AIB-SE (USA) 2003 Annual Meeting, Clearwater, FL

CHALLENGES IN THE PRACTICE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS ACROSS CULTURES Veronica Diaz, Doctoral Student, Nova Southeastern University
This paper describes the challenges faced in the practice of international public relations across cultures. It provides specific examples of how cultures in Europe, China, New Zealand and Malaysia influence the way public relations is practiced in those countries. This paper reviews trends shaping the future of international public relations. It highlights the importance of education and cross-cultural training in the achievement of success for the international public relations practitioner.

Introduction
The public relations profession plays an important role in the world of international business. From a corporate standpoint, public relations can help companies in the development of positive images for their businesses. It can foster goodwill amongst key audiences, provide crisis management expertise, and coordinate programs and services for government and government agencies as well as the businesses that work with them. From a marketing perspective, public relations should play an important role as part of the marketing strategy. Public relations not only help position the companys brand or product and build brand equity, but also make the entire communications program more effective. Through public relations, the company can identify key audiences and design programs to reach those audiences through publicity and other tactics that go beyond paid advertising. Proactive public relations will support the launch of a new product in an overseas market or help maintain the companys product in the news through positive publicity. Effective public relations can also counteract negative impressions about your product and foster goodwill for the company and towards the companys products. The achievement of such goals by the international public relations practitioners is not without challenges. The successful integration of a company into the business environment of another country or culture, other than the companys home-base, requires a keen understanding of the other cultures and the new business environments. One of the main hurdles to overcome is related to the inter-personal relationships and communications patterns in different countries and cultures, which are key elements at play in the performance of the duties related to the public relations profession. These are all evident within the framework of culture and its influence in the way people behave, communicate, act and react across nations.

The impact of culture in international public relations

Before presenting the findings of the research related to the impact of culture in international public relations and to create the appropriate framework for the analysis, it is important to review the definitions of public relations and publicity, culture at a national and corporate level and cross-cultural communications in an international setting.

Public relations and publicity

Global marketing communications include not only advertising, sales promotion, personal selling, direct marketing communications and Internet and database marketing, but also corporate public relations and marketing public relations. A companys public relations initiative should foster goodwill and understanding among constituents inside and outside the company. Public relations practitioners attempt to generate favorable publicity, a non-paid form of communications. In public relations, publicity is sometimes referred to as earned media, while advertising and promotions are known as unearned media [Keegan 1999]. Public relations professionals also play and important role in neutralizing negative information regarding the company and its products, responding to unflattering reports or controversies that may arise because of the companys activities in different parts of the world.

Definition of culture

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Philip R. Harris and Robert T. Moran [1996] defined culture as the cumulative deposit of knowledge, beliefs, values, religion, customs and mores acquired by a group of people and passed on from generation to generation. Culture impacts behavior, morale and productivity at work and includes values and patterns that influence nations and companies attitudes and actions.

Definition of cross-cultural communications

Cross-cultural communications can be defined as recognizing what is involved in ones image of self and ones role, personal needs, values, standards, expectations, all of which are culturally conditioned [Harris and Moran 1996]. Effective cross-cultural communicators understand the impact of cultural factors on communications, and are willing to revise and expand such images as part of the communications process.

The skill of cultural in-awareness

Additional research regarding public relations across cultures brought me to the studies by Edward T. Hall, often referred to as the founder of intercultural communication. R.H. Zaharna [2001], assistant professor in the School of Communications at American University in Washington, DC, published an article in Public Relations Review that presented Halls description of the problem hidden cultural assumptions play when people step into cross-cultural settings. Hall introduced the concepts of "in-awareness" and "out-of-awareness" to help distinguish between that which is explicit, known or observable in a culture from that which is implicit, unknown and hidden even to members of the culture. The goal of intercultural communication research was to identify culturallymediated phenomena that were "out-awareness" and bring them "in-awareness." By bringing aspects of culture "inawareness," the many distortions and misunderstandings that are present in cross-cultural communication could be explained and even compensated for [Zaharna 2001]. The skill of cultural "in-awareness" developed within the field of intercultural communication is applied to international public relations to understand culture's influence on the communication function of public relations. The goal of the in-awareness approach is to expose hidden cultural assumptions and expectations that are present in international public relations and allow one to explore national and cultural differences between clients and practitioners in a systematic and non-threatening manner. The in-awareness approach presents a three-tiered framework based on a Country Profile, Cultural Profile, and Communication Profile. The Country Profile provides a broad outline of what may be feasible within a particular country, while the cultural profile speaks to what may be effective in that country. The communication profile further refines cultural generalities by delineating culturally-based communication behaviors that underlie common public relations practices [Zaharna 2001]. The "in-awareness" approach highlights the basic features or components of international public relations. Rather than viewing individual public relations practices as a primary activity, each is viewed as a complex set of basic communication and management behaviors. By breaking public relations practices into their basic communication or management components, one can then look for corresponding features of either the Country or Cultural profiles that directly influence a basic component. Once the basic components are identified, it becomes easier and more meaningful to discuss how public relations practices might be affected by culture and how alternative strategies may be devised.

