Annie Nixon Political Science 106 - final review Turkey Mustafa Kamal Ataturk- father of the turks - War

hero from WWI, one of the only successful military commanders from the war. He wanted to gain independence from foreign troops who were trying to split the country up. (Successful at keeping French and British at bay) -He brought religion under control of the state. Ataturks 6 arrows - (1920-1938) 1.) Turkish Nationalism - initiated a comprehensive program to Turkisize country, moved capital from Istanbul to Ankara, abandoned links with Arab world, abolished Arabic script and introduced Roman script in its place, no recognition of ethnic minorities. 2.) Secularism - abolished religious authority - all references to religion were deleted from new constitution. Religious schools were closed and secular education established. Islamic law was discarded and a secular legal system was put in place. Religious land was nationalized and there was a variety of symbolic changes including a new lunar/solar calendar and Sunday was the day of rest instead of Friday. 3.) Republicanism - grand national assembly was established and there was universal suffrage (men 1924, women 1934) 4.)Populism - strong rhetoric of peoples progress and equality for all? 5.)Etatism (ISI economics - more successful than Mex.) - State to play important role in economic development State provides leadership and investment capital for heavy industry and the State protects domestic industry through protections against foreign competition. 6.) Reformism - modernization and westernization Sykes-Picot Agreement - Post-war division of the Ottoman Empire - 1916. France: Syria and Lebanon, Britain: Iraq, Jordan, Palestine Kurdistan Workers Party - (PKK) - Founded by Abdullah Ocalan (leftist separatist group) They initiated an insurgency in Southeast Turkey in 1984. They struggled against the military for control of Kurdish villages. Over 3,000 villages were completely or partially de-populated and hundreds of thousands of Kurdish villagers were displaced among shanty towns throughout Turkey. (Est. 30,000 deaths) -Abdullah Ocalan was captured and sentenced to death in 1999. -Now considered a terrorist organization. Abdullah Ocalan - captured and sentenced to death in 1999, still in jail. Because Turkey wants to join the EU, they had to reform capital punishment laws. ? AK party - (Erdogan) - Gained power in elections of 2003. Centrality of economic issues, salience of the third way, and multiplicity of actors involved in the November 2002 election suggests insight to AKPs vitory (Onis and Keyman, 99). Emphasize democracy, economic recovery, protection of individual rights and freedoms. Synthesis of conservative and liberal elements - 3 main principles. 1) postdevelopmental state that is democratic, transparent, and accountable to society. 2.) A market closely regulated enough to keep it honest and prevent destructive side effects, but with free space from enterprise, innovation and investment. 3.) Social justice. China Mao Zedong (1949-1976) - CCP came to power because of reputation of being a party of social reformers and patriotic fighters. A massive land reform campaign redistributed property from the rich to the poor and increased productivity in the countryside, successful drives eliminated opium addiction and prostitution from th cities, and a national law enhanced legal status of women to free themselves from arranged marriages. Although they used violence, they gained considerable legitimacy. Between 1953 and 1857 the PRC implemented a Soviet-style five year economic plan - complete nationalization of industry and collectivization of agriculture were steps moving away from mixed state-private economy of the early 1950s and toward socialism. He launched the Great Leap Forward (see below.) An industrial depression soon followed the collapse of agcriculture, causing a terrible setback to Chinas economic development.. He put Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi in charge of efforts to revive the economy, but by the mid 1960's he concluded that their policies were threatening his revolutionary goals for China by setting the country on the road to capitalism. He acted

