Reflexes & Reaction Times Explore reflexes in response to a variety of stimuli as well as changes in reaction time under a variety

of conditions. The aim of this experiment is for students to explore reflexes and reaction times. Students will examine a simple reflex by tapping the patellar tendon and complex reflexes in the muscles of the eye and muscles of the hand. Then students will examine which factors, such as distractions and predictability, increase and decrease reaction time. Students will also compare reaction times to visual and auditory cues. This experiment is suitable for students with basic knowledge of the PowerLab Data Acquisition System.

Pathway for the Patellar Tendon Tap Reflex.

Our bodies react to emotional pain the same way they do to physical pain by contracting, gripping, in an automatic reflex. In other words, our bodies tighten in an involuntary reflex whether we experience physical injury or emotional pain such as grief, fear, disapproval, shock, helplessness, revulsion, horror, belittling, shaming, demeaning, isolation or terror. Our bodies also react to anticipated or imagined pain. A stomach knotting in fear, a heart clenching in grief, a sinking feeling in our gut, or a jaw tightening enough to injure the TMJ are examples. If you watch an infant, an animal or a young child, you will clearly see them contract physically when they are startled or scared. The same reflex happens and is perceivable at every age and in living tissue of every species, down to a one celled amoeba observed contracting when it is poked with a probe. This automatic physical contraction is called ACPR (Auto-Contractile Pain Response), and is also known as the "splinting reflex" in humans, an involuntary reaction to pain that temporarily tightens or contracts an area in your body.

illustration from http://scienceblogs.com/neurotopia

ACPR is your body's way of protecting itself and minimizing tissue damage, such as from a hot stove or a broken bone's sharp ends. This gripping reflex is swift and usually releases as soon as the perceived threat passes. How fast one relaxes and how much one lets go depends on several

variables, but if a painful experience is intense, shocking, and/or happens repeatedly, the physio-emotional grip releases more slowly, or not completely, or sometimes not at all, and that tension is retained in the body. Repeated experiences produce further contractive responses, which then layer on top of the original unreleased tension, until one is living with layers of chronic tension, some of which are held deeply within our bodies. The consequences of deeply held bodily contractions are far-reaching and show up over time. Retained internal tensions constrict our organs and impede the circulation of our internal fluids, which inhibit the functioning of our muscles and our joints. Tension, stress and impaired mobility can readily be seen in the distorted appearances of so many people, in their misshapen postures, in their inhibited or imbalanced movement. All one needs to do is to look at many of our senior citizens to see the results of what retaining physio-emotional tension internally for decades does. Our minds may or may not consciously remember the painful experiences in our past, but our bodies do. Buried, bodily held physio-emotional contractions are a major factor in decreased health and ability as age advances, but I believe deterioration is NOT inevitable, and in many cases it is not irreversible. Many of the seniors I work with say that they feel (and they also look) decades younger after a short series of SHEN therapy. All of them have regained or increased mobility and flexibility in their physical movement and/or thinking. With SHEN, you can see and feel an enormous difference when these contractions dissipate. For example, an amazing transformation is visible when contractions in the body and tension in the facial muscles release: one's natural, true expression emerges. Your appearance can change so dramatically that one client called SHEN her "holistic, organic Botox except that my muscles can move!" Emotions and your Health When connective tissue is injured, overworked or traumatized, it shortens. And when connective tissue shortens...nerves cannot talk optimally to the muscles, and muscles cannot talk to the greater nerve network that includes the brain. Messages going to and coming from the brain are shortcircuited, and this message breakdown happens along the entire length of connective tissue, not just where the tissue hurts. --Richard Rossiter

