Analysis of Imprints On Light Curves From Kerr Black Holes Due To Time-Dependent Accreting Structures

Faculty of Physics and Astronomy
University of Heidelberg
Diploma thesis in Physics submitted by Adrian Stanislaw Kaminski born in Opole, Poland. Year of Submission: 2007
Analysis of Imprints on Light Curves from Kerr Black Holes due to Time-dependent Accreting Structures
This diploma thesis has been carried out by Adrian Kaminski at the Landessternwarte Knigstuhl o under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Max Camenzind
Abstract (english) This thesis deals with ray-tracing on the Kerr geometry. As in earlier approaches to this issue, the radiative transfer from the source to the observer is modelled by a backwards ray-tracing method, that determines the detected intensity distribution generated by radiation, which emitted in the vicinity of the object investigated travels along photon trajectories to the observer. Motivated by observed quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) in spectra of black hole candidates this work mainly focuses on time-dependent emitting structures and their imprints on intensity distributions in time. These structures are represented by regions of enhanced density and emission (hot spots), which due accretion processes are orbiting the compact objects.
Abstract (deutsch) Die hier vorliegende Arbeit beschftigt sich mit der Strahlungverfolgung in der Kerr a Geometrie. Dazu wird, wie schon bei frheren Abhandlungen zu diesem Thema, der u Strahlungstransport von der Quelle zum Beobachter hin mittels einer rckwrts u a gerichteten Strhlungsverfolgung simuliert. Diese Methode bestimmt die gemessene Intensittsverteilung, welche durch die Strahlung hervorgerufen wird, die nach ihrer Emission a in der unmittelbaren Umgebung des betrachteten Systems auf Photon Trajektorien zum Beobachter hin transportiert wird. Angeregt durch quasi-periodische Oszillationen (QPOs), wie sie in Spektren von Objekten entdeckt wurden, die als Kandidaten fr Schwarze Lcher gelten, konzentriert u o sich diese Arbeit hauptschlich auf zeitabhngige emittierende Strukturen und ihre a a Auswirkungen auf zeitliche Intensittsverteilungen. a Solche Strukturen werden durch Regionen erhhter Dichte und Emission, den so genano nten Hot Spots reprsentiert, welche aufgrund von Akkretionsprozessen das kompakte a Objekt umkreisen.
Contents
List of Figures Notations and Conventions 1. Introduction 1.1. Historical Background and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2. Thesis Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background 2.1. Phenomenology of Black Holes . . . . . . . . 2.1.1. Black Holes Masses and Evolution . . 2.1.2. Accretion Theory and Unied Scheme 2.1.3. Chasing Black Holes . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins 2.2.1. Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2. Schwarzschild Metric . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3. Kerr Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. The 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. Time-dependent Ray-Tracer Structure and Functionality . . . . . . . . Numerical Integration of the Nullgeodesics Radiative Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . Source Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power Density Spectra . . . . . . . . . . .
ix xi 1 1 4 5 5 5 8 12 19 19 20 23 41 42 61 61 68 74 77 78 83 83 90 92 105 107 111
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4. Data Analysis 4.1. Static Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Dynamic Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1. Inuence of Inclination and Spin on Light Curves . . . . . . 4.2.2. Inuence of Hot Spot Radius and Distance on Light Curves 4.2.3. Generating Power Density Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Conclusion and Outlook A. Curved Spacetimes and Covariant Derivative B. Killing Vectors and Symmetries
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C. 3+1 Split of Spacetime D. Numerical Integration Bibliography Acknowledgements
113 115 119 123
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List of Figures
1.1. Cygnus X-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. spacetime diagram with light cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. Sagittarius A* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3. orbits of stars in the near of SGR A* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4. Unied scheme of AGNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5. Generic spectral prole of AGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6. Fluorescence lines in AGN X-ray spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7. Transitions of electrons in atomic inner shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8. Relativistic line broadening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9. Example for simulated broadened emission lines from . . . . . . . . . 2.10. Data from measurements of K emission line . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11. Power spectrum of Microquasar GRS 1915+ 105 . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12. Signal propagation through Schwarzschild spacetime . . . . . . . . . 2.13. Radial proles of functions describing Kerr metric in BL coordinates a=0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.14. [Radial proles of functions describing Kerr metric in BL coordinates a=1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15. Eective potentials in equatorial plane in Kerr metric . . . . . . . . 2.16. Characteristic radii in Kerr metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17. Nullgeodesics on Schwarzschild metric (far view) . . . . . . . . . . . 2.18. Nullgeodesics on Schwarzschild metric (close view) . . . . . . . . . . 2.19. Nullgeodesics on Kerr metric (perspective along rotation axis) . . . . 2.20. Nullgeodesics on Kerr metric (side view) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.21. Nullgeodesics on Kerr metric (side view) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.22. Nullgeodesics on Kerr metric (side view) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. Main procedure of ray-tracer . . . . . . . Class hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Extent of the implemented accretion disc Ray-tracing illustrated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . for . . for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 6 8 8 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 23
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4.1. Line spectra for dierent inclinations in the Schwarzschild case . . . . . . 78 4.2. Red wing of line spectra inuenced by Kerr parameter a . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.3. Spatially resolved image of accretion disc around black hole for a = 0 and i = 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
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4.4. Spatially resolved image of accretion disc around black hole for a = 1 and i = 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5. Spatially resolved image of accretion disc around black hole for a = 0 and i = 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6. Spatially resolved image of accretion disc around black hole for a = 1 and i = 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7. Hot spot orbiting black hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8. Light curves over one rotation period for varying inclinations; a = 0 . . 4.9. Light curves over one rotation period for varying inclinations; a = 0 . . 4.10. Light curves over one rotation period for varying inclinations; a = 0.3 . 4.11. Light curves over one rotation period for varying inclinations; a = 0.3 . 4.12. Light curves over one rotation period for varying inclinations; a = 0.7 . 4.13. Light curves over one rotation period for varying inclinations; a = 0.7 . 4.14. Light curves over one rotation period for varying inclinations; a = 0.99 . 4.15. Light curves for varying radial distances of the hot spot. . . . . . . . . . 4.16. Light curves for varying hot spot radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17. Long time light curve for hot spot at r = 8M (a = 0) . . . . . . . . . . . 4.18. PDS for hot spot at r = 8M (a = 0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19. Long time light curve for hot spot at r = 8M (a = 0.3) . . . . . . . . . . 4.20. PDS for hot spot at r = 8M (a = 0.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.21. Long time light curve for hot spot at r = 8M (a = 0.7) . . . . . . . . . . 4.22. PDS for hot spot at r = 8M (a = 0.7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.23. Long time light curve for hot spot at r = 8M (a = 0.99) . . . . . . . . . 4.24. PDS for hot spot at r = 8M (a = 0.99) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.25. Long time light curve for hot spot at r = ISCO (a = 0) . . . . . . . . . 4.26. PDS for hot spot at r = ISCO (a = 0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.27. Long time light curve for hot spot at r = ISCO (a = 0.3) . . . . . . . . 4.28. PDS for hot spot at r = ISCO (a = 0.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.29. Long time light curve for hot spot at r = ISCO (a = 0.7) . . . . . . . . 4.30. PDS for hot spot at r = ISCO (a = 0.7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.31. Long time light curve for hot spot at r = ISCO (a = 0.99) . . . . . . . 4.32. PDS for hot spot at r = ISCO (a = 0.99) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.33. Long time light curve for two hot spots (a = 0.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.34. PDS for hot spots at r1 = 8M and r2 = 6M (a = 0.5) . . . . . . . . . . 4.35. Dependency of variabilities in light curves on radial coordinate r . . . . 4.36. Dependency of variabilities in light curve on hot spot radius Rhs . . . . 4.37. Dependency of variabilities in light curves on Kerr parameter a . . . . .
. 81 . 82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 85 86 86 87 87 88 88 89 91 91 94 94 95 95 96 96 97 97 98 98 99 99 100 100 101 101 102 102 103 103 104
Notations and Conventions

Usually geometrized units will be used throughout the thesis. The gravitational constant G, the speed of light c and the Boltzmann constant kB are set to unity. G = c = kB = 1 (0.1)
The gravitational radius rg as natural length scale in general relativity is dened by: GM rg = 2 M (0.2) c Four vectors are denoted either in component view k or as bold symbol k Tensors are denoted by their indices T or by bold symbols T Einsteins summation convention is applied, meaning that summation is performed on any index repeated in a product. With tensors, Greek indices , , , , . . . cycle the numbers 0 to 3, where Latin indices i, j, k, . . . cycle only the spatial coordinates 1 to 3. The temporal coordinate is always denoted by the letter t or the number 0. As not stated dierently, the metric signature is (minus, plus, plus, plus) The partial derivative on tensors of arbitrary rank will be denoted by , whereas marks the covariant derivative. The solar mass is the typical mass scale in astrophysics 1 M = 1.989 1030 kg (0.3)
The typical length scale in the solar system is the Astronomical Unit (AU). Galactic length scales are given in multiples of the light year (ly) or in multiples of the parsec (pc). 1 AU = 1.4959787 1011 m
15 16
(0.4) (0.5) (0.6)
1 pc = 3.2615 ly = 206264.8 AU = 3.0856 10 m
1 ly = 63240 AU = 9.4605 10 m
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1. Introduction
1.1. Historical Background and Motivation
Even though the term black hole was not used until the late 60s [Whe1968], the history of the concept of objects with a mass density suciently high to act as a trap even for light is a long one. The idea of absolutely dark objects can be derived from Newtonian gravity in connection with a nite speed of light. Nothing should be capable of overcoming the objects gravity eld when its escape velocity equals or exceeds the speed of light. In 1783 John Michell was the rst to propose and describe such completely dark objects. Since that kind of thought experiment based on light corpuscles and could not explain the gravity pull on light in the frame of the wave theory, the existence of these objects was not substantive enough to become a notable eld of interest in science until the beginning of the last century. With Einsteins formulation of the special and particularly the general theory of relativity (SR and GR) in 1905 and 1915 [Ein1905, Ein1915a, Ein1915b, Ein1915c], a framework for further examination of dark objects was created. As a geometric theory, desribing the link between a mass-energy distribution and the spacetime arising from it, the GR provides tools for the description of motion of any objects (fermions/bosons) in curved spacetimes and had a big impact on the scientic society. Not even a year later, Karl Schwarzschild derived and presented already the rst solution of Einsteins eld equations. It describes the static external [Sch1916a] and internal [Sch1916b] spacetime metric of a spherically symmetric mass distribution. In this context an event horizon is also predicted. It acts as a boundary in spacetime, beyond which no event can aect the outer world. Now that a theoretical basis was founded, the issue of compact objects and their spacetimes could be investigated further on. Two approaches should be pointed out. On the one hand the solutions of the eld equations were examined, leading to results like the generalization of the Schwarzschild solution to a spacetime for a spherically symmetric point charge called the Reissner-Nordstrm solution [Rei1916, Nor1918], and the Birkho theorem [Bir1923], proving the Schwarzschild metric to be the unique spherically symmetric solution of Einsteins eld equations. On the other hand the origins for such metrics and spacetime singularities as a consequence thereof were questioned. (Even today the dislike of spacetime singularities, where all known physics fails, results in eorts for alternative solutions.) Examinating the evolution of stars, or massive objects in general, a gravitational collaps to high mass densities turned out to be indispensable for suciently massive objects.
1. Introduction Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar investigated the stability condition for white dwarfs as possible end congurations for sun-like stars. He found out that, due to the pressure dependence of the relativistic degenerated electrons (P 4/3 ), the hydrostatic equilibrium cannot be sustained for a mass exceeding the critical Chandrasekhar mass of 1.46 M [Cha1931a, Cha1931b]. In these cases the object collapses gravitationally and as a result a neutron star can be formed. Furthermore, in 1939 J.R.Oppenheimer and George Michael Volko presented a similar limiting critical mass for neutron stars [OpVo1939]. Exceeding that one, no stable end conguration for the object is possible, and the matter collapses into a singularity, forming a black hole. In the decades following, particularly in the 60s, a lot of research on those extraordinary objects was performed. Roger Penrose and Stephen W. Hawking derived the singularity theorems proving the mathematical existence of singularities [Haw1969], and posted the weak cosmic censorship hypothesis, which conjectures any intrinsic singularities to be hidden from observers far away by an event horizon [Pen1969]. In the meantime more general solutions of Einsteins eld equations were found. Roy Patrick Kerr developed the Kerr solution in 1963. It describes a stationary and axially symmetric spacetime arising from rotating mass distributions [Ker1963]. This solution was generalized furthermore to the Kerr-Newman solution; a metric dependent on the maximal set of black hole parameters, including its mass, angular momentum and electric charge [New1965]. Lacking in any observational indications, black holes were pure theoretical subjects in these times and the question, if they were observable at all, was legitimate. Today we know several common methods for the identication of black hole candidates (BHCs). Although black holes cannot be observed directly, they interact with their environment and therefore indicators for dark masses are present. The most prominent methods are of kinematical nature, as observing the motion of dynamical objects in the BHCs vicinity, and spectro-relativistic such as analyzing spectra from matter in the BHCs environment for inuences from GR. In the context of accretion onto black holes, bright X-ray sources and high luminosities in general, as found at the so called active galaxy nuclei (AGN), are also strong hints for massive dark objects. In addition to that, BHC can reveal themselves through gravitational lensing. The rst BHC, identied as such one, is a X-ray source observed rstly in 1971 by Tom Bolton and is called Cyg X-1 [Bol1972]. Today this source is known to be a X-ray binary consisting of a massive O9-B0 supergiant star and a stellar BHC of about ten solar masses (see Figure 1.1). Being interested in astrophysically observable characteristics of black holes resulting from radiation from hot gas accreting around them, many groups examinated the issue of accretion. This resulted in several models which dier from each other in some of their properties. In spite of that, some fundamental features of the accretion geometry, as the presence of a cold accretion disc and a hot corona are widely accepted today. Led by these theoretical examinations, the search for BHCs was dominated by the search for bright X-ray sources.
1.1. Historical Background and Motivation
Figure 1.1.: Cygnus X-1 in the constellation Cygnus. Identied in 1971 as a BHC, Cygnus X-1 is a binary consisting of a stellar black hole accreting matter from its companion the supergiant HDE 226868. The distance to the star system is about 2500 pc. [Kal] The rst survey of the sky for such sources was performed by Uhuru 1 , followed by prominent satellites like Einstein in 1978, EXOSAT and Tenma in the 80s and ROSAT in 1990. Todays major satellites are the RXTE, Chandra, XMM-Newton and the Japanese Astro-E2. In fact it is worth mentioning that the rst black holes were found as radio sources in the late 50s already. Misinterpreted in the rst place, the quasars 2 , known for their high luminosities, rank among the AGN galaxies harbouring supermassive accreting black holes. The observations performed until today provide data from BHCs throughout a wide mass range. The smallest known are the stellar black holes with masses between 1 and 100 M . Supermassive black holes (SMBH) with masses between 102 and 106 M rank amongst the biggest.
1 2
Uhuru is the Swahili word for freedom. The satellite was launched from Kenya. Term derives from QUASi-stellAR radio source and originates from detection circumstances.
1. Introduction
Current examinations concentrate on the aim of collecting data on black hole parameters (particularly mass and angular momentum) in order to provide a link between observations and theory. BHCs can be used as probes to the models describing black holes interacting with matter in their environment, and furthermore for testing the validity of the GR at strong gravitation elds. Motivated by observations of uorescence lines emitted from the accretion disc, this thesis deals with the Kerr metric having certain imprints on the observed line proles. Furthermore accreting dynamic structures breaking the systems axial symmetry and their eect on the total ux are investigated, since ux variabilities, called quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) have been observed at many black hole systems. Understanding the origin of such features will contribute to the correct interpretation of the observation data and can provide a signicant approach to physics at strong gravitation elds.
1.2. Thesis Outline

As mentioned in previous section, this thesis primary concern is the investigation of dynamic structures in the vicinity of rotating black holes. For that purpose a relativistic ray-tracing method is used to simulate time-dependent intensity distributions originating from such objects. The ray-tracer computes the radiative transfer along null geodesics on the Kerr metric from the origin to the observer and provides relativistically deformed line proles and total uxes at dierent times. In chapter 2 the dierent kinds of black holes with regard to their evolution and the variety of detection methods are summarized. The origin of the uorescence lines is discussed in the context of accretion models and the unied scheme of AGN is introduced. Furthermore, properties of the Kerr metric and the derivation of the geodesic equations is presented. After that, the implementation of the problem is described in chapter 3, taking into account the rendering procedure and the radiative transfer. The results of the simulations performed are presented in chapter 4 then.
2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background

2.1. Phenomenology of Black Holes
Since this thesis subject is the simulation of black hole observations, an abstract on objects of this kind is given in this section. Concerning their relevance for astronomy and observation eorts, only objects with masses around the solar mass and above are described here. Black holes as the TeV black holes, being of certain interest in high energy physics, or the Primordial black holes proposed in cosmology, having been formed in the early universes post ination era, are not regarded here furthermore. At rst the formation of compact objects will be outlined. Processes in their environment providing certain possibilities of detection will also be described, leading to the outline of accretion models developed until today. Consequently the Unied Scheme of AGN, explaining the dierent AGN classes as manifestations of the inuence of their orientation to the observer, is presented.
2.1.1. Black Holes Masses and Evolution

The term black hole describes a mass conguration with an eciently high mass density resulting in a gravitation eld that leads zo the formation of an event horizon. That is a null hypersurface acting as a boundary separating spacetime points which can be connected to those at innity1 by a timelike path from those which cannot (see App. B). Consequently no information can escape the inner region, although the horizon can be passed the other way round, and the object should appear comletely dark. In general relativity the existence of an event horizon and its properties can be derived from the metric describing the spacetime resulting from the mass conguration. Despite that, as mentioned in the introduction, the concept of a completely dark object was derived already from classical Newtonian gravity. Starting with a spherically symmetric mass distribution, which gravity potential for points outside the distribution can be described by that of a point source with the total mass M , the total energy needed by a particle with mass m to escape to innity from given r (distance to point mass) can be evaluated to: GmM F dr = E= . (2.1) r r
1
events suciently far away, so the spacetime can be regarded as asymptotically at
Figure 2.1.: Spacetime diagram portraying a light cone and space-, null- and timelike paths. The axes are space (x) and time (t). Comparing this to the kinetic energy Ekin = 1/2 mv 2 gained by a particle while falling from innity to the given r, the escape velocity v can be extracted.
2 v =
2GM r
(2.2)
In order to escape the gravitational pull from the source, each particle starting at distance r needs a velocity equal or above v to reach innity. Combining this to the limiting speed of light c results in a minimum distance rS , depending on the sources total mass M , from which the innity can be reached at all: 2GM . (2.3) c2 Comparing that result to the Schwarzschild solution (see Sec. 2.2.2), it should be noticed that it equals to the position of the event horizon derived there. As this derivation already shows, the mass of the black hole is a crucial parameter. Therefore it is primarily used to distinguish those objects. The black holes of interest in astronomy are usually classied as stellar black holes, massive black holes (MBH) or supermassive black holes (SMBH). rS = Stellar black holes with masses between 1 and 100 M are present relicts of massive stars. During its active state of nuclear burning a star is at hydrostatic equilibrium. The gravitational pressure pointing inwards is compensated by gas pressure, radiation pressure and by centrifugal forces. When nuclear burning comes to an
2.1. Phenomenology of Black Holes end, this balanced state cannot be sustained and a gravitational collaps occurs. For low masses this compression, resulting in high mass densities, can be stopped by fermionic degeneracy pressure of electrons, leading to a white dwarf, or neutrons at higher masses, leaving a neutron star behind. However, those states are limited by critical masses the Chandrasekhar mass of 1.46 M for white dwarfs [Cha1931a, Cha1931b], and the critical mass for neutron stars, which due to uncertainties in the constitutive equation of matter at densities above those of core matter is not determined exactly, but should be located around 1.8 M [OpVo1939]. Since the collapse of massive stars is usually accompanied by a supernova, during which the outer shells are blasted away, the mass of the remnants can drop below the critical masses described. For suciently massive stars though, there is no known mechanism, which could prevent the gravitational collapse to a black hole, where its total mass is gathered in a singularity2 . For those reasons, compact dark objects with masses above two solar masses are passable black hole candidates (BHOs). Objects of that class are usually detected as X-ray binaries (Black Hole X-ray Binary/BHXB), where the black hole evades matter from its companion. Massive black holes (MBH) , which objects with masses between 100 and 106 M are counted to, could not be conrmed by observations for a long time. First indications for such mid-mass black holes were found with Chandra in the year 2000 [Kaa2000]. Rotational curves from several dwarf galaxies and globular clusters hint for the possibility of a black hole in the center of these systems. Supermassive black holes (SMBH) represent the CDOs with masses above 106 up to approximately 1010 M . Observations allow the conclusion that almost each galaxy harbours a SMBH in its centre. Quasars of high redshifts are supposed to possess black holes with highest masses known. As will be described in sec. 2.1.2, the physics of active galactic nuclei require rotating black holes as stimuli in galactic centres in order to explain the various AGN manifestations as Seyfert galaxies, quasars, blazars and radio galaxies. A very prominent representative of the SMBHs is Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*), a compact and bright radio source in the center of the Milky Way, 8 kpc away. From determinations of the orbit of S2, a star near to SGR A*, its mass could be estimated to approximately 2.6 106 M , being centred within a region of a radius not more than 120 AU [Sch2002]. More recent observations indicate to a mass of 3.7 106 M within a volume with the maximal radius 45 AU [Ghez05] (see Figures 2.2 and 2.3). These huge masses in tiny regions can only be explained by a SMBH.
2
Although the existence of mathematical singularities is proved [Haw1969], their existence in reality is not only not claried, but furthermore is not favourised throughout the scientic community. Alternative models such as gravastars [Maz2001] and holostars [Pet2003], which dispense with intrinsic singularities, are developed. As they behave similar to black holes, the search for possible observable indicators favourizing one of the solutions is an important subject.
Figure 2.2.: Set of images taken with Chandra. The large picture shows a view of the Milky Way centre with SGR A* labeled. The smaller images show closeups of regions with evidences for an X-ray echo reected at gas clouds in the environment. (Credit: NASA/CXC/Caltech/ M.Muno et al.)
Figure 2.3.: Orbits of stars within the central 1.0 1.0 arcseconds of the Milky Way. Annual average positions of seven stars and best ttings of their orbits are plotted here [UCLA].
2.1.2. Accretion Theory and Unied Scheme