Overview of cultural patterns

Adequate knowledge of language and culture is needed to communicate effectively in any society, but a key to success in the practice of international public relations is the recognition of those cultural patterns and values that shape the cross-cultural communications process. Augustine Ihator [2000], a public relations professor in the School of Journalism and Broadcasting of Western Kentucky University, published an article in Public Relations Quarterly where he described some of the approaches used in contrasting cultural values that may be helpful to the international public relations practitioners. According to Ihator [2000], these cultural values were defined as: 1. individualism versus collectivism, 2. highcontext and low-context communication styles, 3. degree of media independence and cultural impact on media content and channels and 4. orientation to time. 1. Individualism Versus Collectivism - Individuals' desire, aspiration, and perception of their place and role in society are culturally determined. What impresses, inspires and motivates individuals is different in the various human societies. To be successful abroad, international public relations practitioners must recognize that the strong

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belief in rugged individualism is essentially an American trait, which many other societies may not necessarily welcome. 2. High-context and Low-context Communication Styles - Every communication takes place in a social context and in verbal and non-verbal modes. Culture determines which mode - verbal or non-verbal predominates. In a communication transaction where the message sender and receiver come from the same linguistic group and social background, there is more likelihood both would ascribe nearly the same meaning to the message. In some cultures, the message is clearly articulated in the words, while in others, what was said and not said have to be considered to derive any substantive meaning. 3. Degree of Media Independence and Cultural Impact on Media Content and Channels - As the mass media is one of the most important tools of communicating for public relations practitioners, the understanding of the media's role and functions in a culture becomes very important. The political nature of a country also can be used to assess the workings and freedom of its press. The rules that govern domestic mass media and public relations writings have to be carefully reviewed for their validity abroad. In the United States, news reporting and editorial writing are usually separate. In European journalism, for example, one person can report a story and at the same time write an editorial comment on the same subject. Channels of communication and influence also are culturally determined. In a technologically advanced society, with many media channels, high literacy rate, and high standard of living, mass media may be effective in communicating. In some cultures, interpersonal communication may be more successful than mass media because of the high level of illiteracy and lack of many mass media channels. Communication through a third party, such as opinion leaders and molders, elite groups, and significant others, may be more practical and productive 4. Orientation to Time - In the United States and other Western cultures, time is carefully measured and treated like a precious commodity that has to be conserved. Public relations activities in North America follow timetables. The production and distribution of news releases and the organizing of news conferences, among others, have to follow strict timelines. There are no excuses for not meeting mass media deadlines and scheduling. The public relations practice in other countries may not follow a strict time culture. There is no universal meaning of time. Culture plays a part in how time is perceived, defined and used. This recognition may reduce frustration and confusion on the part of the international PR practitioner who has to alter an entrenched Western time habit.

The cultural metaphor

The study of global cultural patterns may also lead to the understanding of what Martin J. Gannon [1994] called cultural metaphors. According to Gannon [1994], cultural metaphor identifies "some phenomenon or activity of a nation's culture that all or most of its members consider to be very important and with which they identify closely. The characteristics of the metaphor then become the basis for describing and understanding the essential features of the society." Some examples given of national metaphors include the Italian opera, German symphony, French wine, Russian ballet, Japanese garden, Spanish bullfight, American football, and Turkish coffeehouse. [Gannon 1994].

Country specific examples

In this paper, I present the findings of my secondary research related to the practice of public relations in four different regions and countries: Europe, China, New Zealand and Malaysia. I selected these examples mainly because they illustrate unique situations and challenges faced by public relations practitioners in regions and countries with different cultures and geographic locations, coupled by the fact that these specific examples refer to nations with different types of government and economic systems, distinctive legal environments, and are in dissimilar stages of economic development.