Science has shown that emotional responses to physical experiences can lead to the onset of physical disorders, and that bodily held tension adversely affects the muscles, nerves, tissues, organs and glands at the physical site where the emotional trauma was experienced. Until recently, just how retained tension affected our health was not clear. We now know that unreleased deep bodily held contractions impede normal blood flow. Deep tension interferes with normal metabolic processes, preventing cells from fully receiving nutrients and fully releasing waste products, thus hampering cellular functioning and causing disease. For example, long term fear or anger has been linked to stomach and digestive problems as well as insomnia and eating disorders. Feelings of shame and low-self worth have been frequently found to be a common component in prostate, feminine and menstrual difficulties as well as sexual dysfunction. Grief will constrict the area around the chest and is often a significant factor in respiratory conditions as well as in migraines and headaches (constriction at the vagus nerve and/or the baroreceptors interferes with blood flow return from the head). Retained grief is also a significant factor in numerous heart problems. In fact, studies have shown that a high percentage of patients in cardiac units have suffered major grief six months to a year before having a heart attack. The immune system is also affected by grief as contractions around the heart suppress the activity of the thymus gland, which activates the T-cells. Very often, too, it is these internal contractions that are responsible for many conditions labeled neurotic or 'psychosomatic'-- conditions when medical examinations find "nothing physically wrong." Internally held contractions trapped by ACPR retained in our body affect not just our physical health and our appearance, but strongly influence or even dominate our emotional state: how we feel and how we react to present time situations. Most of us still carry internalized pain from earlier experiences in our lives. We have had physical injuries such as accidents, trauma, or surgery, had traumatic births and/or childhoods, lost loved ones, suffered shame, isolation and belittling or have had abusive relationships. A lot of us have worked hard to find and to understand the past events that shaped our current responses to life, only to discover that learning the

origin of our feelings did not entirely free us: we still find ourselves with old emotional reactions that keep surfacing (often inconveniently) in response to certain people or circumstances. We all know people who do the following, or are familiar with finding ourselves "shrinking in fear," "feeling our heart sink," "numbing out," "in the grip of terror," saying yes when we want to say no, "exploding in a fit of rage," "overwhelmed by grief" or "reacting just like my parent(s) did." Much of what appears to be dysfunctional behavior is actually our inner self exacerbating painful emotions in an attempt to throw off these intense internal contractions and heal. It is the buried, trapped emotions birthed in our past but held in our bodies which drive us to think or say or do these things we wish we hadn't. These somatic (body) tensions hold the memories of past events, our beliefs and our reactions to those events. They can show us the decisions our younger, less experienced selves made about ourselves and about life during earlier experiences, and they can be a key to discovering unconscious, habitual, restrictive or destructive ways of being and reacting to life's events, leading to new life choices. However, until they are dissolved, these old feelings, thoughts and reactive patterns birthed in the past and retained in our bodies will dominate how we relate, how we feel, and how we live our lives today. SHEN Therapy offers an elegant solution to Fritz Perls' statement that emotions have a life cycle with a beginning and a natural ending which is often not completed and remains inside us until it is, affecting how we feel and everything we do. The precise and powerful hands-on techniques of SHEN Therapy have been developed, refined and continually tested for nearly 30 years with clinical studies and in professional practice application to dissolve those internal contractions. Healing the World one SHEN session at a time Those who practice Vipassana and other forms of meditation, Jungian dreamwork, yoga, rebirthing, cognitive therapy, sensory awareness, subtle energy work, reiki, and Ekhart Tolle's "Power of Now," especially, will appreciate the easy elegance and effectiveness of SHEN therapy. As focused chi in a SHEN session relaxes and releases buried internal tension, it loosens the grip of what Eckhart Tolle calls 'the pain body,' freeing one from the effects of the past, and bringing insight and awareness. One session at at time, SHEN clients come to move, be and live in the now of present time.

HOME 6.5 Nerves,

hormones and homeostasis HL OPTIONH1

SYLLABUS OVERVIEWMEN

6.5.11 Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the roles of glucagon, insulin and and cells in the pancreatic islets. The effects of adrenaline are not required here. 6.5.12 Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes. Aim 8: Diabetes is having an increasing effect on human societies around the world, including personal suffering due to ill health from the diabetes directly but also from side-effects such as kidney failure. There are economic consequences relating to the health-care costs of treating diabetics. TOK: The causes of the variation in rates of type II diabetes in different human populations could be analysed. Rates can be particularly high when individuals consume a diet very different to the traditional one of their ancestors, for example, when having migrated to a new country. There are genetic differences in our capacity to cope with high levels of refined sugar and fat in the diet. Humans also vary considerably in how prone they are to become obese

H.1.4 Outline the relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. Include the portal vein connecting the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland, and the neurosecretory cells connecting the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary gland. H.1.5 Explain the control of ADH (vasopressin) secretion by negative feedback. Include neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus,

transport of ADH to the posterior pituitary gland for storage, and release under stimulus by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. Drawing pdf.

6.5.2 Draw and label a diagram of the structure of a motor neuron. Include dendrites, cell body with nucleus, axon, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier and motor end plates.

