Exams Biology

Darren Miler

Genetics Section 4.1 The Nature of Heredity: Asexual and sexual reproduction only Define the following terms: heredity: the process of traits being passed from parents to offspring genetics: study of heredity gene: segment of DNA that provides the instructions for the building and regulation of a functional molecule in the cell cell cycle: pattern of cell growth and division; interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis interphase: growth, performance of function, duplication of DNA g1 phase: preparation for duplication of DNA s phase: duplication of DNA

m phase: division of cell

g2 phase: preparation for division of cell mitosis / meiosis: division of DNA cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm, organelles, cell membrane DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid function: contains genetic information of cell location: nucleus composition: AKA base sub-units (A, T, G, C) structure: molecule with two strands and a double helix shape connection: A -> T, G -> C chromatin: DNA in uncondensed form during interphase chromosome: DNA in condensed form during prophase, metaphase of mitosis chromatid: DNA in condensed form in half during anaphase of mitosis centromere: midpoint of chromatids forming chromosome locus: the location within a chromosome where a gene is found spindle apparatus: move and arrange DNA during mitosis; centrosome + spindle fibre centrosome: structure helping to form spindle fibre spindle fibre: structure facilitating movement of DNA tetrad: aligned homologous chromosomes synapse: alignment of homologous chromosomes somatic cell: non-reproductive cell; contain 46 chromosomes diploid: containing all the chromosomes gamete cell: reproductive cell; contain 23 chromosomes haploid: containing half the chromosomes zygote: result of a gamete fertilizing an ovum autosomes: the 22 non sexual human chromosomes sex chromosome: the 23rd sexual human chromosome

asexual reproduction: the production of offspring from a single parent, resulting in offspring with identical genetic makeup as the parent; advantages include the fact that the parent cell does not have to seek a mate, does not have to form specialized mating techniques, and does not have to possess reproductive organs sexual reproduction: the production of offspring from the fusion of two sex cells, resulting in offspring with a different genetic makeup then the parent; advantages include the insurance of diversity, and disadvantages include mating techniques which attract predators

Section 4.2 Asexual Reproduction: Copies and Clones: Mitosis cloning mitosis: division of DNA in asexual cell prophase: i. chromatin -> chromosomes ii. nuclear membrane, nucleus break down iii. spindle fibres form from centrosomes at poles iv. chromosomes attach to the spindle fibres by the centromeres metaphase: i. chromosomes align along equator anaphase: i. centromeres divide ii. spindle fibres separate chromatids towards opposite poles telophase: i. chromatid -> chromatin ii. nuclear membrane, nucleus reform iii. cell membrane begins to divide iv. spindle fibres break down Section 4.3 Sexual Reproduction: Adding Variety: Meiosis gametogenesis meiosis: division of DNA in sexual cell prophase1: i. chromatin -> chromosomes ii. homologous chromosomes synapse, exchange DNA iii. nuclear membrane, nucleus break down iv. spindle fibres form from centrosomes at poles v. chromosomes attach to the spindle fibres by the centromeres metaphase1: i. homologous chromosomes align beside each other along equator anaphase1: i. spindle fibres separate homologous chromosomes towards opposite poles telophase1: i. cell membrane begins to divide ii. spindle fibres break down [cytokinesis1]: i. cytoplasm, organelles divide ii. cell membrane divides prophase2: i. spindle fibres reform ii. chromosomes reattach to spindle fibres via centromeres

metaphase2: i. chromosomes align beneath each other along equator anaphase2: i. spindle fibres separate chromatids towards opposite poles telophase2: i. cell membrane begins to divide ii. spindle fibres break down iii. chromatid -> chromatin iv. nuclear membrane reforms Section 4.4 Abnormal Meiosis and/or Fertilization: Know what non-disjunction is and how/when it occurs remainder of the section Define the following terms: monosomy: the presence of one chromosome disomy: the presence of two chromosomes trisomy: is the presence of three chromosomes tetrasomy: the presence of four chromosomes What is non-disjunction? Non-disjunction describes a mistake during meiosis wherein homologous pairs or sister chromatids fail to separate during anaphase, causing the gametes to possess either too few or too many chromosomes. Section 5.1 Mendelian Inheritance: Know the entire section to the extent covered in class Test crosses Bloodline theory? Define the following terms: allele: one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome. dominant allele: the allele for which the phenotype is observed in heterozygous individuals; indicated by a big letter placed first in the genotype recessive allele: the allele for which the phenotype is not observed in heterozygous individuals; indicated by a small letter placed second in the genotype genotype: the genetic makeup of an individual phenotype: the part of an individuals genetic makeup which is expressed in his or her traits homozygous: an individual that carries two of the same alleles for a given characteristic heterozygous: an individual that carries two different alleles for a given characteristic Describe the method of Gregor Mendel that led him to develop Mendelian Inheritance, and explain any specifics. Gregor Mendel crossed organisms to analyze patterns of gene transmittance. He used pea plants because these possess many traits with two specific forms, i.e. tall or short, smooth or rough seeds, purple or white leaves, etc, which allowed Mendel to see clearly how traits appear and disappear in progeny; in other words, by using definite characteristics, he could clearly track inherited traits. What control did Mendel introduce into his experiments? Mendel used purebred pea plants. A purebred plant is produced by crossing progeny over and over until the results consistently demonstrate the same characteristic, firmly establishing the fact that the recessive alleles have been eliminated. Describe Mendels crosses. In Mendels first cross, a tall pea plant (TT) was crossed with a short (tt) to produce four tall offspring (Tt.) In Mendels second cross, the tall plants (Tt) produced three tall plants and one short plant (TT, Tt, Tt and tt.) Describe the relevant terminology to Mendelian crosses.