Europe: A diversity of cultures

With the diversity of cultures that exist in Europe, cultural sensitivity is a concept that guides the development of localized public relations practices. Pan-European practices will not necessarily manage to effectively address the needs of customers in different countries. "In terms of tactics, practitioners targeting programs to more than one country must do broad strategic thinking, and localized technical execution" [Gordon 1991]. In an article published in Public Relations Quarterly, John Burk [1994] noted that another factor to consider when looking toward Europe as a potential international public relations market was the disappearance of the EastWest division. When the article was published in 1994, and even now, Eastern European countries and economies are rapidly changing to meet the demands of a European free market. In particular, Germany, since reunification, has seen growth in its public relations market. Other former Eastern-bloc nations view public relations as key in their conversion to a free-market. The Czech Republic needs public relations to explain the free market transition to its

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people and attract foreign investors. Hungary needs public relations to help shape how it will compete in a free market and to calm the fears domestic industries may have about a free-market [Burk 1994]. Even though these articles are somewhat dated, the issues discussed are still relevant to the international public relations profession. The diversity of cultures in Europe and the distinctive cultural traits of the former Soviet Bloc countries continue to pose unique challenges to international public relations. In general, Europe is representative of globalization, and international public relations practitioners must address what this trend means in terms of implementation of specific public relations initiatives to ensure successful results and an efficient communications of the intended messages to diverse audiences.

China: Dealing with social exchange

The practice of public relations in China also presents very distinctive challenges. First, the concept of public relations is relatively new in Eastern countries like China. Only a small number of U.S. public relation firms have established offices there. By 1997, there were five American public relations firms in Beijing: B&B International Ltd.; Burson-Marsteller Beijing; Edelman Public Relations; Fleishman Hillard Link, Ltd., and Hill and Knowlton. On the frontier of China's new social and economic movement, these firms built a pillar of public relations within the country. Second, not only is language a significant barrier, but culture also stands in the way of smooth assimilation of the practice of public relations. One of the most challenging barriers facing U.S. public relations firms is dealing with China's Guanxi. In an article published in Public Relations Quarterly, Carol Ann Hackley and Qingwen Dong [2001] defined Guanxi as "a strategically constructed network of personal relationships." This Chinese network is close to a private or invisible set of relations. In contrast to American public relations ethics, the Chinese Guanxi, based on often-secret personal ties, may be seen as "payola" or "under-the-table" dealings. Although Guanxi can be loosely translated into "connection," "social networking," or "special interpersonal relationship," the Chinese word also carries the meaning of power, social status and resource transmission. Guanxi, different from simple networking in Western societies, is a unique social and cultural phenomenon deeply rooted in Chinese culture and gradually developed throughout the thousand year-old society, implying a reciprocal relationship. For example, when one person offers a favor to another, the recipient must do an even bigger favor for him/her later. Guanxi is a special kind of social connection, linking two individuals to enable a social interaction and exchange. There is a reciprocal relationship in Guanxi development. "One good turn deserves another" is interpreted to mean that the recipient of the action or favor must return an even greater favor later. In continuing such a relationship, both people will benefit, and if the reciprocal relationship goes on and on, Guanxi between them will be developed [Hackley & Dong 2001]. Based on the review of China's Guanxi and U.S. public relations networking, Hackley & Dong [2001] proposed that the two differ mainly in five dimensions: 1) private vs. public; 2) closed vs. open; 3) invisible vs. visible; 4) interpersonal vs. mass media; 5) friendly ties vs. principle-centered. 1. Private vs. Public - China's Guanxi is a private social network. Through this private channel, people communicate, interact and exchange. The goal for the engaged parties is privately contained, unknown to others, while U.S. public relations networking involves public communication. 2. Closed vs. Open - China's Guanxi-related activities take place under a closed environment. As a result, there is little information available about China's Guanxi. This makes it difficult for those from different cultures and societies to understand and find a way to build up Guanxi. In contrast, U.S. public relations firms adopt an opendoor policy, in synch with open communication, to inform people about what they are doing in order to seek support. 3. Invisible vs. Visible - China's Guanxi is invisible. A Chinese individual can claim that he/she has Guanxi, but it is hard to show to others. However, U.S. public relations networking is visible through various channels, particularly through mass media. 4. Interpersonal vs. Mass Media - China's Guanxi can be translated loosely into "interpersonal relationship." People develop, maintain and enhance Guanxi through interpersonal communication channels. China's Guanxi is barely seen over mass communication channel, while U.S. public relations networking is mass media-oriented. 5. Friendly Ties vs. Principle Centered - China's Guanxi is developed based on people's familiarity, similarity and friendship. Friendly ties become the center for Guanxi development. Guanxi's building up, maintaining and enhancing is based on how well people know each other, and how friendly they are to each other. In contrast, U.S. public relations is highly principle-centered, with the public depending on public relations for information disseminated through the media, and public relations seeking public support.