CORE [6h] 6.5.1 State that the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons that can carry rapid electrical impulses. No other structural or functional divisions of the nervous system are required. 1. Like firing a gun, nerve impulses are all or nothing. They fire or they dont fire. 2. In order to fire nerve impulses require certain threshold of stimulation. The strength of the impulse is constant, regardless of the strength of the stimulus. Squeezing the trigger of a gun very gently or aggressively has no influence on the speed of the bullet. 3. Nerves make specific physical connections in the body. Impulses travel rapidly in one direction only, from A to B. Why? 4. Nerve impulses are measured in millivolts; but a dynamite fuse is a better analogy for an axon nerve than an electrical wire. Why? 6.5.3 State that nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons.

6.5.4 Define resting potential and action potential (depolarization and repolarization). 6.5.5 Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron. Include the movement of Na+ and K+ ions to create a resting potential and an action potential.

1. Nerve impulses are electrical. They involve rapid movement of positively charged ions rather than electrons.

2. The resting potential (-70mV) is caused by a chemical concentration gradient established by pumping Na+ and K+ ions selectively across the axon membrane. At rest the exterior of the axon is positive respect with to the inside. 3. The action potential (+40mV) is the dramatic reversal (and subsequent restoration) of the resting potential. This depolarization depends on the sudden, localized opening of gated channels in the axon membrane, allowing N+ ions to rush into the interior. 4. There is a refractory period as concentration gradients of Na+ and K+ ions are restored by active transport. ACTION POTENTIAL VISUALIZATION

6.5.6 Explain the principles of synaptic transmission. Include the release, diffusion and binding of the neurotransmitter, initiation of an action potential in the post-synaptic membrane, and subsequent removal of the neurotransmitter. Aim 7: Data logging can be used to measure changes in conductivity in distilled water as Na+ and K+ diffuse out of saltagar cubes or dialysing tubing.

NEUROTRANSMITTER 3D ANIMATION SYNAPSE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION ACETYLCHOLINE MEDICAL VISUALIZATION

6.5.7 State that the endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that are transported in the blood. The nature and action of hormones or direct comparisons between nerve and endocrine systems are not required.

Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the blood and transported to specific target cells. Why are the organs of the endocrine system seemingly geographically unrelated and unconnected? 6.5.8 State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance. The internal environment consists of blood and tissue fluid. 6.5.9 Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of

variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms.

6.5.10 Explain the control of body temperature, including the transfer of heat in blood, and the roles of the hypothalamus, sweat

glands, skin arterioles and shivering. Aim 7: Data logging using a surface temperature sensor to investigate the warming by nasal passages could be carried out here.

HORMONES Steroids Testosterone Estrogen Progesterone Insulin Glucagon FSH LH ADH Thyroxin Adrenalin

Polypeptides

Tyrosine

HIGHER LEVEL ONLY OPTION: H1HORMONAL CONTROL [3h] H.1.1 State that hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the blood and transported to specific target cells. H.1.2 State that hormones can be steroids, proteins and tyrosine derivatives, with one example of each. H.1.3 Distinguish between the mode of action of steroid hormones and protein hormones. Steroid hormones enter cells and interact with genes directly.

Protein hormones bind to receptors in the membrane, which causes the release of a secondary messenger inside the cell.

Polypeptide hormones bind to active sites of cell membranes. Steroids actually enter target cells and directly influence gene expression. Why can steroid hormones pass easily through cell membranes?

POSITIVE FEEDBACK In a negative feedback loop, the body detects an internal change and activates mechanisms that reverse, or negate, the change. The counterpart to negative feedback is a positive feedback loop, a process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that accelerate or increase that change. This can also aid homeostasis, but in many cases it produces the opposite effect and can be life-threatening. A runaway greenhouse effect is an example of out of control positive feedback.

1. STROKE adalah suatu kondisi yang terjadi ketika pasokandarahke suatu bagianotaktiba-tiba terganggu. Dalam jaringan otak, kurangnya aliran darah menyebabkan serangkaian reaksibiokimia, yang dapatmerusakkan atau mematikansel-sel saraf di otak. Kematian jaringan otak dapat menyebabkan hilangnyafungsi yang dikendalikan oleh jaringan itu.Stroke ( istilah lain Cerebrovascular accident ( CVA ) atau Cerebral apoplexy ), adalah kerusakan otakakibat tersumbatnya atau pecahnya pembuluh darah otak. gejala : Berdasarkan lokasinya di tubuh, gejala-gejala stroke terbagi menjadi berikut:1. Bagian sistem saraf pusat : Kelemahan otot (hemiplegia), kaku, menurunnya fungsisensorik 2. Batang otak, dimana terdapat 12 saraf kranial: menurun kemampuan membau, mengecap,mendengar, dan melihat parsial atau keseluruhan, refleks menurun, ekspresi wajahterganggu, pernafasan dan detak jantung terganggu, lidah lemah.3. Cerebral cortex: aphasia, apraxia, daya ingat menurun, hemineglect, kebingungan. penyebab : 80% stroke disebabkan oleh penggumpalan darah (Ischemic Strokes). Sisanya olehpecahnya pembuluh darah (Hemorrhagic Strokes). Stroke disebabkan oleh tekanan darah tinggi yang bisa merusak pembuluh darah, merokok, dankolesterol yang menyebabkan penggumpalan darah. pengobatan : pengobatan Bekam (Hijamah), yaitu mengeluarkan darah kotor/mati dari tubuh sehinggapenggumpalan darah tidak terjadi. Selain itu dengan mengurangi volume darah di tubuh, maka tekanandarah pun berkurang sehingga tekanan darah tinggi yang merusak pembuluh darah bisa dicegah. pencegahan :