P, F1, F2 The generations of crosses, starting from the original and descending into the crosses of the subsequent offspring. What laws did Mendel propose based on his crosses? 1. Mendels Law of Segregation: (a) Organisms inherit two copies of genes, one from each parent and (b) Organisms donate only one copy of each gene to their gametes because the genes separate during gene formation 2. Mendels Law of Independent Assortment: When considering multiple traits, every trait segregates completely independent of every other trait, i.e. the segregation of alleles for a specific gene have no impact on the segregation of alleles for a different gene. Section 5.2 Variations in Heredity Entire section What is incomplete dominance? Incomplete dominance is a situation where the dominant allele is only partially dominant over the recessive allele. If a trait has a dominant and a recessive allele assigned to it, the dominant allele might influence seventy five percent of the phenotype while the recessive allele might influence twenty five percent of the phenotype. What is co-dominance? Co-domionance is a situation where the dominant allele is not at all dominant over the recessive allele. If a trait has a dominant and a recessive allele assigned to it, the dominant will influence fifty percent of the phenotype while the recessive allele will also influence fifty percent of the phenotype. Section 5.3 Pedigrees Tracking Inheritance: Sex-linkage only Pedigrees What is sex linkage? Linkage is the presence of two or more genes at the same chromosome. This influences the likelihood of a particular trait being present given the presence of a given particular trait. What is recombination? Recombination is the change in the arrangement of linked genes due to crossing over in Prophase 1, whereby genes that were formerly linked are now found on separate chromosomes. How is the distance between one gene and the next measured? The distance between one allele and the next is measured in units known as centimorgans. How do rates of recombination differ based on how closely linked genes are to one another? Genes closer together on the chromosome are less likely to undergo recombination because the area at which the gene could crossover to result in recombination is much smaller, and therefore much less mathematically probable. Section 5.5 Genetic Disorders Section 5.7 Multi-trait Inheritance Entire Section What is the difference between a monohybrid and a dihybrid cross? A monohybrid cross is a cross that involves one gene while a dihybrid cross is a cross that involves two genes. Evolution Section 7.1 Biological Change Over Time: Mutations only What is a mutation? A mutation is a change in the genomic sequence of the DNA or of the RNA; occurs 1/10 000 cell divisions. What causes a mutation? 1) Exposure to external stimuli, e.g. radiation or carcinogen 2) Error during copying of DNA What is fitness? Fitness is the likelihood of an organism to reproduce. How are mutations and fitness connected?

A beneficial mutation increases an organisms fitness, a harmful mutation decreases an organisms fitness, and a neutral mutation has no effect on an organisms fitness. Section 7.2 The Evolution of an Idea Section 7.4 The Evidence for Evolution Know this section to the extent covered in class What is evolution? Evolution is the process in which significant changes in the inheritable characteristics of a species occur over time. How is evolution observed? Evolution is observed through fossils. Transitional fossils are fossils of organisms that show links between groups. What is a fossil? A fossil is a preserved remain or trace of on organism or its activity, including fossilized bones, footprints, dung or plants. What is a permineralized fossil? A permineralized fossil is a fossil upon which crystals are found. These fossils form in aqueous environments, and as the fossils form, salts crystallize out on the fossil. How do fossils form?

1) The organism dies 2) The organism is covered by sand and sediment 3) Heat and pressure on the specimen convert the bone into stone 4) Wind and precipitation reveal the fossils at the surface 5) Paleontologists find the fossils What are two methods of fossil dating? 1) Stratigraphic dating 2) Radiometric dating What is Stratigraphic dating? Stratigraphic dating is a method of providing the relative age of a specimen based on the layer of ground in which it is found. It works on the premise that fossils in deeper layers of rock are older than fossils in more shallow layers. What is Radiometric dating? Radiometric dating is a method of providing the absolute age (in years) of a specimen. It works on a number of premises. Firstly, it is understood radioisotopes (unstable forms of an element which give off neutrons to become more stable) decay at a constant rate. Secondly, it is understood it the half-life (time it takes for half of the sample to decay) takes 5730 years. Describe an example of Radiometric dating. Since the ratio between C-14, the parent isotope, and N-14, and daughter isotope, is known, it is possible to look at an organism and find the ratio of C-14, extrapolate what the ratio of N-14 should be, compare this to the actual presence of C-14, and thereby calculate the age of the specimen. When a specimen is 100% 14C, it is entirely UNSTABLE. When a specimen is 50% 14C, and 50% 14N, it is on its way to becoming STABLE. # of Half Lives Proportion C14/N14 Time Passed 0 100% C14/0%N14 0 1 50% C14/ 50% N14 5730 2 25% C14/ 75% N14 11460 3 12.5% C14/87.5% N14 17190
Section 7.5 On the Origin of Species Know this section to the extent covered in class What were the trends that led to Charles Darwins Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection?