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New Zealand: Working with Maori publics

The New Zealand example provides a different perspective than those from other countries. The key issue to address while practicing public relations in New Zealand is related to the fact that native or indigenous peoples are becoming key publics. Margie Comrie and Rochelle Kupa [1998] studied public relations practices in New Zealand, as it relates to communications with the indigenous Maori people. The researchers stated that the 1996 census put the Maori population at 14.5% of the nation's total and that the numbers were rising rapidly. As Maori land and asset claims were being settled, tribal trusts were gaining economic power. Furthermore, the proportional representation system that was introduced to the government had increased the impact of Maori votes. Also, the Maori version of the Treaty of Waitangi with its implications for sovereignty and self-determination had gotten legal recognition and was creating an interest from government organizations to partner with Maori people. The Treaty, once fully implemented, was going to pave the way towards biculturalism or the equal co-existence of two cultures, which would have profound implications for the role of professional communicators in New Zealand. In New Zealand, communicators were gradually recognizing they must serve Maori publics better. The director of Mana Media, Derek Fox, has long fought for a "Maori perspective" in the media and for training and employing more Maori communicators. Maori public relations practitioner Damiane Rikihana, who has worked for the state sector as communications manager in the former Ministry of Maori Affairs, for public relations consultants Hill and Knowlton and for a private company specializing in Maori public relations, has witnessed great strides in Maori public relations. Major Treaty settlement matters and the new coalition government in New Zealand have created a high demand for a Maori dimension in public relations. The demand was also fed by big campaigns run by state sector organizations, either targeted at Maori or with a specific Maori element. Comrie and Kupa [1998] further explained that Rikihana and other communicators identify a number of key factors to be considered when dealing with Maori publics. These were in line with mainstream communication theory but stem from knowledge practitioners have of Maori culture. The first was the primacy of face-to-face communications. This reflects the fact that Maori is an oral culture. A visit, for instance, shows much greater courtesy and care than a letter. Written material is secondary to presentations and meetings. Second comes the importance of Maori media for getting messages across. While Maori people watch, listen to and read mainstream media, they distrust them, especially their ability to cover Maori issues. Public radio's Mana News and other Mana Maori Media news radio have high credibility. A third principle is that of early and genuine involvement of Maori publics in the communication process and in the design of any project [Comrie and Kupa 1998]. Comrie and Kupa [1998] stated that the crucial element of any program is cultural sensitivity and knowledge and that a major barrier to communication with Maori people is the unthinking violation of cultural sensitivities. There had been several controversies in New Zealand throughout the years. A major liquor company ran into trouble using the word "mana" in its advertising campaign because the word has special meaning to the Maori. The logo of a major rugby league team also caused offense, as well as the performances of the haka (war dance) at rugby matches. Comrie and Kupa [1998] concluded that by demonstrating that non-Maori communicators working in key government organizations are sensitive to the needs of Maori, also raises the question of whether those who deal with Maori need to be Maori. They also pointed out that practitioners seemed to agree that being Maori is generally helpful but not a guarantee of success. Additionally, Comrie and Kupa [1998] stated that consultancies may be inclined to believe that any Maori employee might do the job. However, when it comes down to cross-cultural communication, there is no substitute for knowledge, sensitivity and empathy.

Malaysia: A thriving public relations practice

Like many other nations, Malaysia is evolving from government-owned public services towards more privatized services. This impacts the practice of public relations in this country. In an article published in Public Relations Review, Maureen Taylor and Michael L. Kent [1999] explained that Malaysia was described as a noteworthy country for the study of international public relations because it illustrates "how professional practices change in response to economic growth, integration of language groups, shifting societal norms, and the expansion of the media along with other communication outlets." Taylor and Kent [1999] further detailed that since its Independence in 1963, the Malaysian government has used public relations for nation building, but that Malaysian public relations was slowly shifting from a preoccupation with nation building to a focus on market development.