Dengan mengatur pola makan yang sehat dan menghindari makanan yang mengandungkolesterol jahat (LDL) serta olaraga secara teratur. diagnosis : Diagnosis stroke adalah secara klinis beserta pemeriksaan penunjang. Pemeriksaanpenunjang yang dapat dilakukan antara lain CT scan kepala, MRI. Untuk menilai kesadaran penderitastroke dapat digunakan Skala Koma Glasgow. Untuk membedakan jenis stroke dapat digunakanberbagai sistem skor, seperti Skor Strok Siriraj, Algoritma Stroke Gajah Mada, atau Algoritma Junaedi. 2. EPILEPSI gejala :K ejang parsial simplek dimulai dengan muatan listrik di bagian otak tertentu dan muatan ini tetap terbatas di daerahtersebut. Penderita mengalami sensasi, gerakan atau kelainan psikis yang abnormal, tergantungkepada daerah otak yang terkena.Jika terjadi di bagian otak yang mengendalikan gerakan otot

lengan kanan, maka lengan kanan akan bergoyang dan mengalami sentakan; jika terjadi pada lobus temporalis anterior sebelah dalam, maka penderita akan mencium bau yang sangatmenyenangkan atau sangat tidak menyenangkan. Pada penderita yang mengalami kelainan psikis bisa mengalami d?j? vu

(merasa pernah mengalami keadaan sekarang dimasa yang lalu). -K ejang Jacksonian gejalanya dimulai pada satu bagian tubuh tertentu (misalnya tangan atau kaki) dan kemudianmenjalar ke anggota gerak, sejalan dengan penyebaran aktivitas listrik di otak. -K ejang parsial ( psikomotor ) kompleks dimulai dengan hilangnya kontak penderita dengan lingkungan sekitarnya selama 1-2 menit.Penderita menjadi goyah, menggerakkan lengan dan tungkainya dengan cara yang aneh dantanpa tujuan, mengeluarkan suarasuara yang tak berarti, tidak mampu memahami apa yangorang lain katakan dan menolak bantuan.Kebingungan berlangsung selama beberapa menit, dan diikuti dengan penyembuhan total. -K ejang konvulsif ( k ejang toni k-k loni k , grand mal ) biasanya dimulai dengan kelainan muatan listrik pada daerah otak yang terbatas. Muatan listrik ini segera menyebar ke daerah otak lainnya dan menyebabkan seluruh daerah mengalamikelainan fungsi. -E pilepsi primer generalisata ditandai dengan muatan listrik abnormal di daerah otak yang luas, yang sejak awal menyebabkan penyebaran kelainan fungsi. Pada kedua jenis epilepsi ini terjadi kejang sebagai reaksi tubuhterhadap muatan yang abnormal. Pada kejang konvulsif, terjadi penurunan kesadaran sementara,kejang otot yang hebat dan sentakan-sentakan di seluruh tubuh, kepala berpaling ke satu sisi, gigidikatupkan kuat-kuat dan hilangnya pengendalian kandung kemih. Sesudahnya penderita bisamengalami sakit kepala, linglung sementara dan merasa sangat lelah. Biasanya penderita tidak dapat mengingat apa yang terjadi selama kejang. -K ejang petit mal dimulai pada masa kanak-kanak, biasanya sebelum usia 5 tahun. Tidak terjadi kejang dan gejaladramatis lainnya dari grand mal. Penderita hanya menatap, kelopak matanya bergetar atau ototwajahnya berkedut-kedut selama 10-30 detik. Penderita tidak memberikan respon terhadapsekitarnya tetapi tidak terjatuh, pingsan maupun menyentaknyentak.