Since isolated black holes could not be detected except by lensing eects due to the spacetime curved by them, common observation methods exploit eects of the interaction of CDOs with their environment. Especially the dierent types of AGN and the radiation emitted by them throughout the whole wavelength spectrum between radio and TeV suggest a complex matter conguration close to black holes. The main feature of black hole-matter systems is the accretion of matter. Due to correlations between gravitation and centrifugal forces, ifalling matter forms an accretion disc in the equatorial plane, where matter is transported inwards, while angular momentum is carried away outwards. During that process, gravitational energy is transformed into heat and can be disposed by radiation. With an eciency factor for the transformation of accretion, characterized by the accretion rate M , to radiation, this process results in the luminosity L: L = M . (2.4)
Luminosities and accretion rates of accreting objects can be estimated by utilizing the Eddington luminosity LEdd LEdd = 4GM mP 1.3 1046 erg s1 T M 108 M , (2.5)
2.1. Phenomenology of Black Holes where M is the mass of the gravitation source, mP the proton mass and T the Thomson cross section. This Eddington limit can be derived from an equilibrium between radiation pressure pointing outwards and compensating the gravitation pressure [M2004]. u From eq. (2.5) it is possible to deduce masses of accreting objects when the luminosity is known.
Standard Accretion Disc Since accretion is fundamental in black hole physics, the physics of accretion discs are important when interpreting observations. The standard accretion disc (SAD) is an analytical solution to that problem derived from hydrodynamics in 1973/74 [Sha1973, Nov1974]. SADs are considered to be geometrically thin, which means that their half thickness H in vertical direction, in which hydrostatic equilibrium persists, is very small everywhere. This fact can be expressed by H 1, r (2.6)
where r is the radial coordinate. The velocity eld is dominated by a prole that can be approximated by Keplarian rotation, meaning M (2.7) = 2 Kep = . r3 For rotating black holes (comp. Sec. 2.2.3), which are characterized by the Kerr parameter a = J/M (angular momentum/mass), this prole changes to M (2.8) . 3+a M r The nearly keplerian rotation can only sustain for radii higher than the marginally stable, or innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO) rms . Therefore the SAD describes only regions above rms in the equatorial plane3 . The orbits in the accretion disc are not purely circular, as a slight radial drift occurs, but still the disc can be regarded as being in hydrodynamical equilibrium. SADs satisfy ecient cooling, meaning that heating from shear eects in the disc is completely radiated away. The temperature T in SADs decreases with the radius T r3/4 and since matter at dierent radii emits black body spectra with maxima at dierent wavelengths, the spectrum obtained from SADs is called a multi color black body spectrum. Although the SAD solution is self-consistent and used often for simulations, as it is also in this thesis, it should be mentioned that there are features in black holes spectra, that cannot be explained adequately by SADs.
3
This results in a gap between the inner edge of the disc and the event horizon. Only for maximal Kerr black holes, where a = 1 those radii coincide, so the SAD reaces the event horizon.
2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background Observations of Seyfert galaxies for example provide indications for truncated discs, which inner radii do not reach the rms . Consequently further accretion disc solutions as ADAF, RIAF and more can be found throughout the literature. A well-organized summary of those can be found in [M2004]. u Unied Scheme for AGN As already mentioned, many observations can be explained by AGNs. Due to some varying features in their spectra they can be subdivided in certain classes. It is widely accepted that this classication is not resulting from structural dierences, but from the objects orientation to the observer. The unication scheme for AGN (see Fig. 2.4) sketches the environment around a black hole manifesting as an AGN. The AGN are
Figure 2.4.: This sketch shows the matter conguration typical for an AGN, also called the AGN paradigm. The most important structures regarding acretion are: the slim accretion disc in the equatorial plane ranging down to a few rg , the hot corona in the central region, and the cold torus feeding the disc [M2004]. u usually divided into two groups depending on their radio activity. Approximately 90% are rated as radio-quiet, which quasars and Seyferts are counted to. The rest is called radio-loud, further classied as FR I, with generally low luminosities, a core dominated radio emission and weak in the optical range, or FR II, with a radio emission being lobe dominated, a strong optical emission and higher luminosities at all [Fan1974].
10
2.1. Phenomenology of Black Holes The features in the AGN spectra can now be explained by processes in the dierent regions around the black hole and by the systems inclination4 i to the obsever. From spectral energy distributions from AGNs [Elv1994] a typical radiation prole can be extracted (see Fig. 2.5).
Figure 2.5.: Typical AGN continuum spectrum extracting. Contributions from dierent sources in the AGN are distinguished by color. [M2004] u The spectrum consists of contributions from dierent sources: Starburst in the galaxy contributes to the lowest photon frequencies in the spectrum. At wavelengths around 10m the dust torus, located at distances of about 104 rg from the centre, dominates the spectrum. Scattering of hard radiation in the cold (T 1000 K) dust torus is responsible for the infrared radiation. The central region of the spectrum is shaped by the multi color black body spectrum from the accretion disc.
4
For line of sight along the symmetry axis (rotation axis) i = 0 and i = 90 for obsevers in the equatorial plane.
11
2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background The inner part of the system, where the hot corona is located, is dominant in the X-ray range, forming a characteristic Compton continuum. This results from inverse Compton scattering of soft photons at the hot coronal plasma. Imposed to the Compton continuum of the corona there is another contribution. Radiation from the hot inner regions hit the accretion disc and get reected. This is where the uorescence lines, as the Fe K, crucial to this thesis, originate from. An important feature of AGN physics are the relativistic jets along the rotation axis. Jets are directed and highly collimated matter outows, which can be observed not only in AGN, but also in BHXBs and others. They are formed as a result from the accretion process. High relativistic velocities in jets are supposed to be driven by twisted magnetic elds at rotating black holes. Observations of those jets served as a matter of excitement, since they indicate velocities higher than speed of light. However, this can be explained as a geometric consequence when observing low inclined relativistic jets. Due to the presented matter conguration at AGN, the inclination to the observer is decisive for interpreting observations of these systems. At high inclinations the dust torus can obstruct the view towards the inner regions. Therefore Seyfert I galaxies, which exhibit narrow and broad emission lines are explained by low inclinations. As broad emission lines are assumed to origin from Doppler shifts at higher velocities, they should be emitted in the inner regions of AGN. A lack in those broad lines, as observed at Seyfert II galaxies, indicates for high inclinations and the torus obscuring the centre.
2.1.3. Chasing Black Holes

Supplied by an adequate concept of processes in black holes vicinity, indications for such objects can be searched for. The main task is then to determine the systems parameter space in order to gain an overview of black hole occurrences and to verify the theory. The major parameters are the black hole mass M , its angular momentum, specied by the Kerr parameter a, the inclination i of the rotational axis to the observer and the accretion rate M . Several methods are exploited to get those information. Kinematical methods as simply tracing the keplerian orbits of objects in the gravitation eld of the source, or reverberation mapping techniques measuring time lags between primary radiation and reected radiation in broad line regions (BLR), are used for determinations of the central mass. Apart from lensing eects due to the curved spacetime, high luminosities, as obtained from AGNs, strongly hint for black holes. Another important characteristic in the observed spectra is commenly utilized to extract the parameters. Fluorescence lines from the accretion disc are relativistically broadened by eects from GR. Depending on underlying models, particularly the inclination and the spin parameter can be accessed by interpreting those imprints correctly.
12
2.1. Phenomenology of Black Holes Fe K Fluorescence Line Fluorescence lines in the keV range can be extracted from the AGN continuum spectrum by subtracting the contribution from the corona (see Fig. 2.5 in sec. 2.1.2) in the detected X-ray spectra. Lines from nickel (Ni), iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), calcium (Ca), argon (Ar), sulfur (S), silicon (Si), magnesium (Mg) and neon (Ne) contribute to the X-ray range of the spectrum. Since they are superposed by the Compton continuum from the corona, which can be described by a characteristic power-law, the most dominant line, the Fe K, is generally observed at Seyferts, quasars and BHXBs.
Figure 2.6.: Fluorescence lines contributing to the X-ray range superposed by the coronal Compton continuum (power-law). Due to its dominance, the Fe K line can be extracted most easily [Rey1996]. It originates from the transition of an electron from the L to the K shell, emitting a photon with 6.4 keV in the rest frame (see Fig. 2.7), after being lifted by photo-electric absorbtion of X-ray photons from the corona 5 . The threshold value for the absorption is 7.1 keV for neutral Fe and increases with the level of ionization.
5
A signicant decay of the detected primary spectrum in the region of about 7 keV results from that and can be veried in the spectra.
13
Figure 2.7.: Atomic inner shell transitions. Obviously it can only occur, if the uorescending matter is not completely ionized. At least the inner K and L shells should be occupied, which should be the case for the temperatures in the accretion disc. A reason for the line contributions being relatively low, is another process competing with the uorescence. Absorbtion of the photon energy can result in a radiationless state transition, when another electron is released as an Auger electron. This case is more ecient (66% probability for Fe) and suppresses the uorescence. For the other elements, listed above, the eciency ratio for the photon emitting transition is even lower. Therefore the Fe K line is the most prominent. The shape of the uorescence line, formed by relativistic eects from GR, is now a signicant tool for the determination of the emitting matters state of motion and furthermore black hole parameters. The most important imprints on the lines shape are (see Fig. 2.8): The classical Doppler eect results from radiation being blue-shifted when emitting source is moving towards the observer, and contrariwisely red-shifted when moving in the other direction. The originally monochromatic emission line, originating from the rotating accretion disc, is symmetrically broadened and exhibits a characteristic double-horned structure. Two eects originate from the formulation of SR:
14
2.1. Phenomenology of Black Holes The transverse Doppler eect results in a general slight red-shift due to the sources motion and relativistic beaming raises the blue wing of the lines spectrum due to collimation of the radiation in the relativistic emitters direction of motion. The gravitational source determines the curvature of the spacetime in its vicinity and forms the gravitational potential. Photon trajectories (nullgeodesics) from inner to outer regions come with an eort in energy and result in the gravitational redshift.
Figure 2.8.: A monochromatic emission line from an accretion disc is being formed by various eects, resulting in a relativistically broadened line prole [Fab2000]. Since the examination of the K line became such a convincing tool, many groups developed techniques in order to simulate lines as they should appear to the observer [Fab1989, Dab1997, Fan1997, Schn05]. Those methods can be outlined as followed: Underlying a certain radial emission prole
15
2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background to the accretion disc, contributions from each point on it to the spectrum are summed up. This is performed by implementing the radiative transfer along the photon trajectories from the emmitter to the observer. This technique is called ray-tracing and provides simulated spectra of relativistically broadened emission lines. The inclination i turned out to be the parameter, the spectra depend mainly on. The Kerr parameter a primarily inuences the spectrums red wing for accretion discs, which range down to the rms . This is due to the fact that for increasing spin parameters the ISCO moves towards the event horizon and the gravitational redshift in these regions has a bigger impact. An example for simulated line proles for dierent inclinations, taken from results of [Schn05], is presented in Fig. 2.9, whereas gures 2.10a-d present example data from extractions of the K line.
Figure 2.9.: Spectra of relativistically broadened emission line from an uniformly emitting disc, ranging from Rin = rms to Rout = 15 rg . The Kerr parameter is set to a = 0.5 and dierent inclinations i are evaluated. [Schn05].
16
2.1. Phenomenology of Black Holes
(a) Seyfert I, MCG-6-30-15; ASCA, [Nan1997]
(b) Seyfert I, IC 4329A; ASCA, [Nan1997]
(c) Seyfert I, NGC 3516; ASCA, [Nan1997]
(d) Seyfert I, NGC 3227; ASCA, [Nan1997]
Figure 2.10.: Several example data from measurements of the prole of the K uorescence line at 6.4 keV in emmitters rest frame.
17
2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background QPOs The X-ray spectra show another interesting property concerning the observed ux distribution in time. Nearly periodic features, quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs), are detected in X-ray light curves from BHXBs. Two dierent classes can be distinguished due to their oscillation frequency. The high frequency quasi-periodic oscillations (HFQPOs) in the kHz range and the low frequency QPOs (LFQPOs) in the Hz. Due to limits in timing resolution of the observations, those features are usually examined in Fourier space of time-depending light curves. The resulting power density spectra (PDS) then exhibit peaks with characteristic amplitudes at certain frequencies (see Fig. 2.11 as example). Several approaches are analyzed in order to explain and to simulate these observations. Dynamic structures, regions of higher emission co-rotating within the accretion disc (hot spots), should imprint a characteristic signature to light curves and are implemented in ray-tracing applications [Bao1992, Schn05], as it is performed within this thesis (see chap. 3). Another concept is often favorized to explain the variabilities described. Accretion discs, slightly inclined with respect to the black holes rotation axis, should perform a precession (Lense-Thirring precession) due to eects from GR. This interaction between gyroscopes (rotating masses) is known as gravitomagnetic spin-spin interaction 6 .
Figure 2.11.: Average power spectrum from observations of GRS 1915+ 105 with the Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer in the 13-27 keV energy band featuring a QPO at 40 Hz. The solid curve represents the best tting [Str2001].
6
The term originates from the analogy to classical electrodynamics, where moving electrical charges produce magnetic elds.
18
2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations

In contradiction to classical formulations, in general relativity gravitation arises from the geometric structure of the generally not at but curved spacetime. The concepts of GR describe, how the spacetime, which can be dened by its metric, is formed due to present mass (energy) distributions and contrariwisely how it aects those. Equations of motion for particles arise directly from the metric, since they are moving along geodesics. Therefore the procedure of exploiting a given systems properties usually demands the derivation of the corresponding metric from Einsteins eld equation (2.13). That can be thought of as a set of second-order dierential equations for the metric tensor g . Due to its structure and its nonlinear nature, resulting from the fact that in GR the graviatational eld couples to itself, solving the eld equation is a non-trivial task. Even in vacuum cases simplifying assumptions, as isometries in the solution, are usually necessary. In this part of the thesis, the eld equation and its major solutions are introduced, following the concepts presented in [Carr, Fli, MTW].
2.2.1. Field Equations

The metric of a general Riemann spacetime is dened by the line element ds2 = g (x)dx dx , (2.9)
where g (x) is the coordinate depending metric tensor. The dependency of its components on the coordinates is a manifestation of the spacetime curvature. This is why coordinate transformations to a at Minkowski metric ds2 = dx dx are only possible locally, yielding the relation g = x x x x (2.10)
between g and the metric tensor = diag(1, 1, 1, 1) of the minkowski metric. Since the metric describes the spacetime curvature, which is formed by masses, or energy in general, the sources of gravity in a given system must be taken into account. They are summed up by the divergence-free7 and symmetric stress-energy tensor T . Now the ansatz for the eld equation can be stated: GT (2.11)
On the righthand side the sources are placed, whereas on the lefthand side G is a geometric object characterizing the gravity. As such one, some constraints to G can be posted: In at spacetimes G vanishes.
7
This condition expresses the conservation of momentum and energy.
19
2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background It is constructed from and only from the Riemann curvature tensor R (see App. A) and the metric components, with being linear in R being symmetric and of second rank having a vanishing divergence G 0 For weak elds (g ) the eld equation should reduce to the Newtonian case R00 = 4. It can be proved that apart from a multiplicative constant, only 1 G = R g R 2 (2.12)
satises those requirements, where R is the Ricci tensor and R is the curvature scalar. Those can be derived from contractions of the Riemann curvature tensor by R = g R and R = R = g R . Exploiting the weak eld approximation, the proportionality in (2.11) can be determined, leading to the nal Einstein eld equation G = R R g = 8T . 2 (2.13)
G is often referred to as the Einstein curvature tensor 8 . A contraction of this one yields R = 8T . Plugging this into (2.13) results in an alternate form R = 8 T T g 2 . (2.14)
When interested in vacuum solutions, T is set to zero and the vacuum Einstein equation for those cases is then given by: R = 0 . (2.15)
2.2.2. Schwarzschild Metric

The Schwarzschild solution9 describes the metric outside a spherically symmetric mass distribution. To derive such one, it is necessary to exploit the Einstein eld equation for the vacuum case (2.15). Introducing polar coordinates x = (t, r, , ) and imposing spherical symmetry also for the solution, the ansatz for the metric searched for can be written as ds2 = e2(r) dt2 + e2(r) dr2 + e2(r) r2 d2 , (2.16)
where d2 = d2 + sin2 d2 is the metric on a unit two-sphere, and (r), (r), (r) are functions of the radial coordinate r.
8 9
Due to geometrized units, the factor G/c4 , often found in literature, is ignored in (2.13). More precisely the exterior Schwarzschild solution.
20
2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations Choosing a new radial coordinate r = e(r) r, the factor e2(r) can be disposed, and the metric can be denoted as ds2 = e2(r) dt2 + e2(r) dr2 + r2 d2 .10 (2.17)
To determine (r) and (r) from (2.15), the components of the Ricci tensor must be calculated. The nonvanishing components are: 2 2 Rtt = e2() r + (r )2 r r + r r 2 2 Rrr = r (r )2 + r r + r r 2 R = e [r(r r ) 1] + 1
2
(2.18a) (2.18b) (2.18c) (2.18d)
R = sin R
By exploiting the relation Rtt = Rrr = 0 and rescaling the time coordinate, the result = can be derived. R = 0 yields r (re2 ) = 1, which can be solved to obtain e2 = 1 c , r (2.19)
where c is a constant to be determined. This can be achieved by comparing the derived metric to the metric around a point mass in the weak-eld limit, where the gtt component satises gtt = 1 2GM = c2 r S 1 rr . Since for r the schwarzschild solution should reduce to the weak-eld case, the missing constant can be identied as c = rS , called the Schwarzschild radius. The nal form of the Schwarzschild metric reads then: ds2 = 1 rS r dt2 + 1 rs r
1
dr2 + r2 d2 .
(2.20)
Properties of the Schwarzschild Metric The Schwarzschild solution describes the metric outside spherically symmetric masses. The fact that for r the metric becomes at (g ) is called asymptotical atness. The temporal coordinate t can be interpreted as the time (proper time), measured by an observer at innity. For some objects this metric is not applicable, since the Schwarzschild radius rS would lie within the mass distribution. Assuming a homogenous mass distribution with the density within the radius R, a criterion for can be generated. With the condition that rs = 2GM/c2 > R, where M = V is the central mass, a critical mass density crit can be approximated to crit = 3M 3c6 = . 3 32G3 M 2 4rS (2.21)
For the Earth for example it would mean that its mass had to be compressed to the sphere with the radius r 2.7 cm.
10
Precisely instead of r, r should be used here, but this is only a matter of labeling and will not be considered.
21
2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background So, for objects not exceeding crit this exterior Schwarzschild solution needs to be expanded. Nevertheless, for non-rotating black holes the Schwarzschild metric is applicable. When examining the metric (Eq. 2.20), two regions arise as a matter of concern. For r 0 and r rS the metric coecients gtt respectively grr diverge. Since the metric coecients are coordinate-dependent, such singularities can result from the breakdown of the coordinate system chosen, and do not need to be meaningful for the spacetime geometry. In fact, an adequate coordinate system can be found in this case that the singularity at r = rS vanishes (Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates). Singularities, originating from the choice of the coordinate system are therefore called coordinate singularities. Intrinsic singularities, arising from the metric curvature, can be detected by investigating scalars, constructed from the curvature tensor. Such scalars can be the curvature (Ricci) scalar R = g R , or any higher-order scalars as R R , R R , and so on. A singularity of the metrics curvature occurs, whenever one of those scalars diverges at a certain point. For the schwarzschild metric it can be shown that r = 0 implies such a singularity due to 48G2 M 2 R R = . (2.22) r6 Since the metric coecient gtt changes its sign at r = rS , the surface, described by that condition, is still interesting. Considering radial null curves, for which and are constant and ds2 = 0, yields rS dt = 1 dr r
1
(2.23)
When approaching rS , the quantity dt/dr diverges. Interpreting t as the proper time of an observer far away, it implies that from his point of view, light rays would never reach that surface, or the other way round would never reach innity when originating from there. This time lapse is also the reason for photons being gravitationally redshifted (blueshifted respectively), when their frequency is measured at dierent radial distances. The contribution from the gravitational redshift of photons measured at dierent radial distances rA , rB can be denoted as: B 1= z= A gtt (rB ) gtt (rA )
1/2
1.
(2.24)
Those time lapses are illustrated in Fig. 2.12, which shows the propagation of signals through spacetime when emitted at dierent r. The surface dened by r = rS is the event horizon of the Schwarzschild metric. It separates points that are connected to innity by timelike paths from those that are not. This property manifests itself in the Killing vector K = (t ) (see App. B) changing from being timelike to spacelike at r = rS . It is important to mention that the event horizon, being that interesting for observers at innity, derives from the coordinate choice (the temporal coordinate t particularly).
22
Figure 2.12.: Spacetime diagram showing signals being emitted at intervals of constant proper time 1 and being detected by an observer at xed r with longer time intervals 2 . [Carr]
For objects moving along geodesics the event horizon is not a boundary and can be traversed. Therefore free falling particles, moving along geodesic trajectories, reach the event horizon and even the centre at nite proper times. The curvature of the Schwarzschild metric around black holes can be visualized by the geodesic ux around the event horizon (see Fig. 2.17, 2.18). It can be proved that the Schwarzschild metric is the unique static and spherically symmetric solution to the Einsteins eld equation in vacuum [Bir1923].
2.2.3. Kerr Metric

