Tibet Book

..
Narthang
- .
-
2010
63.3(5)
89
89
.. . . .:
., 2010. 544 ., .
ISBN 9785-901941-23-2
. .
,
.
, .
,
, ; ,
,
. ,
.
,
, .
63.3(5)
C.. , 2010
- ., 2010
ISBN 9785-901941-23-2
................................................................................................. 5
1. ............................................ 7
2. ...............................................................14
3. .......................................................................45
4. .................................................... 86
5. ....................................................................... 113
6. , .......... 135
7. ................................. 163
8. .................. 211
9. .
......................................................................288
10. ...............................................348
, - ........... 354
.................................................................................................. 388
....................................................................... 413
, ............................................................... 423
................................................................... 428
............................................................................................. 433
..................................................................................... 438
.......................................................... 440
11. ? .........................................444
.... 444
....................................................... 455
............................................... 473
: .................................... 484
12. - ? .................................508
................................................................................................. 515
Summary .....................................................................................................543
.
, ,
.
-
,
, . ,
, ? - ?

.
,
(),
.1 , .. , . .
.2
, .
()
.
, . . ,
,
.3 , , ,
, - .. , , , , . .4
50 , .
1
2
3
4
., , 1958.
., ., 1975; , 1978.
, 2000.
., Parenti M. Friendly feudalism...; Ely M. The true story...
.. .
, ,
. , ,
, . , .
, , , ,
.
. .
, , : ?
?
? ?
? , , .
110, 11.

, .
, , .
, . , . -
.
, ,
, . , ,
<...> ,
.
. , ,
, , , , .
, , . 2 . 200 . . . 3 4 . , 57 . .
. . ,
, (), 8848 . ,
8598 . , , : , , , , , ,
( ).
105 . . .
: , ,
, , , , . ,
, 5477700 . ,
30% , .1
,
, , -- .
-. 2/3 , 5 . . . -
. . . , . , .
, . , , .
. (.: bod, ) .
. . ().
, . 1
Tibetan Plateau, 2009, p.7.
.. .
. ,
.
()
. -, , ,
: , ..
\.
,
(. ). . -
- (, , ).
- , .1 .

.
: . -.
- .2 .
.
. . . , .
, . ,
( 4 . ),
. , , , . ,
, .
, . , .
, , , . .
(.: kham),
- . . ( . ). (.: ) . -
. , , . - (
). .
, .
3 . 800 . . . ,
1
2
The Sino-Tibetan etymological dictionary...

, 2003.
1.
( http://perso.wanadoo.fr/tibetmap/tibet21.jpg, ):
1 ; 2 1914 1950 .; 3 .
10
.. .
-, , .1 ,
- , ,
. : - (
), (.:
). .
.
. - (), ,
, , .
. : - (: ), , (.: ),
(), () (); :
() (); :
- (), ()
(); : ().
. , , -.2

- -
.3 , ,
. ,
(), (), [] (), , (). , (
).4
,
, .5
,
,
. . , , ()
. (). , , ,
( ), .
( ) .
1
2
3
4
5
, 2003.
, , 2005.
, 2008, . 1620.
, , 2005.
, 2008, . 1627, 104, 109111.
1.
11
. ,
, - .
,
. . ,
.6
, (
) .
. , -.7 ,
.
.
, , , ,
, . . ,
; 1822 . .8
.
.9
, 4 . .

,
.
. I . .. . -,
, .
,
.10 ,
, .
. ,
. .
, , , .11 () ,
, , 56 . . 6
, 2008, . 187189.
, , 2005.
8
Aldenderfer, 2003, . 542549.
9
, , 2005.
10
, 2003.
11
Gelek. A Brief Description...
7
12
.. .
, , , .1 ,
.
() , .
. , , , , .2 ,
, ,
.3
. . , , ,
.4
.
, . ,
( ,
), .5
,
, .6
, .7 ,
. , , -
.8 ,
, , , .
.
, ,
.
,
. ,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Jong L. DNA proles...

Beall, 2006, p.1824.
Biello, 2007.
Beall et al., 2001, p. 411412.
Halperin et al., 1998, p.237437.
Wu et al., 2005, p.598604.
Niermeyer et al., 1995, p.12481252; Wiley, 2004.
Gantenbein, 1993; Curran et al., 1997, p.20982104.
1.
13
- - .9
,
.10 , . , . ,
, .. -. , , .. .
( ), - -.
, ,
.
.
, . ,

- . ,
5 . , , .11
, , . 12 (.
.: \ ; .: ; .: ).
, .
, . , ,
.13 , .
, , 2005.
Smith, 1996.
11
Wu K., Wu C., 2004.
12
, 1833, . 74123.
13
Smith, 1996.
10
, .
().1
, , .
- . ,
.
, ,
, , , . ( ). ,
:
, . ,
. : , , , , , , , ,
. , , ,
.2
, -,
. 3 ,
, . .
. ,
, . , -. , , ,
, .
.
. ,
1
2
3
, , 2005.
, 2003.
, , 2005.
2.
15
:
1 19381939 . (Bundesarchiv, Bild 135KB-06-088/Foto: Ernst Krause/License CC-BYSA 3.0); 2 (DIIR Archive, Central Tibetan
Administration); 3 2005 . (: Kyra/
Creative Commons License)
3
16
.. .
,
.
( ).
, ,
, .
. ,
.
. .
95 . .. 846 . .. -
, , .
42 .1 ( , ..).

, , , .
( 87
165). ( . bod).

.
, , . , ,
,
. ,
, .2
-. , . . -
. , ,
, ,
-.
, .3
:
() - ().
. (570620)
. ,
, , 1
2
3
, , 2005.
, 2003.
, , 2005.
2.
17
.
.
, ,
( ).
,
, ,
( ).
VII . ..
,
,
. 613 . ( 617 .)
,
.

(Chandra, 1999)
, 618 .
( -).4
, ,
, . ( ).5
.
, , ,
(-),
, , .. (. 6).
. , .. ,
.6 , . 632 . . ().
,
.
,7 .8 , , ,
.
, .
4
5
6
7
8
, 2003.
, , 2005.
, 1958, . 109.
, 2003.
, 2008, . 170171.
18
.. .
.

, ,
.
( ) . ;
. ( ) ;
.1 VII . , ,
-.
634 . 2 ( ), , .3
, , .
(618 .)
, .
.
: .
.
. , , .
, ,
.
, . , , ,
. 12 638 . (
),
.
. 640 . 5 .
. , . ,
646 .
: ,
1
, , 2005.
, , , ..
: . (
) ,
, ..
3
, , 2005.
2
2.
19
( ).
, , 13 . 18 , . , ,
.
,
10 . ,
, , ,
()
.4 . , .5
(
-) .
, , , , .
. :
,
.6

. , ,
.
, .
, .
, ;
. ,
, .7
, 640 . , .8 , , .
, , ,
, . 643 . . 645 .
.
, , . .
4
5
6
7
8
...
...
Tiang J. The Administrative System...
. .: , , 2005.
, 2003.
20
.. .
.
.
. ,
. ,
: .
649 . ,
.1 , ,
,
.

. . 698 .
655 .
. , .2 , ,
. 663 . , . 667670 . , .
, . 670 . . .
670 .
. . . -.
. 656 .
, 670 . , 670- . - .
.
.
678 . .

.
687 . . ( ). , 689 . 692 .
. . , ,
1
2
, 2003.
, , 2005.
2.
21
.3
, . .
-
, .
695 . ,
. ,
, ,
. , 698 . , 2 . . .
, ,
. . 700 701 .
-.
. 703 . .
704 . ,
-, .
706 .
-, . 707 .
, ( ),
710 . . 4 .
- .
. 713 .
( ).
714 . ,
716 717 .
. -. , . .
, . , : 715 .
, ,
. , 736737 . (
) ,
. , .
3
4
, , 2005.
, 2003.
22
.. .
716, 718 719 . . 724 . , 729 .

,
.1 . 730 .,
60 , .
, , . ,
(
-- , )
( , ). ,
- ,
.
736 . . 737 . . ,
. 741 .
.
, , . 748 .2 747750 . ,
, , 751 .
.3 751752 . - ( ). 750 . .
.
, . , ,
. .
, .
, .

. : . . , .
18 763 . . .
, .
1
2
3
, , 2005, . 52.
, 2003.
, , 2005.
2.
23

-.
(
) ,
.

. , , ,

, 50 .
, , ,
,
.4

15 , . 781 .
, , , , . . 783 .
.
,
. , .
, , ,
( ,
). , ( ),
, .5 ,

.

.
, . , 787 . . . 791 .
.
VIII IX .
. , , .6
4
5
6
Ngapo, 1988.
, 1993 . : , , 2005, . 56.
, , 2005.
24
.. .
. .1
( ).
196 :
; ,
[ ]
, . -
10 . , ; .2
VIII .
. 794 .

. ,
.
. , ,
. .
. ,
, .
, ,
.3 , . , .
, .
821 . 822 . .
, ,
.4 ().
( ),
( ).
:
, , ,
, , . 1
2
3
4
, 2003.
. : Van Walt, 1987, p.2.
, 2003.
, 2003.
2.
25
, ... , ,
. , , , :
, ... , ,
,
, ...
, . .5 , ,
, ,
, ... , , , , ,
, , , .6 - :

, .7
,
( . 5). 842 .
. , . ( )
, , ,
. . , . 851 . : , ,
. , .
. 860 . .
.
. ,
. , .
5
6
7
.
. : Van Walt, 1987, p. 12
: ...
26
.. .
. , XI .
, .1
, , : , ,
. .
.
, , , .

(- ), . ,
. .
, , , .
. .
, ,
. . ,
, . .
(907960) (9601276) , ,

.
.
1206 . - . -, .
. 1206 1207 .
-. ,
.2 , . . 1227 . , .
-.
, .3
1240 . 30- -.
1
2
3
, , 2005.
Ssanang Ssetsen, 1829.
, 2003.
2.
27
, -
-.
, .
, , - 500 .4
.
.
(.: -).
.
. ,

,
, , -
.
(Chandra, 1999)
.5
;
; ,
.
- .
:6 ,
, - , , , . ,
, .
,
, .
, , .
.
?
, ,
.
.
, ,
.
4
5
6
, 2003.
Bira, 1999 . : , , 2005.
. : , 2003, . 7576.
28
.. .
[], , ,
, . , . [] 30-
8- [1224].
- . 1245 ., :
. 1247 . . . - - (
). - . .
, . ,
, , .1
, ,
.

, , - .
, ; .
, .
( ) ,
,
,
IX XIII .
.2
. , 1251 .,

.3 , .
1251 . . .
, -, . , -, 1253 . .
.4 ,
,
, . -
1
2
3
4
, 2003.
, 2001, . 57.
, , 2005.
, 2003.
2.
29
,
, . ,
,
,

.
25 -
.5
1254 . -
:6
,
, , ,
,
-

(http://library.conlang.org/web/phagpa.html)
.
, , , - [1253 .] .
, ,
, , ,
. . ,
, . <...>
, . , - ,
. , , ,
. .
. , ,
. , , , . <...> ,

. ,
. [] 9- -
[1254 .].
.
5
6
The Mongols, 2009, p.17.

. : , 2003, . 7980.
30
.. .
,
; - .
: XIII . -
, , .1 : XIII
, -,
.2
1258 . - . . . 1259 . . :
, -. :
. , .
-.
, . . -
. , ,
. ( ).3 .
1265 ., , - . 1267 . - .
. 1268 .,
- ,
( ). . .
. .
- ,
, , , , .4
1271 . -, , , , .
( ) .
- ( 1
2
3
4
Parenti M. Friendly feudalism...