-S tatus epileptikus merupakan kejang yang paling serius, dimana kejang terjadi terus menerus, tidak berhenti.Kontraksi otot sangat kuat, tidak mampu bernafas sebagaimana mestinya dan muatan listrik di dalam otaknya menyebar luas. Jika tidak segera ditangani, bisa terjadi kerusakan jantung danotak yang menetap dan penderita bisa meninggal. penyebab : Umumnya ayan mungkin disebabkan oleh kerusakan otak dalam proses kelahiran, lukakepala, pitam otak (strok), tumor otak, alkohol. Kadangkadang, ayan mungkin juga karena genetika, tapiayan bukan penyakit keturunan. Tapi penyebab pastinya tetap belum diketahui. pengobatan : Berikut ini adalah nama-nama obat yang dipakai untuk menyembuhkan ayan.Semua obat harus dikonsultasikan terlebih dahulu ke dokter.Carbamazepine, Carbatrol, Clobazam, Clonazepam, Depakene, Depakote, Depakote ER, Diastat,Dilantin, Felbatol, Frisium, Gabapentin, Gabitril, Keppra, Klonopin, Lamictal, Lyrica, Mysoline, Neurontin, Phenobarbital, Phenytek, Phenytoin, Sabril, Tegretol, Tegretol XR, Topamax,Trileptal, Valproic Acid, Zarontin, Zonegran, Zonisamide pencegahan : O bat anti-kejang bisa sepenuhnya mencegah terjadinya grand mal pada lebih dariseparuh penderita epilepsi. d iagnosis : H ippocrates adalah orang pertama yang berhasil mengidentifikasi gejala ayansebagai masalah pada otak, roh jahat, dan sebagainya. Seseorang dapat dinyatakan menderitaayan jika orang tersebut telah setidaknya mengalami kejang yang bukan disebabkan karenaalkohol dan tekanan darah yang sangat rendah. Alat bantu yang digunakan biasanya adalah: y MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging) Menggunakan magnet yang sangat kuat untuk mendapatkan gambaran dalam tubuh/otak seseorang. Tidak menggunakan Sinar-X. MRIlebih peka daripada CT Scan. y EEG (electroencephalography) alat untuk memeriksa gelombang otak. 3. AMN ESI A

gejala : y Gangguan mempelajari informasi baru. y Gangguan mengingat peristiwa-peristiwa masa lalu dan informasi sejenis sebelumnya. y Ingatan atau kenangan yang salah, baik ingatan yang baru saja ditemukan atau darimemori asli yang salah urutan waktu. y Gangguan neurologis seperti gerakan yang tidak terkoordinasi, tremor atau kejang. y Kebingungan atau gangguan orientasi. penyebab : y Kerusakan otak akibat kecelakaan y Jatuh y Pukulan keras pada kepala

Transeksi Transeksi adalah kerusakan sebagian atau seluruh segmen tertentu dari sumsum tulang belakang. Kerusakan tersebut dapat diakibatkan, misalnya terjatuh atau benturan keras. Apabila sumsum tulang belakang mengalami transeksi pada bagian di dekat kepala, dapat menimbulkan kematian. gangguan pada sumsum tulang belakang dibagian dekat kepala dapat mengganggu saraf-saraf pernapasan. Adapun transeksi pada sumsum tulang belakang bagian bawah, dapat menimbulkan kelumpuhan. Neuritis Neuritis merupakan peradangan pada saraf. Peradangan ini bisa diakibatkan oleh tekanan, benturan, pukulan, patah tulang, maupun kekurangan vitamin B. Parkinson