Since the Schwarzschild solution, presented in the previous section, is a spherically symmetric solution and for rotating black holes this symmetry breaks down, it is not applicable to those objects. The most general solution, the Kerr-Newman metric [New1965], was found in 1965 and is characterized by the maximum set of black holes parameters, namely the mass, the angular momentum and electrical charges. Due to the argument that any electric charge from the black hole should be compensated by electric currents in its vicinity, not the general Kerr-Newman metric but the Kerr solution is considered commenly. This one is parametrized only by the central mass M and the Kerr (spin) parameter a = J/M . Due to conservation of angular momentum during collapses, the assumption of rotating compact objects seems sensible.
23
2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background Formulation Before introducing the Kerr metric in Boyer-Lindquist form, which is widely spread throughout the literature, a general formulation for axially symmetric and stationary spacetimes is presented. The Papapetrou line element applies to both, the vacuum and the non-vacuum case [Pap1966]11 ds2 = e2 dt2 e2 (d dt)2 e22 (dx2 )2 e23 (dx3 )2 (2.25)
Here the set of coordinates is (t, , x2 , x3 ) and the functions , , , 2 and 3 are only dependent of the spatial coordinates x2 and x3 . The two obvious symmetries imply the existence of two conserved quantities, which turn out to be the total energy E and the total angular momentum J. Applying the vacuum Einstein equation to the ansatz and exploiting the gauge freedom for the functions 2 and 3 , the Kerr metric can be derived. In cartesian coordinates it can be written as [Cha1983]: ds2 = dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2 2M r3 r4 + a2 z 2 dt
z 1 [r(x dx + y dy) + a(x dy y dx)] dz r2 + a2 r
(2.26)
Since the function y depends only on x, y, z, and a, the only parameters, the metric depends on, are as stated the mass M and the specic angular momentum, also called Kerr parameter a. In geometrized units a [M, M ] and with M normalized to 1, a [1, 1]. Since the formulation (2.26) is quite unhandy, the Kerr solution is often denoted in the pseudo spherical Boyer-Lindquist coordinates (t, r, , ) [Boy1967], where the line element takes the form ds2 = 2 dt2 + 2 (d dt)2 + yielding the metric coecients g 2 + 2 2 0 0 2 0 2 / 0 0 = 2 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 dr + 2 d2 , (2.27)
(2.28)
and the components of the inverse metric tensor g 1/2 0 0 /2 0 /2 0 0 . = 2 0 0 1/ 0 2 2 2 /2 / 0 0 1/
(2.29)
11
Here, as well as in Eq. 2.26, the metric signature (plus, minus, minus, minus) is used.
24
2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations The functions , , , , are functions of the two spatial coordinates r, and the two parameters a and M : = r2 2M r + a2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(2.30a) (2.30b) (2.30c) (2.30d) (2.30e) (2.30f)
= r + a cos 2 2M ra = 2 = sin
= (r + a ) a sin 2 =
They can be interpreted as follows. The function is often referred to as the lapse function (see App. C) describing the general relativistic time dilatation. is called the frame-dragging frequency and, being dened as = gt /g , it arises from the cross term gt . Since the rotation of the metric is described by this function, it vanishes for the Schwarzschild case when a = 0 and the metric becomes diagonal. As 2 equals the circumference of cylinders with radius r and centred at the rotation axis, it is also called cylindrical radius. and are geometric functions. is related to the radial coordinate r by degenerating to that for = /2 in the equatorial plane. From = 0, the positions of the event horizons can be derived. The radial proles of those functions in the equatorial plane for the extreme Kerr case a = 1 and the Schwarzschild case a = 0 are illustrated in Fig. 2.14 and Fig. 2.13 respectively. The proles are visualized for radii above the (outer) event horizon, which lies at r = M for the extreme Kerr case and at r = rS = 2M for the Schwarzschild case. Interesting to point out is the behaviour of the lapse function , which in both cases becomes null at the event horizon, implying an innite redshift, and converges to = 1 for r . That describes the asymptotical atness of the Kerr metric. For low radii, the frame-dragging frequency increases when a = 0. Consequently the dragging of the spacetime, evoking from the rotating central mass, primarily has an impact at small distances, whereas it becomes null for large r. Evaluating these quantities for a = 0 makes clear that the Kerr solution (2.27) reduces to the Schwarzschild metric as it should, due to the spheric symmetry being restored. The uniqueness of the Kerr metric as a stationary axially symmetric solution of the Einsteins eld equation in vacuum is stated by the Robinson theorem [Rob1975].
25
14
function values [geomtrized units]
12 10 8 6 4 2 0
a = 0
6
radius r[M]
10
Figure 2.13.: Radial proles for the Boyer-Lindquist functions in the equatorial plane for the Schwarzschild case a = 0. Only radial distances above the event horizon rS are considered.
14
function values [geomtrized units]
12 10 8 6 4 2 0
a = 1
6
radius r[M]
10
Figure 2.14.: Radial proles for the Boyer-Lindquist functions in the equatorial plane for the extreme Kerr case a = 1. Only radial distances above the (outer) event horizon are considered. 26
2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations Properties Looking for regions, where the lapse function becomes null for arbitrary values of the Kerr parameter a, the condition = 0 yields
rH = M + rH
M 2 a2 .
(2.31)
It is interesting that for a = 0 there are two horizons, namely the outer horizon 2 a2 and the inner horizon12 at r = M + M 2 a2 . =M+ M H For a = 0 the two horizons coincide at r = rS . Since the outer horizon is a boundary for any information being able to reach innity, the inner horizon is not considered here furthermore. Actually, both horizons are independent of the poloidal coordinate , resulting in spherical symmetry. The result in (2.31) also implies that the absolute value of a must not exceed M , which would lead to the breakdown of the horizons and to a naked singularity.
A divergence of metric components at rH implies singularities there. Since those can be avoided by a transformation to an adequate coordinate system, they can be considered as coordinate singularities. In analogy to the Schwarzschild metric, which exhibits an intrinsic singularity at r = 0, there is also an intrinsic singularity at r = a in the equatorial plane. In contrast to the Schwarzschild solution, this unavoidable singularity is ring-shaped.
Another interesting feature arises from the fact that the metric component gtt changes signs outside the event horizon. Solving gtt = 0 gives rerg = M + M 2 a2 cos2 . (2.32)
The surface, dened by (2.32), is called the ergosphere and due to its -dependency has an oblate structure, coinciding with the outer event horizon at the poles at = 0 and = . Given the angular frequency of an observer in the Kerr metric = U /U t13 and the condition for a globally time-like velocity eld gtt + 2gt + 2 g > 0, the angular frequency is limited to: + , with = (2.33)
Depending on the frame-dragging frequency this limitations become important for small radii. In (2.33) the upper limit + is the limit for prograde rotating observers, whereas stands for the limit of retrograde rotation. Evaluating that at the ergosphere leads to the conclusion that for radii lower than rerg no static14 observers can exist, as the lower limit becomes positive. Therefore the surface, dened by rerg() , is also called the static limit.
12
Also called Cauchy horizon. U denotes the four-velocity. 14 Static in relation to the coordinate system.
13
27
2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background At the outer event horizon, where = 0, the metric and anything else rotates with the angular frequency of the event horizon
+ H = (rH ) =
a
+ (rH )2
+ a2
.15
(2.34)
The region between the ergosphere and the outer event horizon, where frame-dragging of the metric forces anything to co-rotate with the central object is called the ergoregion. Discussing the eective potentials in Kerr metric, the so called marginally stable orbit or innermost stable circular orbit ISCO can be found. Regarding movement in the equatorial plane, it is the minimal radius, where stable rotation is possible. In the effective potential curves (see Fig. 2.15), which are parametrized by the specic angular momentum , the minima correspond to stable circular and the maxima to unstable circular orbits. The marginally stable orbit rms is marked by a saddle point in the potential curve of the minimal 3.464. The ISCO is given by rms = M 3 + Z2 with the functions Z1 and Z2 Z1 = 1 + 1 Z2 = 3 a2 M2
1/3
(3 Z1 )(3 + Z1 + 2Z2 ) ,
(2.35)
1+
a M
1/3
+ 1
a M
1/3
(2.36a) (2.36b)
a2 2 + Z1 , M2
where the upper signs correspond to prograde and the lower signs to retrograde orbits. It is worth noticing that for the extreme Kerr case (a = 0) the ISCO lies at the outer event horizon, so stable circular orbits occur in its vicinity. Those characteristic radii ascribed above are visualized for the equatorial plane in Fig. 2.16 for the whole range of possible values of the spin parameter a. The radii coincide for the extreme Kerr case at the event horizon rH = 1rg = 1M . With a = 0, specifying the Schwarzschild case, the ring singularity becomes point-like and the event horizon lies at rH = rS = 2rg = 2M . It is remarkable that unstable circular photon orbits exist in the Kerr metric. The radius for those orbits depends on a and lies between the ergosphere and the marginally stable orbit rms .
15
Notice that for the Schwarzschild case, no rotation is allowed at the event horizon.
28
Figure 2.15.: The eective potential curves are parametrized by the specic angular momentum. The minima mark stable circular orbits. The saddle point of the potential with the limiting = 3.464 corresponds to the marginally stable circular orbit rms . [Cam1997].
29
r r r
ring + H
r r
erg
radius r[M]
ms
0 -1,0 -0,5 0,0 0,5 1,0
Kerr parameter a[M]
Figure 2.16.: The characteristic radii of the Kerr spacetime in the equatorial plane for dierent values of a, where a < 0 corresponds to retrograde rotation and a > 0 for prograde rotation.
30
2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations Geodesics in Kerr Metric In order to examine the radiative transfer in the Kerr metric, the trajectories, along which photons are moving, need to be determined. Usually for this purpose, the geodesic equation (A.8) needs to be solved. Alternatively the equations of motion can be derived from the Hamilton-Jacobi formalism adapted to the GR. This was done by B. Carter in 1968 [Car1968] and resulted in nding the fourth conserved quantity (Carter constant C) and an elegant extraction of the integrals of motion. Applying the Hamilton-Jacobi formalism for geodesics parametrized by the ane parameter on a metric, dened by the metric components g , the Hamiltonian is given by: 1 1 S S H = g p p = g , (2.37) 2 2 x x where p are the covariant momentum components given by the partial derivatives of the action S. Evaluating the hamiltonian for the Kerr metric, one can see that it is not explicitely dependent on the variables t and . Taking into account the Hamilton function dp H = , d x (2.38)
this fact implies the two quantities pt and p to be conserved along the geodesic. Those can be associated to the energy E of the particle, as it is measured at innity, and its axial component of angular momentum Lz . The third conserved quantity is the particles rest mass, given by the norm of the four momentum = g p p . The Hamilton-Jacobi equation S S + H x , x =0 (2.39)
evaluated using (2.37) yields a dierential equation for the action function S: 2 2 S = 2 S t
2
4aM r S S 2 t S
2
a2 sin2 2 sin2
S r
1 2
(2.40)
To solve this, a separation of S in all variables proves to be adequate: 1 S = 2 Et + Lz + Sr (r) + S () 2 (2.41)
Here the rst three terms are xed by the known conserved quantities S/ = H = 2 /2, pr = S/t = E and p = S/ = Lz . The functions Sr (r) and S () are functions of only r respectively .
31
2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background Plugging this ansatz into (2.40) and arranging the terms according to their variables gives 1 r (r2 + a2 )E aLz
2 2 2
+ (Lz aE) + S
2
Sr r
(2.42)
a2 2 + (L2 csc2 a2 E 2 ) cos2 + z
= 0.
Obviously the upper term here depends only on r and the lower term only on . Consequently the both terms need to be constant independently from each other. Exploiting this fact, (2.42) can be split by imposing the constant C, which is the fourth conserved quantity: S Sr r
2
= C (L2 csc2 a2 E 2 + a2 2 ) cos2 = z

2
(2.43a) R (2.43b)
1 (r2 + a2 )E aLz
C + (Lz aE)2 + 2 r2 =
with the abbreviations P = (r2 + a2 )E aLz ,

2
(2.44a)
2 2 2
= C a2 (2 E 2 ) + L2 csc2 cos2 . z Applying (2.43a,b) to (2.41) gives now 1 S = 2 Et + Lz + 2 R dr + d .
R = P C + (Lz aE) + r
(2.44b) (2.44c)
(2.45)
The equations of motion for the Kerr metric can now be derived by evaluating x = p = g (S/x ). Since we are interested in radiative transfer, only nullgeodesics g (2 = 0) are considered: t= r2 = 1 2 (2 E 2aM rLz ) (2.46a) (2.46b) (2.46c) (2.46d)
R 4 2 = 4 1 = 2 2aM rE + (2 2M r)Lz csc2
The algorithm, implemented to solve these, is presented in the next chapter. Sometimes in literature another quantity can be found in this context, namely the constant K = C + (Lz aE)2 . With this relation the abbreviations R and become:
32
= (aE sin Lz csc )2 a2 2 cos2 + K
R = (r2 + a2 )E aLz
(2.47a) (2.47b)
To obtain a better idea of the metric, it is useful to take a look on the geodesic ux. Figures 2.17-2.22 visualize the null-geodesics around a central mass. Those photon trajectories are computed by numerical integration of (2.46a-d) on the Kerr metric, where the initial conditions are xed at the position of a virtual observer far away. At this point in spacetime the geodesics coincide. Applying Boyer-Lindquist coordinates with the central mass in the origin and its rotation axis marking = 0, the observers position is dened by the radial coordinate r and the poloidal coordinate . Due to stationarity and axial symmetry, t and can be neglected here. For the visualizations only , the Kerr parameter a and the perspective were varied. The radial distance of the observer was set to r = 800M . Two dierent accuracies for the intagration of the geodesics are indicated by color, where the red ray serves as a reference with a precision 100 times higher than the white ray. The yellow circle marks the event horizon, whereas the cyan structure represents the ergosphere. The Schwarzschild case (a = 0) can be examined at the gures 2.17 and 2.18, which dier in scale. The nullgeodesics for the extreme Kerr case (a = 1) can be found at gures 2.19-2.22. Unlike in the Schwarzschild metric, the spherical symmetry is disturbed here, and therefore the images perspective and the poloidal coordinate of the virtual observer (initial condition for geodesic tracing) need to be specied. The illustrations show the inuence of frame-dragging on the geodesics close to the central mass, where the trajectories are wound up.
33
Figure 2.17.: Far view on nullgeodesics in the Schwarzschild case; rH = rS = 2M .
34
Figure 2.18.: Close view on nullgeodesics in the Schwarzschild case.
35
Figure 2.19.: View on nullgeodesics in the extreme Kerr case as viewed along the axis of symmetry.
36
Figure 2.20.: View on nullgeodesics in the extreme Kerr case as viewed from the equatorial plane. The geodesics start point is xed by = 90.
37
38
39
2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background Zero Angular Momentum Observer In some cases it becomes useful to dismiss the global coordinate system and concentrate on small scales. In spite of spacetimes being generally curved, on scales suciently small the local metric appears at. Therefore it is allowed to dene a locally at, orthonormal coordinate basis (tetrad). Such a system given, the corresponding transformation matrix and its inverse can be used to change between the coordinate systems. In the case of the Kerr metric this can be further exploited. An observer, considered orbiting the central mass with the frame-dragging frequency , has a vanishing fourmomentum component in the e direction (p = 0). Consequently such an observer is called a Zero Angular Momentum Observer (ZAMO). The ZAMO tetrad e in Boyer-Lindquist coordinates is given by: 1 et + e er er = 1 e = e 1 e = e et = The transformation matrix for the change of basis is then: 1/ 0 0 / 2 0 / 0 0 = 0 0 1/ 0 0 0 0 1/ (2.48a) (2.48b) (2.48c) (2.48d)
(2.49)
40
3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer
As already outlined in the introduction, simulated spectra of monochromatic radiation from the surroundings of rotating black holes are examined in this thesis. In order to achieve that, a ray-tracing method is applied. Trajectories of photons, being detected by a xed observer far away, are back-traced through spacetime, until they either end up at the event horizon, or reach regions of no concern. The numerical integration of the ordinary dierential equations of rst order (2.46 a-d) is performed by an adaptive Fehlberg algorithm (see Sec. 3.2 and App. D). With those geodesics given, the spectra can be simulated then by applying a certain matter distribution in the central mass environment. This matter contributes by radiation to the ux being transported along the geodesics and being detected at the obsever in the end. Throughout the simulations presented in chapter 4, only monochromatic radiation was considered to contribute to the spectra. Doing that, contributions from uorescence lines like the K can be studied. Similar methods were successfully used in the past to obtain simulated line proles from accretion discs [Fab1989, Dab1997, Fan1997, M2000]. u In this thesis a further feature is analyzed. Regions of higher density, formed within the accretion disc, the so called hot spots (see page 54 in Sec. 3.1), are considered to inuence the line spectra and the intensity distribution in time. That dynamic feature derives from the hot spots corotating with the accretion disc and general relativistic eects inuencing the spectra dierently, depending on the position of the radiating matter. So, when simulating the detected radiation for equal intervals during a certain period of time, light curves can be obtained. This concept is applied to the volume ray-tracing application implemented by Burkhard Zink in 2002 [Zin2002]. Volume ray-tracing means that matter distributions are considered as three dimensional objects and can be intersected by the calculated geodesics. While resulting in higher processing times than those of planar ray-tracing applications, this concept allows absorption being taken into account. In this chapter the implementation of the dynamic ray-tracing concept, performed by means of the object oriented programming language C++, will be presented. After outlining the general functionality and process sequence and discussing the classes, that were implemented for this purpose (Sec. 3.1), the numerical integration of the geodesics (Sec. 3.2) and the radiative transfer along them will be described (Sec. 3.3). Before introducing the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) method, used to generate power density spectra (Sec. 3.5), the code of the applications main objects is revealed (Sec. 3.4).
41
3.1. Structure and Functionality