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The practice of public relations in Malaysia thrived in the economic boom of the 1990s. Dozens of local, national and international public relations agencies actively serviced the needs of traditional and new businesses. In addition to the growth of public relations agencies, professional development in the field was also growing. In 1999, one professional organization, The Institute of Public Relations Malaysia (IPRM) had an active body with over 400 members [Taylor and Kent 1999]. Public relations practitioners in Malaysia share many common interests and concerns with practitioners in the United States. Like their U.S. counterparts, Malaysian practitioners write news releases, plan communication efforts, work closely with marketing departments, and attempt to garner favorable publicity for their organizations and clients. However, Taylor and Kent [1999] identified some distinct differences in the practice of Malaysian public relations. Perhaps the most significant aspect in public relations in Malaysia, as described in the article, is the relationship between media and government. The media is controlled by the government. In the past, newspapers had lost their licenses when editors or journalists publicly criticized the government. Television and radio stations are also dominated by government demands. The media in Malaysia follows a "development journalism" pattern rather than an "investigative" pattern. That is, journalists report pro-government and pro-business news and are not active in uncovering potentially embarrassing stories. In 1999, the media was slowly becoming privatized, but new media owners were reluctant to challenge the source of their good fortune. Like other nations, placement of positive organizational information in the media is considered important and practitioners equate public relations success with favorable media coverage. Another difference in the practice of Malaysian public relations is the issue of language and cultural identity. Bahasa Malaysia is the official language of the nation, however, there is an active Indian and Chinese press. Language and culture specific media outlets represent unique challenges to PR practitioners, especially when they need to communicate to ethnic outlets outside of their own ethnic group [Taylor and Kent 1999]. In Malaysia, advertisers follow a code of conduct set by the Advertising Standards Authority that monitors advertisements for adherence to social, religious, and cultural criteria. Advertisements that do not adhere to these guidelines are not approved. Another important factor that influences public relations practice is the level of activism in Malaysian society. Consumerism in still new in Malaysia. Consumers are generally passive and citizens have little or no history of picketing corporations, boycotting products, or attempting to influence organizational behavior. This lack of activism makes the practice of public relations less crisis driven than in Western cultures because the Malaysian public does not actively question organizational policy. Organizations in Malaysia do not yet need to expend scarce resources communicating with the general public. Organizations do need to expend resources to communicate with government officials. Minimal power by the media, cultural and linguistic conditions, and the lack of activism in the general Malaysian public have all led to the emergence of government as a more important target of public relations communication. As the economic and social status of the nation changes, government becomes the target of most public relations efforts, rather than the source of them. In Malaysia, close relationships with government officials and bureaucrats can help organizations "win lucrative projects" and is considered "the secret of corporate success." [Taylor & Kent 1999].

Other challenges in the international public relations profession

As previously discussed, the international public relations industry and its practitioners need to communicate effectively across nations and cultures. Additionally, we must keep in mind that the globalization of businesses has created needs that go beyond the standard level of proficiency and expertise required from public relations practitioners operating in their own domestic markets. In order to effectively communicate, international public relations professionals need to identify, study and understand the world view, mindsets, and habits of their global publics. In the article written by Maureen Taylor and Michael L. Kent [Public Relations Review 1999], the authors cited James E. Grunig as suggesting that the field of public relations should carefully examine its assumptions to understand where the field currently is, and more importantly, where the field is going and that one way to understand the similarities and differences in international practices is to compare the assumptions underlying each nation's practice of public relations. J. Grunig suggests that one of the assumptions to be challenged is the notion that the practice of public relations focuses on a variety of key publics - shareholders, employees, suppliers, activists, the media, and consumers. In

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many developing nations, it is the government officials rather than the general public who are most important to public relations practitioners. If government is the most important public for organizations in developing nations then this relationship will influence the practice of public relations [Taylor & Kent 1999]. Another distinguished academic and researcher in the field of international public relations is Larissa A. Grunig. In the article by Taylor and Kent [1999], the authors stated that L. Grunig challenged the concept of identifying the different publics at an international level. She defined publics as groups of two or more individuals who organize to influence others. Public relations research suggests that active publics can affect organizations and their missions. The assumption behind these positions, that publics, composed of regular citizens, actually have and can exert power to influence the fate of organizations, may hold true in the United States and other Western nations where there is a history and tolerance of activism but not necessarily in other countries. Multiple publics may be an important part of public relations communication in the developed world; but in the developing world, specific publics such as journalists and government officials may actually be more important publics. On the other hand, in other nations, government officials and bureaucrats make important decisions about licenses, contracts, and business permits. Those who control access to scarce material resources may actually be the key public for practitioners in the developing world. Although government has always been included in discussions about public relations, it is the issue management literature that most clearly identifies government as an important public to be watched and analyzed. The issue management literature shows that government can be a key public for practitioners. Moreover, the relationship between public relations practitioners and government officials will be partly determined by the social, political, and economic development of a particular nation.