1) Individuals within a species vary in many ways. 2) Some of this variability can be inherited. 3) Every generation produces far more offspring that can survive and pass on their variations. 4) Populations of species tend to remain stable in size. Describe the observations and corresponding hypotheses that Darwin made. 1) Biogeography Observation: Darwin observed the impacts of biogeography, which is the analysis of the geographic distribution of organisms. He noticed that the geographic proximity of a species had a larger impact on to another had a larger impact on its similarity than a common environment. Hypothesis: Similarity between species is due to the fact that all of these species are derived from a small number of ancestral species. 2) Homologous and Analogous Features Observation: Darwin observed that some organisms possessed homologous features, which are features that have a similar structure to those of other organisms. An example of this type of trait is the vertebrate forelimb shared by whales, cats, horses, birds and humans. Meanwhile, other organisms possessed analogous features, which are features that have a similar function to those of other organisms. An example of this type of feature is the wings of doves and butterflies. Hypothesis: Organisms with homologous features likely share a more recent common ancestor than organisms with analogous features. 3) Vestigial Features Observation: Darwin observed that certain organisms had features that had no useful purpose but were homologous to fully functioning structures in related species. An example is the hipbone in the whale. Hypothesis: Vestigial features are the remnants of an ancestor species for whom the feature was useful but which is no longer useful and which evolution has yet to remove. 4) Artificial Selection and Evolution Observation: Darwin observed that all species possess inherited variations that can be selected to change the species in desirable ways. Examples include pigeons and dogs. Hypothesis: Certain circumstances can bring about the selection of one potential trait over another potential trait through natural mechanisms. Section 7.6 The Modern Theory of Evolution Section 8.1 Natural Selection Know this section to the extent covered in class What is microevolution? Microevolution is a small scale evolutionary process that causes changes in the genotypes and corresponding phenotypes within a species. On what level does selection act? Selection acts on the level of the phenotype, because only the alleles that produce beneficial phenotypes and therefore enhance the fitness of an individual will be selected for. What are the four patterns of selection? 1. Stabilizing Selection for the most common variations of a trait. This is caused when the species is well adapted to its environment, and the selection pressure maintains the more common phenotypes because it is advantageous for survival. 2. Directional Selection for the less common variations of a trait. This is caused when the species moves to a new environment, and the selection pressure causes an adaptation towards the less common phenotype because it is advantageous for survival. 3. Disruptive

Selection for the variations at either extreme of a trait. This is caused when species move to a new environment, and the selection pressure causes adaptation towards variants at both extremes because it is advantageous for survival. 4. Sexual Selection for the variations of a trait that influence the mating success of the species. What does sexual selection lead to? Sexual selection leads to sexual dimorphism, or differences in physical appearance between males and females. Explain how evolution can be considered a compromise among selective pressures. A certain trait can be beneficial in one regard, and therefore it will be selected four under one pattern of selection, even though it is harmful according to the standards of another pattern. One example is the feathers of peacocks, which attract mates but also attract predators. Which pattern of selection is responsible for evolution? The pattern of directional selection is chiefly responsible for evolution since it is the one that directs species towards adaptations which they did not previously possess. Incidentally, disruptive selection could also lead to evolution, but this would only be true where the variants at either extreme being selected for also represent directional selection in that they are less common than the traits not being selected for. What is the mechanism that underlies evolution? Cumulative selection is the mechanism that underlies evolution, and it is defined as the accumulation of many small evolutionary changes over time which results in significant new adaptations relative to the ancestral species. For example, this is the mechanism that explains the evolution of the eye, which likely evolved from a light sensitive cell, to a light sensitive pit, to a pin hole eye, and finally, to a lens based eye. Describe how evolution can have an affect not only within a species but also between species. Evolution can promote evolutionary relationships between species. For example, plants likely evolved sticky pollen in order to attract insects which could then disperse it with a greater degree of accuracy than the wind can. Meanwhile, the insects benefit from this arrangement since there now exist a greater number of food sources for them. Thus, evolution has benefited both species simultaneously. What is altruism? Altruism is a relationship between organisms in which one directly benefits much more than the other. An example are bee colonies in which the females help the queen bee reproduce rather than reproducing themselves so that the alleles within the hive are more consistent which promotes cooperation of the colony. This arrangement is better for the bees in general, but not for many of the individual bees that are involved. What is kin selection? Kin selection is the natural selection of a trait of one individual which enhances the success of closely related individuals. For example, an animal that sacrifices itself for its offspring makes its ability to reproduce impossible, however, the chances of its alleles being passed on through the child are now greater. Section 8.2 Speciation Know this section to the extent covered in class What is macroevolution? Macroevolution is a large scale evolutionary process that causes changes in the genotypes and corresponding phenotypes between species, i.e. that leads to the production of new genera or even taxa. What is a species? A species is any group of organisms able to interbreed under normal conditions. What is speciation?