, 2007, 2009.
., 1977, . 324.
, 2003, . 8283.
2.
31
, ,
), ( ), - . - ,
. ,
.
59 . . 1274 . . , ,
. ( ) . 1276 . -
.
1279 ., -
- . 1280 .
- 46 . ,
.5 . , . , ,
. , - . - .
, , . , . -.6 :
-,
.7
, 1286 . -
.8
, . , .
. .
, , ,
, , - . . ,
. .9 , - , .
,
, .
5
6
7
8
9
, 2003.
, 1996, . 4051.
, 2003.
, 1935 . : , , 2005, . 88.
32
.. .
. , , , .1
.
, . :
. , . , . ,
. , .
, .
. XIII .
- -. , , . , .
- ,
,
- . -, -
. ,
, ( . 11).
,
.2 ,
, ,
.. , ,

.3 .
. . , -.4 1284 . ( ).
: ,
. , .
1329 . :
( )
.5
1
2
3
4
5
Franke, 1981, p.186328.

Farquhar, 1981, p.2555.
Franke, 1981.
, , 2005.
Farquhar, 1981.
2.
33

. , 1321 . , 12 .6 , ( ), , ,
, .
, (). .
, . . ,
. (
) ()
().7
1264 . ( )
- .8
,
. .
1256 1355 . 21 . , -
-.
, , .9
13 , . ,
.
,
. , , .
, , . , ,
, ..
, .
1267 . (
1287 1334 .). , .
- - :
. 6
7
8
9

Petech, 1989 . : , , 2005, . 92.
Smith, 1996, p.9192.
, , 2005.
34
.. .
- -.
, - 10 .
. , ( ) . .
, , .. .
. ()
1956 .1 , .2 1311 . ,
.
XIV .
, . -
. ,
,
. ,
. , ,
, .
.
,
. , . , , .
(, , , , ). , ,
.
, , , . , , .. ,
, .
1327 . . , .
.
(1308 .) - (1333 .) , 1328
1
2
, 2003.
Franke, 1981.
2.
35
1333 . .3 .
, , .
- 1331 . III , -.
-, ,
. . 1354 . , . 1357 . .
,
1/6 , , , , .
, , . 1351 . .
, , ,
. . 1368 . - .
: ,
, ! <...> , ,
! <...> , , ,
-, - ! , -,
, ..4
,
, , , .5
, , , . , 23 1374 .

, , - -, .6
,
,
.
.
3
4
5
6
., 1977, . 330331.
, , 2005, . 39.
Van Walt, 1987.
Sperling, 2004.
36
.. .
, ..
.1
, -, .2
, , . , .3
-. 1407 . IV ,
( -).
IV.
, , .4
. ,
.
, , . ,
.
.
. ,
, ,
, , .5
, . , .6
. , , , .
, .
- .
.
,
. XIV .

.
( ). 1407
1
2
3
4
5
6
. ...
Smith, 1996, p.101.
, 1996.
, 2003.
, 2003, . 97.
Van Walt, 1987.
2.
37
1414 .
.
,
, ,
.. , , .7 , . ,
, ,
.
. , , .
XV .
34 . .8 , , ;
. ,
.9 -, . 1569 .
,
, , .10
XVXVI . .
.
, ,
, . , , .
.
, . , , , .
, - . , ,
, .
.
1543 . , , , - III.11 ,
7
, 1975.
, 1959. . 11.
9
, 2003.
10
Kolmas, 1967.
11
, 2003. . 5.
8
38
.. .
.
,
. , .
.
.
, 1559 . .
1562 . . ,
.

,
.
30- . XVI .
, - III (Chandra,
,
1999)
. 1550- . (15071582), - (
).
. - . ,
. ,
-. 1576 . -
: , ... . <...>
() , -- - .1
. 1577 . .2
,
. 1578 . .
-.
. . - (. .: \ ). -
, . , -, -.
- , :3 , , , , [-]
. 1
2
3
-, 1999 . : , , 2005, . 107.

, 2003.
. : , 2003, . 106107. 10 , 5.
2.
39
,
-. ,
, : , .
. .
. , , ,
,
. - , , : , , , . ,
. , , . .
- -.
, . -
, : -
, , , .
-
. - III. , : , -
, . , -
, , 80 .4
: , 25- , ()-, .
: - .5
. , , ...
-, - . , . , -,
. :
[-. .] , .6 - :7
4
5
6
7
, 2003, . 108.
China, Tibet...
, 1978.
40
.. .
. <...>
-
... ... .
.
-, 1582 .
. ,
. -. - IV (15891617).
, . .1 1601 .
,
, . .
( ) . . ,
, - IV,
- . - I,
-
.
1615 . ( ) -, . . - , , , ,
, .2 1617 . IV 28 . , , ,
,
-.
1619 .,
.
, -, , -
IV .3 1618 .
. .
-. . 1
2
3
, 2003, . 109.
, 2003, . 112.
, . 112114.
2.
41
.
, - IV.
,
. . -
.
, ,
.4 1621 . .
1635 .
. 16341635 .
- V
-
(Chandra, 1999)
-, -.
.
- , ,
. - . 10-
, -. - .
,
. -. , . , - V ,
, ,
, , . - ,
. - .
.
- .
- V - IV. ,
, -,
, ( , ), -.
, -.
- , -,
, .
1638 . - . , (-
, , 2005.
42
.. .
), - - : , , - .1
- , ,
, , . -
-. -
. . - . -
- :
. 1642 . . - .
, - -, .2
600
, . , . 1642 . . - V ,
- . - - V
, .
. .
- .
, .
, . - ,
. - V - , .3
-
, .
- , , , .
, , .
. , .
1645 . - - - ( ). 638
. - V, 1
2
3
, 2003, . 118.
, 2003, . 123.
, 2001.
2.
43
,
. , ,4 .
.
* * *
. , , .
, , , , .
,
, ,
. . ,
, ,
.
,
.
, . , - : ,
.5 ,
.
(III . ..), , :6
... ,
... .
, . XVII . . , ,
, .
...

.
4
, ,
. - XIV.
5
, 1957, . 174.
6
. : , 2006, . 594.
44
.. .
, , - . , :1 XIII .
... ,
. -. .
,
.
XVII . .2 .
, , .

.
. , ,
.
, , ,
.
, - ( - ) .3 .
-
. .
- .
1
2
3
, 2006, . 4142.
., Parenti M. Friendly feudalism...
, 2006.
XVII .
( ). , . . 1639 . :
-, -, - -.1 . ,
, , ( ). 1642 .
-.
, , , . - .2
- ,
.
1644 . . - (
-),3 - V
.4 1647 . - -
.
:
. , 1649 1651 .
- V
.5
, - V 3 . . .6 1
, , 2005.
, 1978.
3
, , :
( , ),
( ).
4
, , 2005.
5
, 2003, . 126.
6
, 2003, . 127; , , 2005.
2
46
.. .
- , . , . ,
. - .
, ,
, . - ,
.
- V, ,
.1 , - ,
, . 300 . ,
,
. . . , ,
-, .
, , .
- . , .2 .
-
: , ,
..3 1653 . -
. ,
, .
, .
- , .4 ,
-, , . - ,
.
.
, , ,
, - , .5
1
2
3
4
5
Dukula'i Gozang .: Tibet and Manchu, 2008, p.8.

, 1996.
Tibet and Manchu, 2008, p.9.
, 2003. . 129.
Berzin, 2000.
3.
47
, ,
, , .
, .
.
- ,
, -.6 , - , : , ( ) ,
( ) , , .7
, , .
. -
, (
).
1653 . - V ,
.
, ,
, -,
.8 , , ,
.9 , . -
.
.
- 1655 . - .

.10 -.
, :
. , 6
, , 2005.
, 2001, . 148.
8
, 2003, . 129.
9
, 1978.
10
, 2001, . 147.
7
48
.. .
,
. .
-.
-. , . 1659 . ,
.1 , . -
.
. 16581659 . , , ,
. 1662 .
. .
( -).
-.2 1673 . , . . 1678 . .
-, .
-.
, .3
, -. ,
, ,
. :
.
1663 .
-.4 , ,
.
1680 . .
, . - - , .
1684 . , . 1681 . ,
1
2
3
4
, 2003, . 130131.
, 2009.
, , 2005.
, 1978.
3.
49
, ,
.5 1683 .
, 10 .
1682 . 68 - V, .
,
. ,
-, , , , . ,
. , -:
, , .
( 30 ), , , , -, , , .6 ,
, - V,
. , .
,
, .
- V . , . . - ,
: ,
- .7
: . , .
.
1691 . . - , . V ( ) , -
.
, .
1694 . -, V -. 1695 . .
5
6
7
.. ...
, , 2005.
Smith, 1996, p.117.
50
.. .
, ,
-, , , .1
-, - . -
- ,
- . 1696 . - V , 13 .
.
, 1697 .,
.2 - .
-.
,
. .
,
. , .3
1882 . 2500 760 . .4
.
, .
XVIII .
.
.
(, ), (, ).

. , : , , .
: ; ,
; ;
.5 , .
-
1
2
3
4
5
Ya Hanzhang, 1994, p. 73 . : , , 2005.

, 2003.
, 1996.
, , 2005.
Kolmas, 1967.
3.
51
, .
1697 1698 . -.
. - . . - VI , . ,
. , , , . 1701 .
, - - ( ) ,
- V. 1702 .
, .
.6
, , , , .
, .
- -,
-.
, - , .
- . , , . ,
, . ,
, .
-. - VI.
( )
.7
11 1706 . - ,

. 27 .8 . , -,
. - , , .
, , ,
. -
. , 6
7
8
, 2003.
, , 2005.
, 2003, . 146.
52
.. .
. (,
) 24 . .
. . ,
- VI ,
, .1
, -
-, -. - VI,
, -, - .2 ,
1710 . , . 1713 . - V
-, -,
.
(), , . -
. , -
.3
, . - VI
. .4 1715 .
-
, -, -.
-, ,
.5 . .
- 67 . . - , . , .
. - . - (
-) , . , , , 1725 .
-.
1
2
3
4
5
., .: The rebel Dalai Lama...

, , 2005.
: ....
, , 2005.
3.
53
. . 1718 . . -
. .
. : ,
.6 , . .
,
- VII. 1719 .
, .
, .
- VII.
. , ,
-.
- VII. 27
1720 . - -, , .7
, ( ).
- , . -
, , - -,

- .8
- VII 1720 . ,

.9 1721 . ().
, - ( ). ,
-,
.
.
.
6
7
8
9
, 2003, . 149.
, 2001, . 168.
, 2003, . 150.
Smith, 1996, p.126.
54
.. .
1723 . . (
-).
.1 .2 .
17221725 .
, 200 . .3

- VII: .
,
,
.4 , . . 100 . ,
( ), 7 . 17 .
. , .5 ,
, .
, 2-
. , , .
, .
,
. 11 . .
, .

, .6
- VII .