and created the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), an ideological crusade designed to jolt China back toward his vision of socialism. His methods were even more violent than the Great Leap Forward and its main objective was the political purification of the party and nation through struggle against class enemies, not accelerated economic development. - Purged anyone he thought guilty of revisionism...or betrayal of Marxist-Leninism thought. He died in 1876, and the gang of four were arrested which marked the end of the Cultural Revolution that claimed a million lives. Great Leap Forward - (1958-1960) - Mao Zedongs attempt to rapidly industrialize China. Kesselman - A utopian effort to accelerate the countrys economic development by relying on the labor and willpower of the masses while also propelling china into a radically egalitarian era or true communism. -Farms collectivized into 24,000 communes -each commune planned as a self-sufficient community for agriculture, small scale local industry, schooling and administration (about 22,00 people each) -Para-military types of organizations (communal kitchen for food, communal nursery for babies, dormitories) -Huge disaster - 20-30 million deaths...so much pressure to contribute to the state, and so much fear that people went along with local officials. -Production goals were unrealistic which left nothing for the communes resulting in starvation. (Movie) - Communes took more and more grain based on false figures, leaving peasants with nothing. Each peasant thought only their village was starving...largest famine in history. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) - located strategically, getting capital from Taiwan and Hong Kong, and Cheap Labor from China. Attracts multi-nationals, great potential for economic growth. -Foreign direct investment grew throughout the 90's (Kesselman 641) - China is now the worlds largest absorber of foreign direct investment, and more than 400 of the worlds 500 top corporations have operations in the PRC. Low cost of labor is a major attraction to foreign firms (60 cents/hr.) Many of the foreign ventures are located in SEZs set aside by the gov. to attract overseas investors through incentives such as tax breaks, modern infrastructure, and the promise of less bureaucratic red tape. The SEZs are growing even faster than the Chinese economy and have becomes hotbeds of speculation, corruption and crime. One Child Policy - since the 1980's couples who agreed to have one child were given a certificate for a longer maternity leave, tax benefits, better child care facilities, and priority for schools and housing. Population growth has decreased to a rate of 1%/year instead of 2.7%/year in 1970. However, there is a growth disparity that has resulted in the birth of more boys because some families aborted pregnancy if they found out their only child was going to be a girl. Among farming families there is still the widespread belief that make children will contribute more economically to a family and they think that a male heir is necessary to carry on the family line. Chinese gov. has relaxed policies somewhat, but sex-selective abortion is still done. Rural couples are now allowed to have 2 children, but in the cities the policy is still basically in effect. Danwei System - Although China has loosed up politically since the days of Mao Zedong, the party-states control mechanisms still penetrate to the basic levels of society and serve the CCPs aim of preventing the formation of groups or movements that could challenge its authority. The major means of control used by the party-state in urban China, (danwei) is complex and in the cities, almost everyone belongs to a unit, usually their place of work, and the danwei is the center of economic, social and political life for most urban residents. The unit holds meeting to discuss the official line on important policies or events while the personnel department of units keeps a political dossier (collection of documents about a person) on every employee. If a person changes jobs, which often can only be done with danweis permissions, the dossier moves too. The unit has acted as a check on political dissidents. As Chinese society continues to change because of the impact of economic reform, these control mechanisms are weakening. Communication, increasing labor and residential mobility, and the growth of private enterprises are making it harder for the party-state to monitor citizens as closely as it has in the past Totalitarianism - (Mao Zedong) - dictatorship - communism single dominant party, utopian ideology (classless society), state control over all public and private activity (even in the family - no area off limits), mobilized participation (fear), popular fear instilled by state repression. (Kesselman 668) - describes a system in which the ruling party prohibits all forms of meaningful political opposition and dissent, insists on obedience to a single state-determined ideology, and enforces its rule through coercion and terror. Such regimes seek to bring all spheres of public activity (including economy and culture) and even many parts of its citizens private lives (including reproduction) under the total control of the party-state in the effort to modernize the country and transform human nature. CCP appears to be trying to save communist rule in China by