Speciation is the formation of completely new species through progressive microevolution. As enough change happens, organisms are separated through reproductive isolation and become new species. What is one method of differentiating species? Species can often be differentiated based on physical characteristics as well. For example, four finches with four different beaks are four different species. What is another method of differentiating species? Species can be differentiated by their reproductive isolating mechanisms, which are the behavioral, structural or biochemical traits that prevent members of different species from reproducing. What are the types of reproductive isolation mechanisms? 1) Prezygotic, i.e. preventing mating or fertilization 1. Behavioural isolation difference in mating rituals 2. Ecological isolation geographical or habitat isolation 3. Temporal isolation breeding seasons do not match 4. Gametic isolation chemical markers on sex cells are unrecognizable 5. Mechanical isolation sexual organs are incompatible 2) Postzygotic, i.e. preventing development of a zygote into a healthy adult 1. Zygotic mortality fertilized zygotes from separate species do not reach maturity 2. Hybrid inviability hybrid offspring are born but die early 3. Hybrid Infertility hybrid offspring are born and reach adulthood but are infertile What are the two forms of speciation? 1. Allopatric Speciation: Populations are genetically the same but become geographically separated from one another leading to speciation 2. Sympatric Speciation: Populations remain in the same location but become genetically isolated through mutation leading to speciation What is genetic drift? How does it differ from normal selection? Genetic drift is changes in allele frequency due to chance as opposed to selection. It differs from normal selection in that the changes are not due to advantages provided by a particular phenotype either for survival or for fitness, but is related to external factors instead. What are three types of genetic drift? 1. The Bottleneck Effect: Events (e.g. a catastrophe, hunting) result in a random, drastic reduction in population size, leading to significant changes in relative allele frequency Example: The elephant seal. Excessive hunting caused complete homozygosity i.e. all have the same genotype. 2. The Founder Effect: A few individuals from a larger population leave to establish a new population, leading to significant changes in relative allele frequency. Example: The Amish community. 30 people from Switzerland generated the entire Amish community. 3. Gene Flow: Migration of organisms between populations, leading to significant changes in relative allele frequency in both populations. Example: Prairie dogs. Prairie dogs move between populations every summer. This reduces the difference between the populations, but increases the difference within the populations. Section 8.3 Patterns of Evolution Section 8.5 Macroevolution: Know gradualism and punctuated equilibrium only What problems are there with the Theory of Evolution? One of the main problems with the Theory of Evolution is the gaps in the fossil record. What explanations exist for this gap? 1) Darwin suggested that the fossils existed but had not yet been found. 2) Gould and Eldredge suggested that the fossils never existed due to the fact that the species were created during period of rapid change and didnt have time to fossilize.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

What is the official name of Darwins theory? His theory is known as the Theory of Gradualism, the idea being that changes accumulate over long period of time that result in the formation of new species. What is the official name of Gould and Eldredges theory? Their theory is known as the Theory of Punctuated Equilibrium, the idea being that evolution generally takes place at a constant rate but is occasionally interrupted by rapid change. Diversity of Living Things Section 1.1 Biodiversity An Introduction Section 1.2: The Nature of Classification: Taxonomy, Carl Linnaeus and binomial nomenclature, Classification and the kingdoms of life, Dichotomous keys What is the biosphere? The biosphere is a 16 kilometer thick layer of soil, water and air surrounding the earth in which all of life an estimated 30-100 million species live. To date, only 1.75 million have been discovered. What is taxonomy, and why do we use it? Taxonomy is the organization of the diversity of life. We use it to make sense of the diversity of species present on earth. What types of classification have been used historically? What were the problems? 1. Classification by Habitat, i.e. land / water / air (Aristotle) 2. Classification by Potential for Harm, i.e. harm / superfluous (St. Augustine) 3. Classification by Material Produced, i.e. fruit / vegetables / wood (Herbalists) The fundamental flaw to all of these approaches was that they were either too broad or alternatively did not cover the entire range of possibilities, and so there were a ton of exceptions! What system of taxonomy do we use today? Today we use the Linnaean system produced by Carl Linnaeus. It is organized into seven taxons, or types of groups. It is advantageous because it is much more dynamic, in that it starts with broad categories and gradually moves towards the specifics so as to reflect the rich diversity of life. In other words, it incorporates an expedient system of groups within groups. What is the system of naming in taxonomy? Taxonomy is based on binomial nomenclature, i.e. the organism is identified by its genus and species. For example, Homo sapiens refers to the genus Homo and the species sapiens. (Note: Only the genus is capitalized, and the entire term must either be italicized or underlined). How are organisms classified? Organisms are classified using dichotomous keys. This is a binary selection scheme for grouping organisms. It places organism into groups by including two choices for each characteristic; often they take the form of a question with either a yes or no answer. Go through the Linnaean system. mnemonic: King Philip Cleans Oranges Fast, Gene Spoke! 1. Kingdom mnemonic: Aunt Platyss Fun Principal Elates Archie Animalia Plantae Fungi Protista Eubacteria Archaebacteria 2. Phylum 3. Class 4. Order 5. Family