, ,
40 - .7
1724 . (, ),
, . 27 .
-,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
, , 2005.
, 2001.
, 2003.
, 2001, . 176.
Smith, 1996, p.126.
.
, , 2005.
3.
55
.
, .
. . , ,
, - () XIX
.8
, .
17271750 .
,
-, .9
1728 . 1500 ., . 14 , 13 . , , .
,
. . , , ( ).
, . -
, ,10
.
.
. .
5 . ,
.
, ,
. 17301731 .
. ,
. 1950 . 1732 . .
1734 .
, 2003.
, 2003.
10
, 1828, . 114.
9
56
.. .
-, .1
,

. 1735 . - ,
. . . ( -).
1740 . .
, ,
- . . , , , . 1740 . -
. 1747 . .
,
.
.
, -, . , ,
, .2
, . 100 . , , . .
,
. ,
... ,
. 1750 .
,
.
. , . , . -.
1751 . , , .
, :
; , . , 1
2
, 2003, . 158
, 2003, . 160.
3.
57
.3
-. .
, .
, ,
. , .
. .
, - VII ,
.4 1752 .
.5
, - . : , .6
, , - ,
.7 . ,
,
. , ,
. , 200 ,
.

. ,
, . .
. 1754
1757 . . 1755 . - -
.
1755 . :8
. . , , [ ] .
[].
, 3
, 1981, . 13.
, 1993 . .: , , 2005. ,
- ( : ...).
5
, 2003.
6
, 2003.
7
, 2003, . 163.
8
, 1994.
4
58
.. .
, .
, , ,
.
,
.
.1 , , .
.
, .
.
, ,
: , , ,
.2
. , - ,
.
, . , . 1760 .
( , ).
. . 2000 . 1%, 30% ( 6 .
.).
, , .
.
, 500 ,
, ,
1
2
, 1972 . : , , 2005.
: , 2001, . 40.
3.
59
:
..3
- VII 1757 .
- VIII -. , ,
-.4 . - .
. ,
, .
, .
1778 . ()
.5 - .
, , : ,
-. , ,
. , -.
1779 . ( ) - VI, . , ,
, - V. - ,
, . 1780 .
- ,
. , . , .
- ,
. .
.
1783 . . , .6 . - VIII,
, . ,
.
1775 . , ,
. , 3
4
5
6

A 60-point commentary...
Ran, 1991.
60
.. .
.1 .
, -, .
- .
. .
,
.
. , .
, .
1788 . , , . , .
, . , .2 ,
, .
. . .
, .
. ,
,
. ,
,
.
, -
. ,
:
, ,
.3 ,
: . .
1789 ., . .
, -
1
2
3
, , 2005.
, 2003.
, 2003.
3.
61
, . ,
: ...
, .
,
- .4
, . 1791 . . ,
, . . . - - . -
. .
, 13-
. , .5 . :
,
,
, , .6
,
, , .
,
.7 , , ,
, . . . , .
. - XIV .

. ,
, ..8
-
4
5
6
7
8
, 2003.
, 2003.
, 2003.
, 2003.
, 1978.
62
.. .
, : , , , ... , -, ,
.
,
, .
, ,
. , ,
, , , .1
.
1792 . ,
1818 .
.2 , ; -
-; ;
; , -
; ; , - -
;
- - ;
- ( )
;
; , , ,
, ; ,
, .
.
. ,
. .3 29
.4
1793 . , -, -
-. :
1
2
3
4
Ya Han Chang, 1991 . : : , 1993.

, 2003.
, 2003.
Ya Han Chang, 1991 . : : , 1993.
3.
63
.5
1792 . , , .6

: .
. . .
. . ,
. , , ,
,
.. . , 100 1903 .
39 .7
- - ( 1822, 1841, 1857, 1858
1887 .). 1995 . - I
(. 10). , , - IX,
- XIV, - IX .
. -, ,
. , . . , .
, , , .
.

, .
, , .
,
, . - ,
.

5
6
7
, 2003.
, 2003, . 119.
, 2003, . 121122.
64
.. .
. , 1796 . ,
.1 , .
.

, .2 .
, ,
.
( -) , . , 250 .
.
. , . , . 1805 .
.
, .
- .
1808 . -.
.3 , , . -
.
-. ,
. .
- . , , . .
, ,
. , , ,
. , ,
, . ,
. , , . .
1
2
3
, 2003.
, 2003.
, 2003.
3.
65

, 1814 .4
, , . 1807 . .5
.
. , ,
: , , . 1832 .
. 1834 . .

-
.
XIX .
.
.
, .6 ,
.
,
. , .
, .7 .

. XIX . - , ,
. .
. . , 1839 .
, .

. , ,
.
.
, (), 4
5
6
7
Yeh, 2003, p.499523.

, 2003; Smith, 1995, p.137138.
, , 2005.
Van Walt, 1987.
66
.. .
.
, .
, 1841 .
. , ,
. .
. , , , .1 ,
. .
,
, .2
. 1842 . , , . ,
. , .
, , . , - , .
.
. , , .
.
, , .
1844 . . , , 28 ,
, - .3 . . ,
.
. 1847 .
.
1814, 1840, 1842 1846 . . :
. 1852 . .
1853 .
, 1
2
3
, 2003.
, 2004.
, , 2005.
3.
67
. , 1855 .
, , .
,
;
, . , .
. . 2 , ,

, .4
, ,
.
1858 . -.
,
. . . ,
, ,
.5 ,
. . , . , . .
1861 . , .
, ,
.6 1898 .
( -), , .
. , , (, )
, .
.7 ,
.
, .
1862 1871 .
, 1871 1873 . .
4
5
6
7

, , 2005.
., ., , 1985.
...
68
.. .

- II. ,
1875 . .
XIX . , .. , ,
,
.1
, . 1863
1877 ., , , . .
. XIX .
,
.2
, , , , , .3 .

.
, . ,
,
.4
, , . .

.5 , . . 1887 . - -,
.. ,
. 1860- . , .
.6 , .
.
, 1
2
3
4
5
6
Van Walt, 1987.

Smith, 1996, p.141.
, 1901; . 1906.
, 2003.
, 1956.
, 2003.
3.
69
. ,
20 .
. ,
.
1876 .
, .
.7 , . , , , , 1858 .,
,
. .
,
.8
.
1890 . . . -
.
- ,
. , .9 1893 .
, - 1890 .
: .
,
, . . ,
, .10 ,
1720 .11
1895 . - III (18761933). .
- .
7
Van Walt, 1987.

, 1992; , 2003.
9
, 1906.
10
, 2003.
11
., ., , 1906.
8
70
.. .

.1
,
.
, .

. -
..
, ,

.2

.3
- XIII
.4
,
.
XIX .
. ,
.

,
- . , , ,
. , .
. ,
: . , , ,
.5
1
2
3
4
5
, 1906.
, , 2005.
., , 1893, . 183215.
Van Walt, 1987.
- , 1891, . 151.
3.
71
, ,
(
).

, .
,
.
. ,
.
XI . . -
(18541938), -
.6 ,
- III. , - , . :
[. .], , ,
, .7
.
, . .
- II 19001901 .
. 1902 . -
, . 1902 .
.8 , 1902 . ,
.. .
,
.. .

.9 , . , , . ,

.
6
7
8
9
. : , 2003.
Bell, 1992, p.62.
Shaumian, 2000.
Shaumian, 2000.
72
.. .
, ,
1890 ., .1 , .
2 1903 .
, ,
.2 .
()
- . ,
, , ,
.
. . .
1903 . . 6 1903 .
, 8
. 1904 .
, ,
.
, . 1905 1906 .
.
20 1903 . ,
, , , - , ,
, .3
. - , .
.
6 1903 . .
1903 ., , , - .4
1
2
3
4
Shaumian, 2000.
Shaumian, 2000.
Shaumian, 2000.
, 1906, . 3749.
3.
73
(, 1906)
.. , . 1903 . VII. , .
: , ,
.
1903 . ... ..
. 1904 . .

. 500 , 300
, . , , , .
() .
. , , .
.
, ,
, -
74
.. .
.1 , . - ,
-,
.
. : .2 ,
: ,
.3 , .
, ,
.
, , .4
, .
4 1904 . . .

.5 ,
.
: , . ,
,
.
.
. , .
.
.
, 30 , - III
.
.6
. - . 27
1904 . . ( -)
, .
, VIII -
1
2
3
4
5
6
, 2003, . 225.
, 1906, . 203.
Ran, 1991, p.12.
, 1906, . 195.
, 1906, . 248249.
, 2003, . 227.
3.
75
. - ,
.
II.
.. .7 - ,
.
.8 -

,
.
,
-.
- - VIII
, . , (: .. )
,

- -.9 , .
.10 . .. , ,
-, , ,
, .11 ,
. , , . () .
.
, .
. , 7
, 2004.
Laird, 2006, p.225.
9
.: , , 2009, . 5964.
10
, , 2000, .37.
11
, 1996, . 138.
8
.. .
76
- XIII,
(, 1906)
- .
-, .1 ,
, (, ) -,
-.
. . , , : .

-, .2 ,
, 7 1904 .
. .
,
, - 1890 . 1893 ., , 500 . ,
.3 . 9
1
2
3
Shaumian, 2000.
.: , 1906, . 342.
, 1906; , , 2005.
3.
77
, ,
,
.4 . . 5 ( )
- .
,
, . 3 1906 . . 6 1914 . 5 ,
.
, .
. 200 , . .
, , , . ,
.
23
1904 ., ,
. 11 -
,
.
. .
1904 ., - , VII .. ( )
.6
: , .7

: . , II, .
4
5
6
7
Van Walt, 1987, p.35.

, 2003.
Shaumian, 2000.
, 2006.
78
.. .
-. 1905 . , , .
. 27 1906 . , . ,
. , .1
-
. ,
- .2
31 1907 .
, .
, , .

.
, .
.
. ,
, .3
, . ,
.4
1903 . ,
, .5
, . XX . -
.6 (
-) .7 1904 .
, ,
1
Lamb, 1966, p.301 . : Van Walt, 1987, p.38.

Political & Secret les of the India Oce, London/10/147, Bell to Government of India, 16
May 1910, Inclosure Tsongdu to Bell . : Van Walt, 1987, p.38.
3
Van Walt, 1987.
4
, , 1975.
5
Sperling, 2003, p.70.
6
, 1947.
7
Sperling, 2003, p.70.
2
3.
79
, .
, .
. .

, . , .
:
, , ,
.
1905 . . , . , , - .
, .8 ,
1905 . -
. 7500 . 322
.9 , .
. ,
. , .
, ,
.10 1317 ., , , .
-.11
. . .12 1906 . 43 .
-,
, , ,
,
..13
.14 1907 . 8
Sperling, 2003, p.7375.

, 2003, . 237.
10
, 1956.
11
, 2003, . 238239.
12
Kolmas, 1967.
13
Kolmas, 1967; Sperling, 2003.
14
, , 2005.
9
80
.. .
. 1907 1908 .
.1
. .
1908 ., 1906 .,
,
. .. , .2
: - , .3
,
, , , .

. .4
, .5
- , , , .
.
II, -
, . .6
.
, . ,
: - III
. 1906 .
, .

, .7 - . 27 1908 . ,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Shaumian, 2000.
, 2005.
Shaumian, 2000.
, 2003, . 238.
Van Walt, 1987.
, 2006, . 420.
, 2003.
3.
81
, . - .8 ,
, , - . -
,
.9 - , , , .10
,
.
, , , - .11
.
, . , ,
-. ,
.12 -,
-,
, ..
, ,
.
15
, .13 -
, (
-).14 - , , ,
. , , ,
.
1908 . - .
,
. 1909 .
8
Smith, 1996, p.166; , 2006.