Parkinson merupakan penyakit akibat berkurangnya neurotransmiter dopamin pada basal ganglia (nukleus otak besar). gejala penyakit parkinson adalah tangan gemetar, sulit bergerak, dan kekakuan otot. Parkinson biasanya diderita pada orang yang berusia 40 tahun keatas. Stroke Penyakit stroke diakibatkan matinya sel-sel otak akibat terganggunya aliran darah di otak. gangguan aliran darah otak biasanya disebabkan tekanan darah tinggi (hipertensi). Penyakit stroke memiliki gejala yang beragam tergantung beratnya penyakit, misalnya hanya pusing saja, sulit berbicara, pingsang, bahkan sampai kelumpuhan atau kematian. Epilepsi Epilepsi adalah suatu penyakit akibat dilepaskannya letusan-letusan listrik (impuls) pada neuron-neuron di otak. Epilipsi dibagi menjadi 3 jenis, yakni grand mal, psikomotor, dan petit mal. Grand mal adalah gangguan pada daerah motoris dan kesadaran sehingga kejang-kejang dan hilang kesadaran. Psikomotor merupakan gangguan pada lobus temporalis sehingga menimbulkan gangguan mental. Adapun Petit Mal adalah gangguan pada hipotalamus sehingga menyebabkan kehilangan kesadaran selama beberapa detik. Sakit Kepala Sakit kepala merupakan penyakit yang sering diderita oleh orang banyak. Sakit kepala dapat disebabkan oleh beberapa hal diantaranya: Kelainan pada tempurung, seperti tulor otak; gangguan-gangguan pada pembuluh darah, komposisi darah dan saraf; kelainan pada organ diluar tempurung kepala, seperti sinusitis, gangguan mata, rasang telinga, sakit gigi, dan hidung. pada saat setelah gegar otak; faktor psikologis. Rabies

Rabies adalah penyakit yang disebabkan oleh virus. Virus tersebut ditularkan oleh air liur hewan melalui gigitan terhadap manusia. Hewan yang biasa menularkan rabies adalah anjing. Anjing yang terkena rabies memiliki gejala gelisah, ganas, sering menggigit, panas, cemas, keluar air ludah, dan kejang-kejang apabila diberi minum. Rabies dapat dicegah dan diobati dengan vaksinasi. Demikianlah artikel sederhana mengenai Penyakit pada sistem saraf, semoga artikel ini dapat memberikan manfaat bagi kita semua. [pustakasekolah.com]

The endocrine system acts by releasing hormones that in turn trigger actions in specific target cells. Receptors on target cell membranes bind only to one type of hormone. More than fifty human hormones have been identified; all act by binding to receptor molecules. The binding hormone changes the shape of the receptor causing the response to the hormone. There are two mechanisms of hormone action on all target cells. Nonsteroid Hormones Nonsteroid hormones (water soluble) do not enter the cell but bind to plasma membrane receptors, generating a chemical signal (second messenger) inside the target cell. Five different second messenger chemicals, including cyclic AMP have been identified. Second messengers activate other intracellular chemicals to produce the target cell response.

The action of nonsteroid hormones. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission. Steroid Hormones The second mechanism involves steroid hormones, which pass through the plasma membrane and act in a two step process. Steroid hormones bind, once inside the cell, to the nuclear membrane receptors, producing an activated hormone-receptor complex. The activated hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA and activates specific genes, increasing production of proteins.

The action of steroid hormones. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

5.1 Endocrine Glands (p.296-297) (1) What is a hormone? (insert an image too) 1. Hormones are produced by glands that are found in the endocrine system. Hormones consist of estrogen for females, and testosterone for males. Hormones depict how tall we're going be, how deep our voice is, and many other things.

T his is a thyroid hormone called thyroglobulin

(2) How are the nervous system and endocrine system similar? different? 1. Similar: 1. They work together to "regulate the activities of the other systems" 2. both use chemical signals when they are responding to changes (that would threaten homeostasis) 2. Different: 1. Nervous system is composed of neurons 2. Nervous system is organized to "respond rapidly to stimuli" 3. Endocrine system is composed of glands 4. Endocrine system releases hormones which are then carried through the blood. 15.5 Pancreas (p.308-310) (3) Describe insulin secretion from the pancreas. Where is it produced? When is it secreted? 1. Insulin secretion is a function that puts insulin into the blood system. From there, the insulin travels to the liver, where it's stored, the muscle cells, and the adipose tissue. After insulin is released, the blood glucose level drops. Insulin is produced in the liver, and is secreted from the liver. (4) What is the role of insulin? 1. Insulin helps to regulate the level of blood glucose. When the blood glucose gets high, the liver releases insulin. (5) What is diabetes mellitus? 1. Diabetes mellitus is a disease where the liver cells and most body cells are unable to take up glucose like they should. (6) How does a glucose tolerance test assist in the diagnosis of diabetes? 1. If someone is injected with insulin, and their cells don't take it in, that means they're diabetic. (7) What causes diabetes type 1? 1. Diabetes type one happens when the pancreas is not producing enough insulin. (8) How is diabetes type 1 controlled? 1. Diabetes type 1 is controlled by the patient taking daily insulin shots to control their glucose level. (9) What causes diabetes type 2? 1. Diabetes type 2 is usually caused by obesity. (10) How is diabetes type 2 controlled?