abandoning or at least moderating many pf its totalitarian features. The CCP has relaxed its grip on many areas of life and the PRC has evolved from a Maoist totalitarianism toward a less intrusive, but still dictatorial consultive authoritarian regime that increasingly recognizes the need to obtain information, advice and support from key sectors of the population. Household Responsibility System - (kesselman 636) - After Mao, local leaders looked to boost production so they moved to curtail the powers of the commune and allow peasants more leeway in planting and selling their crops. The communes were replaced by this household responsibility system that remains in effect today. Under this system, farmland is contracted out to individual families who take full charge of the production and marketing of crops. Families can sign contracts for thirty years or more, but there has been no move to privatize agriculture fully by selling land to individuals. The freeing of the rural economy from the constraints of the communal system led to a sharp increase in agricultural productivity and income for farm families. Iran Ayatollah Khomeini - 1962, he, along with most other clerical leaders denounced the Shahs revolution. He was the focal point for Irani protesting and was forced into exile. While in Iraq he developed his own version of Shii populism by incorporating socioeconomic grievances into sermons denouncing the shah and whole ruling class. Returning home in the midst of the Iranian Revolution he was declared the Supreme Leader and the Founder of the Islamic Republic. (Theocracy) Mohammad Khatemi - Kicked off reform movement of the 1990's. There was a political crisis due to the end of the Iran-Iraq war (1988) the death of Khemeini (1988) and economic turmoil. The reformers were: students and intellectuals, the youth (right to vote at 15 years of age), women, and reformers within the religious establishment. -Khatemi was well known in government and had a reform agenda in mind. He gained overwhelming support (69%) and this was the first sign that Iranians wanted reform.(didnt throw weight on various groups) -The reformers advocated 1.) Strengthened personal rights and freedoms, 2.) Reduced role for the clergy and Irans political system, 3.) Improved Western-Iranian relations. 1997-2004 Institutional deadlock b/w conservatives and reformers. The Third Wave - Factors allowing democratization - lack of political rights, economic growth and decline, church, fulfilling political goals, illegitimacy . Single Member District System -candidates compete for seats at district level with one seat per district. They must win plurality in district for a seat (not majority) -Candidates take moderate/leftist platform to avoid controversial issues, run on personality -Tend to be dominates by two major parties -Voters afraid to waste votes on third party candidates - people strategize - if they want to vote for Nader, but they know he wont win...they vote for Kerry instead so Bush doesnt get it. -voting on the lesser of two evils...no third party emerges. -disproportional results - manufactured majorities - winner takes all is unrepresentative -Low voter turnout -Coalition building before -Government tends to be more stable, and legitimate. Demonstration effect - (huntington 100) Successful democratization happens in one country and this encourages democratization in other countries, either because they seem to face similar problems, or because successful democratization elsewhere suggests that democratization might be a cure for their problems. What did they demonstrate? First they demonstrated the ability of leaders and groups to bring about the end of an authoritarian system and install a democratic system. Second demonstration effects showed how it could be done. Third, the later democracies also learned about dangers to be avoided and difficulties to overcome. Effects on third wave: First, demonstration effects were much more important in the third wave than the first two waves of democratization because of the expansion in global communications and transportation after ww2. Second, while intensified communications made distant effects seems relevant, demonstration effects were still strongest among countries that were geographically proximate and culturally similar. Thirdly, the change over time in the relative importance of the causes of a democratization wave is an important aspect of the demonstration effect. The demonstration effect obviously cannot affect the first democratization