, 1985, . 256.
10
, 2006.
11
, 2003.
12
, 1985.
13
...
14
Smith, 1996, p.167.
9
82
.. .
, 1908 .1 .
15 .
, 200
.
.2 1910 . () (120 ) ,
.
, ( ).
1909 . - . , . ,
. 1 . .3 , , . 1910 .
2700 . - .
, , . , -
. ,
,4 - , .
, . ,
-, .
25 1910 . , - ,
, .5 ,

,
,
. , , ,
- -
1
2
3
4
5
, 2003.
Shaumian, 2000.
Van Walt, 1987.
, 2003.
.: , 2005, . 135137.
3.
83
. :
, .
,
-,
.6
() ,
- .
- IX.
-, . .
, :
.7 - . , ,
.
.
, , -. , ,
. .
. -
, .8 -
, : ,
, ,
,
, , . ,
<...> ,
.9
1910 . - III ,

1904 .10 ,
,
. 1910 . .. , 1912 . .. . - II,
6
, 2005, . 143.
Bell, 1992, p.114.
8
Van Walt, 1987.
9
, 2003, . 249250.
10
, 2003.
7
.. .
84
.1 , ,
. , , -
.

, . 19061910 . .. .
.. .
. , , : .
, . ,
.
* * *
. .
XIX ., .
19031904 .
. ,
,
. . ,
[], , , .2 .
.
. ..
, .3 -
,
.
1
2
3
.: , 2005, . 166167.
Van Walt, 1987, p.39.
, 2006.
3.
85
. ,
. (, .) , .
, .
, -
.
( ), .
.
1911 . , . . ,
.1 .2 , ,
,
. 1911 . , ,
. , 250 .
. -
, .
. 1912 . , .
, 14361444 . 1917 .
, .

: . .
. .3
, . , .
.
. . 8 19
1912 . . ,
, 1
2
3
Macdonald, 1932.
, 2003, . 251.
, , 2005.
4.
87
.
20 . .
4 1912 . . :4 1. . 2.
200 . 3. . 4. . 5. ,
, . 500
.

.5 , - . 14 , 16 .
,
. 6 1913 . ,
, . 1913 .
. 1914 .
.
1912 . . 8 1912 . ,

:6
, , ,
, : , ,
, ,
, [] [] .
,
,
, . , , ,
, , .
<...>
4
5
6
, 1992.
Van Walt, 1987.
.: , 2005, . 178179.
88
.. .
, , , , .
,
, - . , . .
,
.

. , .1 ,
. .
, - , -
.2
- , , . - VIII -.
- ( ) 29 1911 . . - . , ,
,
, . ,
, ,
, , ,
.3 , .
11 1913 . - , ,
, , , ,
,
...
.4 -
- .
, , , , 1
2
3
4
China can not have Tibet, 1912.

, 2003, . 259.
. : , 1999, . 103.
Van Walt, 1987, p.320321.
4.
89
, . - .
.. .
.5 - . -

. .
,
. .
23 1913 . - III . . , :6
, -, ,
, , .
.
, , , . - ,
.
.
.
- , , , ,
. , ,
.
,
.
.
. . , ,
, .
5
6
, , 2005.
. : , 2003, . 260262.
90
.. .
,
:
(1) .
,
, , .
(2) .
, . ,
, , , () .
(3) , , , .
,
,

, . ,
. ,
. .
(4) ,
, . , .
, . -
, , , .
, , ,
. , , .
.
(5) , ,
.
, . , ,
. . .

. .
4.
91
, , .
, .
, .
1951 . .1 ,
15 1913 . .2
, , , .
-
.
, .3
1913 . .
. 3 1913 . . , .
, ,
.
, :4
-; - V ; ;
,
; ;
;
1908 .
.
. - . . : ,
. , ,
. ,
.5
, ,
,
.
1
2
3
4
5
Shakya, 1999.
Ya Hanzhang, 1993 . : , , 2005.
, , 2005.
, 2003, . 267.
Van Walt, 1987.
92
.. .
, .
. .1
- . . 24 25 1914 . , .
27 1914 . , , . . 2 : , ,
,
, (
-),
.
. - .2
300 .
. . 9 ,
( ) , .
, ,
: . , 90 .
- .3
, .
.

3 1914 . : , , ,

; , ,
, , .4 , ,
, - :
, .
1
2
3
4
, 2003, . 268.
, 1992, . 265267.
Ran, 1991.
Van Walt, 1987, p.58.
4.
93
. , . 1914 . (
), ( ) , .
.
- ,
.
. ,
,
, , .
.. ,

1907 . ,
.5 , , , , .
. ,
.
6 1916 . , . .
,
. 1917 .
.6
(1886
1959), .
, .
, . , .7
1917 . ,
16 1918 . , 1918 .
() . 19 1918 .
.
. . ().
, 5
6
7
, 2006.
, , 2005.
Bell, 1992, p.193.
94
.. .
, . ,
. 10 1918 .

31 .
1919 . , . .
,
. 1920 . ,
.
, . 1919 .
, --
1915 .
. ( ) ,
. ,
.
.1
1920 . .. -.
,
, -
VIII. ,
, . ,
, . -; .
, . .
1920 . , , .2
, . 1921 .
. , , .
1921 . 1- . , 2-
1
2
Van Walt, 1987.

, 2009, . 294.
4.
95
1922 ., , .3
. .4 ,
. ,
, . . ,
, .
. , III
. .
(. 6). ,
, . , ( ), ( ), - ( ) .
, -.
.5
, , , . , ...
,
- IX 1923 . , , ,

.6 - . ,
, 1925 . . . .
, .7
, , .
.
. , 1927 . .. , .
.. , , 3
4
5
6
7
. : Van Walt, 1987, p.88.

.: , 2007, . 90109.
, 2004.
, 2006.
, 2003.
96
.. .
. .. - V ,
- , , ,
.1
, . ,
.
1920- . . 1921 .
, .2
,
. . ,
. .
1924 . .. , , .
. .. . .
1020 .
. 1925 .

, 1926 . . - III .
. , .
- VIII. , - ,

. 1930- . -
, - .3
- .
, . , , .
1928 . .

. 1914 .
(
, 1912 .). , , - III.
1
2
3
, 2006, 2008.
Van Walt, 1987.
, 2006.
4.
97
.4 , -. 1928 1930 .
-, 1933 . 5.
:
- IX . - ,
.6
-
.
,
. -

.7 , .
1930 .
. -,
1932 .
. , .
, , .
. , .8
.
.
. , 1914 . .
1932 ., , - III , .
.9 .
, , ,
, ,
-, . - 4
5
6
7
8
9
, 2000, . 3435.
, , 2005.
, 1978.
Van Walt, 1987.
, 1958, . 51.
, 2003, . 285.
98
.. .
, , , - .
,
, .
, . . ,
- III, ,
.
15 1933 . . . . ,
10 . .1
: ,
,
.2 .3
,
.
, . 1933 . - . ,
,
. ,
.4 16 1933 .
- . 17 1933 . - III .
, . - .
- .
. 2/3 5 ,
. 1934 . . .
25 1934 . .
- . : ;
1
2
3
4
5
, , 2005.
. : , 2004, . 361.
Bell, 1992, p.190.
. : , 2002, . 60.
, 1958.
4.
99
; .6
: ,
,

, 25 ., , , , ,
, .
, ,
; .
,
, , . , .7
. , . , .
1940- . , .
, .
1937 . IX 20 500 .

. 1 -
. , ,
, .
,
, , ,
,

..
.8 ,
,
. ,
- IX. ,
.
6
7
8
Shakya, 1999, p.6.

, 2002.
A 60-point commentary, 2008.
100
.. .
. 1935 .
, . . 1936 .
(, )
.1 . .
. ,
.
1 1939 . .
- III .
, . 1931 .
, 1931
1932 . , .
. ,
. .
,
- III. , . .
24- . ,
.2
-, ,
. , .
, .
.
, , . , .
.
.
, , , , .
, ,
.3
1
2
3
, , 2005.
, , 2005.
, 2002.
4.
101
, , - III. . -
, 6 1935 . ,
, , . , . ,
, . .
, .

. , , - XIII, : - ,
, .4
-, 400 . , ,
. 1941 . ;
1947 . .5 - XIV
22 1940 . .
.
, - XIV .
. ,
() (),
. 1989 . .6 ,
, -
, . ,
, -.7
Smith, 1996; , , 2005; A 60-point commentary, 2008; http://reting.

org/retingtulku5.html.
5
6
7
, ,
, , .: A 60-point commentary,
2008.
102
.. .
, - .1
. 1934
1936 .
- ,
60% .
.
.

. ,
.2
. 1936 . 3 . , , , , , , ..
2 . .3 1940 .
:
.4

( ), .
1935 . . , ,
, .5
.
, . .
.6
.7
. , , , , , .8 . , .9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

, 1974.
, 2007, . 108.
, 1972, . 24.
, , 2005.
Norbu, 2003, p.613.
Van Walt, 1987, p.89.
Ling, 1964, p.447448.
Ling, 1964, c.447448; Kolas, Thowsen, 2005, p.45.
4.
103
, ,
. .

. .
1936 . ,
3040 . ..10
. ,
.
1936 . I
, , .
. . -.
.11 1949 . ,
. .
4- 4050 . .12
2- 6- . .
, , . , ,
. . , , .
. ,
, .
. , , , .13
.
.
: . . , , .
, , .
- , 1937 ., .
.
,
10
11
12
13
, 1974.
Shakya, 1999, p.33.
, 1974.
, 2004.
104
.. .

.1
- . 1939 . . .
,
. .
1930- 1940- . , . ,
, .2
1945 .
. .
.
.
.
-, ,
. .3 .
. ,4

, .
, . ( )
,
. . . .
. .
, 1920 .
. , 1940- . .
, , , , 19421943 . , ,
.
.5

1
2
3
4
5
, 2005, . 14.
, , 2005; McCarthy, 1997.
, 2006.
, 2006, . 127132.
, , .: , 2004.
4.
105
. 1945 . . . , .
. .
. ,
. 7 .
, , .
- ,
. .6 , -

. - ,
, 10 ,
.7
, .
- , 1939 . . , .
,
. ,
, ,
,
. . , , ,
, , ,
,
.

, .
. :
,
1939 . .
, 1941 ., , - .8 1942 .
()
6
7
8
, 2002.
Laird, 2006, p. 290.
, , 1984.
106
.. .
. . .1 , -.

.2
. .
: ,
.3
1942 . . , .
,
.
1943 .
.4
, 1943 .
, .5 . . . ,
, - . , .6
,
.7 . , .8
,
.
.9 ,
,
. -, . 1942 .
, 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
, , 2005.
Ran, 1991.
Van Walt, 1987.
Van Walt, 1987.
, 2006.
...
Qin Yongzhang. A secret history...
, 1958, . 80.
Van Walt, 1987.
4.
107
,
1909 .10 . 1951 .
. 1945 .
. , , , ,
.11
1946 . .

12.
.
,
,
-, , 1939 . (Bundesarchiv,
Ernst Schaefer/
- Bild 135-S-13-06-35/:
License CC-BY-SA 3.0)

. .
, ,
,
.
, . , , ,
.13 ,
. . 1946 .
,
.14
, ,
10
, , 2005.
, 2000, . 381.
12
, 2003; Van Walt, 1987.
13
Van Walt, 1987.
14
, , 2005.
11
108
.. .
1939 . (Bundesarchiv Bild 135-S-16-01-17, 135-S-11-07-17/:

Ernst Schaefer/License CC-BY-SA 3.0)
4.
109
,
.1
. ,
, ,
, ,
, . , , ,
, .
, .2 ,
, .
.
. ,
. , 1947 . , ,
.
.
.
: ,
.. .
. , 200
.3 , .
.
, . ,
,
, .
, , : 200 .
, .
,
, .
1947 .
.
. 23 ,
1
2
3
Van Walt, 1987, p.83.

