Chapter8Water
WATERANDSALTREQUIREMENTS
PainfulthirsthasbeenexperiencedbyveryfewAmericans.Wetakeforgrantedthatwewillalwayshaveenoughwatertodrink.Mostofusthinkof"foodandwater;'inthatorder,whenwethinkofsurvivalessentialsthatshouldbestored.Butifunpreparedcitizenswereconfinedinashelterbyheavyfallout,theysoonwouldrealizethattheyshouldhavegivenfirstprioritytostoringadequatewater.Forthekidneystoeliminatewasteproductseffectively,theaveragepersonneedstodrinkenoughwatersothatheurinatesatleastonepinteachday.(Whenwaterisnotlimited,mostpeopledrinkenoughtourinate2pints.Additionalwaterislostinperspiration,exhaledbreath,andexcrement.)Undercoolconditions,apersoncouldsurviveforweekson3pintsofwateraday-ifheeatsbutlittlefoodandifthatfoodislowinprotein.Coolconditions,however,wouldbetheexceptionincrowdedbelowgroundsheltersoccupiedformanydays.Undersuchcircumstancesfourorfivequartsofdrinkingwaterperdayareessentialinveryhotweather,withnoneallowedforwashing.Foratwo-weekshelterstay,15gallonsperpersonshouldbestoredinorclosetoashelter.Thisamountusuallywouldprovideforsomewaterremainingaftertwoweeks,topreventthirstincasefalloutdangersweretocontinue.
In
a1962Navyshelteroccupancytestlastingtwoweeks,99sailorseachconsumedanaverageof2.4quarts(2.3liters)ofwaterper
day."
ThetestwasconductedinAugustnearWashington,D.C.;theweatherwasunseasonablycool.Theshelterwasnotair-conditionedexceptduringthelasttwodaysofthetest.
.
;
Whenoneissweatingheavilyandnoteatingsaltyfood,saltdeficiencysymptoms-especiallycramping-arelikelytodevelopwithinafewdays.Topreventthis,6or8gramsofsalt(about1/4oz,or1/2tablespoon)shouldbeconsumeddailyinfoodanddrink.
If
littleornofoodiseaten,thissmalldailysaltrationshouldbeaddedtodrinkingwater.Underhotconditions,alittlesaltmakeswatertastebetter.
CARRYINGWATER
Mostfamilieshaveonlyafewlargecontainersthatcouldbeusedforcarryingwatertoashelterandstoringitinadequateamountsforseveralweeks.Polyethylenetrashbagsmakepracticalexpedientwatercontainerswhenusedaswaterproofliners
inside
smallerfabricbagsorpillowcases.(Plasticbagslabeledasbeingtreatedwithinsecticidesorodor-controllingchemicalsshouldnotbeused.)Figure8.1showsateenageboycarryingover10gallons(morethan80pounds)ofwater,wellbalancedfrontandbackforefficientpacking.Eachofhistwoburlapbagsislinedwithtwo20-gallonpolyethylenetrashbags,oneinsidetheother.(Toavoidpossiblepinholeleakageitisbesttoputonewaterproofbaginsideanother.)Tocloseaplasticbagofwatersothathardlyanywillleakout,firstspreadthetopofthebaguntilthetwoinnersidesoftheopeningaretogether.Thenfoldinthecentersothatthefoldedopeningis4thicknesses,andsmooth(seeFig.8.2).Continuesmoothlyfoldinginthemiddleuntilthewholefolded-upopeningis.onlyabout11/2incheswide.Thenfoldthetopofthebagoveronitselfsothefolded-upopeningpointsdown.Withastripofclothorasoftcord,bindandtiethefolded-overpartwithabowknot,asillustrated.55
56Fig.8.1.Carrying80poundsofwaterintwoburlapbags,eachlinedwithtwolargerplastictrashbags,oneinsidetheother.
QRNL-DWG78-7106
Fig.8.2.Foldingandtyingthemouthofawater-filledplasticbag.Forlonghikes,itisbesttotiethewater-holdingplasticbagssothattheopeningsarehigherthanthewaterlevelsinside.Totransportthistypeofexpedientwaterbaginavehicle,tiearopearoundthefabricouterbagnearitsopening,sothattheropealsoencirclesandholdstheplasticliner-bagsjustbelowtheirtied-shutopenings.Theotherendofthisropeshouldthenbetiedtosomesupport,tokeeptheopeningshigherthanthewaterlevel.Tousetwofabricbagsorpillowcasestocarryaheavyloadofwatercontainedin
larger
plasticliner-bags,connectthetwofabricbagsasshowninFig.8.1.Asmallpebble,alumpofearth,orasimilarobjectshouldbetiedinsidetheopeningofeachbagbeforethetwoaretiedtogether,toholdthemsecurely.Thebagthatistobecarriedinfrontshouldhavethepebbletiedabout4inchesfurtherdownfromtheedgeofitsopeningthanthepebbletiedinthebagtobecarriedinback.Thiskeepsthepebblesfrombeingpressedagainstthecarrier'sshoulderbyaheavyload.Apairoftrouserswithbothlegstiedshutatthebottomscanbeusedtocarryabalancedloadifpillowcasesorotherfabricbagsarenotathand.Suchabalancedloadcanbeslungovertheshoulderwiththebodyerectandlessstrainedthanifthesameweightwerecarriedinasinglebag-likepackontheback.However,trouserlegsarequitenarrowanddonotprovideroomtocarrymorethanafewgallons.Topreventwaterfromslowlyleakingthroughthetied-shutopeningsofplasticbags,thewaterlevelsinsideshouldbekeptbelowtheopenings.