Trends shaping the future of international public relations

In some developing countries, specialized media is emerging. Public relations professionals now have to become experts in specific industries and products much more than in the past. Practitioners face the additional challenges of interacting with journalists that may be extremely knowledgeable about specific industries, technologies and products. This represents an opportunity and an advantage for those public relations professionals working inside the corporation, since they will have an understanding of their own industry, their competitors and their products that will facilitate the interaction with the specialized journalists. But, for public relations professionals working on the public relations agency side, they will now have to focus more on the specialty areas and forgo of some of the generalist approaches formerly used to reach traditional business or consumer media outlets. From the marketing perspective, this trend shows a positive evolution. With specialized media, marketers can now design a much more focused marketing plan and have access to media outlets with the ideal platform and established interest to cover stories that are more specific to the marketers industry. The news would be covered by journalists that will craft media stories with more in-depth knowledge and creative angles and specifically reach publics that may be more closely related to the marketers own pre-identified target market.

Education and cross-cultural training for international public relations

Considering that the public relations professional must deal with cultural issues that may determine their degree of success in any given international assignment, it is important to evaluate the different options available to the practitioners to further enhance their education in this area. Cross-cultural training should be included as part of the requirements when preparing to work in other countries or with other cultures, even in those cases where the practitioner is based locally but works with international subsidiaries or serves clients that are outside of the homecountry. In an article published in Public Relations Quarterly, John Burk [1994] stated that one goal of cross-cultural training should be to try and reduce ethnocentrism, which happens when people react to cultural differences by using their own ethnic group (an in-group) as the standard and judge others favorably if they are like in-group members and unfavorably if they are not. Ethnocentrism can be very important to consider when communicating inter-culturally. An ethnocentric awareness can heighten the perception of subjectivity in viewing those from another culture and help in recognizing culturally held values. Burk [1994] pointed out that cultural biases can be made aware of within a cross-cultural training (CCT) environment.

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In the article, Burk [1994] mentions that multicultural development is a three-stage process: awareness, knowledge, and skill. Multicultural awareness ensures the trainee is making an appropriate assessment of attitudes, opinions, and assumptions about the target culture. The knowledge stage ensures that the trainee has the right "facts" and enough information to survive in a multicultural environment. The skill stage has the trainees practice interacting with members of the target culture to test and implement the first two stages and to hone their intercultural communication ability. With the increasing role of international public relations and its link to the success of business for multinational corporations, international public relations practitioners must be trained as culturally sensitive boundary spanners. Traditionally, the emphasis of public relations educations has been on media relations, since most practitioners make the transition from journalism into public relations. Nonetheless, some universities have public relations courses as part of the business administration curriculum, but mostly as an elective course under a business major specialized in marketing. Business students, while interested in the concept, don't yet see public relations as the two-way communication process between an organization and publics that public relations professionals strive for. One key issue to address is that in the United States, there are very few academic programs that offer an international public relations specialization. The lack of an internationally focused public relations curriculum is representative of the status of United States public relations as a whole, which is characterized by having no global perspective. In 1980, the U.S. had the world's top five public relations agencies and New York City was the public relations capital of the world. In 1990, the U.S. only had one top five public relations agency and London became the public relations capital of the world [Farinelli 1990]. The British are on the cutting edge of integrating public relations into global planning. The United States is lagging behind the events that are happening around the world of international public relations. Even as U.S. companies try to shift to an international focus they are finding their public relations staff ill-equipped for the job. In an article published in Public Relations Journal, J. Farinelli [1990] suggested that many U.S. public relations staffs are "lacking the background, the understanding, even the interest necessary to be truly effective". Training may be able to fill the gap that U.S. companies are experiencing. Specifically, cross-cultural skills are crucial to an international public relations employee. Future success in the global marketplace will depend upon how well local publics can be targeted. Effective targeting will depend upon how well the dedicated boundary spanners (the public relations personnel) of the organization influence the image that the external public has of the organization [Burk 1994].