Smith, 1996, p.253254.
, , 2005.
.. .
110
..
.1 . :
, ,
.2 , .
15 1947 . . 1
2
, , 2002.
Shakya, 1999, p.3.
4.
111
.3
, ,
. , , . . ,
, -,
, :
? . ,
, ,
.
1947 . , , , ,
(
) .. . . ,
, , .
: ..
. , , . ,
VI - .. .

, - .
,
.4 . , ,
.
.
.
. , . .
,
, .
1948 ., , .
: , 1910 . .5
.
3
4
5
, , 2005.
Van Walt, 1987.
Shakya, 1999, p.8.
.. .
112
* * *
.
, ,
. ,
, , .
:
, . ,
, ,
, .
-
.
,

.
, .1
. 2
.3 ,4
. ,
, .5
,
.

. ,
, : ,
.6 , . ,
, ,

, .7
, , ; , , , ,
. , ..
. , .
, 2008, . 114.
., , , 2005.
3
, 2001.
4
, 1968.
5
, , 2005.
6
, 2008, . 32.
7
, 2003. , , .: , 2008, . 5256.
2
114
.. .
:1
;
;
;
( ); ; ;
;
;
; ; ; .

.

,
.
. , .2 :
,
. , , 1919 . .3
.
, .
, .
, ,
. , , .
: ,
.4 .
, ( )
().5
:
. . , , 1
2
3
4
5
, 2008, . 120126.
., , 2006.
, 2005.
, 1833, . 130.
, 2008, . 37.
5.
115
, . .
.
- , . ,
: .
, ;
, , ,
.
. ,
.6
(IV . ..).
,
, -----. ,
.

. , . ,
, .7
, .
.
, . , .
.
.
.
. , .
,
. .
, . ,
. .
. ,
(.: ). IX .
.
6
7
, 2002.
, , 2005.
116
.. .

.

.
,

.
137
. , .
.

, (Chandra, 1999)
. 781 .

.
. , . 791794 .

-, . , ,
. .
.
, . ,
.
.
.
, ,
. -,
.1 , , , .
, .2
. (
). . 842 . . , . , , , .
1
2
, , 2005.
, 2003.
5.
117
, . . .
, .. XII . .
. ,
,
,
.
, .
,
(Chandra, 1999)
sect ,
; ,
.

(. [] []) .

[]
[]. 30- . XI .

. ,
.
.
(Chandra, 1999)
(10121097),
.
- , 1155 . .3
1073 . ,
. , -
, 2003.
118
.. .
. 1294 .

,
. . .
.
,
. - I
.
.
( 2),
(Chandra, 1999)

.

.
XIV .

.1 1346 .

. XIV . .

(Chandra, 1999)
(13571419).
.
. , 1349 . 90
.
16- .
, 1999.
5.
119
,
, ,
. . 25 .
, , ,
.
.
( ).2 ,
, .3
.
, . ,
.
.
: 1409 . , 1416 . , 1418 . , 1447 . . ,
. 1432 . , - I.
,
. 1447 . .
, , ,
- -, : (14751542)
(13911447) .
- III. - . -
. -
, . .
, 45- , 51- . 1582 ., ,
.
.
- IV, ( 2),
.
-. - .
, - -.
, , , .
, - I
2
3
: , 2007.
. . .: , 2007, . 1, . XXXV-LIII.
.. .
120
5.
121
3
: 1 1938 . (Bundesarchiv, Bild 135-S-13-22-38/: Ernst Schaefer/License
CC-BY-SA 3.0); 2 ,
; 108-
: , 1938 . (Bundesarchiv, Bild 135-KA-07-064/:
Ernst Krause/License CC-BY-SA 3.0); 3
, 1991 . (Norbulingka Institute Archive, Dharamsala/NgodupTsoknyid)
(13851438), .
(14391504)
(15051566). ,
- IV. , , ,
, - . -
. .
(. 2), . .

.
, , , .
. -
122
.. .
. 1587 .
-.
. XVII . . XVII . -, .
, : , . ,
, , , .
,
, , -
.
. XVIIXVIII . - . .
-, ,
: , . .
.
. . XIV.1
: ,
,
. , , , , , , . ,
.

. , .
:
, ;
; , .
( )
, . . (.: ). ,
-, 1991, 2008.
5.
123
.
, ,
( , ).
, , .
.
. , ,
, . , ,
, .
.
, , ,
, . ,
. . -
, . : .
.
,

. : , , ,
, , . . , :2 ,3 ,
, , .
.
( ) , (,
), (
- )
.
, .
, , : . : ,
, 2004, . 534.
, ,
, , .
- -,
. , .
: ,
.
3
124
.. .
. - XIV :1 . ,
.
(.: ) . .
(.: ),
, . .
- , . .
: , ()2
( ). . ,
, .
. ,
, ,
, .
. . ,
, , .
, :
, . 10 : , , , , , ,
, , . 10 .
.

.
, . . , :
.
, , .
,
1
-, 2008, . 38.
, . , , , , , . , ,
.
2
5.
125
. ,
.

. ,
.
. , ,
, , .
, .
: ,
10 , ,
.
. , , () ().
, , .. ,
. ,
. , ..
,
, , ..
(),
, .
(),
() , . ,
.
. ,
, . ( .: ) () . , ,
,
. , , -.
, ,
126
.. .
, 1938 ., (Bundesarchiv, Bild 135-S05-10-04/: Ernst Schaefer/License CC-BY-SA 3.0)

. ,
, , ,
.
,
,
, .
,
. , , ( ) . - XIV .
, .
5.
127
70 .1

. , -
.2
, , .
. -
.-. , 2002 ., 75 .
,
.3 -,
, . . , 18 .4
, ,
. ,
, . .
- ,
, .
. . ,

.5 , , , , . , , ..
, ,
, .
, . .
, . , , . -
: , . , . , , ,
1
2
3
4
5
, 2004.
-, 1992.
.: ...
...
.: Mind and Life Institute...
128
.. .
. . .
.
-
. - , ,
, .
, ,
, , , .
, . :
, , .
, , , .
, .
, .1
, ,
.
, .

, , ,
. , , .
.
.. :2
,
. ,
, (), ( ) (- -). XIX . ,
,
( ) ( , ). ,
1
2
-, 2008.
.. ...
5.
129
, ,
,
.

,
.
, (-)
.
,
.
60- XX . :
- XIV ( 19661976 .)
, , , , (. )
,
. -
.
, .
,
, ,3 ,
- .4 , , .
2008 . , .5
, -. .6
. . , .7 ,

3
4
5
6
7
: ...
...
Protection and development...
, 2003.
., Butt, 1994; , 2002.
130
.. .
, . ,
.1
, .
. , . , :
.2
.
.
..
.: - 10 ,
; - ;
. 2008 . , . 1959 . , , , , .3
, .
1948 . 21 .
,
.4 . ,
. ,
.5
.
. .6
. 7 , . <...> , , , , . <...> , . ,
. .
.
, - , , . - VIII
, . 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
: 2006...
., , 1999.
Smith, 2008, p.68, 72, 133135.
Smith, 1996, p.553554; Kalovski I. The true face...
, 2006, . 9596; 2009.
.: .. ...
, , 129, 131; XII, 165.
5.
131
, , .
. , .8 ..
, , .9
, , . ,
.10 , : .
: .
. ,
, .
, :
, .
. , . , ,
.11
, , ,
. , - ,
. . , . , ,
.12 . , , , .
,
.13 XIX . , , .14 1909 .
, .15 1914 . , .16
.17 , - .
8
China's Tibet exhibit...

Grunfeld, 1996.
10
., Wright, 1904, p.333334; Forney M. China...
11
. : La magie...
12
, 1899, . 417.
13
, 2004.
14
, 1903, . 83.
15
, 1997, . 30123.
16
, 1999.
17
...
9
132
.. .

. ,
. , , . , - - .1 . ,
, .2 .3
. - ,
. , ,
, , . 1965 .
.
, , .4
,
.
.5
:
.
, , . , . ,
.6 , .
.
. , , . , , ..
. : ,
. , , . , . XVIII . .
: .
, , .7 .
. ,
.. , (), ,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Bell, 1991, p.289.

, 2004, . 263.
Kauner P. Was human...
Smith, 2008, p.133134.
Powers, 2004, p.141.
Grunfeld, 1996, p.2930; Kauner P. Was human...
, 1804, . 2324.
5.
133
, , . , ,
.. ,
. .
( , ) .. , . ,
, , . : , (
!). , , .
, , ( ) 32
. , ...
. , ,
.8 ?
, , . , , 10521135 ., 10121097 . -.
.9 10 . .
, . ,
, -.
: . .
2005 . - :
? ? !
, , .
. <...> ,
.11
* * *
. , : . ,
. , , .
8
, 2008, . 139.
, 2008, . 244247.
10
.: , 2008, . 347.
11
. ...
9
134
.. .
.
, , , , .
, .
,
. . ( )
. ,
. - : , .1
-, 2007, . 377.
().
, .
( ) .
(VII .) . ,
. ,
:1 , ( ),
, -, -, , , , .
, ,
.
. .
. ,
, -.
.
, . . , ,
. . . :
.
. , . .
.
,
,
, -
, , 2005.
136
.. .
.1 , ., :
( ) ( ).2
, . . ,
. , ,
. ,
.3
VII . ,
( ) ,
.4
. , . , , , . .
,
, . .
, 10 ,5
(. 5). , . VIII .
. ,
. , .
, , , ..
- V ( -), ,
13 16 ,
. , , ;
, , ; , , : ,
, . 1792 . 1
, , 2005.
, 1958, . 40.
3

,
.
4
, , 2005.
5
: , 1993.
2
6. ,
137
.6
. .
.
, , .7
, , .
.
.
. (
) , ,
. , , . .
, VII .
10 . .8 , ,
850 . 3,5 . .9 : .
. . .
,
.
, ,
. .10 , , ,
, ,
.
.
. . ,
,
.11 .
6
, 2003.
, , 2005.
8
Childs, 2003, p.423444.
9
Childs, 2003, p.424.
10
: , 1993.
11
Ecological Improvement...
7
138
.. .
. : , , , .1
. , ,
, .
,
, .
, .
, .
. 1642 . - V . , , .2
, . , , .
, ,
. , .
, . , , ,

, -
- , .
, , :
, .. ()
.3 ,
.
, . ,
, . .
, ,
, .
.
, .
, , . .
1
2
3
: , 1993.
., Chhodak, 2003, p.3642.
, 1947; , 2006; Bell, 1991, p.159.
6. ,
139
. -. ,
. - ,
.4 (), .
.
: . () ().
. - .
(). ,
: , , , , , .5 ( ) ,
. - .
- .
- ,
.
197. 25 .
, , ..6 ,
,
-.7
. .. ,8
.
-, , .
. -,
. . ,
. , ,
, XIX .
.9 4
5
6
7
8
9
, 2003.
, 2003.
, 1978.
Van Walt, 1987.
Grunfeld, 1996.
, , 2005.
.. .
140
(, 1906)
.1 , - -. (, ).
.2
-.3 , .
-.
. , . .
, .4 - ,
.5
: .
1
2
3
4
5
-, 2000.
Macdonald, 1932, p.209210.
, , 2005.
-, 2000.
, , 2005.
6. ,
141

.

