmental factors would include contextual influences; and (3) overt behavior would include learning experiences, choice actions and performance. Once again, the resulting model would be very different from the three diagrammed SCCT models. The hypothesized paths shown in the three SCCT models, therefore, do not seem congruent with Banduras triadic, reciprocal model of causality. Lent, Brown and Hackett recognize this gap between SCCT and Banduras triadic concept. They attempt to bridge the gap by noting that most of the major elements in SCCT are seen as influencing one another bidirectionally over time [italics added] (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2002, p. 264). Variations in Construct Relationships Lent, Brown and Hackett (1994) acknowledge that, over time, certain variables will carry differential causal weight (p. 88). They cite socioeconomic conditions such as poverty as an example of such variation. Fouad, Smith and Zao (2002) uncovered a second source of variation in SCCT construct relationships. Fouad et al. (2002) compared the predictive value, and thus the strength and influence on other constructs, of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, interests, and goals in different academic domains. The sample for the study was voluntary, and consisted of beginning psychology students (N = 951, of whom 71% were female and 84% Caucasian) at two Midwestern colleges. Fouad et al. (2002) found that although the relationships between constructs were similar across the four
academic domains of math/science, social studies, English and art, the strength of the relationships varied. For example, the path between outcome expectations and goals was weakest for science/math and strongest for art. Relationships between self-efficacy and goals were significant only in the domain of English. Additionally, the relationships between interests and goals were significant across all four domains but were slightly stronger for English and math/science (Fouad et al., 2002, p. 168, Table 3). A third source of variation in construct relationships is the characteristics of the sample studied. Ochs and Roessler (2004) conducted a study to compare the career exploration intentions of 77 students with learning disabilities (ages 16 19) with those of 99 students in general education (ages 18 - 19). All students were in grades 11 and 12 in a mid-South metropolitan area. In their study, Ochs and Roessler (2004) focused on the relationships between career self-efficacy and exploratory intentions, and between career outcome expectations and exploratory intentions (referred to as choice goals in SCCT). They used Betz and Taylors 2001 definition of career self-efficacy: career self-efficacy consists of beliefs about ones own ability to carry out tasks involved in making career decisions, such as evaluating ones skills, gathering career information, making plans, and implementing career goals (Ochs & Roessler, 2004, p. 225). Ochs and Roessler (2004) found that career decision self-efficacy and career outcome expectations contributed significantly to exploratory intentions in both the learning disabled and general education samples. However, the relative contributions of the constructs to exploratory intentions differed in the two samples. Career outcome expectations made a much larger contribution to exploratory intentions in the learning disabled group than in the general education sample. Conversely, in the general education sample, career decision self-efficacy was the stronger contributor to exploratory intentions (Ochs & Roessler, 2004, p. 229). Another source of variation in construct relationships may be gender. Although Britner and Pajares (2006) found in their study of middle school students that the strength of self-efficacy beliefs was equal in boys and girls (p. 494), several other studies have found differences between the genders with reference to the predictive value of self-efficacy and outcome expectations. The general trend is for girls to express lower academic self-efficacy (except in the domain of language) than boys (Pajares & Valiante, 2001), even though women often reach higher levels of achievement (AWE, 2005, p. 10). Britner and Pajares (2006) also found that middle school girls higher levels of success in science did not result in the development of stronger science self-efficacy (p. 494). Researchers have speculated on possible reasons for this difference. Britner and Pajares (2006) note that science in middle school depends more on language than on laboratory methods, and girls do better in language (p. 494). Womens lower scores may simply reflect less familiarity with a topic or activity (Dagley & Salter, 2003, p. 9), or women may lack opportunities to develop skills and have mastery experiences (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2002, p. 270). Hawks and Spade (1998) report that women in engineering think of themselves as less bright than other
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engineering students even when their performance is the same or better than their male peers (p. 251). Pajares (2002) offers two additional explanations: 1. The differences could be a result of response bias. Boys are more likely to express confidence in skills they may not possess and to express overconfidence in skills they do possess (p. 118). Or, girls may be interpreting the self-report questions as making promises about what they can do whereas boys do not (pp. 118-119). 