To produce time-dependent light curves, it is inevitable to simulate detected spectra for each timestep separately. Since the integration of the geodesics demands for a not negligible processing time, but the geodesic ux remains static in time, it only needs to be performed once for each pixel on the detectors screen. Intesity contributions, arising from the dynamic matter distribution along the photon trajectories, are evaluated for each timestep then. Being monochromatic in the emitters rest frame, those contributions get red- or blue-shifted due to relativistic eects from GR. That frequency shift depends on the emitters position and state of motion. Summing up all intensity contributions along a geodesic results in obtaining a spectrum I(). Spatially resolved pictures of the environment of the central mass can be obtained by color-encoding these spectra for each pixel. Usually the spatial resolution of detectors being used today is not suciently high to get spatially resolved pictures of the objects concerned here. Therefore it is more reasonable to sum over each pixel on the detectors screen. A total spectrum can be simulated by doing that. A further integration I()d yields the total energy detected. Varying in time, these can be used to obtain time depending light curves. The major class implemented, that controls the described procedure is named Raytracer, derived from the class camera. Initialized with its position in spacetime, the metric applied for the simulation1 and the cameras aperture, which xes the initial conditions for the numerical integration (see below), it sets up the applications environment. Supplied with certain parameters, dened in two separate parameter les parameter.h and parhotspot.h, an instance of the object Mattereld is initialized at rst when the class method PerformSimulation(. . . ) is called. Mattereld encapsulates the matter objects considered for the simulation2 . After that, instances of the classes Spectrum and image are initialized. The class Spectrum represents the simulated spectra, storing values of the specic intensity for dierent frequencies and provides useful operations on them, whereas Image handles the data, which can be used to generate the spatially resolved images. Consequently each timestep demands its own instances of these. Since spectra are evaluated for all pixels independently and need to be summed up then to the time dependent total spectra, the double amount, namely twice the timesteps, of the spectrum class instances are required. The one half, called the working spectra, is used during the evaluation of spectra, diering in time, for each pixel successively. The other half is exploited for summing up those and storing the total spectra. Having set up the basic conditions, the computation is started by looping over each pixel in the detector frame. The equations of motion for photons are numerically integrated here, and the intensity contribution at each integration step is taken into account for
1
The Kerr metric only is used for this thesis, where the Schwarzschild case can be achieved by setting the Kerr parameter a to null. 2 An accretion disc and hot spots were used for this thesis, but further matter objects (dust torus, corona etc.) could be introduced here easily.
42
3.1. Structure and Functionality each timestep separately. By that procedure, the radiation transport along the geodesic regarded is evaluated time-dependently. The resulting working spectra are then on the one hand added to the total ones, and on the other hand used to generate a RGB-color representation for the given pixel. Having performed that for each pixel, the aspired information is available. By normalizing the images to the brightest contribution and by integration of the total spectra, the data is prepared for output. Usually spatially resolved color-coded time dependent pictures of the virtually observed objects are generated and can be used to obtain animations. In addition to that, the time depentent spectra, which can be used for examining the line broadening, are stored in adequate data les. Finally, the data, representing the total energy ux, is stored and can be used to visualize time dependent light curves. This main routine, performed by the class method PerformSimulation(string* simname) of the class Raytracer is illustrated in Fig.3.1. The classes of the time-depending ray-
Figure 3.1.: Illustration of the main sequence performed by the class method PerformSimulation(string* simname) of the major class Raytracer. tracer designed for the purpose of this thesis are structured due to an underlying hierarchy, as it is generally intended in object oriented programming. This hierarchy depends on the classes meaning and their functionality and should help to prevent confusion to the software engineer himself and any user as well.
43
3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer The classes and their methods concerning their function are described next, whereas parts of the cource code will be revealed in Sec. 3.4. Only public attributes of the classes
Figure 3.2.: Class hierarchy of the ray-tracing application. are listed, since the private ones serve solely for inner operations. Figure 3.2 visualizes the class hierarchy of the following classes. Object is pure abstract acting as the base class for all other classes, and therefore provides only a constructor and destructor. FourTupel represents a four-tuple of real numbers. It can be initialized by: FourTupel(): Standard initialization, where the components are set to null. FourTupel(oat8 a0, oat8 a1, oat8 a2, oat8 a3)3 : Initialization with dened components. FourTupel(const FourVector& vector): Here the components are extracted from the Fourvector (see below) provided. The four components are stored as public attributes and can be accessed directly. FourVector stores the four components of a vector and provides basic operations on them: FourVector(): Standard constructor, where the components are set to null.
3
The type oat8 is a double precision oat number dened in the le ntypes.h.
44
3.1. Structure and Functionality FourVector(oat8 x0, oat8 x1, oat8 x2, oat8 x3): Initialization with dened components. FourVector(const FourTupel& tupel): The components are extracted from a provided FourTupel during this initialization. FourVector operator+(const FourVector& add): This denes the operator + for the class as simple addition of the components. FourVector operator*(const oat8& smul): The multiplication of the vector with a scalar is dened as the operation *. void MakeLightlike(): The three spatial components are normalized according to the temporal, so that the vector becomes light-like (the Minkowski metric is applied here). void NormalizeTimelike(): The vector V is normalized by the condition V V = V V = 1, where is the Minkowski metric tensor. bool IsZero(): Returns true if the vectors components are null. As at the class FourTupel, the components of the vector are stored as public attributes. Chart is also an abstract class. Derivations from that one represent a coordinate chart corresponding to a special coordinate system. Supplied with a certain four-tuple, those classes should be able to check, if such one is valid for the given chart. Furthermore it provides the method int GetIdentier();, by which each derived class should be identied with regard to its integer identier dened in the le charttypes.h. BoyerLindquistChart models a Boyer-Lindquist coordinate representation in the Kerr metric and is initialized with the Kerr parameter a and the central mass M 4 . It provides the following methods: BoyerLindquistChart(oat8 kerr a, oat8 kerr M): The constructor must be supplied with the parameters a and M . oat8 GetRms(): Delivers the radial distance of the marginally stable circular orbit (ISCO) rms in the equatorial plane. void GetSafeSpot(FourTupel& result): Simply delivers a point in spacetime outside the ergosphere. bool IsValid(const FourTupel& tupel): Delivers true if the position in spacetime provided is outside the event horizon. The region inside the horizon is considered non-valid.
4
Usually the mass M will be set to 1.
45
3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer oat8 GetEventHorizon(): Yields the radial coordinate of the event horizon. oat8 GetErgosphereBorder(oat8 theta): The radial coordinate of the ergosphere is delivered according to the poloidal angle provided. int GetIdentier(): The integer identier of the charttype is returned. oat8 Evaluate g(const Event& event,const FourVector& v1,const FourVector& v2): Evaluates and delivers the coordinate dependent result of v u = g v u , where the two fourvectors and the point in spacetime, where it shall be evaluated, are provided by the parameters. Event is an object dening an event in spacetime. It is represented by its coordinates on a special chart. The chart, which is used for its coordinate representation and the coordinates themself are public. The initialization of this class instances can be achieved by: Event(const Chart* chart): The coordinates are set to null. Event(const Chart* chart, const FourTupel& tupel): The coordinates are provided by an instance of the class FourTupel. where the chart needs to be provided. The chart used is can be required by the method: Chart* GetChart(). ColorRGB simply stores three real numbers for the purpose of a RGB-color representation. Instances are initialized by the constructor ColorRGB(oat8 r, oat8 g, oat8 b), wherein the components must be dened. Public access is allowed then to those member attributes. Spectrum is an important object for the ray-tracing application in this thesis. Storing a specied amount of values for a dened frequency domain it models a spectral distribution, that can represent intensity, opacity or emissivity distributions. For this purpose it provides also several useful methods: Spectrum(): The constructor can be called without any parameters, but for a successful initialization the parameters dening the domain must be provided within the parameter le parameter.h. Those parametersPR SPECTRUM NU MIN, PR SPECTRUM NU MAX and PR SPECTRUM RES dene the domains minimum, maximum and resolution. void CreateShiftRGB(oat8& ref, ColorRGB& result): This method generates a redshift-color representation of the spectral distribution in relation to a provided reference frequency (oat8& ref ). This method
46
3.1. Structure and Functionality is used by the class Raytracer to generate spatially resolved images of the matter distribution. bool AddDot(oat8 frequency, oat8 intensity): Value, specied by oat8 intensity, is added to the spectrum at the frequency provided by oat8 frequency. Should the given frequency be out of range, the method returns false. void Clear(): The spectrum is cleared, which means that all values are set to null. oat8 GetIntensity(oat8 frequency): The value for a given frequency is delivered. void GlobalBrighten(oat8 factor): The whole spectrum is multiplied by a provided factor, that needs to be higher than null. Otherwise nothing is done here. void AddSpectrum(const Spectrum& spectrum), void AddSpectrum(const Spectrum* spectrum): Those methods perform a spectrum addition. They only dier in the parameter providing the spectrum to be added. At the upper it needs to be a reference, whereas at the lower a pointer is accepted. void MultiplySpectrum(const Spectrum& spectrum): A multiplication of spectra is performed5 . void AddWeightedSpectrum(const Spectrum& spectrum, const oat8& weight): The provided spectrum, weighted by the factor oat8 weight, is added. void AddWeightedConstantSpectrumLinear(const oat8& intensity, const oat8& weight): This method adds a linear weighted spectrum of the form I w , where I is a constant value weighted by w and denotes the frequency. Within its method UpdateIntensity Abs(. . . ) the class mattereld uses this method during each step of geodesic integration in order to add intensity contributions from matter objects. void CumulateOpacity(const Spectrum& tau): Opacity contributions are cumulated acoording to the algorithm presented in section 3.3 on page 67. void FtoI(): The spectrum is weighted by 3 in order to transform from the relativistic invariant radiation ux F to the local intensity I = 3 F . void AddConst(const oat8& c): The constant provided is added to spectrum.
oat8 GetTotIntensity(): In order to obtain the total intensity detected

5
I()d, a summation over
Note that this method as well as AddSpectrum(. . . ) reasonably should only be used with instances of the same size (same frequency domain).
47
3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer the spectrums values is performed, which can be done since the frequency intervals are equal. void CreatePlot(Image& result) const: Spectrum data is written to the provided instance of the class Image (see below), so that the spectrum can be plotted then. void CreateDataFile(const string& lename): Spectrum data is exported to a data le. The resulting le consists of two rows: (,I()) The intensity values corresponding to dierent frequencies are stored in a public STL6 -container (vector) and therefore can be accessed by any objects. Image encapsulates the RGB-color data of an image with a certain resolution as it is dened within initialization: Image(uint sizeX, uint sizeY): Constructor with well dened image resolution given by the parameters uint sizeX and uint sizeY 7 . Image(): Constructor to use without additional parameters. The resolution here must be provided by the parameter PR OUTPUT PIXELS within the le parameter.h. As an image representing object, this class provides methods, by which its data can be manipulated and exported: void CreateTGA(const string& lename, uint multiply=1): With a provided lename this method exports a TGA-le from the image. The resolution of the output le can be dened by the scale parameter uint multiply. void SetPixel(uint x, uint y, oat8 r, oat8 g, oat8 b), void SetPixel(uint x, uint y, const ColorRGB& colorRGB): The RGB-color value of a specic pixel can be set by those methods. The pixel is identied by the parameters x and y, whereas the color data is provided by three separated components oat8 r, oat8 g, oat8 b at the upper method or by an instance of the class ColorRGB at the lower. void GetPixel(uint x, uint y, oat8& r, oat8& g, oat8& b): Delivers the RGB values of a specied pixel. void Clear(): Image data is cleared (set to null). uint GetSizeX(): Image resolution in x-direction is returned.
6 7
Standard Template Library is a software library included in the C++ Standard Library. The type uint is simply an unsigned int dened in the le ntypes.h.
48
3.1. Structure and Functionality uint GetSizeY(): Image resolution in y-direction is returned. oat8 GetHighestBrightness(): Delivers the brightest picture component. void Normalize(): The brightness is normalized, so that the brightest color component has the value 1. void Normalize(oat8 brightness): This method normalizes the brightness to the brightness provided by the parameter oat8 brightness. After having determined the brightest component, this method can be used to normalize multiple images to the same value. Frame is an object modelling a local at (Minkowski) frame. In order to provide coordinate transformations on objects between the frame basis and the global coordinate basis, it needs to be initialized with a Chart, used for the coordinate representation. Furthermore a FourTupel dening the event on the given chart, frame basis vectors e0 , e1 , e2 , e3 and coordinate basis vectors f0 , f1 , f2 , f3 must be provided within the initialization. Public access is allowed to the basis vectors. After the initialization, following methods are available: void TransformIntoFrameBasis(const FourVector& vector, FourVector& result): This method transforms the provided vector representation from the coordinate basis to the frame basis. void TransformIntoCoordinateBasis(const FourVector& vector, FourVector& result): Transformation of a vector representation from the frame basis to the coordinate basis. Event GetEvent(): The position in spacetime of the frame is returned. ZAMO is derived from the class Frame and represents a ZAMO frame (see Sec. 2.2.3) in the Kerr metric. As such one, only the chart for coordinate representation and the position in spacetime need to be provided for the initialization: ZAMO(const Chart* chart, const FourTupel& tupel). As a derived class, it provides additionally the same methods as its parent class Frame. The ZAMO is not dened along the axis of symmetry ( = 0 and = /2). ZAMOCameraFrame is derived from the class ZAMO and designed to represent a frame looking towards the centre. For this purpose the orientation of er is changed relatively to that in instances of the ZAMO class. It is initialized by the constructor: ZAMOCameraFrame(const Chart* chart, const FourTupel& tupel).
49
3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer Instances of the class Raytracer (see below), which mimic a virtual detector observing the whole scene, are generally initialized with instances of ZAMOCameraFrame. Camera is a pure abstract class modelling a generally far away observer, who the nullgeodesics are backtraced from. By the constructor Camera(const Frame& frame, oat8 aperture), which needs to be provided with the cameras frame, where its position is also specied, the observer is dened entirely. The parameter oat8 aperture supplies the object with the cameras viewing angle (in degrees) in direction to the centre. This angle must lie within the range [0 , 180 ] and is used by the Raytracer class method PerformSimulation(. . . ) (see below) to x the initial conditions of geodesics being traced. Raytracer is the main class of the ray-tracing application in this thesis. It is derived from the class Camera and therefore the observer is completely specied by the initialization: Raytracer(const Frame& frame, oat8 aperture, string* name=0), where additionally a name of the simulation can be provided. The following methods cover all procedures, that have to be performed in order to obtain spectra from and/or spatially resolved pictures of the system considered: bool PerformSimulation(string* simname): This is the main procedure executed when spectra from the source are desired. It controls the numerical integration of the nullgeodesics and calls methods, which handle the cumulation of the radiation ux along them. Finished with evaluation, the output data is formatted. This process was already described above and is illustrated by Fig. 3.1 on page 43. bool RayTestImage(string* simname): This method is called to generate ray images of the geodesic ux. The amount of geodesics that are to be plotted is specied by the parameters PR RAY IMAGE NR X and PR RAY IMAGE NR Y in the le parameter.h, where x and y denote coordinates in the observers frame (screen). Supplied with those, the nullgeodesics, which dier in their initial momentum (direction) are integrated one after another. This is performed by calling the method: void CreateRayImage(const Event& event, const FourVector& k, oat8 max coord, bool top, Image* result), which needs to be supplied with the geodesics initial position (Event event), its initial four-momentum (FourVector k) and further parameters specifying the maximum coordinate r at which the tracing is stopped (oat8 max coord), dening the perspective of the ray image (bool top), and the object, which the image data is written
50
3.1. Structure and Functionality to (Image* result). Finished with all geodesics, the image data is written to a TGA-le. Such ray image les were introduced in the previous chapter (see Fig. 2.17-2.22). void Measurement(const FourVector& basedirection, const Event& basepos, Spectrum* &specs, MatterField& matter, const oat8& timeincr): This method is called from within the method PerformSimulation(. . . ) for each pixel in the detectors frame. It is responsible for the geodesic evaluation and the radiation transfer as described in Sec. 3.3. For this purpose it must be supplied with the geodesics initial position and momentum, the mattereld, which contributes to the radiation detected, and the spectra objects, where the evaluated ux contributions are added to. Since the matter distribution around the central mass is a function of time M(t) if hot spots are considered, the matters contribution to the radiation ux at a given position must be considered for dierent times i separately. Therefore the parameter oat8 timeincr is provided. It species the increment of time for consecutive evaluations. Given that, at each geodesic integration step M(t, x ) is evaluated for t = timeincr i t, where t is the propagation time of the photon from the detector to the position considered. It can be extracted from the temporal coordinate x0 evaluated by integration. This separation in time allows the generation of time-dependent spectra. void Measurement planar(const FourVector& basedirection, const Event& basepos, Spectrum* &specs, MatterField& matter, const oat8& timeincr): This method has the same meaning for ray-tracing as the previous one, but is used for planar ray-tracing, which means that the accretion disc cannot be intersected by the traced geodesics and therefore acts as a boundary, where the numerical integration is stopped. The parameter PR TRACE PLANAR in the parameter le decides if planar or volume ray-tracing is to be performed. Note that no absorption can be considered in the planar case8 . Geodesic acts as a parent class for further special derivations and represents general geodesics in spacetime. KerrGeodesic is derived from the class Geodesic and is designed exclusively for nullgeodesics on the Kerr metric. It provides an adaptive ray propagation algorithm (see Sec. 3.2) by which the equations of motion (2.46 a-d) can be solved. Adaptive means that the step size used for integration is adjusted so that the computational error lies within a given range dened in the parameter le.
For the simulations of this thesis, only volume ray-tracing was performed
51
3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer The initialization of this objects instances KerrGeodesic(const FourVector& dir in, const Event& pos in) can be supplied with initial conditions for the ray propagation, namely the actual position in spacetime Event pos in and the actual four-momentum FourVector dir in, which species the ray direction. The geodesic integration is performed within the methods: bool Fehlberg4 5(const FourVector& dir in, const Event& pos in, oat8& lambda, oat8& lambda used, FourVector& dir out, Event& pos out): Here a one step integration is performed. Therefore, for a complete integration of the nullgeodesics this method needs to be called consistently, until the boundary conditions are satised. The main boundary is that ray propagation stops at the event horizon. Additionally to that, the integration of geodesics is halted throughout the simulations in this thesis once the ray reaches the radial distance of the detector, where no matter is supposed to be present and consequently cannot contribute to the radiation ux. This method needs to be supplied by the rays initial position and fourmomentum as well as with the actual step size used. This one is adjusted during the integration if the error turns out to be too high or to low. The new step size and the rays new position and four-momentum are written to the parameters oat8 lambda, Event pos out, Fourvector dir out. bool Fehlberg4 5 lowerr(const FourVector& dir in, const Event& pos in, oat8& lambda, oat8& lambda used, FourVector& dir out, Event& pos out): This method is similar to the previous one, but the geodesic integration is performed with a higher accuracy. The factor specifying it, with regard to the error boundaries given for the previous method, is dened by the parameter PR RAY IMAGE REF PRECISION. That operation is called while generating ray images by the method RayTestImage(. . . ) of the class Raytracer. Doing that, reference rays with higher accuracy can be visualized simultaneously. Matterobject acts as a base class for objects representing any mass distributions around the central mass. MatterItem is derived from Matterobject and serves itself as a parent class for classes modelling specic matter objects. As a pure abstract class, it provides methods, that need to be dened within all derived classes. Those methods are considered to specify the matter objects density distributions, their state of motion and furthermore the emissivity and the opacity essential for the radiation transport.
52
3.1. Structure and Functionality AccDisc represents a standard accretion disc as described in section 2.1.2. The initialization of instances of this class AccDisc() must be supplied with several parameters dened in the parameter le. Those parameters are rstly the Kerr metric specic parameters M , a, but also parameters specifying the disc properties as the inner and outer edge and the disc matters opacity. The following methods are available within this class and dene the discs appearence. oat8 GetInnerRadius(): Delivers the discs inner edge, which is dened by PR ACCRETIONDISK INNER RADIUS in the parameter le. The inner edges minimum radial distance to the central mass is the marginally stable radius rms . oat8 GetOuterRadius(): Delivers the discs outer edge dened by PR ACCRETIONDISK OUTER RADIUS in the parameter le. void GetFourVelocity(const Event& event, FourVector& u): Delivers the four-velocity of the disc matter in the coordinate frame, which depends on the position in spacetime. Since only planar Keplerian orbits are considered, V is the only non vanishing spatial coordinate. It can be extracted from the angular frequency M (3.1) (r) = 2 (r) . 3+a M r (3.2) oat8 GetDensity(const Event& pos, const oat8& time): Delivers the source rest frame density (x ). Generally a homogeneous density distribution is assumed and consequently the normalized value = 1 is delivered if the position lies within the accretion disc. The extent of the accretion disc, as it is implemented, is shown in Fig. 3.3. With those parameters chosen, the case of a slim disc is still satised. Since the density controls the emissivity within this implementation, a radial emissivity law of the form (r) = const. for rin r rout is represented by this density distribution. In addition to that, the density distribution can be chosen to satisfy a single ((r) r ) or a double ((r) r for r < rbreak and (r) r else) power law as it is proposed in [Dab1997, M2000]. u Which distribution is chosen, depends on the parameter PR ACCDISC DENSITY, whereas for the power laws the constants , must be specied. V = by
53
Figure 3.3.: The image illustrates the accretion disc for the extreme Kerr case, where rms = rH and therefore the discs inner edge touches the event horizon. For lower values of the Kerr parameter a the radial distance of the inner edge increases. void GetEmissivity(const oat8& g, Spectrum& result, const Event& event): This method delivers the sources rest frame emissivity. Since the emission is weighted by the density distribution, a constant value can be delivered here if monochromatic emission is considered9 . This contribution is shifted in frequency by the redshift factor g and added to the spectrum provided by method parameter Spectrum result. The redshift factor g depends on the relation between the sources four-velocity and the geodesics four-momentum at the given position and is evaluated by the method Evaluate g(. . . ) of the class BoyerLindquistChart (see above). void GetOpacity(const oat8& g, Spectrum& result, const Event& event): Delivers the accretion disc matters opacity that is specied in the parameter le and stored as a private attribute of the class. When absorption is considered, this method is called from within the method UpdateIntensity Abs(. . . ) of the class MatterField, which handles the radiation ux contributions from dierent matter items. HotSpot is also a class derived from MatterItem and represents regions of higher density and emission within the accretion disc.
When simulating other emissivity distributions, for example black body radiation, this prole needs to be adjusted.
54
3.1. Structure and Functionality Instances can be initialized by HotSpot(int index), where an index parameter must be provided. This index acts as an identier if multiple hot spots are considered. The hot spot properties, which the radius, the initial position, the density and opacity count to, are specied in the le parameter.h when only one hot spot is used, or in the le parhotspot.h for multiple hot spots. The following methods are provided in HotSpot: void Setomega(const oat8& r): By that method the angular frequency of the hot spot is evaluated and stored to a private attribute. According to Eq.(3.1), which holds also for hot spots corotating within the accretion disc, the angular frequency depends on the radial distance, that needs to be provided. oat8 GetOmega(): Returns the hot spots angular frequency. oat8 Get r(): Delivers the hot spots radial distance to the centre. oat8 Get phi(): The hot spots initial azimuthal coordinate is returned. oat8 GetRadius(): The radius Rhs of the hot spot is returned. oat8 Get density(): The density within the hot spots is described by a spherical symmetric Gaussian distribution. When this method is called, the peak density in the hot spots centre is returned. oat8 Distance(const Event& pos, const oat8& time, oat8& distance): This method evaluates and delivers the spatial distance of a given point in spacetime Event pos to the centre of the hot spot. Pseudo-Cartesian coordinates are used for this evaluation, so that the curvature of the spacetime is neglected. This deviation should not have a great impact for the distances d evaluated here (d < 4Rhs ). void GetFourVelocity(const Event& event, FourVector& u): The four-velocity for the hot spot at a given point in spacetime is delivered. Since the hot spots are assumed to co-rotate within the accretion disc, this method delivers the same result as the corresponding one within the class AccDisc (see above). oat8 GetDensity(const Event& pos, const oat8& time): The hot spots represent a density distribution, that is super-imposed to that
55
3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer of the accretion disc. For this application, it is described by a spherical symmetric Gaussian prole in local Cartesian space hs = exp( d2 2 ), 2Rhs (3.3)
where Rhs is a specied radius and d denotes the distance to the hot spot centre. Therefore, with a given event on spacetime, the time depending distance to the hot spots centre can be evaluated and the density hs , weighted as described by Eq. (3.3), can be delivered. For distances higher than 4Rhs , the rest frame density = 0 is returned, since the contribution at this point already drops to exp(8) 3.4 104 . The peak density is specied in the parameter les10 . Note that all points within the hot spot are assumed to co-rotate with its centre. Therefore no shearing eects can be simulated and the hot spots form remains constant. This should be taken into account, when simulating light curves of long time periods (many rotation periods). Generally shearing within the accretion disc should deform the hot spots. Such arched structures were considered for ray-tracing in [Schn05]. bool CriticalEvent(const Event& pos): This method is only implemented to decrease processing time. As already described, matter contributions to the radiation ux need to be evaluated at each considered position for each timestep separately. This time consuming computation aects the whole applications performance. Now, since the hot spots radius is known and only their azimuthal position changes, there are well dened regions on the manifold, where never contributions from those objects can impact. Due to that, this method checks, if the provided position lies within a region, which can be passed by any dened hot spots. If that should not be the case, then only static radiation contributions need to be considered and so evaluated only once for the specic geodesic integration step. void GetEmissivity(const oat8& g, Spectrum& result, const Event& event), oat8 GetOpacity(): Those two methods do not dier from the corresponing ones in the class AccDisc (see above). The opacity for the hot spots must be specied within the parameter les. MatterField is also a class derived from Matterobject and is the main object handling the communication of the application with all matter objects considered.
10
Note that a radial dependency is super-imposed to the value of the peak density if a single or double power law for the emissivity is chosen in the parameter le.
56
3.1. Structure and Functionality It is initialized from within the methods of the simulation controlling class Raytracer by calling the constructor MatterField(). Here the matter objects like an accretion disc and hot spots are set up and stored internally. The following methods handle the access to the matter objects: int GetSpotNumber(): Delivers the number of hot spots that were set up for the simulation. oat8 GetDensity(const Event& pos, const oat8& time): The rest frame density at a given position and time is returned. It is evaluated by summing up density contributions from all existing matter objects separately. bool CheckTimeDep(const Event& position): Supplied with a specic position in spacetime, this method checks, if the rest frame density is static there. This is reached by calling the method bool CriticalEvent for each hot spot. void UpdateIntensity Abs(MatterItem* item,const oat8& rho, const Event& position,const FourVector& k, oat8& stepsize,Spectrum* Psi, Spectrum* result, const uint& specnumber): This method actually adds radiation ux contributions at given position and time to the spectra provided. As will be described in Sec. 3.3, the contributions are determined from the redshifted rest frame emissivity at the given position and the opacity, already cumulated along the backtraced geodesic. After adding them to the provided time depending spectra, the cumulated opacity is updated in order to be taken into account at further geodesic integration steps. void AddIntensity Abs(const Event& position, const FourVector& k, oat8 stepsize, const oat8& time, Spectrum* Psi, Spectrum* result, const uint& specnumber): At each integration step of the nullgeodesics it has to be determined, if matter is present at the specic position, and how it contributes to the radiation ux. This method iterates over each matter object and checks if its density is unequal null at the given position and time. If this should be the case, the upper method void AddIntensity Abs(. . . ) is called supplied with the matter item concerned. There radiation from it is handled as described.
57
3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer void UpdateIntensity(MatterItem* item, const oat8& rho, const Event& position, const FourVector& k, oat8& stepsize, Spectrum* result, const uint& specnumber), void AddIntensity(const Event& position, const FourVector& k, oat8 stepsize, const oat8& time, Spectrum* result, const uint& specnumber): Those two methods correspond to the methods void UpdateIntensity Abs(. . . ) and void AddIntensity Abs respectively. They are called instead of the upper if no absorption is considered. void AddIntensity planar(const Event& position, const FourVector& k, const oat8& time, Spectrum* result, const uint& specnumber): When planar ray-tracing is performed, the procedures of the methods void UpdateIntensity(. . . ) and void AddIntensity(. . . ) are combined within this method. Obviously no absorption is considered in that case. oat8 GetMaximalR(): This method delivers the maximum radial distance from the centre, where any matter can be found. Consequently it delivers either the outer edge of the accretion disc or the radial coordinate of the hot spot being farthest. As already mentioned, the essential parameters for the ray-tracing application are stored in the parameter les parameter.h and parhotspot.h. Those parameters are listed and described here. Global application parameters are: PR TRACE PLANAR: Denes if planar or volume ray-tracing is to be performed. Possible values are: 1 = planar; 0 = volume. PR ABSORPTION: Denes if absorption is to be considered. Possible values are: 1 = yes; 0 = no. PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS: Integer dening the number of timesteps evaluated. PR NUMBER OF PERIODS: Denes the time span for the time depending ray-tracing in units of the rotation period T = 2/ of the hot spot with the lowest radial coordinate r. PR SPACETIME A: The Kerr parameter a; (0 a 1). PR SPACETIME M: The central mass M . (Generally set to 1.) Parameters dening the virtual observer (detector): PR CAMERA T: Detectors initial temporal coordinate. PR CAMERA R: Detectors radial distance.
58
3.1. Structure and Functionality PR CAMERA THETA: Detectors poloidal coordinate. This parameter denes the inclination to the system observed. PR CAMERA PHI: Detectors azimuthal coordinate. PR CAMERA APERTURE: Dectors aperture. Parameters concerning the spatially resolved images of the scene: PR IMAGES: Denes if images are to be created. 1 = yes; 0 = no. PR OUTPUT PIXELS: Denes the image resolution in both directions. Consequently this parameter denes the number of pixels and so geodesics that are backtraced. (number of geodesics = (PR OUTPUT PIXELS)2 ) PR REFERENCE FREQ: The reference frequency for the method void CreateShiftRGB(. . . ), which denes the color representation. Parameters concerning the simulated spectra: PR SPECTRUM NU MIN: Minimum spectrum frequency. PR SPECTRUM NU MAX: Maximum spectrum frequency. PR SPECTRUM RES: Spectral resolution. PR SPECTRUM PLOT: Denes if spectra should be plotted additionally. 1 = yes; 0 = no. PR SPECTRUM ERRORLINE: Denes if error message should be showed when a contribution is to be added to a frequency, that is out of spectrums range. 1 = yes; 0 = no. Parameters concerning ray images: PR GENERATE RAY IMAGE: If set to 1, ray image is generated but no spectra are simulated. PR RAY IMAGE NR X: Number of rays to be shown (in screens x-direction). PR RAY IMAGE NR Y: Number of rays to be shown (in screens y-direction). PR RAY IMAGE VIEW TOP: Denes the perspective of the ray image relative to rotation axis. 1 = along axis; 0 = perpendicular to axis. PR RAY IMAGE MAX R: Scale for the images. The highest radial coordinate to be plotted. PR RAY IMAGE REF PRECISION: Accuracy factor for reference rays. Parameters concerning the integration of the geodesics (ray propagation): PR RAY MAX STEPS: Maximum number of intergration steps per geodesic.
59
3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer PR RAY STOP AT CAMERA RADIUS: If set to 1, ray propagation is stopped, when radial coordinate reaches the radial distance of the detector. PR RAY LOG TRACED STEPS: Number of integration steps is shown on screen. PR RAY NEAR ERROR MIN: Minimum error boundary for regions within r < 6M . PR RAY NEAR ERROR MAX: Maximum error boundary for regions within r < 6M . PR RAY MED ERROR MIN: Minimum error boundary for regions within 6M < r < 200M . PR RAY MED ERROR MAX: Maximum error boundary for regions within 6M < r < 200M . PR RAY FAR ERROR MIN: Minimum error boundary for regions within r > 200M . PR RAY FAR ERROR MAX: Maximum error boundary for regions within r > 6M . Parameters concerning accretion disc: PR ACCRETIONDISK USE: If set to 1, the accretion disc is considered. PR ACCRETIONDISK INNER RADIUS: Discs inner edge. If set to null, the ISCO is used. PR ACCRETIONDISK OUTER RADIUS: Discs outer edge. PR ACCDISC DENSITY: Denes the radial emissivity prole for the disc matter. Possible values: 1 = constant, 2 = single power law, 3 = double power law. PR ACCDISC ALPHA S: Constant to be dened when single power law is chosen for the radial emissivity prole. PR ACCDISC R BREAK: Breaking radius to dene for double power law. PR ACCDISC ALPHA D: Constant to be dened when double power law is chosen for the radial emissivity prole. PR ACCDISC BETA D: Constant to be dened when double power law is chosen for the radial emissivity prole. PR ACCRETIONDISK OPACITY: Opacity constant. Parameters concerning hot spots: PR HOTSPOT USE: If set to 1, one or multiple hot spots are considered.
60
3.2. Numerical Integration of the Nullgeodesics PR HOTSPOT NUMBER: Denes the number of hot spots. PR HOTSPOT RADIUS: Default hot spot radius Rhs . PR HOTSPOT R: Default radial coordinate. PR HOTSPOT PHI: Default initial azimuthal coordinate. PR HOTSPOT DENS: Peak density . PR HOTSPOT OPACITY: Opacity contant When multiple hot spot are considered, then the corresponding hot spot parameters must be dened in the le parhotspot.h.
3.2. Numerical Integration of the Nullgeodesics