Genus Species Section 1.3: Phylogeny and Modern Taxonomy, Phylogeny, Phylogenetic trees and clades What is phylogeny? Phylogeny is the science that deals with the evolutionary relationships between and among species. What is evidence of common ancestry? 1. Similar Stages of Development, for example pigs, fish and humans 2. Similar Anatomical Structure (Homology), for example whale, cat, horse and human forearms 3. Similar DNA Sequence, for example human, mouse and rat RB1 genes What is a phylogenetic tree? A phylogenetic tree is a visual depiction, or summary, of the evolutionary relationships between species. How does the tree work? The close to the trunk a species is, the older it is. Branch points within a tree represent points where ancestors led to the development of new species. A clade is a grouping of species within a phylogenetic tree which includes the ancestor and all of its descendants. Section 1.4 Kingdoms and Domains: Overview of kingdoms only Provide an overview of the kingdoms:
6. 7.
Kingdom Animalia Size Euk / Pro Eukaryo tic Eukaryo tic Eukaryo tic Eukaryo tic Prokary otic Prokary otic Multi / Single cell Multi Multi Both Both Single Single Hetero / Autotrophic Hetero Auto Hetero Both Both Both Sexual / asexual Both Both Both Both Asexual Asexual Examples humans mosses mushrooms, moulds, yeasts amoeba, algae E coli, salmonella thermophiles, methanogens Aquatic digestive tracts Environments (for most) Terrestrial / Aquatic Terrestrial Terrestrial Aquatic

1 200 000 Plantae 250 000 Fungi 100 000 Protista 100 000 Eubacteria 10 000 Archaebacteria 400

Section 2.1 The Prokaryotes: Eubacteria and Archaea: Know everything regarding eubacteria and archae What is the difference between archaebacteria and eubacteria? Archaebacteria 1) are the oldest form of life on earth and 2) live in the most extreme environments, for example extreme heat, extreme cold, high salt and 3) these bacteria are the ones least commonly associated with disease. Eubacteria 1) are more recent forms of life on earth and 2) live in less extreme environments and 3) these bacteria are the ones most commonly associated with disease. How are bacteria classified? In two ways, 1) by cell shape and 2) through gram staining 1) Cell shape: a) Cocci spheres i) Monococci ii) Diplococci iii) Streptococci iv) Staphylococci b) Bacilli rods

i) Diplobacilli ii) Streptobacilli c) Spirillum spirals note: close up, these spirals are made of rectangular cells 2) Gram staining: a solution made up of crystal violet and iodine which stains the cell walls of the bacteria a) Gram Positive Bacteria: the bacteria absorbs the stain and becomes purple b) Gram Negative Bacteria: the bacteriadoes not absorb as much of the stain and remains pink note: these tend to be more infectious types of bacteria, e.g. bacterium causing meningitis Describe the functions of the parts of a bacterium. Pili: latch on to other organisms Flagella: facilitate movement Capsule: prevent other organisms from latching o Plasmid: contains genetic information How do bacteria receive nutrition? Archaebacteria can eat almost anything and do not require classification. Eubacteria cannot eat anything and do require classification. Eubacteria are separated into 1) autotrophs and 2) heterotrophs. 1) Autotrophs: organisms capable of producing their own food a) Photoautorophs: uses light energy to make its own food (example: photosynthetic bacteria: photosynthesis takes place on membranes in the cytoplasm) b) Chemoautotrophs: uses chemical energy to produce food (example: bacteria that consumes oil) 2) Heterotrophs: organisms that obtain food from external sources a) Chemoheterotrophs: break down organic matter in their environment to obtain food and produce energy What are the requirements for oxygen for different bacteria? 1) Obligate aerobes: require oxygen to convert food to energy 2) Obligate anaerobes: must be in an environment without oxygen to convert food to energy 3) Facultative Anaerobes: can produce energy from food with or without oxygen Describe the process of bacterial reproduction. Binary fission (asexual): division of parent cell into two genetically identical daughter cells