2. Differences may be a function of gender orientationsthe stereotypic beliefs about gender that students hold (p. 119). Additionally, mathematics, science and technology are typically viewed by students as being part of a male-domain. In these areas, a masculine orientation is associated with confidence and achievement because masculine self-perceptions are imbued with the notion that success in these areas is a masculine imperative (pp. 122-123). The variety of possible reasons for the differences across academic domains, levels of ability, and gender in the predictive value of both self-efficacy and outcome expectations indicates that many other person input and contextual variables may have substantial influence. Natua and Epperson (2003) say, Perhaps variables that are more peripheral to the SCCT model (e.g. financial resources, parental influences) are more important to consider when attempting to understand leadership aspirations of women in nontraditional majors (, p. 435). The source of womens lack of entry into science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) careers may thus lie more with the impacts of contextual factors than with womens sense of self-efficacy in science and math. Lent, Brown and Hackett (1994) recognize that the process of gender socialization may bias boys and girls access to sources of information, influence the types and learning experiences they receive, and selectively reinforce particular occupationally relevant activities (p. 105). Gender socialization may also provide differential opportunities for skill development plus the internalization of these forces. Many of these factors may also apply to ethnic groups (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994, p. 117). SCCT as an Overarching Framework Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1994) state that one of the goals of SCCT is to provide an overarching framework to integrate many different career development theories (p. 80). This thread runs throughout their discussions of SCCT and sometimes creates confusion when sorting out the basic content of their theory. Uses of the Idea One of the ways Lent, Brown, and Hackett use the overarching framework idea is to fill in gaps in their theory. For example, when discussing contextual supports and barriers, Lent, Brown, and Hackett (2000) borrow a few concepts from developmental-contextual models. Lent, Brown, and Hackett (2000) say that a person is embedded within a multilayered environment and, figuratively, resides
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in the innermost of three concentric circles (p. 45). A person (the innermost circle) is surrounded by his/her immediate, proximal context (i.e. ones immediate circle of significant others), which in turn is surrounded by the larger, societal context. However, Lent, Brown, and Hackett do not seem to have incorporated this newer conception into any of their SCCT models. The choice model includes two specific time spans within which context influences cognitive processes. This is not the same as conceptualizing the interaction between person and context as occurring continuously throughout life. Secondly, Lent, Brown, and Hackett sometimes use the idea of SCCT providing an overarching framework as a method to extend their explanations beyond the scope of the SCCT models (interest, choice, and performance). An example of this is provided by their insistence (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1984, 1996, 2002) that SCCT adheres to Banduras triadic bidirectional model of causality, while the paths in their models are primarily unidirectional. Lent, Brown, and Hackett also use the idea of SCCT as an overarching framework in applying SCCT to counseling situations. In the book series Career Choice and Development (1996, 3rd edition; 2002, 4th edition), proponents of each theory apply their approaches to the same three hypothetical cases. In the chapters on SCCT, Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1996, 2002) recommend a number of instruments for use in counseling. Many of these were developed using theories other than SCCT. For example, they recommend Krumboltz Career Belief Inventory and Hollands Self-Directed Search. As a first step, Lent, Brown, and Hackett use these and other instruments to gather raw data. In the second step, the raw data collected through administration of one instrument is compared with datasets collected through administering other instruments. This process yields the content of the SCCT constructs for the person being counseled. For example, intrinsic aptitudes (measured by standardized aptitude tests) are compared with self-reported aptitudes and interests (using Hollands Self-Directed Search and other instruments) to reveal any gaps between a persons intrinsic ability and perceived level of self-efficacy. Such gaps can be addressed during counseling sessions and may open up previously dismissed career options. Counselors themselves can provide realistic outcome expectations to the people they counsel through career option research using the Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes, and Gati et al.s (1996) career-related aspects. Person inputs such as values and needs can be compared with the qualities and characteristics of existing work environments to ascertain career options and fit between an individual and the various options. Finally, Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1996, 2000, 2002) recommend identifying aspects of the persons environment (barriers and supports) that interact with person inputs and career choices. However, this counseling procedure does not really follow any of the three SCCT models (interest, choice, or performance) as the models do not provide for direct contextual influences (such as counseling) on self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations.
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Instruments A number of instruments recommended by Lent, Brown, and Hackett are described below. These descriptions are derived from the SCCT chapters in two of the Career Choice and Development books (1996, 2002) as well as from other sources as noted. Where available, sources for obtaining more information or the instruments themselves are included in the descriptions. Adult Career Concerns Inventory (ACCI) The Adult Career Concerns Inventory includes 15 items for four career stages: exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement. Each item is answered in terms of a five-step scale ranging from "no concern" to "great concern". An additional item reflects the extent to which a person is considering a career change. It is a self-administered, self-scored inventory which takes about 30 to 40 minutes to complete. For more information, contact Consulting Psychologist Press (CPP), 3803 East Bayshore Road, Palo Alto, CA USA 94303; Phone: 1-800-624-1765, Fax: (650) 969-8608. Career Beliefs Inventory This inventory is designed to help people from eighth grade through retirement identify career beliefs which may influence their career goals, attitudes and motivations. The test includes an administrative index and employment status index. It also includes 24 other scales pertaining to