In order to obtain the nullgeodesics, which coincide at the detectors position in spacetime, the ordinary dierential equations of rst order for the variables t(), r(), (), (), the geodesic equations (2.46a-d), need to be solved synchronously11 . Since the ray-tracing is performed backwards, the initial conditions are xed by the detectors position and aperture. With a given screen resolution, the screen pixels are assigned to nullgeodesics diering in initial momentum, so that their initial directions are evenly arranged within the solid angle dened by the aperture angle . For the numerical integration the Fehlberg algorithm described in appendix D is used. Since the equations for r and are given in quadratic form, some modications need to be applied. Taking the square root of (2.46b,c) yields r = sgn(k r ) =
R 2 sgn(k ) 2
, ,
(3.4) (3.5)
where the signs of k r = r and k = are carried along and change if the corresponding quantity R() or () feature a root within a step interval. Consequently the signs of and R are checked after each integration step and in the case that they should change, this turning point is taken into account by changing the sign of k r or k respectively. As mentioned in the last section, the step integration is performed by the method Fehlberg4 5 of the class KerrGeodesic.
3.3. Radiative Transfer

For generating spectra of objects on the Kerr metric, relativistic radiative transfer along the nullgeodesics must be examined. Since the algorithm used for the ray-tracer in this thesis is adapted from the volume ray-tracing application developed by B.Zink, the approach to the rendering equation follows the derivation presented in [Zin2002].
11
The parameter parametrizes the curve in R4 .
61
3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer The starting point when studying covariant radiation transport is to nd an adequate quantity representing the radiation ux along the geodesics, since the classical specic intensity I is not a local scalar. The phase space density of particle number F turns out to full those requirements. In a local rest frame and for photons (p0 = ) it can be associated to the specic intensity I by F = n 2 dd = I , 3 (3.6)
where n denotes the photon number density. By the means of that relation, the specic intensity as detected in the camera frame can be evaluated from the relativistic invariant transport quantity F . The general relativistic Boltzmann equation dF = dF d , (3.7)
where generates a godesic ow eld on the given manifold, describes the change of F while being transported along geodesics. The only non-vanishing term here derives from sources along the geodesics. Therefore to obtain the total F , this source term needs to be evaluated for each photon trajectory reaching the detectors position in spacetime. The backtracing method applied for this purpose is illustrated in Fig. 3.4.
Figure 3.4.: The principle of backwards ray-tracing is illustrated here. The gure shows the cameras position, which acts as an initial boundary for the ray propagation, the geodesics (on generally curved spacetime), and sources along them, where the contributions to the relativistic invariant transport quantity F originate from. The cameras screen with the sufrace area A is assumed to be an array of N N pixels of the partial areas AXY . It is positioned curtly in front of the position, where the nullgeodesics are supposed to coincide and backtraced from. Consequently to be exact, the screen should have to be treated as a sphere section, but in reality for small
62
3.3. Radiative Transfer apertures it can be approximated by a at screen representation with a regular grid. Therefore the dierent AXY can be treated uniformally. Such a screen discretization leads to the following expression of the total F C , where C implies the camera position: F C,total = = F C (, )d
A N 1 N 1 X=0 Y =0 N 1 N 1 X=0 Y =0
||AXY || F C (, XY ) F C (, XY ) , (3.8)
where with suitable XY , assumed in the center of the pixel areas AXY , and for a regular angular distance for the pixels, the are measures ||AXY || are pixel independent. To obtain F C for a given pixel, we need to integrate over sources along the corresponding geodesic: F C (, XY ) =
C 0
dF (x(), k()) d
d .
src
(3.9)
In this equation parametrizes the photon trajectory (x(), k()) with the boundary conditions x (C ) = x and k (C ) = (C , C ) in the camera frame12 . rest C If scattering is neglected, the source term can be split up into two fractions dF d =
src
dF d
+
em
dF d
(3.10)
abs
representing emission and absorption processes. The part containing the emission can be described by dF d = J (x(), k(), F (x())) n(x()) , (3.11)
em
where n(x()) is the rest frame number density of the source eld. J is called the invariant emissivity and is a function of the spacetime event, the direction of emission and of the incoming F . Dening the length element ds = ||k||, where k denotes the spatial components of k and exploiting k k = 0, the equation (3.11) can be expressed by classical quantities by integrating over a step d and transforming into the emitters rest frame: dF 1 dI = J(x, k, F (x))n(x)d 3 ds = J(x, k, F (x))n(x) 1 = (x) ds 4 3 =
(3.12)
12
Since the photons are viewed as incoming, the mirrored unit vector is used here.
63
3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer For the last step, the classical radiation transport equation dI /ds = /4 I was inserted. Consequently the invariant emissivity can be expressed by classical quantities (rest frame density , rest frame emissivity ): J(x, k, F (x)) = 1 (x) 4 2 n(x) (3.13)
In analogy to this procedure, the absorption term in (3.10) can be examined. The invariant opacity K can be dened by: dF d = K (x(), k()) n(x()) F (x(), k()) . (3.14)
abs
Integration over d and transformation into the absorbers local rest frame gives: dF = 1 dI = K(x, k)n(x)F (x, k)d 3 I ds = K(x, k)n(x) 3 1 = 3 (x) I ds ,
(3.15)
where denotes the classical opacity. Like in the emission case, K can now be described by its classical analogon: J(x, k) = (x) . n(x) (3.16)
Given that, equation (3.9) takes the following form: F C (, XY ) =

C
n(x()) J(x(), k(), F (x()))

0
(3.17) K(x(), k())F (x(), k()) d .
Introducing the covariant optical depth by

1
=
0
n()K()d
(3.18)
and the eective source function by (, F ) = the transport equation can be expressed by dF = ( , F ) F ( ) .13 d
13
J(, F ) K()
(3.19)
(3.20)
Due to readability, the full dependencies of quantities are not denoted any further.
64
3.3. Radiative Transfer After dening the quantities J and S J = F ( )e

(3.21) (3.22)
S = ( , F )e ,
an integration of J over can be performed:

J ( ) = J ( = 0) + To obtain this, the derivative dJ dF = e F + d d was used.
S( )d .
(3.23)
= e = S
(3.24)
Exploiting the denition of J , the integral (3.23) can be expressed by the quantity F :
F ( ) = F (0)e + 0 e( ) ( )d .
(3.25)
When resubstituting and by the means of (3.18) and (3.19), and taking the boundary F (0) = 0 into account, the equation (3.25) takes the form: F C (, XY ) =
C 0
n()J(, F ) e
R C
n( )K( )d
d .
(3.26)
This is now the rendering equation for the transport of F along the nullgeodesics. In order to be used within the ray-tracing application, it needs to be discretized. The integral is split into small steps i [0 , C ], i = (0, 1, 2, . . . , n) with 0 = 0 and n = C . This procedure yields:
n1
F C (, XY ) =
i=0
i+1 i
n()J(, F ) e
R C
n( )K( )d
d .
(3.27)
This can be transformed to

n1 i=0
n1
F C (, XY ) =
where the exponent could be split up by the means of the covariant step absorption coecients i given by i = e
R i+1
i
j=i+1
i+1 i
n()J(, F ) e
R i+1
n( )K( )d
d ,
(3.28)
n()K()d
(3.29)
65
3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer This expression can further be transformed by the use of the mean value theorem, which states that there exists a suitable i [i , i+1 ] so that
i+1 i
f ()d = (i+1 i )f (i )
(3.30)
is satised. That relation is applied twice to (3.28), once to the base and once to the exponent, which yields
n1 i=0 n1
F C (, XY ) =
for an adequate i [i , i+1 ] and [i , i+1 ]. i The same principle can be utilized on the covariant step absorbtion coecients. So for a suitable [i , i+1 ] they can be described by: i i = e
R i+1
i
j=i+1
j (i+1 i )n(i )J(i , F )e(i+1 i )n(i )K(i )
(3.31)
n()K()d
= e(i+1 i )n(i )K(i ) .
(3.32)
The discretization is now performed explicitly with the assumptions i+1 + i 1 i = i + i , 2 2 i+1 + i 3 = i + i , i 2 4 1 i+1 + i = i + i where i 2 2 (3.33a) (3.33b) i = i+1 i (3.33c)
Plugging those preparations into (3.31) and expressing the covariant quantities J and K by the classical ones (, and ) leads to the discretized general relativistic volume ray-tracing equation: n1 n1 1 F C (, XY ) = j i 4
i=0 j=i+1
1 1 1 (i + i ) 2 i (i + i ) 2 2 i
1 1 1
(3.34)
e 2 i (i + 2 i ) i i (i + 2 i ) , with i = ei (i + 2 i ) i i (i + 2 i ) .
1 1
(3.35)
In order to decrease evaluations, it is assumed that the quantites , , are equal at 3 (i + 1 i ) and (i + 4 i ). 2
66
3.3. Radiative Transfer The ray-tracing algorithm is implemented in the methods UpdateIntensity Abs(. . . ) and UpdateIntensity(. . . ) of the class MatterField, whereas the second one does not take absorption into account. The invariant spectral distribution F and the cumulated n1 absorption = j=i+1 j are being transported along the photon trajectories obtained by the stepwise numerical integration. 0 Starting with the pixel geodesics at the camera, normalized by kC = C = 1 in the camera rest frame, two arrays F [] and [] are lled at each integration step14 . So at each position with the actual stepsize the following procedure needs to be consistently performed: The local density (), emissivity () and opacity () are determined. Generally the emissivity and opacity are functions of the frequency , but considering monochromatic emission and a frequency independent opacity, () can be handled as a constant and () as a distribution with a specic value (set to 1 due to simplicity) at i = gi C , where gi is the local red-shift factor and the frequency as measured in the cameras frame (normalized to 1)15 . The array [] is set up temporarily by evaluating for each : [] = () g (). For the monochromatic case the array [] reduces to only one contribution at = g 1 yielding = () (). The array F [] is increased by the source contribution S[] = [] () ()[] exp( []/2)/(g)2 . For monochromatic sources this reduces to S[] = [g 1 ] () exp( []/2). The transported opacity is cumulated by n ew[] = [] exp( []). The next evaluation point x( ) and step size are generated by integration of the geodesic equations. This routine is performed until a termination condition is satised. Usually this is the case, when backtraced geodesics reach the event horizon or leave the region of interest. In the end the intensity I as measured at the camera is obtained by I[] = F [] 3 .
14 15
The arrays are represented by instances of the class Spectrum. The red-shift factor is evaluated by the method Evaluate g(. . . ) of the class BoyerLindquistChart (see at page 46).
67
3.4. Source Code