Questions 1.) What are some factors leading to a rise of a reform movement in Iranian politics in the 1990's? Broadly speaking, what are the goals of the reformers? Which groups in Iranian society were most supportive of the reform movement? There were a number of ideological factions in post-revolutionary Iran (1982-1989) that led to the emergence of the Iranian Reform movement. Social conservatives wanted limited role of state in the economy, an adherence to a strict interpretation of Islamic norms and traditions culturally, and a moderate foreign policy with the west. On the contrary, the political radicals wanted radical state intervention in the economy to promote social justice on behalf of the poor, more lenient attitude towards cultural norms, and no cooperation with the west, particularly the US. (Khomeni in the middle managing debates b/w two branches). The emergence of the Iranian reform movement in the 1990's were rooted in a political crisis due to the end of the Iran-Iraq war (1988) the death of Khemeini (1988) and economic turmoil. (Decline in oil princes, drain from war, international isolation, demographic pressures, and 1982 the world was hit hard financially.) Many were unsatisfied with social constraints. In 1996, 45% of the population was b/w the ages of 0-14 in Iran. The reformers were: students and intellectuals, the youth (right to vote at 15 years of age and 85% of Iranians were born after the revolution), women, and reformers within the religious establishment. -Khatemi was well known in government and had a reform agenda in mind. He gained overwhelming support (69%) and this was the first sign that Iranians wanted reform.(didnt throw weight on various groups) -The reformers advocated 1.) Strengthened personal rights and freedoms, 2.) Reduced role for the clergy and Irans political system, 3.) Improved Western-Iranian relations. 1997-2004 Institutional deadlock b/w conservatives and reformers. 2.) As compared to Nigeria, Mexico, or Iran, has the Turkish military played a different role in Turkish politics? Have they been more benevolent? Has the role of the military as the self-appointed protectors of Turkish democracy and secularism been a blessing or a curse? In Turkey, the military is self-appointed defenders of secularism or democracy have been both a blessing and a curse. They have intervened when the system was dysfunctional, but it has been a problem for the consolidation of a democracy (kurds) (interventions in 1960-61, 1971-73, and 1980-83.) In Turkey, the military is in and out of the political sphere. In Iran, the military is constantly in and always resorted to.

3.) What is the party that currently governs Turkey? Who is its leader? How have they gotten so powerful in the last five or so years? What important party preceded the AK? What happened to it? Erdogans AK party that currently governs Turkey was the first democratically elected party and has gotten so powerful in the last five or so years because they have brought the military, the kurds, and islamists etc. all on the same page. Through making the requirements to gain the EU part of their political platform, they are gaining support and targeting a wide constituency. The one thing that is helping to integrate the kurds (approximately 11 million in Turkey ) and Islamists into democratic system is the integration into the EU. There are becoming more civil and human rights with is quickly opening up the political system. The partys initial government agenda included economic reforms (combo of subsidies for poor and increased privatization), counter-corruption measures, educational reforms, and a promotion of Turkeys bid to join the EU. After so many years of unsteady or ineffectual coalitions, the new governments obvious sense of purpose and resolve helped to lower interest rates and boosted prospects of economic recovery and reduced debt burden. Increased confidence and legitimacy has even resulted in some kurdish voters voting for the AKP party instead of their DEHAP/SHP party in the elections of March 2004 partly because they feel it would be better able to deliver money and services to the southeast. (Watts) (Mecham 12-19) After the Welfare Party, with Erkoban as the Prime Minister, was forced to step down and close by order of the constitutional court because of evidence confirming its actions against the principles of the secular republic, A new party was established to provide an institutional base for parliamentary deputies from the Welfare Party. The Virtue Party was founded in December 1997 by a number of Islamists close to Erbakan. Upon the formal closure of the Welfare Party, all Welfare deputies in parliament shifted to the new Virtue Party, making it the