STORINGWATER
Whenstoringexpedientwaterbagsinashelter,thewaterlevelsinsideshouldbekeptbelowtheopenings.Notmanyexpedientshelterswouldbelargeenoughtostoreanadequatevolumeofwaterforanoccupancylastingtwoormoreweeks.Plastic-linedstoragepits,dugintheearthclosetotheshelter,aredependableforstoringlargevolumesofwaterusingcheap,.compactmaterials.Figure8.3showsacylindricalwater-storagepitdugsoastohaveadiameterabouttwoinchessmallerthantheinflated
ORNL-DWG77-I0423R(18in.DIAMIFFULLYEXPANDED)'DOUBLEBAGSAREBETTER.
Fig.8.3.Verticalsectionofcylindricalwater-storagepitlinedwithtwo30-gallonwaterproofplasticbags.Thispitheldabout20gallons.
diameterofthetwo30-gallonpolyethylenetrashbagsliningit(onebaginsidetheother).Beforeaplasticbagisplacedinsuchapit,theendsofrootsshouldbecutoffflushtothewallwithasharpknife,andsharprocksshouldbecarefullyremoved.Thebestwaytokeeptheupperedgesofthepit-liningbagsfromslippingintothepitisshowninFig.8.3:Makeacircularwirehoopthesizeoftheopeningofthebag,andtapeitinsidethetop.Infirmground,theupperedgesofdoublebagshavebeensatisfactorilyheldinplacesimplybystickingsixlargenailsthroughtheturned-underedgesofthebagsandintothefirmearth.Figure8.3showshowtoroofandcoverawaterstoragepitsoastoprotectthewater.The"buriedroof"ofwaterproofmaterialpreventsanycontami-nationofthestoredwaterbydownward-percolatingrainwater,whichcouldcontainbacteriaorsmallamountsofradioactivesubstancesfromfallout.Thethickearthcoverovertheflexibleroofinggivesexcellentblastprotection,duetotheeartharchingthatdevelopsunderblastpressure.InalargeDefenseNuclearAgencyblasttest,afilledwater-storagepitofthesizeillustratedwasundamagedbyblasteffectsatanoverpressurerangewhichcoulddemolishthestrongestabovegroundbuildings(53psi).AsimplerwaytostorewaterisillustratedinFig.8.4.
If
thesoilissounstablethatanunshoredwaterstoragepitwithverticalsidescannotbedug,theopeningofthebag(orofonebagplacedinsideanother)cansimplybetiedshutsoastominimizeleakage(seeFig.8,4).Fillthebagwithwater,tieit,andplaceitinthepit.Thenburyitwithearthtothelevelofthewaterinside.Adisadvantageofthismethodisleakagethroughthetied-shutopeningsduetopressureoflooseearthonthebag.Tolessenleakage,leaveanairspacebetweenthefilledbagandaroofingofboardorsticks,sothattheweightofearthpiledontopoftheroofingwillnotsqueezethebag.Thisstoragemethodhasanotherdisadvantage:'aftertheearthcoveringandtheroofareremoved,itisdifficulttobailoutthewaterforuse-becauseaswaterisbailedout,theloosesurroundingearthmovesinwardandsqueezesthebagabovetheloweredwaterlevel.Largevolumesofwatercanbestoredinplastic-linedrectangularpits.Inordertoroofthemwithwidelyavailablematerialssuchasordinary
3/4
-inchplywoodorsmallpoles,thepitsshouldbedugnowiderthan3feet.Figure8.5picturessuchapit:8feet57Fig.8.4.Thesetwo30-gallonpolyethylenetrashbags,oneinsidetheother,held16gallonsofwater.Theywereundamagedby50-psiblasteffectswhileburiedindry,verylightsoil.Theplywoodroofandtheearthplacedoverthewaterbagwereremovedbeforethispicturewastaken.Fig.8.5.Post-blastviewofplastic-linedwater-storagepitundamagedata6.7-psioverpressurerange.Thispitheldabout200gallons.long,27incheswide,and30inchesdeep.ItwaslinedwithalO-foot-widesheetof4-milpolyethylene.Theedgesofthisplasticsheetwereheldinplacebyplacingtheminshallowtrenchesdugnearthesidesofthepitandcoveringthemwithearth.Earthwas
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