various career beliefs such as career plans, acceptance of uncertainty, openness, achievement, college education, intrinsic satisfaction, peer equality, structured work environment, control, responsibility, and approval of others. Answer sheets must be mailed to the publisher for scoring. For more information, see Krumboltz, J. D. (1991). Career Beliefs Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Career Factors Inventory (CFI) The Career Factors Inventory is designed to help people identify barriers in their own career planning and decision-making processes. It is based on the belief that most individuals can quickly identify the source of any obstacles in their career decision-making process. The CFI booklet, which is self-scored, contains 21 items on informational and emotional factors that can lead to career indecision. These can be grouped into two categories, information needs and decision needs. For more information, see: Chartrand, J. M. & Robbins, S. B. (1989). Career Factors Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
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Chartrand, J. M. & Nutter, K. J. (1996). The Career Factors Inventory: Theory and applications. Journal of Career Assessment, 4, 205-218.
Decisional Balance Sheet The concept of having a client write down the pros and cons of particular factors was originally developed by Janis and Mann (1977). The purpose of the exercise is to facilitate a thorough consideration of possible consequences of decisional alternatives. Most balance sheets use only two decisional measurespros and cons (or benefits and disadvantages). These two have become major constructs in what is called the trans-theoretical model of stage changes used primarily in public health to promote behavioral changes. Lent, Brown & Hackett (1996, 2002) use it to identify a clients potential career options and contextual barriers. After writing down possible careers s/he is considering, s/he writes down the potential benefits and negative consequences (that is, expected outcomes) for each one. For more information, see: Janis, I. L., & Mann, L., (1977). Decision Making. NY: Free Press Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes This listing characterizes work environments for all occupations in the U.S. economy. The volume allows individuals to locate occupations and fields of study matching their own vocational personalities or resembling a current or previous occupation. For more information, see: Gottfredson, G. D., & Holland, J. L. (1996). Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes, 3rd edition. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Career-Related Aspects These are used to identify what people most want from a career and to analyze occupational possibilities for the degree to which they can satisfy[a persons] core requirements for occupations (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2002, p. 296). Gati, I., Garty, Y., & Fassa, N. (1996) identify 36 career-related aspects to assess person-environment fit (see Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, pp. 196-206). A counselor begins by asking a person to construct a list of aspects (including interests) most important to him or her and then rank them by order of importance. Then, the person notes his/her desired level of satisfaction or acceptability for each aspect listed. Using this list, the counselor conducts a sequential search for occupations compatible with the persons ranked aspects. Alternative occupations are considered with reference to the persons preferences and those not rating highly enough in important aspects are eliminated. The person then does an in-depth study of the remaining alternative occupations. This approach is fairly recent, so information on the core aspects of occupations needs to be determined by the counselor his- or herself.
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Education Self-Efficacy Ratings Lentz, Brown and Hackett do not provide the names of any specific types of instruments that evaluate educational self-efficacy. The ones listed below have been gleaned from the literature. 1. Mathematics Course Self-Efficacy Scale (a.k.a. Mathematics SelfEfficacy Scale, Forms A and B [MSES]). This scale measures students confidence in their abilities to earn a grade of B or better in each of 23 math and science courses (e.g., botany, chemistry, calculus) using a 10-point Likert-type scale (1 = no confidence at all, 10 = complete confidence) (Natua & Epperson, 2003, p. 451). See also Betz. & Hackett (1983). The Relationship of Mathematics Self-Efficacy Expectations to the Selection of Science-Based College Majors, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 23, 339-343. 2. Lent, Brown and Larkins Self-Efficacy for Academic Milestones scales. Students rate their ability to successfully perform specific critical accomplishments needed for success in science and engineering majors on a 10-point scale (AWE, 2005, p. 14). Natua and Epperson (2003) use a revised version of this instrument in their study of high school girls choices of non-traditional majors. A sample item of the revised form assessed students confidence in being able to Complete the math requirements for most science, math, or engineering majors (Natua & Epperson, 2003, p. 451). For the original version of the instrument, see Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D. & Larkin, K. C. (1986). Self-Efficacy in the Prediction of Academic Performance and Perceived Career Options. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33, 265-269. 3. Betz and Voyten (1997) describe a number of self-efficacy scales in their article Efficacy and Outcome Expectations Influence Career Exploration and Decidedness in The Career Development Quarterly, Dec., 46, 2, 180-181. Additional career decision-making and domainspecific self-efficacy scales may be found in the Assessing Women in Engineering 2005 article, Overview: Self-Efficacy and Women in Engineering at www.aweonline.org Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ) This questionnaire provides a measure of an individual's vocational needs and values. Six vocational values are derived from 20 vocational needs. 1. Achievement: ability utilization, achievement 2. Altruism: co-workers, social service, moral values