. . ,
, .6
. .
, . ,
. . , .
.

, 95% 7.
: : .8
-.
, , . .. ,9
1959 ., : 5%, 15%, 20%, 60%. , ,
, 30%.10 ,
. , , , , .11
.12 , ( ),
, .
()
(). - ,
. ,
.
,
() . ,
- . . .
6
Van Walt, 1987.

...
8
...
9
Grunfeld, 1996.
10
Laird, 2006, p.318.
11
Tibet: Human Development, 2007.
12
Smith, 2008, p.1516.
7
142
.. .
,
. - , ,
- .
.
. - III ,
,
(-) . 1944 . ,
.1
. ,
,
, .
. .
. , , , , . , .
, , .
, .. , .2 ,
,
, .3
, , , ,
. , , .
.4 , ,
. ,
, .5
, , 1
, 2003.

(, 2007). .
3
-, 2000.
4
: , 1993.
5
2
6. ,
143
. , .6
. .
, . , .7 , ,
,
.
18 . .
.
, .
, .
, .
, .
. , - -.8

. .9
.
, 5 . .
1020 .
.10
.
.
. ,
. , , , , . ,
1940- . , , . , .11 .
, .12 ,
, : , , , .
, ,

Goldstein, 2007, p.12.
8
Tibet: Human Development, 2007.
9
10
, 1958.
11
Andrugtsang, 1973, p.28.
12
7
.. .
144
(: .. )
.1 . 1959 .,
,
. :
, .2
, ,
, , , .3 .
. ,
. . .4 ,
. , , . , .
. . 100200 ., . .
. 1
2
3
4
Norbu, 1999, p.174175.

Andrugtsang, 1973, p. 30.
., Bell, 1991.
, 2003.
6. ,
145
2
C :
1 1900- . ( , 18, 7); 2 , (: Don Croner)
146
.. .
, , ,
:1 ,
... ... , .
. 4 , 27
,
4,5 (0,37 )...
, .
.
,
900
. 1 . . .2
90% - , . , 1938 ., (Bundesarchiv, Bild 135-S-15-15-24/:
Ernst Schaefer, /License CC-BY-SA 3.0)
.
.3 ,
,
.4
, ().5 .
, . ,
.
. , ,
.6
.
, . .7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
. : Tibet: a Human Development, 2007, p.70.

...
, 2003.
, 1958, . 12.
, , 2005.
Norbu, 1999.
, , 2005.
6. ,
147
(, 1883)
, . ,
. .
. , . -
: 80%, .8 ,
, :
.
,
.9
, .
8
9
, 1958.
, , 2005.
148
.. .
,
, . : , .
. XIX . 10 . 1914 . , , ,
.1 , , ,
, , ..2 , , , , .. , ,
, . .
.
,
, . .
, XIX ., , 60% .3 ,
.
. , .
- XIV, , .
,
.4
, : ()
( ); (, , , ,
..); (, ,
..). - III , . - XIV
.
. , . ,
, . . ,
1
2
3
4
, 2003.
, 1958.
-, 2000.
6. ,
149
.5 . .
,
.6 , ,
.
3 . , . ,
, . , .
, . ,
,
.. , .7 . ,
, - III 1913 . : 8
,
, , <...>
.
.
. .
- III , .
. , 20% .9 , ,
. - XIV
, , , .10
.
5
Bell, 1991; Govinda, 2002, p.100.

, 2003.
7
, , 2005.
8
, 2003, . 261262.
9
, 1958.
10
-, 2000.
6
150
.. .
1950 . 36,8% .1 . .
. , .2 . 1913 . - III :

. <...> , , , , / .3
.
. : .
. ,
.
. , ,
(, ,
). , ,
.
. , , .
-, . ,
.
, , . ,
, .
,
.4
, . , ;
. , 1
, 1976, . 262.
: , 1993.
3
. : , 2003, . 261.
4
, (Goldstein et al., 1997 . : Parenti M. Friendly feudalism...),
,
, .
2
6. ,
151
, .5
,
, .6
,
.7 . :8
,
, , .
, , ,
; !
<...> . , ,
.
, , .9 ,
, : , .10
.
,
.
, .
. ,
,
.11 . () , .
, .12 . 1914 .
.13 , , . 1890 . 5,
10, 15, 25 50 . . 5
Palden Gyatso, 1997, p.27.

7
8
, 1958, . 140.
9
Tibet: a Human Development, 2007.
10
11
, 1903.
12
, 2003.
13
, , 2005.
6
152
.. .
(: .. )
, .
.1 ,
.2
,
.
, , , .
- . , . . - , .
. XIX .
, . , (
-), .3
, , , ,
, . , ,
, , . , 1
2
3
, 2003.
Van Walt, 1987.
, 2003.
6. ,
(: .. ). 100 , 10
153
.. .
154
(http://www.rangzen.net)
, , , , , , , , , . , ,
, , (.: ),
. 2/5 , ,
.1
- , .
- III . ,
. . , , . .
. ,
,
.2
, ,
, .
,
1
2
, 1958.
6. ,
155
.3
, , . , . .
(,
-) -. 1913 . -
, ,
. - 15 .
. 1914 . 5 . 500 .
.4 . .5
, .
,
. -
. ,
, , .6
- III , , ,
. ,
. , 1928 .
.7 1930 . .
. ,
, . 1930- .
120 .8
.9 , ,
, ,
. .

.10 .
- III , .
.
, , . ,
3
, 2003.
Van Walt, 1987.
5
, , 2005.
6
Macdonald, 1932, p.231.
7
, 2003.
8
, 1958.
9
Shakya, 1999, p.12.
10
, 2003.
4
156
.. .
. .
, 1923 . - . , .1
, -
. 1944 .
, .
,
. .
1925 . 1920- . , . -
.
,
, - .2
. - ,
, ,
; ,
.3 ,
- . , 1926 .
.
1920- .
,
. , , . , ,
. ,
, .
. , , . , , , , , .. , , , .
: ,
, , -
1
2
3

. : , , 2005.
, 2000.
6. ,
, , 1938 .
(Bundesarchiv, Bild 135-S-11-08-32/: Ernst Krause/License CC-BY-SA 3.0)
, 1938 . (Bundesarchiv, Bild 135-KB-10-096/License

CC-BY-SA 3.0)
157
158
.. .
..1 .
,
, 1,52% .2
. , ,
( ). ,

- . , .
, -.3 ,
, .
, , .4 , 1880 . .. ,
.5 , .
, . . -
.6 .
.
, , ; -. -
,
, . .7 ,
, . , .. .. , .
. . ,
. ,
.
,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
, , 2005.
, 1958.
Smith, 2008.
, 1947.
, 1883.
, 1923.
., ., , 1875.
6. ,
159
, . ,
. , , .
,
.8 , .9
,
.10 1874 . 800
, .11
, , 30 ,
.
, ...
. XIX .
, ,
, .
, ,
. ,
, , , , . , , , ,
. XIX .
: ( ), () ..
. 2759 , .12
,
. : ,
, .
, .
, ,
.
XX . ,
-.
: , .. . , , (). 1913 . - III
8
, 1875.
, 1947.
10
., ., , 1947.
11
, 1883, . 237.
12
.. ...
9
160
.. .
, ,
1.
. -,
. , . ,
.
, . . .
, . , .2 , . 1909 . - III ,
,
, -.
.3
-, ,
. . ,
: 4
- , . : , . ,
. , .
, , .
- .
, ,
. , - , ,
.
: . . . ,
. <...> , .
, :
.
. ,
, .
1
2
3
4
, 2003.
, 1958.
Bell, 1991.
, 2002.
6. ,
161
. , ,
. ,
, , , , . <...> :
.
.
, . , ...
, .
, :
, ,
, ...
.
,
.
.5
. . , .
. , 2003 . .
.
: . , , , 510 . 13
, .6
. . , , .

. , , . .
, . ,
.
, 90% ,
,7 : .
5
6
7
, 2002.
, 1958, . 43.
Kalovsky I. The true face...
162
.. .
35,5 ,
43%.1 , , , , .
, , , .
, XIX . 1 15,4 . .2
-, , .
.. ,3 . 45 . .
* * *

, - (
). ,
. , -
. .
, , , . , . , - .
, . -
. :
.
. ,
. .

.
, .
-
. (. 5)
. (, , ..) . , ,
, .
, - ,
. - XIII XIV, : .
,
, .
1
2
3
...
. : Grunfeld, 1996; Sautman, 2008.
, 2004, . 35.
, ,
, .. .1
. .
1940- . .
- 1945 ., . , ,
.2 1949 .
-
, , - .3
- () ,
4. ,

8- .
- ()
. , ,
, . , .
8- 4- 100 . .,
1 .

1
2
3
4
, 1995.
Bache. 50 years of turmoil...
, 2003, . 499501.
, 2005, . 2528.
164
.. .
,
, ,
- .1 : .
-
2.
, . .
. 1945 .: 327877 , 5207 ,
5219 , 743 , 612
, 1224 , .3
,
,
,
.4 , . :
,
.5
, , . .
1949 . -
() 1012 .6
1946 . - .7
, , , , , , ..8
. ,
, . 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
, 2005, . 2528.
, , 1972.
, 1984.
, 2005, . 31.
, 2005, . 67.
. ...
, 2005, . 31.
, , 1972.
7.
165
- . , ;
,
:
1948 . 4600 .9

. , 20 . ,
30 . , 7400 ..10 1946 1947 . , ,
151 . ., 1948 . 335,4 . ., 1949 .
420,6 . .
() . 1946 .
.. . : , ,
.11

. , , ,
.12
(, ),
.
8 1948 . -
.. :
.13 - .
8 1949 . , , .. , .14
9
, , 1972.
, 2005, . 109110.
11
, 2005, . 3248.
12
, 2005, . 112113.
13
. : , 2005, . 116.
14
. : , 2005, . 117.
10
166
.. .

.. () 10 1949 .: 2 1949 .
28- [ . .]
: , .
, () . .1 ,
.. , , ,
-, ,
- 14 1945 .,
- .2
1949 . .. ..
:
.3 -
( ),
. , 1949 . .4 ,
- 1949 . ,
(), : () , ,
, ().
: !
. ,
, , . -,
, , , ,
.
,

. , , , , ,
.5
.
, , 1
2
3
4
5
. : , 2008, . 166.
, 2005, . 112.
, 2006.
, 2005, . 116117.
, 1967.
7.
167
.6 ,
1949 . ,
.7 1949 . ,
. ,
.
. , . ,
,
. , .
, , .
, ,
. ,
. . ,
.
, .
. . .
- .. , .
, . , . ,
, . - .
.
1949 . , .
. , . ,
, ( ) . , ,
.8
5 1949 .
500 33,3 . .;
19 , 6
7
8
Shakya, 1999, p.79.