largest party in Parliament. Virtues principle messages, which continued throughout its short life, included the necessary for real democracy, the importance of human rights and a focus on expanding political liberties. This agenda was supported by both traditionalists and reformists within the party, and over time a transformation occurred in the Welfare Part to came to be embodied in Virtue. By the time Welfare took power in 1996, several of its campaigns had succumbed to strategies of self representation that sought to ensure the partys survival within the system. Compromises were made and at the congress, Welfare gave both the West and Turkish nation moderate messages. Regardless of whether Virtue truly was different than Welfare, it found momentum with a new language. Virtue found its new voice as an opposition party by shifting from the claim that Turkey was not religious enough to the claim that Turkey was not democratic enough. The military and judicial establishments however still treated Virtue as a religious party. Although Virtue concentrated more on Republican values, a market economy, and Turkeys relationship with Europe, it was just considered to be show, masking the partys true motives. In 1998 a new case was prosecuted against the Welfare Party in an effort to retrieve money that may have been passed on to virtue. Although the Virtue Party was the largest party in government, President Suleyman Demirel overlooked Virtue as unacceptable and leading up the new elections in 1999, the military issued public warnings against the dancers of Islam-based politics to caution the electorate against voting for Virtue. Additionally, the most pressing dangers to Virtue in the election appeared to come from divisions within the party itself. Split between Erbakans close associates and a younger generation molded by Erdogan became more apparent. It appeared to some that Virtue was more interested in saving Erbakan than in maintaining political peace in the country because there was a threat that an alliance with parliamentary mavericks could buy time to remove Erkabans political ban and allow him to lead the party in the new election. The outcome of national elections was disappointing for Virtue and they continuously gained opposition from the military and the split within the party was widening. The reformists led by Gul and Erdogan argued that Erkobans leadership was out of touch with Turkish electorate. The constitutional court closed the party and this formalized the partys split. One month later in August 2001 the reformist-wing unveiled their new party, the AKP, while Erkabans loyalists founded the Felicity party.

4.) What are some of the major political reforms in Turkey, and what has motivated them? AK party - Emphasize democracy, economic recovery, protection of individual rights and freedoms. Synthesis of conservative and liberal elements - 3 main principles. 1) postdevelopmental state that is democratic, transparent, and accountable to society. 2.) A market closely regulated enough to keep it honest and prevent destructive side effects, but with free space from enterprise, innovation and investment. 3.) Social justice. They want to join the EU for legitimacy, economy, and to accelerate their political reforms -2001 the parliament adopted a package of 34 constitutional amendments -strengthened freedom of thought and expression -safeguards against torture -military officers removed from state security courts -capital punishment abolished -freedom of association - more difficult for Courts to close political parties -Cultural Rights for the Kurds -ability to speak kurdish, cultural expression, and kurdish radio and tv broadvasts 5.) Who was the leader of the Chinese Communist Party from 1934 to his death in 1976, and established the PRC in 1949? What was the Long March? what was the Great Leap Forward? What was the Cultural Revolution? The PRC was founded in 1949 by Mao Zedong. Chinese history can be divided into three periods: the imperial, during which China was rules by a series of dynasties and emperors, the relatively brief and unstable republican period (1912-1949), when a weak central government was plagued by civil war and invasion, and the Communist period, from the founding of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949 to the present. The Chinese Communist Party (ccp) that was established in 1921 acted of Soviets advice advice was defeated in 1927 when Chiang Kai-Shek turned against his coalition partners and ordered a bloody suppression that nearly wiped out the communists. This created the conditions for the triumph of Mao Zedong who advocated paying more attention to Chinas suffering peasants as potential source of support. In 1934-1935 the party undertook the Long March, an epic journey of 6,000 miles thorugh some of Chinas roughest terrain, to escape attack by Chiangs forces. At the end of the Long March, the CCP established a base in Yanan, a rural area in W. China where Moa consolidated his political and ideological leadership of the CCP and was elected party chairman in 1943. In Yanan, the CCP was on the frontline against Japans troops in N. China and Mao and the Communists successfully mobilized the peasants to use guerrilla warfare to fight invaders. Afer WWII, in

1945, the Ccp had expanded its membership and controlled the countryside in N. China. The Nationalists, on the other hand, were isolated and unpopular among Chinese because of their corruption and economic mismanagement of Chiang Kai-sheks regime. After the Japanese surrounder, Communist forces won against U.S. backed Nationalist, who were forced to retreat to Taiwan. On October 1, 1949 Mao Zedong declared the founding of the Peoples Republic of China. Great Leap Forward - see terms. -Mao was troubled by the persistence of inequalities in China, especially those caused by the emphasis on industrial and urban development and relative neglect of the countryside. -farms collectivized into 24,000 self-sufficient communes -para-military types of organizations - everything communal. pressure to contribute to state...unrealistic production goals...famine. Cultural Revolution - see terms (mao zedong) main objective was the political purification of the party and nation through struggle against class enemies, not accelerated economic development. -put together coalition of radical party leaders, loyal military officers, and student rebels (red guards) to purge anyone guilty of revisionism. The Red Guards went on a rampage across the country torturing and killing people accused of being class enemies, particularly intellectuals and discredited party leaders.