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3. Comfort: activity, independence, variety, compensation, security, working conditions 4. Safety: company policies and practices, supervision--human relations, supervision--technical 5. Status: advancement, recognition, authority, social status 6. Autonomy: creativity, responsibility Results for an individual are compared with estimates of reinforcers present in 185 occupations representing major fields and levels of work. The correspondence of occupational reinforcers to an individual's needs permits the prediction of job satisfaction. This procedure complements the usual practice of measuring vocational abilities and comparing them with the ability requirements of occupations to predict job performance (Work Adjustment Project, n.d.) For more information see: Gay, Evan G. (1971). Manual for the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire. Minneapolis: Vocational Psychology Research, Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota. Missouri Vocational Card Sort (MOCS) The MOCS is a deck of 90 cards, each listing an occupational title on one side with descriptive information about the title on the reverse side. Each card includes the Holland Code of personality types. The MOCS was developed as a means of assisting persons who are unclear about their present or future vocational choice. A person sorts job titles into piles according to her/his likes, dislikes or about which s/he is neutral or undecided. The individual continues to sort the cards into smaller stacks corresponding to the reasons for liking or disliking the occupations in the pile. When using this deck, Lent, Brown and Hackett (1996, 2002) ask the person to sort the cards according to whether the person would choose, would not choose or is undecided about the occupations (p. 403, p. 289). Next they ask the person to sort the undecided and would not choose occupations again on the basis of (1) might choose if I thought I had the skills (self-efficacy); (2) might choose if I thought they would offer me things that I value (outcome expectations); (3) wouldnt choose under any circumstances (definite lack of interest); and (4) other (unspecified). The cards that fall into the might choose if I thought I had the skills category during this second sort are then compared with course requirements and with inherent ability as measured by Graduate Record Examination (GRE) scores (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2002, p. 289). The point of this process is to open up additional career options, options that may have been previously discarded because of faulty self-efficacy beliefs. Self-Directed Search (SDS) The Self-Directed Search is John Hollands widely used interest inventory. It has been tested in over a dozen studies, thus documenting its utility. The SDS can
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help individuals understand more about themselves and how skills and interests are related to career choices. It is self-administered and self-scored. Taking the Self-Directed Search determines a 3-letter Holland code which helps find the careers that best match interests and abilities. A list of occupations and college majors that match a persons code are available with the results. Lent, Brown & Hackett use 2-letter codes in their analyses of data collected using this instrument (2002, pp. 297-298, 301). For more information, see: Holland, J. L., Powell, A. B., & Fritzsche, B. A., 1997, Professional Users Guide to the Self-Directed Search, available from Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Standardized Multi-Aptitude Test Examples mentioned by Lent, Brown and Hackett (1996, 2002) include the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and the Graduate Record Exam (GRE). Strong Interest Inventory The Strong Interest Inventory is intended for use by individuals seeking occupations requiring at least four years of post-secondary education. The goal of the Inventory is to match a persons interests with satisfying careers. It has been regularly expanded and modernized, and has been translated into French Canadian, Spanish, Hebrew and other languages. The Inventory measures a persons interest in a broad range of occupations, work activities, leisure activities, and school subjects. It consists of six general Holland theme scores, 23 basic interest scales and 207 occupational scales, resulting in 264 scores. The scores are used to help people identify and understand their work interests and values, and to illustrate the kinds of work in which they might be comfortable. It takes about 30 minutes to complete. For more information, contact: Consulting Psychologist Press (CPP), 3803 East Bayshore Road, Palo Alto, CA USA 94303; Phone: 1-800-624-1765, Fax: (650) 969-8608. NOTES This work is part of a larger project funded by the Advanced Technological Education Program (ATE) of the National Science Foundation (DUE #0501971).
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Proven Practices for Recruiting Women to STEM Careers in ATE Programs, NSF # 0501971, Edmonds Community College, Lynnwood, WA 5/18/2007
References Argyropoulou, K., & Sidiropoulou, D. (2003, September). Applications of selfefficacy theory to the understanding [of] career decision making of higher education students. Quality Development in Vocational Counseling and Training, International Conference, Bern, Switzerland. Retrieved June, 7, 2006, from http://www.sub-asosp.ch/kongress/data/docs/ Assessing Women in Engineering (AWE) Project. (2005). Overview: Self-efficacy and women in engineering. AWE Research Overviews. Retrieved January 2, 2006, from http://www.aweonline.org Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. Betz, N. E., & Voyten, K. K. (1997). Efficacy and outcome expectations influence career exploration and decidedness [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 46, 179-189. Retrieved May 17, 2006 from ProQuest. Britner, S. L., & Pajares, F. (2006). Sources of science self-efficacy beliefs of middle school students [Electronic Version]. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43, 485-499. Retrieved May 2, 2006 from http://www.interscience.wiley.com Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676-713. Dagley, J. C. S., & Salter, S. K. (2004). Practice and research in career counseling and development-2003 [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 53, 98 (39 pages). Retrieved December 22, 2005 from Proquest. Eccles, J. S. (1987). Gender roles and women's achievement-related decisions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 135-172. Farmer, H. S. (1976). What inhibits achievement and career motivation in women? The Counseling Psychologist, 6(2), 12-15. Farmer, H. S. (1984). A shiny fresh minted penny. The Counseling Psychologist, 12(4), 141-144. Fouad, N. A., Smith, P. L., & Zao, K. E. (2002). Across academic domains: Extensions of the social-cognitive career model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49(2), 164-171. Garrison, G. D. (2006). Statistical analyses explained: Path analyses. Clearwater, FL: Statistics Solutions, Inc. Retrieved July 13, 2006 from http://www.statisticssolutions.com/Path_Analysis.html Gati, I., Garty, Y., & Fassa, N. (1996). Using career-related aspects to assess person-environment fit. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(2), 196-206. Hawks, B. K., & Spade, J. Z. (1998). Women and men engineering students: Anticipation of family and work roles. Journal of Engineering Education, 87, 249-256. Lent, R. W., & Brown, S. D. (1996). Social cognitive approach to career development: an overview [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 44, 310 (312 pgs). Retrieved December 22, 2005 from
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ProQuest. Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., Brenner, B., Chopra, S. B., Davis, T., Talleyrand, R., et al. (2001). The role of contextual supports and barriers in the choice of math/science educational options: A test of social cognitive hypotheses. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48(4), 474-483. Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122. Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1996). Career development from a social cognitive perspective. In D. Brown, L. Brooks & Associates (Eds.), Career Choice & Development (3rd ed., pp. 373-421). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (2000). Contextual supports and barriers to career choice: A social cognitive analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(1), 36-49. Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (2002). Social cognitive career theory. In D. Brown & Associates (Eds.), Career Choice and Development (4th ed., pp. 255-311). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., Schmidt, J., Brenner, B., Lyons, H., & Treistman, D. (2003). Relation of contextual supports and barriers to choice behavior in engineering majors: A test of alternative social cognitive models. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50(4), 458-465. Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., Talleyrand, R., McPartland, E. B., Davis, T., Chopra, S. B., et al. (2002). Career choice barriers, supports, and coping strategies: College students' experiences [Electronic Version]. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 61-72. Retrieved July, 25, 2004 from http://www.idealibrary.com. Lent, R. W., Hackett, G., & Brown, S. D. (1999). A social cognitive view of school-to-work transition [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 47, 297. Retrieved December 22, 2005 from ProQuest. Lent, R. W., Lopez, F. G., & Bieschke, K. J. (1991). Mathematics self-efficacy: Sources and relation to science-based career choice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(4), 424-430. Miller, W. (Chair) (1999). Enhancing motivation for changes in substance abuse treatment [Electronic Version]. DHHS Publication No (SMA) 99-3354. Rockville, MD: US Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services. Retrieved August, 2004 from www.neteducationcenter.com/tip35.pdf.pdf Nauta, M. M., & Epperson, D. L. (2003). A longitudinal examination of the socialcognitive model applied to high school girls' choices of nontraditional college majors and aspirations. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50(4), 448-457. Ochs, L. A., & Roessler, R. T. (2004). Predictors of career exploration intentions: A social cognitive career theory perspective [Electronic Version]. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 47, 224-233. Retrieved July 8, 2004
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from Pro-Ed. Pajares, F. (2002). Gender and perceived self-efficacy in self-regulated learning. Theory into Practice, 41(2), 116-125. Pajares, F., & Valiante, G. (2001). Gender differences in writing motivation and achievement of middle school students: A function of gender orientation? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26, 366-381. Perrone, K. M., Sedlacek, W. E., & Alexnder, C. M. (2001). Gender and ethnic differences in career goal attainment [Electronic Version]. The Career Development Quarterly, 50, 168. Retrieved December 21, 2005 from ProQuest. Quimby, J. L., & DeSantis, A. M. (2006). The influence of role models on women's career choices. The Career Development Quarterly, 54(4), 297306. Rooney, R. A., & Osipow, S. H. (1992). Task-specific occupational self-efficacy scale: The development and validation of a prototype. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 40, 14-32. Spokane, A. R., Luchetta, E. J., & Richwine, M. H. (2002). Holland's theory of personalities in work environments. In D. Brown & Associates (Eds.), Career Choice and Development (4th ed., pp. 373-426). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Work Adjustment Project (n.d.), (MIQ) Minnesota Importance Questionnaire. Retrieved May, 4, 2007 from http://www.psych.umn.edu/psylabs/vpr/
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MODEL OF PERSON, CONTEXTUAL AND EXPERIENTIAL FACTORS AFFECTING CAREER-RELATED CHOICE BEHAVIOR [ 1993 BY LENT, BROWN & HACKETT]
Person Inputs Predispositions Gender Race/ethnicity Disability/Health Status
Contextual Influences Proximal to Choice Behavior M o d e r a t e
Self-Efficacy
M o d e r a t e Choice Goals Choice Actions Performance Domains and Attainments
Learning Experience
Interest
Outcome Expectations
Background Contextual Affordances
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Proven Practices for Recruiting Women to STEM Careers in ATE Programs, NSF # 0501971, Edmonds Community College, Lynnwood, WA
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Three Theories of Career Development and Choice 1