1. Diabetes type 2 can be controlled by a low fat, low sugar diet and exercising regularly. (11) What are the symptoms of diabetes? 1. The symptoms of diabetes include blindness, kidney disease, and cardiovascular disorders including atherosclerosis, heart disease, stroke and reduced circulation. Diabetes can later lead to gangrene in the arms and legs 5.1 Endocrine Glands (p.296-297) (1) What is a hormone? (insert an image too)

a hormone is a chemical messenger that carries information from cell to cell (or groups of cells) all multicellular organisms have and produce hormones

(2) How are the nervous system and endocrine system similar? different?

the nervous system helps the coordination of muscle movement, monitors the organs, makes and stops the input from the senses, and initiates movement. The parts of the nervous system are: Neurons and Nerves... which are involved in coordination. all parts of the nervous system are made of nervous tissue. this is a system made up of sensory receptors that detect the changes in the internal and external environment of the body. the endocrine system is made of glands. the glands release hormones that travel in the blood to the designated cells in the body. it is used to regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, and also effects the mood. the endocrine system uses blood to carry the signals... not nerves. the nervous system and the endocrine system work together to help regulate the activity of the other organ systems of the body. they both suse chemicals to signal changes that could threaten the homeostasis... but they have different ways of sending the signals.

15.5 Pancreas (p.308-310) (3) Describe insulin secretion from the pancreas. Where is it produced? When is it secreted?

the pancreatic islets produce and secrete the insulin... it is put directly in the blood from the pancreas. insulin is secreted when the glucose level in the blood is too high or becoming too high (usually after eating).

(4) What is the role of insulin?

insulin regulates the cells intake of glucose... mostly the liver, muscle cells, and adipose tissue cells.

(5) What is diabetes mellitus?

a hormonal disease where the liver cells and most of the other cells in the body are unable to absorb glucose the proper way. the cells then begin to starve... causing the person to be really hungry. when the glucose level starts to rise... glucose and water exits the body through the urine. people with diabetes urinate frequently and are really thirsty.

(6) How does a glucose tolerance test assist in the diagnosis of diabetes?

the patient is given 100g of glucose the blood glucose level is then measured in intervals. tif you have diabetes the blod glucose level raises and remains high for several hours. glucose also appears in the urine. in a non diabetic the blood glucose level raises a little and then returns to normal after two hours.

(7) What causes diabetes type 1?

in type 1 the pancreases is unable to make the right amount of insulin. it is thought to be started by exposure to an environmental agent... usually a virus... who makes cytotoxic T cells and destroys the pancreatic islets. it results with the destruction of insulin making cells in the pancreas and in turn the pancreas has beta cells.

(8) How is diabetes type 1 controlled?

they take daily shots of insulin. they take glucose tablets when the blood sugar is low and insulin when the blood sugar is too high.

(9) What causes diabetes type 2?

a lot of time the patient is obese... the number of protein carriers for glucose increases... and therefore more glucose than normal enters the blood. the number of receptors stays the same while the number of carriers increases... and the cell becomes insulin resistant.

(10) How is diabetes type 2 controlled?

type 2 diabetes is control by a low-fat, low-sugar diet and exercising on a regular basis. oral drugs that helps the pancreas to secrete insulin and enhance the metabolism of the glucose thats in the liver.

(11) What are the symptoms of diabetes?

frequent urination, high level of glucose in the blood, and high levels of glucose in urine. es are illustrations done in pen & ink or pencil and then scanned into the computer for further manipulation and enhancements in Adobe PhotoShop.

Terminology
"Estrous" (strous in many parts of the world outside North America) refers to the entire cycle; "Estrus" (strus) refers to the "heat" stage of that cycle when the mare is receptive to the stallion's advances; "Diestrus" (distrus) refers to the period in between the estrus phases when the mare is not receptive to the stallion; "Anestrus" (anstrus) refers to the compete absence of estrus; The mare is a "seasonally polyestrus" (polystrus) animal, meaning that she undergoes regular estrus cycles during a portion of the year (late spring, summer and early fall) and none at others (winter). This is nature's way of preventing the arrival of a foal during bad weather. These cycles are controlled by the mare's hormones, which in turn respond to an

increase or decrease in daylight duration with the onset of spring or fall, which affects the pineal gland. This study of hormonal activity is known as endocrinology. It is important to understand that there is a closely linked feedback system between many of the reproductive hormones present in the mare which will alter the level or presence of some hormones as levels of other different hormones increase or decrease. This means that artificially altering a single hormone will be likely to have an effect on one or more of the other hormones. The same can be said of natural hormonal changes - whether they are happening in a correct manner or not. Many of these hormonal changes do occur naturally, but when something becomes unbalanced either naturally or artificially, we can see estrous cycle problems develop in the mare.