Since the structure of the time depending volume ray-tracer and the procedures, which are performed during the evaluations, already were described in the previous sections, only the C++ source code of the main methods controlling the sequence of the application are presented here. Within the main routine an instance of the class Raytracer is initialized and during that supplied with the most important parameters, namely the metric specifying Kerr parameter a and the central mass M and additionally the cameras position in spacetime. In order to perform time dependent volume ray tracing, its method PerformSimulation(. . . ) (see page 50) is called. The following code is executed then: Listing 3.1: Source code of Raytracer::PerformSimulation(. . . )
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
bool R a y t r a c e r : : P e r f o r m S i m u l a t i o n ( s t r i n g simname ) { M a t t e r F i e l d matter ; // d i s c and h o t s p o t s a r e i n i t i a l i z e d h e r e
19 20 21 22
23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
// w o r k i n g s p e c t r a a r e i n i t i a l i z e d Spectrum s p e c t i m e=new Spectrum [ PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ] ; // c h e c k a l l o c a t i o n i f ( ! s p e c t i m e ) { return 0 ; } // t o t a l s p e c t r a a r e i n i t i a l i z e d Spectrum s p e c t o t=new Spectrum [ PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ] ; // c h e c k a l l o c a t i o n i f ( ! s p e c t o t ) { return 0 ; } #i f (PR IMAGES) //The Images where c o l o r d a t a i s w r i t t e n t o Image images=new Image [ PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ] ; i f ( ! images ) { return 0 ; } // c h e c k a l l o c a t i o n #endif f l o a t 8 timeincrement ; // v a r i a b l e s t o r i n g time i n c r e m e n t f l o a t 8 omega max = 0 ; // v a r i a b l e f o r a n g u l a r f r e q u e n c y o f n e a r e s t h o t spot f o r ( i n t k = 0 ; k<PR HOTSPOT NUMBER ; k++) { i f ( ( matter . m a t t e r i t e m s [ k ] )>GetOmega ( )>omega max ) omega max=( matter . m a t t e r i t e m s [ k ] )>GetOmega ( ) ; // omega max i s determined } // s e t t i n g t i m e i n c r e m e n t (# P e r i o d s 2 PI /( omega max # t i m e s t e p s ) ) i f ( omega max !=0) { t i m e i n c r e m e n t =2PI PR NUMBER OF PERIODS/ ( omega max ( f l o a t 8 ) PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS) ; } else { timeincrement =1.0;} // i f no h o t s p o t s p r e s e n t #i f (PR IMAGES) ColorRGB c o l o r ( 0 . 0 , 0 . 0 , 0 . 0 ) ; // v a r i a b l e f o r s t o r i n g RGB a t a d #endif f l o a t 8 r e f f r e q=PR REFERENCE FREQ ; // r e f e r e n c e f r e q u e n c y ( u s u a l l y 1 ) // r e n d e r i n g f o r each p i x e l : // C o o r d i n a t e s o f t a r g e t p i x e l on p r o j e c t i o n p l a n e f l o a t 8 ty , t z ; // d e p e n d i n g on t h e a p e r t u r e ( v i e w i n g a n g l e ) t h o s e a r e t h e maximal y , z ( a t x =1) f l o a t 8 max ty = tan ( mAperture / 3 6 0 . 0 PI ) ;
37
68
3.4. Source Code
38
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
f l o a t 8 max tz = max ty ; // when r e s o l u t i o n i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s t h e same // View d i r e c t i o n i n frame b a s i s FourVector v i e w f ; // View d i r e c t i o n i n c o o r d i n a t e b a s i s FourVector v i e w c ; // Get t h e b a s e e v e n t const Event e v e n t = mFrame . GetEvent ( ) ; f o r ( u i n t y=0;y<PR OUTPUT PIXELS ; y++) // l i n e s ( y ) { f o r ( u i n t x=0;x<PR OUTPUT PIXELS ; x++) // rows ( x ) { // Transform p i x e l c o o r d i n a t e on p l a n e i n t o ( x , y , z )s p a c e ty = max ty ( 1 . 0 2 . 0 ( f l o a t 8 ) x / ( f l o a t 8 ) (PR OUTPUT PIXELS 1) ) ; t z = max tz ( 1 . 0 2 . 0 ( f l o a t 8 ) y / ( f l o a t 8 ) (PR OUTPUT PIXELS 1) ) ; v i e w f = FourVector (1.0 , 1.0 , ty , t z ) ; v i e w f . M a k e L i g h t l i k e ( ) ; // i n i t i a l momentum s e t // Transform i n t o l o c a l c o o r d i n a t e b a s i s mFrame . T r a n s f o r m I n t o C o o r d i n a t e B a s i s ( v i e w f , v i e w c ) ; cout<< Rendering L i n e <<y+1<< Row <<x+1<< . . . . . . <<100(( f l o a t 8 ) ( yPR OUTPUT PIXELS+x ) / ( f l o a t 8 ) (PR OUTPUT PIXELS PR OUTPUT PIXELS) )<<% f i n i s h e d . <<e n d l ; // i n t e g r a t i o n+r a d i a t i o n t r a n s f e r i s done h e r e : #i f ( ! PR TRACE PLANAR) Measurement ( v i e w c , event , s p e c t i m e , matter , t i m e i n c r e m e n t ); #endif #i f (PR TRACE PLANAR) Measurement planar ( v i e w c , event , s p e c t i m e , matter , timeincrement ) ; #endif // s p e c t r a f o r a l l t i m e s t e p s f o r g i v e n p i x e l f i n i s h e d f o r ( i n t j = 0 ; j <PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ; j ++) { // s p e c t r a a r e added t o t o t a l s p e c t r u m s . ( s p e c t o t+j )>AddSpectrum ( ( s p e c t i m e+j ) ) ; #i f (PR IMAGES) // e v a l u a t i o n o f c o l o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and s t o r i n g t o image ( s p e c t i m e+j )>CreateShiftRGB ( r e f f r e q , c o l o r ) ; ( images+j )>S e t P i x e l ( x +1 , y +1 , c o l o r ) ; #endif } } } #i f ( PR IMAGES) // images need t o be n o r m a l i z e d t o h i g h e s t i n t e n s i t y c o n t r i b u t i o n f l o a t 8 h i g h e s t b r i g h t n e s s = 0 . 0 ; // v a r i a b l e f o r b r i g h t e s t component f l o a t 8 brightness check =0.0; cout<< P e r f o r m i n g image n o r m a l i z a t i o n . <<e n d l ; f o r ( i n t i =0; i <PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ; i ++) {
52
53 54 55 56 57 58
59 60 61
62 63 64
65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
69
87 88
b r i g h t n e s s c h e c k =( images+i )>G e t H i g h e s t B r i g h t n e s s ( ) ; i f ( b r i g h t n e s s c h e c k > h i g h e s t b r i g h t n e s s ) { h i g h e s t b r i g h t n e s s= brightness check ;} } f o r ( i n t i =0; i <PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ; i ++) ( images+i )>N o r m a liz e ( h i g h e s t b r i g h t n e s s ) ; highest value #endif s t r i n g i n t d i s t r i b u t i o n n a m e =simname+ i n t t o t . dat ; s t r i n g tga name ; s t r i n g spec name ; f l o a t 8 I t [ PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ] ; f l o a t 8 I mean = 0 . 0 ; f l o a t 8 I max = 0 . 0 ; ofstream i n t t o t ( int distribution name . c s t r () ) ; // images and t o t a l s p e c t r a f o r each t i m e s t e p f i n i s h e d // c r e a t e I m a g e P l o t s , spectrum d a t a f i l e s and // t i m e d e p e n d e n t i n t e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n d a t a f i l e s f o r ( i n t i =0; i <PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ; i ++) { o s t r i n g s t r e a m temp ; i f ( i <10) temp<< 0 <<i ; e l s e i f ( i >9) temp << i ; tga name=simname+temp . s t r ( )+ . t g a ; spec name=simname+temp . s t r ( )+ . dat ; #i f (PR IMAGES) << i s w r i t t e n . << cout<< Image <<i +1<< o f <<PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS endl ; // image d a t a w r i t t e n t o TGA f i l e ( images+i )>CreateTGA ( tga name , ( u i n t ) ( 8 0 0 /PR OUTPUT PIXELS) ) ; #endif ( s p e c t o t+i )>C r e a t e D a t a F i l e ( spec name ) ; // spectrum d a t a i s w r i t t e n i f (PR SPECTRUM PLOT==1){ // spectrum i s p l o t t e d i f s e t i n parameter . h spec name=simname+temp . s t r ( )+ s p e c . t g a ; Image s p e c P l o t ( 8 0 0 , 8 0 0 ) ; ( s p e c t o t+i )>C r e a t e P l o t ( s p e c P l o t ) ; s p e c P l o t . CreateTGA ( spec name , 1 ) ; } I t [ i ]=( s p e c t o t+i )>G e t T o t I n t e n s i t y ( ) ; i f ( I t [ i ]> I max ) { I max=I t [ i ] ; } I mean+=I t [ i ] ; // w r i t i n g d a t a f o r l i g h t c u r v e s i n t t o t <<t i m e i n c r e m e n t ( f l o a t 8 ) i << << I t [ i ]<< e n d l ; } // some s t a t i s t i c s f l o a t 8 rms ; float8 variance ; float8 std deviation ; f l o a t 8 var = 0 . 0 ; I mean=I mean / ( ( f l o a t 8 )PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS) ; f o r ( i n t i =0; i <PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ; i ++)
89 90 91
// n o r m a l i z i n g t o
92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114
115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139
70
3.4. Source Code
140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159
{ var+=( I t [ i ] I mean ) ( I t [ i ] I mean ) ; } v a r i a n c e=var / ( ( f l o a t 8 )PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS) ; s t d d e v i a t i o n=s q r t ( v a r i a n c e ) ; rms=s q r t ( I mean I mean+s t d d e v i a t i o n s t d d e v i a t i o n ) ; inttot . close () ; // c l e a n i n g um delete [ ] s p e c t i m e ; delete [ ] s p e c t o t ; #i f (PR IMAGES) delete [ ] images ; #endif // p r e p a r i n g and w r i t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n f i l e s t r i n g t e x t =simname+ . t x t ; o f s t r e a m par ( t e x t . c s t r ( ) ) ; i f (PR TRACE PLANAR) par<< P l a n a r RayT r a c i n g p er f o r m ed . <<e n d l ; else { i f (PR ABSORPTION) { par<<Volume RayT r a c i n g p er f o r m ed c o n s i d e r i n g a b s o r p t i o n . <<e n d l ; } e l s e { par<<Volume RayT r a c i n g p er f o r m ed w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g a b s o r p t i o n . <<e n d l ; } } par<< Kerr parameter a=<<PR SPACETIME A<<e n d l ; par<< Black Hole mass M =<<PR SPACETIME M<<e n d l ; par<<Camera p o s i t i o n s : <<e n d l ; par<< r : <<PR CAMERA R <<e n d l ; <<e n d l ; par<< t h e t a : <<PR CAMERA THETA par<< p h i : <<PR CAMERA PHI<<e n d l ; <<e n d l ; par<< a p e r t u r e : <<PR CAMERA APERTURE par<<e n d l ; par<<RayM o d u l a t i o n s : rms=<<rms<<e n d l ; par<<Mean Flux=<<I mean<<e n d l ; par<< H i g h e s t Amplitude =<<I max<<e n d l ; par<<The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n=<<s t d d e v i a t i o n <<e n d l ; par<< H i g h e s t Modulation i s : < <100.0( I maxI mean ) / I mean<<% o f mean f l u x . ( = < <100.0( I maxI mean ) /rms<<% rms and <<(I maxI mean ) / s t d d e v i a t i o n << t i m e s t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n . ) <<e n d l ; par<<e n d l ; i f (PR ACCRETIONDISK USE) { par<< A c c r e t i o n d i s c : <<e n d l ; par<< I n n e r r a d i u s : <<matter . d i s c >GetInnerRadius ( )<<e n d l ; par<< Outer r a d i u s : <<matter . d i s c >GetOuterRadius ( )<<e n d l ; par<< D e n s i t y : <<PR ACCDISC DENSITY<<e n d l ; par<< Opacity : <<PR ACCRETIONDISK OPACITY<<e n d l ; par<<e n d l ; } else { par<< no A c c r e t i o n d i s c used <<e n d l ; par<<e n d l ; } par<<Number o f Hot S p o t s : <<PR HOTSPOT NUMBER <<e n d l ; f o r ( i n t j = 0 ; j <PR HOTSPOT NUMBER ; j ++) { par<< hot s p o t <<j+1<< : <<e n d l ;
160
161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173
174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191
71
192 193 194 195
196
197 198
199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214
par<< Radius = <<matter . m a t t e r i t e m s [ j ]>GetRadius ( )<<e n d l ; par<< r a t s t a r t = <<matter . m a t t e r i t e m s [ j ]> G e t r ( )<<e n d l ; par<< p h i a t s t a r t = <<matter . m a t t e r i t e m s [ j ]> G e t p h i ( )<<e n d l ; par<< C i r c u l a r f r e q u e n c y Omega= <<matter . m a t t e r i t e m s [ j ]>GetOmega ( ) <<e n d l ; par<<> nu=Omega/ ( 2 Pi ) = <<matter . m a t t e r i t e m s [ j ]>GetOmega ( ) / ( 2 PI ) <<e n d l ; par<< d e n s i t y peak = <<matter . m a t t e r i t e m s [ j ]> G e t d e n s i t y ( )<<e n d l ; par<< O v e r b r i g h t n e s s : <<matter . m a t t e r i t e m s [ j ]> G e t d e n s i t y ( ) 100.0<< %<<e n d l ; par<<e n d l ; } par<<e n d l ; par<<e n d l ; <<e n d l ; par<<Number o f t i m e s t e p s : <<PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS par<<Number o f o b s e r v e d p e r i o d s : <<PR NUMBER OF PERIODS<<e n d l ; par<<e n d l ; par<< Spectrums : <<e n d l ; par<< l o w e s t f r e q . : <<PR SPECTRUM NU MIN<<e n d l ; <<e n d l ; par<< h i g h e s t f r e q . : <<PR SPECTRUM NU MAX par<< r e s o l u t i o n : <<PR SPECTRUM RES<<e n d l ; <<e n d l ; par<< r e f e r e n c e f r e q . : <<PR REFERENCE FREQ par . c l o s e ( ) ; return true ; } // f i n i s h e d
As mentioned before, the nullgeodesics are traced for each pixel on the screen separately. This pixel iteration begins in code line 46. After setting up the initial conditions for the integration of the geodesic equations, the method Measurement(. . . ) (see page 51) of the same instance is called in line 61. This method controls the sequence of the stepwise integration and the cumulation of the relativistic invariant transport quantity F and the cumulated opacity along the geodesics: Listing 3.2: Source code of Raytracer::Measurement(. . . )
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
void R a y t r a c e r : : Measurement ( const FourVector & b a s e d i r e c t i o n , const Event& basepos , Spectrum & s p e c s , M a t t e r F i e l d & matter , const f l o a t 8 & t i m e i n c r ) { // w o r k i n g s p e c t r a a r e c l e a r e d f o r ( i n t i = 0 ; i <PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ; i ++) { ( s p e c s+i )>C l e a r ( ) ; } // t h e o b j e c t r e p r e s e n t i n g g e o d e s i c i s i n i t i a l i z e d K e r r G e o d e s i c ray ( b a s e d i r e c t i o n , b a s e p o s ) ; Spectrum P s i ; i f (PR ABSORPTION==1){ // c u m u l a t e d o p a c i t y f o r each t i m e s t e p P s i = new Spectrum [ PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ] ;
72
3.4. Source Code
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
f l o a t 8 opacityconst =1.0; f o r ( i n t j =0; j <PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ; j ++) { ( P s i+j )>AddConst ( o p a c i t y c o n s t ) ; }
// S e t i n i t i a l l y t o 1
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
36
} // I n t e g r a t e and e v a l u a t e r e n d e r i n g e q u a t i o n f o r a l l t i m e s a t each integration step Spectrum a c t s p e c t r u m ; f l o a t 8 s t e p s i z e = 0.1; // i n i t i a l s t e p s i z e ( used f o r p r o p a g a t i o n ) f l o a t 8 s t e p s i z e u s e d ; // v a r i a b l e f o r s t o r i n g a c t u a l s t e p s i z e u i n t stepnumber =0; Event a c t p o s i t i o n=b a s e p o s ; Event n e w p o s i t i o n=b a s e p o s ; FourVector a c t d i r e c t i o n=b a s e d i r e c t i o n ; FourVector n e w d i r e c t i o n ; while ( stepnumber<=PR RAY MAX STEPS) { // c h e c k i n g f o r t e r m i n a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s i f ( ( PR RAY STOP AT CAMERA RADIUS==1) && ( a c t p o s i t i o n . mTupel . a1> PR CAMERA R) ) {break ; } i f ( ! ray . F e h l b e r g 4 5 ( a c t d i r e c t i o n , a c t p o s i t i o n , s t e p s i z e , s t e p s i z e u s e d , n e w d i r e c t i o n , n e w p o s i t i o n ) ) {break ; } // d e t e r m i n e s o u r c e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o F // i f s t a t i c t r a c i n g i s p e r f o r m e d > e v a l u a t i o n i s same f o r a l l timesteps i f ( ! matter . CheckTimeDep ( n e w p o s i t i o n ) ) { i f (PR ABSORPTION==0) // no a b s o r p t i o n matter . A d d I n t e n s i t y ( n e w p o s i t i o n , n e w d i r e c t i o n , s t e p s i z e u s e d , 0 , s p e c s , PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS) ; else // w i t h a b s o r p t i o n matter . A d d I n t e n s i t y A b s ( n e w p o s i t i o n , n e w d i r e c t i o n , s t e p s i z e u s e d , 0 , Psi , s p e c s , PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS) ; } else { // e v a l u a t e f o r a l l t i m e s t e p s s e p p a r a t e l y i f (PR ABSORPTION==0) { f o r ( i n t i = 0 ; i <PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ; i ++) matter . A d d I n t e n s i t y ( n e w p o s i t i o n , n e w d i r e c t i o n , s t e p s i z e u s e d , ( t i m e i n c r ( f l o a t 8 ) i f a b s ( n e w p o s i t i o n . mTupel . a0 ) ) , ( s p e c s+i ) , 1 ) ; // e v a l u a t e w i t h o u t a b s o r b t i o n } else { f o r ( i n t i = 0 ; i <PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ; i ++) matter . A d d I n t e n s i t y A b s ( n e w p o s i t i o n , n e w d i r e c t i o n , s t e p s i z e u s e d , ( t i m e i n c r ( f l o a t 8 ) i f a b s ( n e w p o s i t i o n . mTupel . a0 ) ) , ( P s i+i ) , ( s p e c s+i ) , 1 ) ; // w i t h a b s o r b t i o n } }
37 38 39
40 41 42 43 44
45 46 47
48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55
56 57 58 59 60
61 62
73
63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73
// u p d a t e o f i n i t i a l b o u n d a r i e s f o r n e x t i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p a c t p o s i t i o n=n e w p o s i t i o n ; a c t d i r e c t i o n=n e w d i r e c t i o n ; stepnumber=stepnumber +1; } i f (PR ABSORPTION==1) // c l e a n i n g up delete [ ] P s i ; f o r ( i n t k = 0 ; k<PR NUMBER TIMESTEPS ; k++) ( s p e c s+k )>F t o I ( ) ; //F>I }
3.5. Power Density Spectra

As mentioned in Sec. 2.1.3, variabilities in light curves obtained from observations are usually analyzed in the frequency space. Therefore the time depending signal is decomposed to a sum of periodic oscillations with specic frequencies and amplitudes. The power density spectra, arising from this procedure, are well suited to examine the periodic structure of the signal distribution in time. Consequently, in order to simulate such power density spectra, the time depending intensity distributions I(t), as obtained from the ray-tracing application, must be transformed to frequency space. This can be achieved by applying a discrete Fourier transform to the nite-domain discretized light curves. Generally the Fourier series of a time depending signal S(t), dened in the domain t [0, T ], with the period T is given by S(t) = with the Fourier coecients cn = 1 T
T n=
cn exp(2i
nt ) T
(3.36)
S(t) exp(2i
0
nt ). T
(3.37)
By the means of the trapezoidal rule this integral can be discretized and approximated. This procedure yields the corresponding discrete Fourier transform F (n) =
N 1 m=0 N 1 m=0
S(mt) exp(i n mt) mn ), N
S(mt) exp(2i
(3.38)
where = 2/T and N t = T . So given the discretized light curve I(nt) with n = (0, 1, . . . , N 1), the discrete fourier transform can be obtained by I(n) =
N 1 m=0
I(mt) exp(2i
mn ). N
(3.39)
74
3.5. Power Density Spectra From this equation one could suppose that it should be possible now to obtain N inde pendent coecients In . Unfortunately this is not the case, since I(nt) R for all n. The representative in frequency space of a pure real signal in the time space is hermitian, meaning IN n = I n . As the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem states, with a sampling angular frequency s = 2N/T = N , where is the resolution in frequency space and T the time interval on which the signal is given, only frequencies lower than the Nyquist frequency ny = s /2 = N /2 can be reconstructed. Consequently transforming the given light curves I(nt) by a DFT to the frequency space, a resolution = 2/T is obtained, and the highest accessible angular frequency is max = ((N/2) 1). The discrete Fourier transform is implemented in a separate application. The transform is being performed by the function void dft(. . . ), which, supplied with a data le of the format (t, S(t)) and the number N of timesteps, determines the measuring interval T = tmax tmin , performs the evaluations and stores the results to a le of the format (, S()). This procedure is performed by: Listing 3.3: Implementation of the DFT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
void d f t ( char name , i n t p u n k t a n z a h l ) { ifstream datei ; d a t e i . open ( name ) ; double t ; double i n t e n s t ; d a t e i >>t>>i n t e n s t ; double t m in=t ; double t max=t ; while ( ! d a t e i . e o f ( ) ) { d a t e i >>t>>i n t e n s t ; i f ( t<t m in ) { t m in=t ; } i f ( t>t max ) { t max=t ; } } datei . close () ;
// d e t e r m i n i n g t h e time i n t e r v a l T=t maxt m i n
o f s t r e a m r e s u l t a t ( d f t r e s u l t . dat ) ; i n t N=p u n k t a n z a h l ; // number o f g i v e n t i m e s t e p s double deltaomega =(2.0 PI ) / ( t maxt m in ) ; complex<double> g ( 0 . 0 , 0 . 0 ) ; f o r ( i n t n=0;n<N; n++){ i f s t r e a m i n t e n s ( name ) ; g =(0.0 ,0.0) ; cout<<DFT e v a l u a t e s s t e p <<n+1<< o f <<N<<e n d l ; f o r ( i n t m=0;m <N;m++){ i n t e n s >>t>>i n t e n s t ; // g e t t i n g t h e i n t e n s i t y I n g=g+i n t e n s t p o l a r ( 1 . 0 , ( ( 2 . 0 PI mn ) /N) ) ; // e v a l u a t i o n } // w r i t i n g d a t a t o f i l e i f ( n<(N/ 2 ) ) { r e s u l t a t <<n deltaomega<< <<abs ( g )<<e n d l ; }
75
35 36 37
38 39 40 41 42
e l s e i f ( n==(N/ 2 ) ) {} e l s e i f ( n>(N/ 2 ) ) { // v a l u e s f o r omega>n y q u i s t f r e q u e n c y a r e s h i f t e d t o n e g a t i v e frequencies r e s u l t a t <<(nN) deltaomega<< <<abs ( g )<<e n d l ; } intens . close () ; } resultat . close () ; cout<< deltaOmega i s <<deltaomega<< = 2 PI / ( <<t max<<<<t min<< ) <<e n d l ; cout<< H i g h e s t d e t e r m i n e d f r e q u e n c y i s <<deltaomega ( (N/ 2 ) 1)<<e n d l ; cout<< Nyquistf r e q u e n c y i s <<deltaomega (N/ 2 )<<e n d l ; }
43 44 45
76
4. Data Analysis
In this chapter the results obtained from dierent kind of simulations performed with the time depending volume ray-tracing application are presented. For testing purpose static simulations were performed and are presented in Sec. 4.1. The imprints on light curves from the hot spots co-rotating within the accretion disc are examined thereafter in Sec. 4.2. Before turning to the data obtained, let us take a look on some global parameters, which are specied in the applications parameter le, and that were kept constant throughout all evaluations. The metric, the ray-tracing is performed on, is exactly dened by the Kerr parameter a and the central mass M , which was continuously set to the value M = 1. Volume ray-tracing, considering absorption, was applied to all simulations. For that purpose partially opaque accretion discs were mimicked by setting the opacity in the emitters rest frame to = 1. The same was done for the hot spot matter. The accretion disc was generally assumed to extend from the marginal stable orbit to the radius r = 30M , and a constant radial prole of the emissivity was used. The camera was positioned at the radius rc = 1800M and the aperture was chosen to be = 2. With the size of the accretion disc those set ups provide an adequate view on the given scene. The cameras screen resolution was set to 400 in both directions, which results in 160, 000 geodesics to be propagated. Espacially in connection with the evaluation of multiple timesteps and the number of maximum integration steps, set to 1500, this parameter essentially aects the processing time. Consequently due to time constraints a higher resolution was rejected. The error boundaries for the adaptive ray propagation, which control the step size at each integration step were dened diversely for three dierent regions. Comparing the evaluated geodesics to those computed with a higher accuracy, the following boundaries turned out to approximate the nullgeodesics suciently accurate in the scopes of interest: For regions specied by r < 6M the local error was approved to be d [3 106 , 3 105 ], for 6M r 200M the interval [3 105 , 3 104 ] was applied, and for r > 200M the boundaries were given by [r/106 , r/105 ]. Finally the instances of the class Spectrum, which during the evaluations store the frequency dependent intensity contributions, need to be specied. A spectral resolution of 2, 000 within the range given by min = 0.0001 and max = 3 was chosen. Note that the frequency is given in relation to the rest frame frequency of the radiation emitted. Thus it is positioned at = 1. As the spectra of the broadened lines will show, this spectral range is suitable.
77
4. Data Analysis
4.1. Static Simulations