, 2003.
, 2005, . 118119.
168
.. .
, , , 125,8 . .;
4 , 28 . . ..1
. 2 1949 .,
(), :2 -
, , , .
.
. , ( ). :
() () , .
,
. .3 , :
.
,
.4 . : ,
, ,
,
, .5 , .
1 1949 . .
, .
.
. , .
. 23 .
, .
, , , .
1
2
3
4
5
, 2005, . 110111.
. : , 1958, . 93.
Shakya, 1999.
, 22 11.1952.
: , 1993.
7.
169
, - .
. , . ( 1912 1928 .)
. ,
: , , , . .
.
( )... .
: , , ,
,
. , .
, .
.
- , 10 ,
( ) , :
().6 ,
. , ,
,
. . 2
. ,
.
, .7 , , .8
. 4 1949 .
, .
- III:9 , , , , . , ,
- -
. 6
7
8
9
. : , , 2005, . 259.
Promises and lies, 2001, p.2430.
, 2003.
-, 1992.
170
.. .
. .
.
, . , , .
, , -, ,
;
.1 .. ,
, ,

.
. , , (. 4).
23 1949 . -.2
, . . 30
, :
, , - 2- .
,
1949 .,3 .4
, .
16 1949 . 2 1950 .
-
- , .
, , , 1950 .
.5
, , 40 . ., .
, .
7 , 10-
1

Goldstein, 2007.
3
: , 1993; , , 2005.
-.
4
-, 1992.
5
Goldstein, 2007.
2
7.
171
.6 , ,
. ,
. , , . ,
. 1950 .
-
.
2- . 18- .7
. : ,
,
93 . ..8 , ,
.
22 1950 ., , , -. :
, ,
. 10 . . , , ,
,
. : ,
. . . .9
, ,
.
.. :10 -, ,
, , ; -, 6
Goldstein, 2007.
, , 2005.
8
, 2005, . 149150.
9
, 2005, . 155156.
10
, 2005, . 156.
7
172
.. .

,
,
; .
,
1950 ., ,
. 30 ,
(
).
. , .
.1
.
.2 :
.
,
. , ,
250 , ..3
- .
-15.
,
64- .
1200 . . (300 . .)
1%.4 ,
. . 943 . ( 40% ),
1,5 . , 506 . 477 . 5. , . , 19501953 .
599 - , , ., 19541957 .
1
1958 . ..
(, 1992, . 101).
2
, 2005, . 165166.
3
., ...
4
, , 1972.
5
, , 1972.
7.
173
6447 - (
), 19581960 . 7307 ,
.6 1966 . 8089

.7 -1, -6, - Q-5 .8
, , .
: ...
, , .9

.10
.
, , , .
,
.
.11 , . , .12
,
, ,
.13
1950 . , .
. 31 , 1912 ., .14
6
, 1980, . 1332.
, 1980, . 55.
8
, 2008, . 5455.
9

16.09.53 . : , , 1972, . 64.
10
, 1970, . 8.
11
Van Walt, 1987.
12
13
- , 1962, . 123.
14
Shakya, 1999, p.12.
7
174
.. .
, .
, :
. , ,
.1 ..
.. . , , , :2
, , (), , .
- ,
, , , , , -,

, .

. , ,
:
1) , ;
2) ;
3) ;
4) ,

- .
- .
, , ,
, .3
.

-
1
2
3
Van Walt, 1987.

, 2003, . 316317.
Promises and lies, 2001.
7.
175
.4
,
. .
.
- -
.
( - )
. .5 ,
. ,
, .
18 1950 . 18-
(), 28 30 . . .6 ,
. ,
.
, . , , , .
, :
.7 . : ,
, ,
, ,
.8
, .9 .
, , , . ,
. ,
. ,
. .
. : ,
4
5
6
7
8
9
, 1958, . 115.
Goldstein, 2007.
Smith, 1996, p.272273.
Goldstein, 2007.
, 1958.
Norbu, 1986 . : Smith, 1996, p.273.
176
.. .
, , ,
.
10 1950 .
, .1 -

. . .
1950 .,
, , -,
. , ,
.2

.3
, :
.
. ,
. 3 ,
. - . 1936 . (. 4).
. .
, , .
- .
. , , . , ,
.
29 ,
- - . .
. 1950 .
.4 ,
. ,
, ,
.
, . ,
. . , 1
2
3
4
Shakya, 1999, p.38; Smith, 1996, p.274; Herold K. An annotated...

, 1958.
Smith, 1996.
Smith, 1996, p.273.
7.
177
, .5 , .
, .
:
. ,
. , .
. . .
, . . 5002 .
, .6
8500 , 50 , 250 , 200 7 30 . .8
.
40 .
.9
,
( 25 ).
, .
7 1950 . . ( )
: , . 54- , ,
. 157-
, , , .
.
. . : 10 ... ,
, ,
, . <...> , .
, , , . , .
, , ,
, 2002.
, 1958.
7
-, 2000.
8
, , 2005, p.260.
9
Van Walt, 1987.
10
6
178
.. .
1. , , , . ,
. . , .
, , , , , . : 3 . , .2
11 , . , .
,
. . , .
12 . , .
.3 17 . , .4
.5 18 . 19 .
.
, ,
. ;
.
,
, .6 22
, 27 .7 ,
: , , ..8
150 .
100 . . : , ,
.9 , , -
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Herold K. An annotated chronology...

McCarthy, 1997, p.5254.
Shakya, 1999.
McCarthy, 1997, p.54.
Herold K. An annotated chronology...
Shakya, 1999.
Smith, 1996, p.279.
Wang et al., 1997, p. 210.
, , 2005, . 260.
7.
179
5738 ., 180.10
, , 7
25 1950 . 5700
2 . .11
25 1950 . , ,
.12 , , ,
.
, ,
, .13
26 .
. :
...
,
.14 10 1950 .:15

, ,
, .
,
, ;

,
.
, ,
, , , , , , .
10
11
12
13
14
15
Ling, 1964, p.13.

Survey of Tibet Autonomous Region, 1984 . : : , 1993.
, 2003, . 318
. : Van Walt, 1987, p.144.
. : Ling, 1964, p.89.
180
.. .
. .
,
, . , ,
. , , ,
... .
, ,
.
1 1950 .
.1 6
.
,
. .
7 , . :
. ,
, ,
, .
.2
, .3
.
. .
. ,

. ,
, ,
1
2
3
, 1958, . 139.
. : , 2003, . 319.
Van Walt, 1987.
7.
181

.4
, .5
.
,
. .
16 1950 . , .6
.
-, ,
. , , ,
. ,
.
21 1950 . .
, 1911 ., . , 40
. .
2009 .
17 1950 . - IV, 15 .
:7 ,
, -, ,
, .
( ) ,
. - , . , ,
, .
24 1950 . . . ().
. . .8
4
5
6
7
8

Van Walt, 1987.
Secret: CTC releases documents...
. : Van Walt, 1987, p. 145.
, , 2005.
182
.. .
()
.
. . ,
, , .
, , ..1 , ,
, ,
. .2
, .
, .
. ? .
, , .
. , - ,
,
: ,
.. ,
.3
1951 .
.4 1952 .
, .
, , , ,
.
.
19 1950 . -
. 5 1951 .
. -
.
.5 -
.6
1
2
3
4
5
6
, 1958.
-, 1992.
, 1958, . 139.
Horlemann B. Modernization eorts...
-, 2000.
Shakya, p.5051.
7.
183
. , .
,
, . ,
.
, , , , , ..7
,
. .
, , , ,
, ,
.8
3 . ( ) .
- .9
,
.
, : (1)
; - III ;
; (2) , ; (3)
, , ; (4)
- ; (5) , , , .
, , , , , .
, .
, -
. . 1951 . - . , : , .
. ,
, -
7
8
9
. : Goldstein, 2007, p.85.

Shakya, 1999, p.50.
Shakya, 1999, p.62.
184
.. .
18 ;
-.1

. , , , .2
,
-.
, , . ,
, ,
: (1) ; (2) ; (3)
; (4) ,
100 .; (5) .
,
. ,
, . 29 .
.3
.
. () .
1940- . ,
, n , 1949 . .4 1950- . ( ) ,
.5
, 18- .
, ,
. , . .
:
-. , , ,
1
2
3
4
5
.: Shakya, 2003, p.589606.

Shakya, 1999, p.6465.
Shakya, 2005.
Norbu J. March winds...
7.
185
.6
18 .
. .
, , 22 .
26 , . ,
.
28 10 ,
.7 , . .

. . 2 . , , 10 .
,
, , . - , .
, .8 2 ,
10 ,
. 7 , . 10 - ,
. ,
,
, . . ,
. , .
,
. .9
, . , , ,
-.

,
.10
6
Shakya, 2005.
8
9
Shakya, 1999, p.7071.
10
7
186
.. .
, . , -
.
14 , ,
, . . ,
: - - , , 45 .
. :
-.
, , ,
.
-.
.
21 7 .1 , 10 , . ,
, : -
45 , ; ; 20
. ;
12 ; 500 1 . . ;
. ,
.
23 1951 . , 17 . :2
[] ,
. ,
. 100
, ,
.
, , ,
.
1
2

: ; , 2005...
7.
187
. ,
.
.
1949 .
, . , .
. ,
3, , ,
,
. ,
, .
;
,
, .

, , .
,
.

,
.

, , ,
, , ,
, , , ,

. 1951 . . .
3
188
.. .
17 :
1.
:
.
2.
.
3. ,
,
.
4. , ;
-. -
.
5. -.
6. - , III - IX .
7. ,
. ,
, . .
8.
.
9.
, .
10.
, , , .
11. , ,
. . , , .
12. , ,
, ,
. .
7.
189
13. , , ,
, .
14.
, , ,
.
15. , ,
, ,
.
16. , ,
, . , .
17. .
:

( ), , , ,
( ), , , .
, ,
, ., .
, .
- XIV, .1
,
. ,
.
, .2
, , , .3 : . :
1
2
3
-, 1992, . 66.
Promises and lies, 2001; Cao, 2007, p.111114; . ...
Van Walt, 1987.
190
.. .
17
(Facts about the 17-point Agreement, 2007, p.129). .
. :
7.
191
,
.1 ,
-, .2 , .
,
. . .
:
. , ( . ). ,
..
(1926 .). , ,
.3 ,
, .
, . ,
, : ,
.4
, , . ,
. ,
:
(), (). ,
. ,
(. 1)?
, , ,
, . ,
, ,
.
, ,
.
2 :
, .
1
2
3
4

, 1948, . 357374.
192
.. .
(. 8), .
15 . 4,
- , .
, . ,
, .
,
, 1951 ., , . .
,
, -.1 ,
, .
.
. . . 1.
. , , .2 , ,
. ,

, , . ,
. ,
, .
:
. , . ,
, ,
(. ).
, . , , :
, ,
.3 .

. , .
1
2
3
, 1978.
Shakya, 1999, p.90.
, 2000, . 71.
7.
193
. . ,
.
.
, ; ,
, ,
..
, . , ,
.4 , . 2000- . , .
, .5
C: . .6 27 1951 .
. -
- .7 , . , . ,
.8
. .9
, ,
, , .10 . ,
, . , - .
9 1951 .
4
Promises and lies, 2001

, 1959, . 233.
6
Shakya, 1999, p.7071.
7
8
Shakya, 1999, p.7071.
9
10
Shakya, 1999, p.7071.
5
194
.. .
. , ,
, ,
-.1 ,
,
.
23
1959 . :
17 , , . , ,
, , .2 , ?
8 1951 . , -
.3 . ,
, .
, .
17 - , 9 3 . . , ,
.4 . .
, - . . , ,
, .
, :5
, ;
, ;
, ; -
; ,
(, ),
; 1
2
3
4
5

., Arpi, 2007, p.7881; Ngapoi, 1991, p.5, 1012.
-, 1992.
7.
195
.
,

: - -;
;
; , , ,
.6
6
196
.. .
, ,
,
, , .1 , .
24 -
.2 , , 24 .3 .4
-, ,
, !
- .5
(,
, ). -,
.
.
-, , ( . 11).
. 26 .6 29
.7
. . 1 1951 .
() -, - . 15 .
. , . , ,
,
- ,
.8 , . - .
. .
- .
30 . . 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Le, 1985 . : Goldstein, 2007, p.225226.
Origin of the title...
Blondeau, Buetrille, 2008, p.68.
: , 1993.
, 2003; Promises and lies, 2001
-, 1992, 2000.
7.
197
8 . ( ) , .9
. . .
, .
, . : , .10

. .
.
. .
.
,
.11
( ). (. 6).
, .. .
2 . , .
. 10 , 9, 23 . .
.
.