Hormones Active during the Estrous Cycle of the Mare:

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) o Secreted by the hypothalamus of the brain, GnRH has a controlling influence over other reproductive hormones. o Early in the year stimulation of the pineal gland by light - either natural or artificial - causes a reduction of melatonin secretion, which in turn allows GnRH to be secreted by the hypothalamus, thereby stimulating the production of other hormones (FSH, LH). The exact connection between decreased melatonin production and increased GnRH levels is not understood.

In anestrus mares GnRH is released in a pulsatile manner with long period between secretions, resulting in undetectable blood levels of the hormone. In estrous mares secretion is continuous with additional pulses ranging from every 2 hours in diestrus mares, to twice hourly during estrus. The use of exogenous GnRH using either a subcutaneous mini-pump or an implant to facilitate the onset of early estrus by shortening the transitional phase has not been shown to be successful on a widespread scale and is not therefore generally recommended.

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH) o Both the gonadotropins FSH and LH are produced in the pituitary gland and are regulated in a similar manner by GnRH, although there is also a controlling influence by other hormones that differs between FSH and LH. o LH concentrations are lowest during the mid-luteal phase of estrous, rising only a few days before the onset of estrus to a peak usually on the day of, or shortly after ovulation, to then drop to previous levels over the next few days. o The duration of secretion of LH in the mare and its associated ovulatory surge is considered to be longer than in most other animals. o LH as its name suggests, is the hormone that has a controlling interest in the development and maintenance of the CL. It does however also work in close harmony with FSH to achieve final follicular maturation and ovulation. o FSH is in contrast to LH, thought to follow a bi-modal secretion pattern, although some researchers suggest that this twin-peak effect is seen only during spring and early summer; and that it adopts a single-peak effect in later summer and fall. o In the bi-modal pattern the initial FSH surge starts late in estrus and peaks early in diestrus, dropping slightly and with the second surge starting in mid-diestrus peaking in late diestrus. o In the uni-modal pattern seen later in the breeding season, researchers suggest that the initial post-ovulatory surge of FSH is absent. o Despite measured increases in FSH it has been suggested that follicular growth itself follows a singular developmental path commencing in mid-diestrus, with a mechanism that selects a single follicle for optimum growth and subsequent ovulation.

Estrogens o There are several forms of estrogen occurring in the mare. In the non-pregnant mare estradiol is the most active; in the pregnant mare there are several, but the most important to note is estrone sulphate. o Estradiol in the estrus mare is secreted by the follicle and serves several purposes. Its presence is associated with the behavioural displays common to estrus;

o o o

Estradiol also causes the relaxation of the cervix during estrus - with it becoming more relaxed; Estrogen presence has a negative impact on FSH, but a positive impact on LH; It is thought that there is a link between sufficient estradiol levels and early pregnancy maintenance, perhaps as a result of an effect of estradiol on uterine condition; In the pregnant mare estrone sulphate is secreted by the fetoplacental unit (FPU). Levels rise gradually until about day 70 postconception ovulation, when they rise dramatically and remain elevated until about day 210, when they start to slowly drop again until shortly before foaling; The presence of estrone sulphate in the mare's blood from about day 70 of pregnancy onwards can be used as a reliable indicator of fetal viability as its levels drop rapidly following fetal failure.

Progesterone o Progesterone is the hormone that, among other things, in nonpregnant mares prevents the display of estrus. It is also, in part, responsible for increasing uterine and cervical tone in the diestrus mare; o Progesterone is secreted by the Corpus Luteum (CL) that is formed in the evacuated follicle left behind after the mare has ovulated; o Luteal Progesterone has a positive impact on FSH and a negative impact on LH.

Prostaglandin o Pulsatile secretion of Prostaglandin F2 by the lining of the uterus commences if pregnancy is not detected at about day 14 postovulation. o The presence of PGF2 causes the "lycing" of the CL and an almost immediate drop in circulating levels of progesterone, which permits the mare to start displaying estrus. o This pulsatile secretion actually continues for several more days. o PGF2 also causes a contraction of smooth muscle - which includes the uterus.

Inhibin o Inhibin is a follicular hormone that in addition to estrogen quietens the positive impact that progesterone has on FSH follicular maturation and selection.

A Brief Sequential Overview of the Regular Estrous Cycle