Conjugation (sexual): bacterial cell passes a copy of a plasmid to a nearby cell through a pilus

Transformation: bacterial cell takes in an uses pieces of DNA from its environment that have been released by dying DNA How do bacteria protect themselves when the cell is under stress? The bacteria will produce an endospore, a highly resistant and dormant structure that forms around the chromosome and protects it from damage

Describe the carbon cycle and the role bacteria play in it. 1) Organic molecules (ex. glucose) are produced by plants and some bacteria 2) Larger organisms consume organic molecules 3) Larger organisms die 4) Bacteria convert the carbon in the organism back into carbon dioxide 5) Plants use carbon dioxide to perform photosynthesis and produce organic molecules What is the importance of bacteria? 1) Bacteria decompose dead organisms and recycle energy back into the environment 2) Bacteria contain enzymes which breaks food into molecules 3) Bacteria that are beneficial to ones health can fight those which are harmful Classify archae by their environments. Thermophiles live in heat, Halophiles live in salt, Methanophiles live in gas, Psychrophiles live in extreme cold. Section 2.2 Viruses Viroids and Prions What is a virus? A virus is a non-cell particle made up of genetic material surrounded by a capsid i.e. a protein court. Are viruses alive? To live, an organism must: 1) reproduce independently of all others cells 2) respire i.e. break down glucose into energy) 3) metabolize energy. Since viruses do not engage in any of these activities they are not considered alive. Classify viruses. 1) DNA viruses: DNA is their genetic material 2) RNA viruses: RNA is their genetic material 3) Retroviruses: RNA is their genetic material How do viruses reproduce? Viruses reproduce by inserting their genetic material into a host cell and hijacking the biological machinery in order to make more viruses. Describe the method of reproduction for DNA viruses. 1) Lytic phase: leads to the death of the host cell a) virus attaches to host cell using the tail fibres and injects its DNA through the tail b) host DNA is destroyed and viral DNA uses cell machinery to make more viral DNA, protein coats, tails and fibres c) viral components are assembled into new viruses d) cell wall + membrane of bacterium break down and new viruses are released 2) Lysogenic phase: does not lead to the death of the host cell [harsher conditions] a) virus attaches to host cell using the tail fibres and injects its DNA through the tail b) viral DNA is inserted into host cells DNA Describe the method of reproduction for RNA viruses. a) virus attaches to host cell using the tail fibres and injects its RNA through the tail b) viral RNA uses cell machinery to make more RNA, protein coats, tails and fibres c) viral components are assembled into new viruses d) cell wall + membrane of bacterium break down and new viruses are released Describe the method of reproduction for retroviruses. a) virus attaches to host cell using the tail fibres and injects its RNA through the tail b) viral RNA converts into DNA c) viral DNA is inserted into host cells DNA d) viral components are assembled into new viruses

e) cell wall + membrane of bacterium break down and new viruses are released Section 3.1 The Fungi: Know all of fungi to the extent covered in class Do I have enough? Classify the fungi kingdom: 1) Zygomycota: use sporangium to make spores 2) Ascomycota: use ascus to make spores, e.g. moulds and mildew 3) Basidiomycota: use basidium (fruiting bodies) to make spores, e.g. mushrooms and puffballs Define the terms hyphae, chitin, stolon, rhizoid, sporangium, condia
Chitin: complex chemical found in cell walls of fungi that make it rigid

Hypha: thin filaments that grow off the fungus; stolons and rhizoids Stolons: grow on the surface of food Rhizoids: grow inside food absorbing sugar and water Sporangium: structure of a zygomycota within which diploid spores are produced; these are carried away
by the wind to develop into new fungi; Condia: Chains of diploid spores which are formed at the end of the hyphae in the ascomycota How do fungi receive nutrition?

Fungi eat via endocytosis, the taking in of matter by a living cell through invagination of its membrane to form a vacuole. Mycelium increase the surface area for digestion. Describe the general process for fungi reproduction. 1) Bacteria is dikaryotic (two separate nuclei) 2) Nuclei fuse to form diploid zygote 3) Zygote undergoes meioses to produce four haploid spores 4) Spores nucleus replicates to form hyphae 5) Hyphae from different cells fuse to produce dikaryotic mycelium 6) Mycellium grows into mature adult Describe the importance of fungi. 1) Yeast ferments beer and wine 2) Penicillin 3) Decomposeres 4) Mychorrizia protect plants from diseases 5) Lichens protect green algae and nourishes water Describe the growth and reproduction (ideal and harsh conditions) of the different classes of fungi.

Growth Zyg.
Produce stolons and rhyzoids

Reproduction Ideal (asexual)

Harsh (sexual)

Produce sporangium Produce hyphae of different mating types to produce dormant zygospore Hyphae of different mating types form. These fuse, either from the same fungus or from different fungi, to produce a diploid zygospore, which remains dormant until better conditions arise.