In order to test the implemented methods, static simulations were performed. This actually provides an opportunity to review some relativistic eects on the line prole from an originally monochromatic source (compare to Sec. 2.1.3). For this purpose two series of simulations are presented here. Spectra from accretion discs, ranging down to the ISCO, are obtained for dierent inclanation angles i. To the rst series the Kerr parameter a = 0 was applied, which simulates the Schwarzschild case. The maximum Kerr case, obtained by setting a = 1 is being represented by the second series. The gure 4.1 shows the line broadening of a single emission line for dierent inclanations and for the Schwarzschild case, which can be obtained by dening the Kerr parameter to a = 0. Obviously the inclination has a great impact on the form of the generated line prole. For evanescent inclinations (top view) the line is dispersed and shifted to lower frequencies due to the gravitational redshift. With the inclination increasing, a double-horned structure can be observed. This derives from the Doppler eect due to the velocity of the emission sources having a non vanishing component in direction (opposite direction respectively) to the observer. In addition to that, the blue wing of the prole is raised by relativistic beaming (radiation is collimated in emitters direction of motion).
o
5000
i = 0.001
o
i = 30
o
[arbitrary units]
i = 60
4000
i = 90
3000
relative intensity
2000
1000
0 0,5 1,0 1,5
frequency
Figure 4.1.: Line broadening of a monochromatic emission line at rest frame frequency = 1. Dierent inclinations are represented by color. Schwarzschild metric (a = 0) is applied.
78
4.1. Static Simulations Comparing the line proles of the Schwarzschild case to those of the maximum Kerr case (a = 1), the Kerr parameter turns out to have only small inuence on the line broadening. As gure 4.2 visualizes, only the red wing is extended to lower frequencies, when a = 1 is applied. This results from the fact that for increasing Kerr parameter the accretion disc ranges down to lower radial coordinates, at which the lapse function decreases, and consequently the radiation originating from those regions experiences a higher red-shift from the general relativistic time dilatation.
a = 0 a = 1
1000
relative frequency [arbitrary units]
100
10
0,5
1,0
frequency
Figure 4.2.: Logarithmic plotting of relative intensity of a single line emission at = 1 for the inclination i = 30 . Solely the red wing is noticeably inuenced by the Kerr parameter a.
79
4. Data Analysis The spatially resolved scene is displayed by the gures 4.3-4.6 for the two inclinations i = 30 , i = 60 applying the Schwarzschild case as well as the maximum Kerr case. The local red-shift is color-coded so that red means red-shift and blue color implies a blue-shift. Additionally the relative intensity is implied by brightness1 . Those images approve, as the line spectra already had shown, that for higher inlinations the Doppler eect has a remarkable impact. Consequently the regions moving in direction of the observer are blue-shifted. The images, representing the Schwarzschild case, nicely show the accretion discs inner edge at rin = rms = 6M . A close look to the inner region of the images reveals a slight shift (to the right) when comparing the two cases a = 0 and a = 1. This is due to the frame dragging forming the curvature and consequently the nullgeodesic ow (compare to Fig. 2.19). A further feature, that derives from the volume character of the ray-tracing application, and cannot be generated by planar tracing when ray propagation is stopped in the equatorial plane, is the manifestation of a secondary structure in the direct vicinity of the event horizon. It results from lensing eects, as near the horizon nullgeodesics are being back-curved to the observers direction. Consequently the form of the horizon is mirrored by the inner edge of those secondary images [Zin2002].
This pixel color-encoding is performed by the method void CreateShiftRGB(. . . ) of the class Spectrum.
80
4.1. Static Simulations
Figure 4.3.: Spatially resolved image of accretion disc around black hole for a = 0 and i = 30 . The red-shift is color-coded and the brightness is weighted by the relative intensity contribution.
Figure 4.4.: Spatially resolved, color-coded image of accretion disc around black hole for a = 1 and i = 30 . 81
4. Data Analysis
Figure 4.5.: Spatially resolved, color-coded image of accretion disc around black hole for a = 0 and i = 60 .
Figure 4.6.: Spatially resolved, color-coded image of accretion disc around black hole for a = 1 and i = 60 . 82
4.2. Dynamic Simulations

Throughout this section of the thesis hot spots, as descriped in the previous chapter, were placed within the accretion disc. Intensity contributions originating from those regions of higher rest frame density, which depend on the angular phase of the hot spots, and the steady background radiation from the accretion disc generate time depending light curves of frequency-integrated total intensity. Those variabilities in time are examined in this part.
4.2.1. Inuence of Inclination and Spin on Light Curves

For the simulations a hot spot, usually at the radial coordinate of the ISCO, was applied. Consequently with varying the Kerr parameter a, the angular frequency of the spot changes. All specications of the angular fequency will be given in geometrized units, where M = 1. Actually, with a dened central mass, the angular frequency in SI units can be obtained by dividing the quantity given in geometrized units by the factor 4.9 106 M/M . Figure 4.7 shows a hot spot orbiting at the radial coordinate r = 7M . Its radius is specied to Rhs = 0.5M and it exhibits an overbrightness of 150%. This means that the rest frame density at the centre of the hot spot is 1.5 times higher than as it would be, if the hot spot was not present. The series nicely illustrates eects of gravitational lensing on the hot spot form. When it is located on the far side of the central mass, lensing eects cause a magnication of the emission region. The hot spot image is spread into an arc. At suciently high inclinations the spot is even deformed to an Einstein ring. Animations, obtained from the generated pictures also reveal a virtual acceleration of the hot spot at those regions. The gravitational lensing must also be taken into account when analyzing time dependent light curves. The point of maximum blue-shift due to the Doppler eect occurs before the spots moving direction turns directly to the observer. This results from light, collimated in emitters moving direction, being bended towards the camera. Light curves of a hot spot orbiting a black hole are presented by gures 4.8-4.14. In order to generate these results, the hot spot was placed at the ISCO for dierent values of the spin parameter a, and additionally to that, the inclination was varied. The scene was observed over one rotation period T , and in order to compare the results, the time depending total intensities were normalized to their mean values. The diagrams reveal a clear dependency on the inclination. Since the variability in the detected intensity derives from relativistic beaming as the hot spot moves towards the observer, this inuence becomes more and more signicant with increasing inclinations. Consequently the peaks in the light curves become sharper for higher inclinations, whereas for i 0 no appreciable dependency in time is noticeable. Also worth mentioning is the inuence of the spin parameter a. Increasing this one, the variabilities generally become stronger, the peaks reach higher in relation to the mean intensity. However this is only true for inclinations below a specic
83
4. Data Analysis value. As the diagrams show, the opposite applies to the light curves of the highest inclination possible i = 90 . Furthermore a shift in time can be noticed between the peak at maximum inclination to those at lower viewing angles. When the spin parameter is increased, the ISCO and consequently the hot spots radial distance decrease to lower r. The velocities therefore become higher and result in the amplcation of the relativistic beaming. This explains the general increase of the variabilities at medium inclinations. In the near maximum Kerr case a = 0.99 peaks of all inclanations get damped, as the gravitational red-shift becomes more eective at small hot spot distances to the event horizon. Furthermore at lower radial distances the geodesic bending by the spacetime curvature is more eective, and the peak in the detected intensity moves to earlier times, when the hot spot is still located behind the black hole. This does not apply to the cases of maximum inclination, due to the circumstance that for those the peak in the intensity occurs at times when the hot spot is positioned on the black holes far side anyway. In those cases the inner region of the scene is obscured by the disc itself and mainly the opposite regions, that are visible due to the curvature of the spacetime, contribute to the variabilities detected. Analyzing the light curves, it should be noticed that mainly for low values of a the peak in intensity is followed by a noticeable decline. This occurs at times when the hot spot is moving away from the observer and consequently the radiation experiences a red-shift. The absence of this feature at high Kerr parameters again can be explained by extreme frame dragging in the vicinity of the event horizon. As the gure 2.19 on page 36 clearly shows, nullgeodesics, originating from small distances to the horizon, are orbiting the central mass repeatedly with slightly increasing radial coordinate r before they are able to escape to innity. Due to that, for hot spots at low distances to the centre, there should be a background contribution to the relativistic beaming that impacts for all spots angular phases. Consequently at high values of a, where the ISCO is located at such distances, no decrease in the intensity can be observed and the light curves appear more symmetric.
84
(a) Hot spot at t = 0.
(b) Hot spot at t = 1/20 T0 .
(c) Hot spot at t = 2/20 T0 .
(d) Hot spot at t = 3/20 T0 .
(e) Hot spot at t = 4/20 T0 .
(f) Hot spot at t = 5/20 T0 .
Figure 4.7.: A series of a hot spot with the radius Rhs = 0.5M orbiting a black hole with a = 0.7 at the radial distance r = 7M . The rest frame density of the spot is specied to = 1.5 and the inclination i = 60 is applied. T0 denotes the hot spots rotation period. 85
4. Data Analysis
1,0035
o
i = 0.001
1,0030
o
i = 30
o
i = 60
1,0025
o
i = 90
mean
1,0020
total intensity I/I
1,0015
1,0010
1,0005
1,0000
0,9995 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
time t/T
Figure 4.8.: Frequency-integrated light curves of a hot spot orbiting at the ISCO dened by the Kerr parameter a = 0. The intensities are normalized to their mean values, and dierent inclinations are implied by color.
1,0004
o
i = 0.001
o
1,0003
i = 30
o
i = 60
1,0002
mean
total intensity I/I
1,0001
1,0000
0,9999
0,9998 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
time t/T
Figure 4.9.: Frequency-integrated light curves of a hot spot orbiting at the ISCO dened by the Kerr parameter a = 0. The intensities are normalized to their mean values, and dierent inclinations are implied by color. 86
1,0030
i = 0.001
o
i = 30
1,0025
o
i = 60
o
i = 90
1,0020
mean
total intensity I/I
1,0015
1,0010
1,0005
1,0000
0,9995 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
time t/T
Figure 4.10.: Frequency-integrated light curves of a hot spot orbiting at the ISCO dened by the Kerr parameter a = 0.3. The intensities are normalized to their mean values, and dierent inclinations are implied by color.
1,0005
i = 0.001
o
i = 30
1,0004
o
i = 60
1,0003
mean
total intensity I/I
1,0002
1,0001
1,0000
0,9999
0,9998
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
time t/T
87
4. Data Analysis
i = 0.001
1,0025
o
i = 30
o
i = 60
1,0020
mean
i = 90
total intensity I/I
1,0015
1,0010
1,0005
1,0000
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
time t/T
1,0008
i = 0.001
o
i = 30
o
i = 60
1,0006
mean
total intensity I/I
1,0004
1,0002
1,0000
0,9998 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
time t/T
88
1,0006
o
i = 0.001
1,0005
o
i = 30
o
i = 60
1,0004
o
i = 90
mean
1,0003
total intensity I/I
1,0002
1,0001
1,0000
0,9999
0,9998 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
time t/T
89
4. Data Analysis
4.2.2. Inuence of Hot Spot Radius and Distance on Light Curves

In order to examine how the light curves are aected by the hot spots radius and radial distance, the Kerr parameter and the inclination were kept constant for the simulations presented next. A moderate inclination of i = 60 was chosen, whereas a was set to a = 0.7. Figures 4.15 and 4.16 visualize the light curves obtained while the radius Rhs and the radial distance to the mass centre were varied. As expected, they do not reveal any specic inuences on the curves form, but solely the size of the peaks is aected. It is higher for increasing radii, and also increases at lower radial distances r. This is due to the applied Keppler rotation and therefore increasing velocities at lower r. Note that in Fig. 4.15, where the light curves for dierent distances are presented, the angular phases of the hot spots do not coincide. This results from the fact that the propagation time of light from positions at dierent radial coordinates to the observer is unequal. When now for the dierent simulations the initial azimuthal position of the spots is set to the same value, consequently this time lag leads to the spots appearing at dierent azimuthal angles at the rst timestep evaluated. This is why, compared to each other, the light curves are shifted in time2 . In spite of that, the major eect from diering distances r can be extracted.
Naturally the angular frequencies dier for the dierent radial coordinates. This does not need to be taken into account, since the time is given in units of the rotation period T .
90
1,0006
r =
1,0005
6M
r = 10M r = 12M
1,0004
r = 15M
mean
1,0003
total intensity I/I
1,0002
1,0001
1,0000
0,9999
0,9998 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
time t/T
Figure 4.15.: Frequency-integrated light curves of a hot spot orbiting at dierent radial distances, implied by color. The inclination is i = 60 and the Kerr parameter is a = 0.7. The intensities are normalized to their mean values. The angular phases of the spots, which the curves are obtained from, do not coincide.
R R R R
1,004
mean
hs
= 0.3M = 0.5M = 0.8M = 1.0M = 1.5M
1,006
hs
hs
hs
hs
total intensity I/I
1,002
1,000
0,998
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
time t/T
Figure 4.16.: Frequency-integrated light curves of a hot spot orbiting at the distance r = 6M . The inclination is i = 60 and the Kerr parameter is a = 0.7. The intensities are normalized to their mean values, and dierent hot spot 91 radii are implied by color.
4. Data Analysis
4.2.3. Generating Power Density Spectra

As the qualitative results from the last section show, light curves, obtained from observations of black hole systems, could provide an approach to the investigation of the systems parameters. Unfortunately with current observational capabilities it is not possible to get a strong enough X-ray signal over individual periods in order to be able to dierentiate between such light curves. This is why variabilities, the QPOs, in the spectra are usually examined in the frequency space (see Sec. 2.1.3). In this section, the way how it should be possible to simulate such PDSs, and what kind of conclusions about the system should be able to be derived from them, is outlined. For this purpose simulations over multiple rotation periods of hot spots were performed. Due to what the light curves have tought us so far, only medium inclinations were applied. At low inclinations the variabilities are very faint, and high inclinations were discarded because a present dust torus, as assumed in theory but not implemented to the ray-tracer application of this thesis, should obscure the inner region and generally should be considered when simulating observations at low viewing angles. Another aspect, not considered by the application, must be taken into account. Due to shearing in the accretion disc, the hot spots exhibit a nite life time. In the course of time, the regions of higher emission should be deformed into an arc-like structure and dissolve thereafter. Due to this fact the light curves for this part were generated by evaluating the integrated total intensity over a moderate number of rotation periods. The observation time T = 4.5T0 was usually applied when not stated dierently. This value is important when transforming the light curves to the frequency space, since it denes the resolution in frequency to = 2 = 2 0 = , T 4.5 (4.1)
where 0 = 2/T0 denotes the hot spots angular frequency. The highest accessible frequency max in the generated PDS is specied by (compare to Sec. 3.5) max = N 1 , 2 (4.2)
where N is the number of evaluated timesteps, and was set to N = 40. The diagrams 4.17-4.32 show the light curves with varying Kerr parameter and hot spot distance to the centre and the corresponding power density spectra obtained by the method introduced in Sec. 3.5. The non-sinusoidal shape of the light curves results in declining power in the higher harmonic frequencies at n0 (n N). Despite that, except for the near maximum Kerr case, the PDS reveal power contributions up to n = 4.
92
4.2. Dynamic Simulations A 2 -Lorentzian t of the form f () = aof f set + A HWHM ( 0 )2 + HWHM2 (4.3)
was applied to the base peaks in order to reversely verify the hot spots angular frequency 0 3 . As the method shows, from suciently resolved power density spectra it is possible to obtain the circular frequencies of high emission regions orbiting Kerr black holes. This aspect gains in importance, when analyzing QPOs, deriving from multiple hot spots orbiting the compact object. Considering the assumption that the minimum radial coordinate of hot spots within the accretion disc equals the marginally stable orbit (ISCO), the Kerr parameter a of a rotating black hole can be estimated from the highest base frequency found in the PDS. Such a light curve for two hot spots is presented by Fig. 4.33. The spots were situated at the radial coordinates r1 = 8M , r2 = 6M , and 60 time steps were evaluated over 6.5 times the rotation period of the inner hot spot. The corresponding PDS reveals power at both angular frequencies and their higher harmonics. Particularly the contributions for n = 2 are clearly distinguishable at 0.095 and 0.14. The gures 4.35-4.36 once again visualize the already discussed dependency of the X-ray variabilities on the radial coordinate r, the hot spots radius Rhs and the spin parameter a. The highest modulation in the light curves Imod = (Imax Imean )/Imean was therefore evaluated in units of the root mean square rms of the intensity distributions in time for dierent values of the concerning parameters. In order to compare the variabilities at dierent orbit radii (Fig. 4.35), an adjustment in the hot spot radii Rhs had to be performed. Since the ray-tracing application does not consider any intensity contributions from matter located below the ISCO, only the outer hemisphere of the hot spots, centered at rms , is taken into account. Therefore to compare the contribution from such high emission regions at the ISCO to those at higher radial distances, the radius Rhs(ISCO) was multiplied by a factor of 2.
The t was performed by the scientic graphing and analysis software OriginPro 7.5 SR0 developed by the OriginLab Corporation.
93
4. Data Analysis
1,0004
a = 0
o
i = 60
-3
= 13.20x10
1,0003
mean
total intensity I/I
1,0002
1,0001
1,0000
0,9999
time t/T
Figure 4.17.: Light curve of hot spot with radius Rhs = 0.5M orbiting at r = 8M . The angular frequency is 0 = 0.04419.
0,25
= 0.0101 = 0.191
max
Fit result:
amplitude (arbitrary units)
0,20
= 0.0455 0.0008
0,15
0,10
0,05
0,00 0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20
frequency
Figure 4.18.: Power density spectrum obtained from upper light curve. A Lorentzian t is applied to the base peak to reversely obtain the hot spots angular frequency 0 . The t was performed with 2 /DoF = 0.22 103 , where DoF denotes the degrees of freedom. 94
1,0004
a = 0.3
o
i = 60
-3
= 12.4x10
1,0003
mean
total intensity I/I
1,0002
1,0001
1,0000
0,9999
time t/T
0,24
= 0.0099
0,22
max
= 0.189
0,20 0,18 0,16 0,14 0,12 0,10 0,08 0,06 0,04 0,02 0,00 0,00 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14
Fit result: = 0.0444 0.0011
0,16
0,18
0,20
frequency
Figure 4.20.: Power density spectrum obtained from upper light curve. A Lorentzian t is applied to the base peak to reversely obtain the hot spots angular frequency 0 . The t was performed with 2 /DoF = 1.72 103 . 95
4. Data Analysis
1,0004
a = 0.7
o
i = 60
-3
= 12.1x10
1,0003
mean
total intensity I/I
1,0002
1,0001
1,0000
0,9999
time t/T
0,22
= 0.0098
0,20
max
= 0.186
0,18
Fit result: = 0.0437 0.0001
0,16
0,14
0,12
0,10
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0,00 0,00 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,20
frequency
1,0004
a = 0.99
o
i = 60
1,0003
-3
= 11.4x10
mean
total intensity I/I
1,0002
1,0001
1,0000
0,9999
time t/T
= 0.0097
0,20
max
= 0.183
Fit result: = 0.0436 0.0006
0,15
0,10
0,05
0,00 0,00 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,20
frequency
4. Data Analysis
1,0025
a = 0
o
1,0020
i = 60
-2
= 8.41x10
1,0015
total intensity I/I
mean
1,0010
1,0005
1,0000
0,9995
0,9990 0 1 2 3 4
time t/T
Figure 4.25.: Light curve of hot spot with radius Rhs = 1M orbiting at r = ISCO. The angular frequency is 0 = 0.06804.
1,6
= 0.0155 = 0.295
max
1,4
Fit result: = 0.0703 0.0014
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0 0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30
frequency
1,0035
a = 0.3
1,0030
o
i = 60
1,0025
-2
= 9.89x10
total intensity I/I
mean
1,0020
1,0015
1,0010
1,0005
1,0000
0,9995
0,9990
time t/T
1,8
= 0.0120 = 0.380
1,6
max
Fit result:
1,4
= 0.0903 0.0014
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0 0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,35 0,40
frequency
4. Data Analysis
1,004
a = 0.7
o
i = 60
1,003
-2
= 12.47x10
mean
total intensity I/I
1,002
1,001
1,000
0,999
time t/T
2,5
= 0.0328 = 0.623
max
2,0
Fit result: = 0.1472 0.0031
1,5
1,0
0,5
0,0 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7
frequency
1,0025
a = 0.99
o
i = 60
1,0020
-2
= 9.20x10
1,0015
mean
total intensity I/I
1,0010
1,0005
1,0000
0,9995
0,9990
3
0
time t/T
1,8
= 0.0831
1,6
max
= 1.578
Fit result:
1,4
= 0.3758 0.0060
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6
frequency
4. Data Analysis
1,0008
a = 0.5
o
i = 60
1,0006
-2
= 2.22x10
mean
1,0004
total intensity I/I
1,0002
1,0000
0,9998
0,9996 0 1 2 3 4
0( min)
time t/T
Figure 4.33.: Light curve of two hot spots with radius Rhs = 0.5M orbiting at r1 = 8M and r2 = 6M . The corresponding angular frequencies are 1 = 0.0432 and 2 = 0.0658.
= 0.0103
0,5
max
= 0.2986
Fit result:
0,4
c1
= 0.0459 0.0035 = 0.0664 0.0019
c2
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,0 0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30
frequency
Figure 4.34.: Power density spectrum obtained from upper light curve. A multi-peak Lorentzian t is applied to the base peaks to reversely obtain the hot spots angular frequencies. The t was performed with 2 /DoF = 1.19 103 . 102
0,35
a i
= 0.7
o
= 60
0,30
Highest Modulation [rms x 100]
0,25
0,20
0,15
0,10
0,05
0,00
10
12
14
16
radial distance r/M
Figure 4.35.: This diagram shows the highest modulations (in units of 100rms) in light curves with dierent hot spot radial coordinate.
0,8
a
0,7
= 0.7
o
i r
= 60 = 6M
0,6
hs
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,6
Hot Spot Radius R
hs
/ M
Figure 4.36.: Highest modulations in light curves against the hot spot radius Rhs .
103
4. Data Analysis
0,35
hs
=1.0M = ISCO
o
r
0,30
hs
i = 30
o
0,25
i = 60
0,20
0,15
0,10
0,05
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
Kerr parameter a
Figure 4.37.: Highest modulations in light curves at dierent values of spin parameter a. The spots were located at the ISCO, which moves towards the event horizon when a is increased. Relativistic beaming is then more eective due to higher velocities and the variabilities are amplied. For a 1, the gravitational red-shift damps the modulations.
104
5. Conclusion and Outlook