6.) Who led China from 1977 to 1997? How can one characterize his attitudes towards political liberties and economic policy in China. By 1978 Deng Xiaoping had become the most powerful member of the CCP leadership. His policies were a profound break with the Maoist past. State control of the economy was significantly reduced, and market forces were allowed to play an increasingly important role in all aspects of production. Private enterprise was encouraged and the economy was opened up to unprecedented levels of foreign investment. (Lecture) Politically, 1978 a legal reform program codified law and court system with the incentive of foreign investment. (There was no criminal code until after Maos death.) Additionally, private property was secured to enable economic growth. There are now administrative courts to launch cases against gov (huge corruption problem.) There is also increased information flows; citizens have access to what the government is doing, they dont have to depend on a state-controlled media. There is also increased levels of education and civic values...(tienamen sq. uprising - student run) (Lecture) 1.) Household Responsibility System (1979) (see terms) -moving away from communes to private farms and private markets for produce -peasants could keep what they grew - efficiency...within 4 years, increase agricultural productivity and grain output increased 130% 2.) Township and Village Enterprise -local government officials and entrepreneurs encouraged to set up small industry in countryside. Market forces determined prices (not fixed state prices) 3.) Prominent role for foreign capital in special economic zones

7.) What are the main characteristics of a totalitarian state? How does that differ from an authoritarian state? See terms. Totalitarian Vs. Authoritarian single dominant party Single dominant party utopian ideology (classless society) and nationalist ideology state control over all public and private activity mobilized participation (fear of being labeled a rightist) Emergence of non-political private sphere Apathy ok Economic performance

fear instilled by state repression

End of fear and arbitrary terror but no overt challenges to single party rule are tolerated

8.) What are the prospects for democracy in China? Is there an organized opposition to the government? Given what we observe in China today, do you think Huntington would see that China will democratize in the near future? (Kesselman 666) China has evolved into market Leninism - a combination of increasing economic openness and continuing political rigidity under the ideological and communist party. There are reasons to be optimistic and pessimistic about the future of democracy in China. On the negative side, Chinas long history of bureaucratic and authoritarian rule and hierarchical values of still-influential Confucian culture seem to be counterweights to dem. PRCs relatively low per capita standard of living, rural pop and poverty, and state dominated media also impose threats. People in China are apathetic about national politics or fearful of violence and chaos that political change might unleash. Positively, although China is still a developing country, it has a higher literacy rate, more extensive industrialization and economic growth than most other countries at its level of economic development. Political, the decentralization of political and economic power to local governments, a mandatory retirement age, terms limits for al officials, younger and educated leaders, competitive elections in rural villages, tolerance of wider expression and the freedom for individuals to be apolitical are planting the seeds of democracy. Furthermore, the spread of democracy around the globe and the resurgence of civil society, a sphere of independent public life, if allowed to expand could allow for democracy. At some point, the leaders of the CCP will face the dilemma of whether to accommodate or, repress organizations and individuals that question them. -No organized opposition to the government. (Kesselman 662) - There have been no large-scale political demonstrations in China since 1989 and pro-democracy groups have been driven deep underground or abroad. Known dissidents are continuously watched, harassed, imprisoned, and recently expelled from the country. The political situation in China early in the twenty-first century presents a rather contradictory picture. Although people are freer, repression is still intense and open political dissent is almost nonexistent. However, there are many signs that the Chinese Communist Party is losing some of its ability to control movements and limit access to information abroad. In terms of Huntington - 1.) Legitimacy - authoritarian regimes often base legitimacy on their performance. According to Friedmans lecture there is not performance legitimacy because local officials are trying to survive, they see that to get ahead they have to pay off regime. Additionally, The Tiananment massacre of 1989 showed the limits of protest in China. The leaders said that neither open political protest ot formation of autonomous interest groups would be tolerated. 2.)Economic changes - As people become more secure economically, better educated, and more aware of the outside world, they are likely to become politically less inactive. However, Huntington states that economic factors are not determinative. (Long term and short term?) 3.)Huntington states that a reason for 75% of democracies in the third wave were Catholic, and after the 1960's, the Church almost invariably opposed authoritarian regimes. In China, there is no religious pressure or ideology. 4.) External factors promoting human rights and democracy are another causes that Huntington has recently identified in democratization. However, in China it seems as if the admission to the WTO in 2001 only influenced Chinas trade practices and domestic economic policies. There were no social or political requirements. 5.) In terms of the snowballing effect ut seems as if the astounding spread of democracy over the glove has created a trend for Chinas leaders to resist. The PRC has become a major player in the world of states, and its government must be more responsive to international opinion in order to continue the countrys deepening integration withing the international economy. Although there is increased information flows, there is still state-dominated media and means of communication.