Areas for further research

It would be relevant to conduct further research in various countries with different types of government and economic systems, distinctive legal environments and in dissimilar stages of economic development in order to define the type of activities performed by the professionals identified as public relations practitioners in those countries. It would be interesting to explore to what extend these activities vary depending on the level of sophistication and development experienced by the public relations industry in the specific country. I would venture to suggest that the role of the public relations practitioner may be characterized as managerial and strategic in scope in those organizations and countries where the public relations practice covers all aspects of corporate communications, media relations, public affairs and government relations. On the other hand, the emphasis of the technician role may be more prevalent in the organizations and countries where public relations work is measured quantitatively and is publicity-oriented.

Conclusion
There has always been a symbiotic relationship between business expansion and the need for public relations. Every business has to find ways to effectively communicate and interact with its various stakeholders. With the expanding international business and publics, such interaction becomes more complex and involved. Public relations functions therefore become more challenging. In addition to the usual professional skills, the knowledge of world cultures, languages, customs, ways of conducting business and international public relations strategies and techniques have become an integral part of the public relations functions. With time, the role of public relations in business at the international level, may prove to be more crucial and pivotal to support the strategic goals of a company than in the case of domestic markets. Such importance is based on the fact that the knowledge, skills and expertise that are a basic requirement for successful performance in the

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public relations profession tend to be the critical skills required for the successful execution of any international business venture in any country and in any industry. Public relations campaigns in the future will be more global than regional. Those who aspire to succeed in the international public relations and marketing field will not only need to have the expertise related to the profession but also be knowledgeable of the new communications technologies as well as the differences in languages and customs in the countries where they need to operate. The future of international public relations offers great possibilities to public relations professionals. International business competition in the future will depend on being able to convince investors, stockholders and consumers to buy products. International public relations practitioners play a major role in the achievement of these goals. Therefore, practitioners must have access to cross-cultural training and an extensive education on specific countries and cultures. This is an important requirement for those multinational corporations that expect to introduce new products in international markets through successful marketing and public relations campaigns, achieve market leadership and establish a long-term presence in foreign countries.

References
Burk, John, 1994. International Public Relations Training NMC Employees as Culturally Sensitive Boundary Spanners, Public Relations Quarterly, (Summer 1994, v39 i2 p. 40), Public Relations Quarterly. Comrie, Margie & Kupa, Rochelle, 1998. Communicating with Maori: Can Public Relations Become Bicultural?, Public Relations Quarterly, (Winter 1998, v43 i4 p. 42), Public Relations Quarterly. Farinelli, J., 1990. Needed: A New U.S. Perspective on Global Relations, Public Relations Journal, (v46, p. 1819) Gannon, Martin J., 1994. Understanding Global Cultures: Metaphorical Journeys Through 17 Countries (p. 7, 19316), Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage Publications. Gordon, J., 1991. Getting a Slice of the Europie, Public Relations Journal, (v47, p. 13) Hackley, Carol Ann & Dong, Quingwen, 2001. American Public Relations Networking Encounters Chinas Guanxi, Public Relations Quarterly, (Summer 2001, v46 i2 p. 16-19), Public Relations Quarterly. Harris, Philip R. & Moran, Robert T., 1996. Leadership in Globalization, Managing Cultural Differences (4th ed), (Chapter 1, p. 9-11), Houston, TX:Gulf Publishing Company. Harris, Philip R. & Moran, Robert T., 1996. Leadership in Global Communications, Managing Cultural Differences (4th ed), (Chapter 2, p. 24), Houston, TX:Gulf Publishing Company. Ihator, Augustine, 2000. Understanding the Cultural Patterns of the World--An Imperative in Implementing Strategic International PR Programs, Public Relations Quarterly, (Winter 2000, v45 i4 p. 38-44), Public Relations Quarterly. Keegan, Warren J., 1999. Public Relations and Publicity, Global Marketing Management (6th ed), (Chapter 16, p. 477-482), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Taylor, Maureen & Kent, Michael L., 1999. Challenging Assumptions of International Public Relations: When Government is the Most Important Public, Public Relations Review, (Summer 1999, v25 i2 p. 131), JAI Press, Inc. Zaharna, R.S., 2001. In-Awareness Approach to International Public Relations, Public Relations Review, (Summer 2001, v27 i2 p. 135), JAI Press, Inc.

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