The major purpose of this thesis was to examine the inuences of dynamic high emission regions within accretion discs around rotating black holes on light curves obtained from observations of such systems. This is motivated by detected quasi periodic oscillations in the X-ray ux from compact objects, that need to be interpreted in respect of parameters concerning the black hole itself, as the mass and its specic angular momentum, but also of observation parameters like the viewing angle towards the observed system. The study of this issue was achieved by a time depending ray-tracing application. The general relativistic volume ray-tracer, developed by B.Zink, was expanded to handle in time resolved radiative transfer along nullgeodesics on the Kerr metric. Dynamic high emission regions were implemented by spherically symmetric hot spots co-rotating within the accretion disc. By applying monochromatic emission from the accreting matter, frequency-integrated intensity distributions in time could be generated. Variabilities in those, which derive from location depending relativistic eects on the hot spot radiation, were analyzed regarding their dependency on the Kerr parameter, the inclination, the hot spot size and radial distance to the mass centre. The obtained results reveal and verify clear correlations between the concerned quantities and therefore provide means to extract black hole properties from observations. At least the HFQPOs can be explained by dynamic structures similar to those as implemented for this thesis. Advancing from this point, it would be interesting to further adjust the ray-tracer at hand to physical models. Matter objects like a hot corona and a dust torus, as assumed to be present in the black hole environment, could be implemented. The hot spots life time and them being deformed by shearing could be taken into account, in order to simulate the system more accurately. Furthermore radiative transfer of non-monochromatic sources and a realistic radial emissivity prole would be interesting issues worth analyzing. Despite those possible extensions in future, the present time depending application provides qualitative results and a concept for the examination of rotating black holes.
105
5. Conclusion and Outlook
106
A. Curved Spacetimes and Covariant Derivative

The Riemann space
The line element
N
ds =
i,k=1
gik (x1 , . . . , xN )dxi dxk = gik (x)dxi dxk
(A.1)
denes the metric of the N -dimensional Riemann space. Important properties of the metric tensor gik are: Its components are dierentiable, implying the possibility to approximate the metric locally by a quadratic form with constant coecients. Due to that it can then be locally described by a at metric. The tensor is symmetric gik = gki . The determinant is not vanishing (det(gik ) = 0) and therefore an inverse matrix k can be dened by gip g pk = i . Since the metric tensors components are generally coordinate dependent, gik transp m forms to gpm by gik = i k gpm , where is the coordinate dependent transformai tion matrix k (x) = xi /xk .1 The coordinate dierentials are also transformed by the transformation matrix: i dxi = k (x)dxk . Tensors, denoted by their co- and contravariant indices, transform by components as the coordinate dierentials.
Covariant Derivative
Resulting from the transformation matrix components being coordinate depenent, the total dierential of a vector (tensor) eld is not trivial, since the quantities transform dierently at dierent locations in space. Therefore, in order to construct the dierential, objects at same locations need to be compared. For this purpose an additional term, arising from a parallel shift (along a geodesic) of the quantity being regarded must be taken into account.
1
The line element remains form invariant under general coordinate transformations xi xi (x1 , . . . , xN ).
107
A. Curved Spacetimes and Covariant Derivative Following that concept, a covariant derivative of vector elds on curved spacetimes can be constructed: (A.2) V = V + V This operation now is coordinate independent, since that contribution is included by the term with the connection coecients . Those coecients are often referred to as Christoel symbols and are described by the components of the metric tensor: 1 = g ( g + g g ) 2 (A.3)
For scalars the covariant derivative reduces to the partial. The general expression for the covariant derivative for tensors of arbitrary rank can be noted as: T 1 2 k 1 2 l = T 1 2 k 1 2 l + 1 T 2 k 1 2 l + 2 T 1 k 1 2 l + 1 T 1 2 k 2 l 2 T 1 2 k 1 l
(A.4)
Riemann Curvature Tensor

The Riemann curvature tensor R provides a local description of the spaces curvature at each point. As a linear transformation on a vector, it can be regarded as a description of its transformation by parallel transport along an innitesimal loop. It can be denoted as: R = + (A.5)
Geodesics
Given a curve x (), parametrized by , parallel transport of a tensor T along that path can be dened as the requirement that the covariant derivative of T along the path vanishes: dx T 1 2 k 1 l = 0 (A.6) d With an alternative denition for geodesics, paths of shortest distance between two points in space, namely that a geodesic is a path, along which its tangent vector is parallel transported, the geodesic equation can be derived.
108
With the tangent vector dx /d to the path x , the condition for it being parallel transported can be written as dx dx =0 (A.7) d d or as dx dx d2 x + = 0, (A.8) 2 d d d called the geodesic equation. When is an appropriate ane2 parameter along a null geodesic, it can be normalized such that dx /d equals the momentum four-vector: p = For timelike paths the four-momentum is p = mU = m dx , d (A.10) dx . d (A.9)
where U denotes the four-velocity. The geodesic equation (A.8) can be expressed by terms of p : p p = 0 (A.11)
Related to the proper time by = a + b with some constants a, b.
109
A. Curved Spacetimes and Covariant Derivative
110
B. Killing Vectors and Symmetries

Isometries of a given metric describing a manifold M can be understood as transformations, maps M M, under which the geometry of the manifold is invariant. Such a symmetry is present, when the metric coecients g are independent of a certain coordinate x . Then the translation along this coordinate x x +a is considered dp as a symmetry. Using the relation p p = m dx p = m d 1 , the geodesic equation d (A.11) can be expanded to dp 1 m = ( g )p p . (B.1) d 2 From this it can be deduced that with g being independent of x the correspnding momentum component p is a conserved quantity of motion. Those isometries can be described by the formalism of Killing elds. The vector
K = ( ) = ,
(B.2)
describing the symmetric transformation, is called a killing vector, if the g are independent of x . From the constancy of p = K p , which is equivalent to the statement that its directional derivative along the geodesic vanishes p (K p ) = 0, the Killing equation K + K = 0 (B.3) can be derived. Each Killing vector satisfying (B.3) implies the existence of a conserved quantity when moved along geodesics. There is a relation between event horizons in spacetimes and certain Killing vector elds. If a Killing vector eld is null along a null2 hypersurface , that surface is called Killing horizon of , and: In stationary, asymptotically at spacetimes each event horizon is a Killing horizon for some Killing vector eld . In those spacetimes which are static, such a vector eld is that one representing time translations at innity K = (t ) . For stationary but not static spacetimes the event horizon is axially symmetric and a Killing horizon for the linear combination = K + 0 R , where R is the rotational Killing vector eld R = ( ) .
This argument only holds for timelike paths, but can be developed analogously for null geodesics with ane parameter . 2 Null here means light-like.
1
111
B. Killing Vectors and Symmetries
112
C. 3+1 Split of Spacetime

The four-dimensional spacetime can be decomposed into three-dimensional pure spatial hypersurfaces with t = const. The metric for this situation reads then ds2 = 2 dt2 + hik (dxi + i dt)(dxk + k dt) , (C.1)
where i, k = 1, 2, 3. = d /dt is called then the lapse function, describing the time lapse between the proper time at the surface regarded and the time t at innity. The hik denote the metrics of the hypersurfaces with t = const, and the i = dxi /dt, which are normal to these, are called shift functions.
113
C. 3+1 Split of Spacetime
114
D. Numerical Integration
In order to solve an ordinary dierential equation of the form y (x) = f (x, y(x)) with a given boundary y(x0 ) = y0 , (D.2) it is helpful to discretize the problem and by means of that to approximate the solution by evaluating a specic number of points (xk , yk ). By decreasing the number of evaluations of f , usually an error is introduced due to the discretization. In general, algorithms propagating the function f from the initial boundary on step by step are called one-step integrators and can be described by the calculation rule yk+1 = yk + h(xk , yk , yk+1 , h) , (D.3) (D.1)
where h = xk+1 xk is the step size. In order to estimate the accuracy of such methods, the local discretization error dk at xk can be dened by dk+1 = y(xk+1 ) y(xk ) h(xk , y(xk ), y(xk+1 ), h) ,
def
(D.4)
with the exactly integrated value y(xk+1 ). The algorithms, specied by (D.3), can be furthermore classied by the one-step integration order p R, which is dened if the following inequality is satised by the corresponding local discretization error maxk |dk | D = const hp+1 = O(hp+1 ) . (D.5)
The most simple representation of such one-step integrators is the Euler method, which uses the slope at xk that can be evaluatd directly from (D.1) to compute the next value at xk + h. This method is described by the computation rule yk+1 = yk + hf (xk , yk ) , (k = 0, 1, 2, . . .) . (D.6)
115
Runge-Kutta algorithms
Rewriting (D.1) in its integral form
xk+1
y(xk+1 ) = y(xk ) +
xk
f (x, y(x))dx
(D.7)
leads to an approximation ansatz for the so called Runge-Kutta integrators. The integral (D.7) is discretized arbitrarily, yielding yk+1 = yk + h
i
ci f (i , y(i ))
(D.8)
with the sampling points [xk , xk+1 ] and the integration weight factors ci . Since the values f (i , y(i )) are not known, the equation is not directly solvable. So the main task is to nd approximations for y(i ), called predictors yi , that can be used to evaluate (D.8). This principle is consequently called a predictor-corrector method. From parametrizing i and the predictors yi by i = xk + ai h
i1 yi = y k + j=1 hbij f (j , yj )
(D.9a) (D.9b)
with a1 = 0, an algorithm for the evaluation of the yk+1 can be derived:

i1 ki = f (i , yi ) = f (i , yk + h j=1
bij kj ) ,
(D.10a) (D.10b)
yk+1 = yk + h
i
ci ki .
Now the parametrs ai , bij and the integration weights ci need to be specied. This can be achieved by demanding the predictors yi to be exact for the specic dierential equation = 1 and by special demands to the order p of the algorithm (for demonstrations see y [Sch1997]). Finding an adequate step size h for the integration algorithm is very essential. A well working method for adjusting this parameter is to approximate the local error dk+1 of the used algorithm by an integrator of higher order p. If both algorithms base on evaluation of the same ki , this can be achieved with a tolerable amount of eort. This is called embedding an algorithm of lower into one of higher order. The evaluated local error can be used then to adjust the step size for each integration step. Algorithms exploiting such a dynamic control are called adaptive.
116
The adaptive Fehlberg algorithm

The algorithm for the integration of the nullgeodesics in this thesis is the adaptive Fehlberg(4,5) [Zin2002], which is a Runge-Kutta integrator of the order p = 4 using four evaluations of the function f to determine yk+1 . It is embedded in an algorithm of the order p = 5 using six evaluations of f . As described above, the higher-order integrator is used to approximate the local error. With the step size h, the computation rule of this method is given by [Sch1997, Zin2002]: k1 = f (xk , yk ) , k2 = f k3 k4 k5 yk+1 k6 dk+1 2 2 xk + h, yk + hk1 , 9 9 1 1 1 = f xk + h, yk + hk1 + hk2 , 3 12 4 3 69 243 135 = f xk + h, yk + hk1 hk2 + hk3 , 4 128 128 64 27 27 16 17 = f xk + h, yk hk1 + hk2 hk3 + hk4 , 12 4 5 5 9 16 1 1 k1 + k3 + k4 + k5 , = yk + h 9 20 45 12 65 5 13 4 5 5 hk1 hk2 + hk3 + hk4 + hk5 = f xk + h, yk + 6 432 16 16 27 144 h (2k1 + 9k3 64k4 15k5 + 72k6 ) . 300 (D.11a) (D.11b) (D.11c) (D.11d) (D.11e) (D.11f) , (D.11g) (D.11h)
117
118
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[Boy1967] Boyer, R.H. & Lindquist, R.W. 1967, J. Math. Phys., 8, 265 [Cam1997] Camenzind, M. 1997, lecture notes, Physik Rotierender Schwarzer Lcher o [Carr] Carroll, S.M., Spacetime and Geometry, 2004 Addison Wesley
[Car1968] Carter, B. 1968, Phys. Rev., 174, 1559 [Cha1931a] Chandrasekhar, S. 1931, Phil. Mag., 11, 592 [Cha1931b] Chandrasekhar, S. 1931, Astrophys. J., 74, 81 [Cha1983] Chandrasekhar, S. 1983, The Mathematical Theory of Black Holes, Oxford University Press, New York [Dab1997] Dabrowski, Y., Fabian, A.C., Iwasawa, K., Lasenby, A.N. & Reynolds, C.S., 1997, MNRAS [Ein1905] Einstein, A. 1905, Ann. Phys., 17, 891
[Ein1915a] Einstein, A. 1915, Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, Sitzb., 778 [Ein1915b] Einstein, A. 1915, Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, Sitzb., 799 [Ein1915c] Einstein, A. 1915, Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, Sitzb., 844 [Elv1994] Elvis, M., Wilkes, B.J., McDowell, J.C., Green, R.F., Bechtold, J., Willner, S.P., Oey, M.S., Polomski, E., Cutri, R. 1994, ApJS, 95, 1
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[Haw1969] Hawking, S.W. & Penrose, R. 1969, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, A 314, 529 [Kaa2000] Kaaret, P., Prestwich, A.H., Zezas, A., Murray, S.S., Kim, D.-W., Kilgard, R.E., Schlegel, E.M., & Ward, M.J. 2000, MINRAS, 321, L29 [Kal] Kaler, J.B., STARS, http://www.astro.uiuc.edu/ kaler/sow/cygx1.html (web ressource)
[Ker1963] Kerr, R.P. 1963, Phys. Rev. Lett., 11, 237 [Maz2001] Mazur, P.O., & Mottola, E. 2001, gr-qc/0109035 [MTW] [M2000] u [M2004] u Misner, C.W., Thorne, K.S., Wheeler, J.A., Gravitation, 1973 W.H. Freeman and Company Mller, A., 2000, diploma thesis, Emissionslinienprole akkretierender u Scheiben um rotierende Schwarze Lcher, TU Darmstadt o Mller, A., 2004, Ph. D. thesis, Black Hole Astrophysics: Magnetohydrodyu namics on the Kerr Geometry, Rup.-Carola University Heidelberg
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Acknowledgements
Zu aller erst mchte ich mich bei Prof. Dr. Max Camenzind dafr bedanken, dass o u er mir die Mglichkeit gegeben hat, mich mit diesem Thema zu beschftigen. o a Weiterhin danke ich Dr. Christian Fendt dafr, dass er sich noch so kurzfristig u dazu bereit erklrt hat, das zweite Gutachten fr diese Arbeit zu erstellen. a u Der grte Dank gebhrt meinen Eltern, die mich immer untersttzt haben und o u u mir das Studium der Physik ermglicht haben. o Sie haben mich in allen meinen Vorhaben bestrkt und mich gelehrt, dass es immer a lohnenswert ist, sich fr seine Ziele einzusetzen, und dass es wichtig ist, sich nicht u von mglichen Misserfolgen einschchtern zu lassen. o u Meiner Freundin Sabrina mchte ich fr Ihr uneingeschrnktes Vertauen in meine o u a Fhigkeiten danken, und dafr, dass sie es verstand, mit meinen in letzter Zeit a u hugen Launen umzugehen. a Zu guter Letzt will ich noch einen Dank an die Studienkollegen loswerden, die mich seit dem ersten Semester bis heute in Heidelberg begleitet haben. Die lustigen Grillabende, das gemeinsame Aufgaben Rechnen, lange Diskussionen, abendliche Altstadttouren, UB-Prfungslernereien und vieles mehr. . . das sind alles Dinge, die u mich diese tolle Zeit in Heidelberg niemals werden vergessen lassen.
123
Bibliography
124
Erklrung a
Ich versichere, dass ich diese Arbeit selbststndig verfasst und keine anderen als die a angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel benutzt habe.
Heidelberg, den . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..............................

Analysis of Imprints On Light Curves From Kerr Black Holes Due To Time-Dependent Accreting Structures

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Analysis of Imprints On Light Curves From Kerr Black Holes Due To Time-Dependent Accreting Structures

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Faculty of Physics and Astronomy

ix xi 1 1 4 5 5 5 8 12 19 19 20 23 41 42 61 61 68 74 77 78 83 83 90 92 105 107 111

C. 3+1 Split of Spacetime D. Numerical Integration Bibliography Acknowledgements

113 115 119 123

. 81 . 82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 85 86 86 87 87 88 88 89 91 91 94 94 95 95 96 96 97 97 98 98 99 99 100 100 101 101 102 102 103 103 104

Notations and Conventions

(0.4) (0.5) (0.6)

1 pc = 3.2615 ly = 206264.8 AU = 3.0856 10 m

1.1. Historical Background and Motivation

1.2. Thesis Outline

2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background

2.1.1. Black Holes Masses and Evolution

events suciently far away, so the spacetime can be regarded as asymptotically at

2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background

2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background

2.1.2. Accretion Theory and Unied Scheme

2.1.3. Chasing Black Holes

2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background

2.1. Phenomenology of Black Holes

(a) Seyfert I, MCG-6-30-15; ASCA, [Nan1997]

(b) Seyfert I, IC 4329A; ASCA, [Nan1997]

(c) Seyfert I, NGC 3516; ASCA, [Nan1997]

(d) Seyfert I, NGC 3227; ASCA, [Nan1997]

2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations

2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations

2.2.1. Field Equations

This condition expresses the conservation of momentum and energy.

2.2.2. Schwarzschild Metric

(2.18a) (2.18b) (2.18c) (2.18d)

2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations

2.2.3. Kerr Metric

z 1 [r(x dx + y dy) + a(x dy y dx)] dz r2 + a2 r

and the components of the inverse metric tensor g 1/2 0 0 /2 0 /2 0 0 . = 2 0 0 1/ 0 2 2 2 /2 / 0 0 1/

(2.30a) (2.30b) (2.30c) (2.30d) (2.30e) (2.30f)

2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background

2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations

2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background

0 -1,0 -0,5 0,0 0,5 1,0

Kerr parameter a[M]

To solve this, a separation of S in all variables proves to be adequate: 1 S = 2 Et + Lz + Sr (r) + S () 2 (2.41)

a2 2 + (L2 csc2 a2 E 2 ) cos2 + z

= C (L2 csc2 a2 E 2 + a2 2 ) cos2 = z

with the abbreviations P = (r2 + a2 )E aLz ,

= C a2 (2 E 2 ) + L2 csc2 cos2 . z Applying (2.43a,b) to (2.41) gives now 1 S = 2 Et + Lz + 2 R dr + d .

R 4 2 = 4 1 = 2 2aM rE + (2 2M r)Lz csc2

2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations

= (aE sin Lz csc )2 a2 2 cos2 + K

2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background

Figure 2.17.: Far view on nullgeodesics in the Schwarzschild case; rH = rS = 2M .

2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations

Figure 2.18.: Close view on nullgeodesics in the Schwarzschild case.

2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background

2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations

2. Phenomenological and Theoretical Background

2.2. General Relativity and Solutions of Einsteins Field Equations

3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer

3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer

3.1. Structure and Functionality

Usually the mass M will be set to 1.

oat8 GetTotIntensity(): In order to obtain the total intensity detected

I()d, a summation over

3. The Time-dependent Ray-Tracer

3.2. Numerical Integration of the Nullgeodesics