Asc.
Produce condia. Produce stolons Produce ascus. Ascus: haploid spores which are carried by the wind and fuse with spores of opposite mating types

Bas.
Produce fruiting bodies Hyphae grow underground in wet or damp conditions and push up through the soil to form the fruiting body, a spore producing structure The cap of the mushroom is the site of spore reproduction. Inside each basidium (sheets of tissue) are 1000s of haploid spores which are blown away by the wind to form a haploid mycelia (network). Mycelia of opposite mating types meet to form a diploid mycelia. All cells have two nuclei, which fuse to form a new fruiting body.

Section 3.2 The Plants: Know general characteristics, Alternation of generations, Nonvascular vs. Vascular categories of plants What is alternation of generations? Alternation of generations is the lifecycle of plants. A sporophyte (diploid stage) undergoes meiosis to produce asexual spores (haploid stage.) The spores grow into gametophytes which mature and produce gametes. Gametes undergo fertilization to form diploid zygotes. These grow into sporophytes.

Distinguish between vascular and non vascular plants. Vascular plants have conducting tissue for transport of nutrients and non vascular plants do not. Distinguish between the different types of vascular plants. Gymnopserms are vascular plants that produce seeds in cones and are fertilized by the wind. Angiosperms are plants that produce flowers and are fertilized by plants. Identify the reproductive structures in plants Pollen contains the male gametes, ovules contain the female gametes, and seeds are the finished zygote. What is a type of vascular plant? Trachophytes are vascular plants. They have oxylem and phloem. What is a type of non vascular plant?

Bryophytes (mosses) are non-vascular plants. They lack roots, stems and leaves. Section 3.3 The Animals: Know all of animals to the extent covered in class How can animals be classified? Animals can be classified into vertebrates and invertebrates, or those having or not having a backbone, respectively. What two phylums have we studied in this kingdom? 1) Poriphera (sponges) and 2) Cnidaria (jellyfish) Describe characteristics of the sponge.
water current

1) Mostly marine 2) Sessile (does not move) What role does the water current play in the sponge? 1) The water carries food into the sponge. 2) The water carries oxygen into, and carbon dioxide out of, the sponge. How does the sponge reproduce? Reproduction

Ideal (asexual)
Budding

Harsh (sexual)
Sponges are hermaphrodites (produce egg and sperm.) Water currents carry the egg and sperm to other egg and sperm to be fertilized.

Describe characteristics of the jellyfish 1) Radially symmetrical

Describe the reproduction of the jellyfish. Reproduction

Ideal (asexual)
Polyp stage

Harsh (sexual)
Meduca stage

Animals: Structure and Function Describe the constitution of organisms. Organisms are made of organ systems which are made of organs which are made of tissues which are made of cells. Describe the chemical process of cellular respiration. C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H20 Section 9.3 Introducing Digestion: Know this section to the extent covered in class; Section 9.4 Digestion in the Mouth and Stomach: Know this section to the extent covered in class;

Section 9.5 Digestion in the Small and Large Intestines: Know this section to the extent covered in class, Accessory organs What is the function of the digestive system? The function of the digestive system is to extract nutrients from food. This takes place through: 1) mechanical digestion, the shredding, grinding and tearing of food; 2) chemical digestion, the breaking down of food by enzymes and other chemical compounds; and 3) absorption, the transfer of nutrients from the digestive tract into the bloodstream. What four processes are involved in the digestive system? Ingestion: taking in the food. Digestion: breaking down the food Absorption: transferring nutrients to cells Egestion: excreting waste What is the central component of the digestive system? The central component of the digestive system is the digestive tract, a long tube from mouth to anus which is present in most forms of life. What structures does food pass through in the digestive tract? 1) Oral cavity 2) Pharynx 3) Esophagus 4) Stomach 5) Small intestine 6) Large intestine 7) Anus Describe the structure and function of the parts in the digestive tract. 1) Oral cavity: Mouth and all its components i) teeth: tear up food into small pieces; (incisors and canines cut, premolars and molars grind) ii) tongue: manipulates and directs food towards the teeth; iii) lips: aid in the dismantling of food; iv) saliva: contains an enzyme to breakdown starch known as amylase. 2) Pharynx: Tube connecting the mouth to the esophagus which receives bolus that has passed over the epiglottis, a flap of skin which covers the trachea as food is passing by 3) Esophagus: Muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach which transports food through peristalsis, a process of coordinated contraction of muscles in a part of the esophagus through which the bolus has already passed, and the relaxation of muscles in a part of the esophagus where the bolus has not yet reached 4) Stomach: J-shaped reservoir of food featuring two rings of muscle on either end, comprised of: i) Cardiac sphincter (Lower esophageal sphincter): Regulates flow of food from the esophagus into the stomach, and prevents backflow of food into the esophagus