Proven Practices for Recruiting Women To STEM Careers in ATE Programs

Charlene J. Allison & Mel Cossette

Introduction to the Review

Donald E. Supers Life-Space, Life-Span Theory of Career Development1

R& Brooks,RRainbow Model 1976, p.127)

(Super et al., 1996, p. 127)

Archway Model (Super, 1990, p. 200)

Person-Environment Theory of John L. Holland1

Figure 2: How Personality Develops

Table 1. Personality Typology

Preferen -ces for activeties and occupations

Manipulation of machines, tools & things

Exploration, understanding & prediction or control of natural & social phenomena

Literary, musical, or artistic activities

Persuading, manipulating, or directing others

Material rewards for tangible accomplishments

Development or acquisition of knowledge

Creative expressions of ideas, emotions or sentiments

Fostering the welfare of others, social service

Material accomplishment & social status

Having sales & persuasive ability lacking scientific ability

Energetic, gregarious Scientific, intellectual, or abstruse topics

Interaction with people

Persuasion or sales activities

Ambiguous or unstructured undertakings (Holland, 1996, p. 398)

Table 2. Environmental Typology

Skills in persuasion & manipulation of others

Demands and rewards the display of

Conforming behavior, practical accomplishment

Imagination in literary, artistic or musical accomplishment

Empathy, humanitarianism. sociability, friendliness

Initiative in pursuit of financial or material accomplishments, dominance, selfconfidence

Organizational ability, conformity, dependability

Values or personal styles allowed expression

Practical, productive & concrete values; robust, risky, adventurous styles

Concern for the welfare of others

Acquisitive or poweroriented styles, responsibility

Occupations or other environments involve

Concrete, practical activity; use of machines, tools, materials

Working with others in a helpful or facilitative way

Selling, leading, manipulating others to attain personal or organizational goals

Carpenter, truck operator

Counselor, clergy member

Lawyer, retail store manager

Person Inputs Predispositions Gender Race/ethnicity Disability/Health Status

Contextual Influences Proximal to Choice Behavior M o d e r a t e

M o d e r a t e Choice Goals Choice Actions Performance Domains and Attainments

Background Contextual Affordances

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