9.) What, precisely, is the causal relationship between economic development and democratization according to Huntington? Huntington proposes that no single factor is necessary or sufficient for democratization. In each country, a

combination of causes is at work which is likely to vary from country. However, the most significant explanatory variable in democratization is the behavior of political elites. The first wave was primarily caused be economic and social development. The second wave was mostly caused by political and military factors, and in examining the third wave it seems as though 23 out of 29 of the countries that democratized b/w 1974 and 1990 had previous experience with democracy. However, by 1989 the third wave began to affect countries without democratic experience. Economically, Huntington identifies a transition zone of between $1,000 and $3,000 per capita GNP. When countries reach that level of economic development, they are more likely to democratize. However, Huntington emphasizes that economic factors have significant impact on democratization but they are not determinative. Economic development also leads to other important societal changes, such as improved education and expansion of the middle class. Over the long-term, economic development creates the basis for democratic regimes; in the short term, rapid growth and crises may undermine authoritarian regimes. In the 3rd wave, the combination of these two developments (short-term and long-term) was favorable to a transition from authoritarian to democratic government.

10.) Who was Mohamed Mosaddiq, what were his political objectives, and what was his fate? The nationalist movement emerged in the 1940's under the leadership of Mosaddiq. He led the national front which drew its support mainly from the salaried middle classes and campaigned to nationalize the British-owned company that had a monopoly over the drilling, refining, and sale of all petroleum in Iran. He also wanted to break the Shahs links with the armed forces. He argued that according to the constitution, the monarch should reign, nor rule and that the armed forces should be supervised by cabinet ministers responsible to parliament. The National Front called for the strengthening of liberal democratic institutions, social reforms, and the nationalization of oil. In 1951 he was elected prime minister and promptly nationalized the oil industry. This period of relative freedom ended abruptly in 1953 when royalist officers overthrew Mossadiq and installed the shah with absolute power. Economic sanctions and a blockade on Iranian oil exports were imposed by the US. (The fear was that Mossadiq would fall to communism) Since the coup was financed by the CIA and the British, it intensified ant-british sentiment and created mistrust towards the US. IT also made the shah appear to be a puppet of the foreign powers. The Oil profits were renegotiated after the fall of Mosaddiq, and 50% of the profits went to Iran. The Shah allied himself closely with the US, and by 1975 Iran made twice as much revenue as the decade prior. A lot of the money went to defense spending and to the US for military equipment. This resulted in no political freedoms, complete royal autocracy, and an internal security organization - SAVAK - that relentlessly suppressed political dissent. 11.) Opposition to the Shahs rule eventually resulted in the Iranian revolution and the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979. However, most opposition was not primarily religious in orientation until the last days of the Shahs regime. Why did the revolution take on a primarily religious character? Discuss the organizational advantages of religious mobilization.

12.) What are the major differences between SMD and PR?