internal components
ii) Pyloric sphincter: Regulates flow of food from stomach to small intestine iii) Ruguae: Folds of tissue which allow for expansion of stomach as needed iv) Digestive acids and enzymes: Break down food v) Hydrochloric acid: Sterilizes upper digestive tract, and kills invading microbes, and activates pepsin vi) Pepsin: Enzyme which breaks down protein 5) Small intestine: The site of absorption of nutrients, comprised of:

i) Duodenum: Fingers of tissue coated with villi and microvilli that provide a surface area for the absorption of nutrients ii) Jejunum: Major site of digestion and chemical absorption which is covered with villi iii) Ileum: Tubular structure with villi that continue absorption of nutrients from food 6) Large intestine: The secondary site for absorption of nutrients, comprised of: i) Caecum: Receives chyme from small intestine and continues absorbing nutrients ii) Colon: Reabsorbs water and vitamins. 7) Rectum and Anus: End of digestive tract and opening where wastes are removed from the body What component of the mouth officially initiates digestion? The saliva initiates digestion. What is food called after it has been processed in the mouth? At this point food is called bolus, which denotes food in its broken down state. The mouth breaks food down into bolus because it is much easier to swallow. What is food called after it has been processed in the stomach? At this point food is called chime, which denotes a liquefied paste of nutrients. Why are the small intestine and the large intestine so called? It is called the small intestine because its diameter is small, not its length. By contrast, the large intestine is large in diameter but is not as large in length. Section 9.6 Nausea, Vomiting and Diarrhea Section 10.1 The Need for a Respiratory System: Know this section to the extent covered in class Section 10.2 Respiratory Structures and Processes: Know this section to the extent covered in class Get diagrams Describe the parts of the respiratory system. 1) Mouth: Brings air into the body 2) Nose: Brings air into the body after moistening and warming it 3) Pharynx: Tube connecting mouth and nose to larynx 4) Larynx (voice box): Tube structure between the pharynx and the trachea responsible for vocalizations 5) Trachea: Tube connecting larynx to the lungs, supported by thick rings or cartilage to support and prevent collapse 6) Bronchi: Tubes that subdivide off the trachea 7) Bronchioles: Tubes that subdivide off the bronchi 8) Alveoli: Small sacs at the end of the bronchioles that are the site of gas exchange, as O2 diffuses from the air inside the alveoli into the bloodstream and CO2 diffuses from the bloodstream into the air inside the alveoli, in order to balance the concentration of gases Section 10.3 Transport and Diffusion of Gases Section 10.4 Interference with Gas Exchange: Know this section to the extent covered in class Section 10.5 Lung Transplants and Other Technologies Section 11.1 The Need for a Circulatory System: Types of circulatory systems Know the remainder of the section to the extent covered in class Section 11.2 Blood: A Fluid Tissue Know this section to the extent covered in class Section 11.3 Blood Vessels Know this section to the extent covered in class Section 11.4 The Cardiac Cycle and Circulation Know this section to the extent covered in class Describe the components of the circulatory system: 1) Heart

i) Right and left atriums: Receive blood ii) Right and left ventricles: Deliver blood iii) Endocardium: Epithelial tissue providing smooth surface for blood flow iv) Myocardium: Muscle tissue allowing for contraction v) Nervous tissue: Receives signals to control heart rate vi) Connective tissue: Protects and encases heart vii) Breastbone: Protects heart from font viii) Spine: Protects heart from behind 2) Veins: Carry blood to the heart 3) Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart. Get diagrams. 4) Blood: i) Plasma: In total 55% of bloods constitution, made of 90% water, 10% salt, proteins and hormones ii) Red blood cell (erythrocyte): In total 45% of bloods constitution, produced in bone marrow, stored in spleen and carries oxygen to tissues via haemoglobin; possesses a biconcave shape to maximize surface area for oxygen transfer and to allow for easy flow through blood vessels iii) White blood cell (leukocyte): In total less than 1% of bloods constitution, fights infection; possesses an anamoeboid shape. iiia) B-cells: Recognize invaders iiib) Macrophages: Kill invaders iv) Platelets (thrombocytes): Clot blood Describe the phases of circulation. 1) Pulmonary circuit i) Deoxygenated blood enters right atrium ii) Blood flows from right atrium to right ventricle through right atriovetricular (tricuspid) valve, which prevents the backflow of deoxygenated blood into the atrium. iii) Blood is passed from right ventricle through pulmonary semilunar valve to the two pulmonary arteries which carry it to the lungs iv) Blood travels through lung capillaries and becomes oxygenated v) Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium of the heart through four pulmonary veins vi) Blood enters the left ventricle through the left atrioventricular (bicuspid) valce 2) Systemic circuit i) Oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle through the aortic semilunar valve and enters the aorta ii) Aorta brances into smaller vessels and transports the blood to the whole body iii) Desoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium of the heart, brought from the upper body by superior vena cava and from the lower body by the inferior vena cava Section 11.5 Coronary Artery Disease Section 11.6 Imaging: Looking Through the Body