.12 , ,
.

. ,
1952 . .
. . . 1951 1954 . 71 . .13 69900 15600 .
,
. , . , .
- . . 16 .
9

Shakya, 1999, p.95.
11
12
13
10
198
.. .
1952 . -
. , . 10 1952 . .
. 1952 1958 . : (
) .1 , .
. 23 -,
. 23 1952 .
-. , 100 . .2 ,
, . . 5 .
. , .3
.
, 1949 ., , , () ( ),
, ,
.4 , , .
1952 .
.
, , . .
, . 1955 . . ,
, ( . 1). . : ( 1951 .), , (
1953 .), ( 1954 .). : ( 1953 .). :
( 1953 .), ( 1953 .). :
(1957 .).
1954 . 1
2
3
4
Goldstein, 2007, p.302303.

, , 2005.
, 1968.
, , 2005.
7.
199
, . : ( ), ( ).
.5
, .
, .6 ,
, .
.
, , ,
,
.7
.
.
. , .
-,
. . . 3 4
.
31 1952 ., ,
.8 , .
. 1952 .
, . 31 1952 .
. . , . 1

.
6 1952 . . , ,
, .9 ,
- ,
5
6
7
8
9
, , 2005.
, 1968, . 73.
. : , 2004, . 204.
Shakya, 1999; Promises and lies, 2001.
Mao Tse-tung, 1977, p. 7376.
200
.. .
, . , , , .1

, .
, 17
.2 .
, . ,
.

11 1952 :3 31 ,
, , ,
,
.
(),
. . -
.
-. ( ).

(1953 .),
(1956 .).4 . . .5
, 1952 . , .6
.
. 800 .
1953 .
.7
. , , . 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Shakya, 1999, p.106107.

, 1978.
Norbu, 1999, p. 126.
Goldstein, 2007, p. 309310.
Shakya, 1999, p.118.
7.
201
.
.
1952 . ,
, .
. .
, .8
, ,
.
.9 , . 1950- .
.
, .
1959 . 900 .10
.11 , 19521956 .
, .12
( ),
, , . ,
, .
. ,
,
1956 .
17 ,
, , ,
, ..13 1957 .
, .
,
.

. 8 1952 . , .14 1953 . , 29 . - -. 1956 .
. 8
Andrugzang, 1973, p.3335.

Norbu, 1999, p.126.
10
, , 2005.
11
Ginsburgs, Mathos, 1964, p.95.
12
Norbu, 1999, p.130140; Smith, 1996, p.371372.
13
Shakya, 1999, p.164.
14
Ling, 1964, p.44.
9
202
.. .
. -
,
.1 . 4, 6 11 .
1954 . 1- . 20
. -, , , ,
, -.2 - , :
, .3
, .
1954 . . , -.4
. - , - . -
, , , .. .. , . .5
, ,
. .
,
, , , . ,
- . 19 1955 .
- -
: , , ..6
- . : , , , .
-, , , .
.7 - .8 , ,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
, 1978.
, , 2005.
Laird, 2006, p.321.
Shakya, 1999, p.123.
, 2003.
, , 2005.
-, 2000, . 113.
-, 1992, . 101.
7.
203
. : (
).
-. , .9
29 1955 . . , , ,
.10
7- 9 1955 ., ,
, , ,
- .11

( ), ,
- -
. . 30 1954 . .
9 1956 .
. , .12 .
17 .
1 1956 . (, ) . , , :
, <...> ,
, .13 ,
. .
, , , .
-, -
, . ,
,
9
Goldstein, 2007.
11
Ling, 1964, p.107108.
12
, 1958, . 36.
13
. : , 1958, . 3536.
10
204
.. .
.1 ,
.2
, (. ).
, .
,
. , . , , -
, .3 .
- ,
, .
26 1956 .
.
, .4 , : ( ), - , .
.
.
,
.5 - XIV , , , . , , . 4 6 .
,
. ,
.
1956 . 14 .6
. 1957 . 50 8
.7 , . . 4 .

, 29 1954 . 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
-, 1992, . 107.
Goldstein et al., 2004, p.206 . : Fifth International Conference, 2008, p.102.
.: , 1978, . 6568.
, 2003.
, , 2005.
, 1978.
7.
205
.
,
. ,
. ,
. . , ,
, .
1956 . .
.
.

.
-, 1951 .
. ,
, , , .8

:
,
.
, - .
, - ,

, , , , ,
(: Ray Kreisel)
, , , .
. 19511954 .
, 1,7 . , 0,1 . 1954 . 3300
. 1953 .
.9 1953 . 90 . . , -
8
9
, , 2005.
, 1958, . 17.
206
.. .
, , .1
, .2 , .
.
, ,
: .
.3
, . 1951 .
18-
.4
. , . ,
, , . , , ..
.5
. , ,
, .
, ,
. . ,
. , ? ,
, : ,
, .

.6 , . . , 19501959 .
, - .7
.
, .
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Shakya, 1999, p.116.
. : Tibet: 19501967. 1968, p.491.
Goldstein, 2007, p.181184.
Shakya, 1999, p.134.
Norbu, 1999, p. 112121.
7.
207

- -.8
, - , . ,
-, ,
. - . .
,
(1956) , , ,
, , ; ,
,
.
.9
(19581962 .), , .
1- 2- (19531957 19581962 .)
: , , ,
, , .10
, .
27 1954 . -
- . , - .11
-, ...
1955 . , ,
.
: , , ..
1955 . ,
, .12
, .
. , -
-.13 ,
8
Goldstein, 2007, p.430438.

. : Ling, 1964, p.206207.
10
, 2001.
11
, 1962, . 1920.
12
Ling, 1964, p.60.
13
, 2003.
9
208
.. .
.
, , , ,
.1 , .
1952 . -
. , 1953 . ,
1955 . , , 1956 .
. 1959 . . , , , , . 1956 .
.2
. 1954 1955 .
1 . .
. , , .3 ,
, . , ,
. .
. 7 10 . , 1955 . , ,
.
.4
, ,
.5 19531955 . 400
, 170 . 1958 .
18 ,
. .
, , , .6 . 1957 . 78
. .
. .
.7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Goldstein, 2007, p.417418.

, , 2005.
Ling, 1964, p.118.
, , 2005.
Khetsun, 2008.
, 1995, . 19.
7.
209
* * *
1951 . . ? . , .
6 .: ,
.8 .
- ,
. - , . ( ) , () . -
,
. , . .
,
. , , .
, . . . ,
.

,
.
, . ,
.,
. -
, , .
. .
.

. , . ,
( ),

-, 2000.
210
.. .
, . ,
.
,
.
, , ,
. , . 10 1954 . :
. ,
. , .
, , ,
. .
.1
- , , . , .
, , . , ,
. , .
.
, .2
, ;
. , , .
, ,
. ,
, ,
.
, , .
1
2

, 2000, . 35, 68.
, . , . () () .
1949 .
.1 , .2 .3 ,
. 19501954 .
( ) , () (, )
.4 . . ,
631 ., 1140.
. 1951 . 70 . . .
. , .5
. , 300
. 500 .6 . , . ,
.
, , . 1954 . . .
,
,
1
2
3
4
5
6
Norbu, 2003, p.613.

, 2000, . 318.
Tibet Under Chinese, 1976, p.14; Norbu, 2006.
Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic, 1960.
Tibet Under Chinese, 1976, p.1421.
212
.. .
. 1953 . .1
,
.2 .
: .
, , , .3 1950- . .
19551956 . , . ,
, , ,
.
, .

, .
, .
. 1956 . , 1957 . ,
. .
.4 , , .
,
-
, ,
.5 1120% .
6 1950 .,
, .6 , , .
, ,
,
1
2
3
4
5
6

, 2000, . 318.
Smith, 1996, p.387.
, 2000, . 318.
Shakya, 1999, p.143.
8.
213

.7
. 1950 . , .8 ,
, . , .

.9
- 1950- . 5 1957 . , 5
. , 1 . , 2
. , 6 .
1 .
.10 , 1952 . 877 , 1965 . ( ) 14830, 7153 (
), 1989 . 70 . 56 .11 . , ,
:
. , 1954 .
( ) 1500 .12
- , , .

, . . . . ,
,
. .
,
.13 , .
1955 ., - XIV
. . , , 7

Wang et al., 1997, p.232.
9
, 2000, . 318.
10
Ling, 1964, p.224.
11
Shakya, 1997.
12
Ling, 1964, p.86.
13
8
214
.. .
.1 ,
, . ,
, .

, .
, .
1955 1956 . . .2 .
,
, . , - .3
.
1950 .4 , . 1952 .
. ,
. , . ,
25 . 19541955 . , .
, . .
, , , :
, , : , , , .
, . .
1956 . ,
, . , .
. ,
3 . . .5 , .
, .6
, , XVI . III. .
1
-, 2000.
, 1978.
3
Buttereld, 1979.
4
The Question of Tibet, 1959, p.206; Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic, 1960, p.42
253.
5
Shakya, 1999, p.140.
6
, .
2
8.
215
, , . ,
.
.
.
, , .
,
() .
, .7

. , . ,
-28,

.8 ,
(Norbu J. March winds...)
, ,
.
. .9
, , . , . ,
. ,
, . , , ,
. , .
,
.10 . . ,
7

Smith, 1996, p.410.
9
Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic, 1960, p.42, 235.
10
Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic, 1960;
, 06.09.1956, National Archives 793B.00/9656 . : Smith,
1996, p.410.
8
216
.. .
. , . , ,
.1 . ,
, , , .
, , , .2
. ,
.
13 . ,
, . , , . . , .
. .
, ,
, .3 , ,
, .
, .
.
1956 .
, .
( )
, 1952 .4 . .

. , ,
-, .
,
, , . , ,
.
, .
. , , , . ,

1
2
3
4
Norbu, 2006.
The Question of Tibet, 1959, p.37.
Norbu, 1999, p.145146.
Shakya, 1999, p.144147.
8.
217
; , . . , .
, 25 1956 .
, .5
.
40 . .6
1956 . , .7
, . . (-
), ,
. . ,
, . , . ,
, .
, ,
, .8
, , , .9 , , -.10
, .
, ,
. ,
.11 - : , .
, ,
,
. ,
. , .12 , , 5

Andrugtsang, 1973.
7
Smith, 1996, p.407.
8
-, 1992.
9
-, 1992.
10
11
12
, 2000, . 319.
6
218
.. .
.1
,
.
.
, ,
.2
( ,
), 1950- .
. , .
,
. .
. ,
. ,
.3
,
1950- .4 , , , ,
, , , , . , , , ,
, , : . .5
1954 .
.6 . , , .
, : . 15 , ,
, , ,
. .
. 1955 . ,
.
, . ,
. , 1
, 1978.
The Question of Tibet, 1959, p.53; Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic, 1960; Secret:
CTC releases documents...
3
, 2000, . 319.
4
5
, 2004.
6
Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic, 1960, p.38, 4344.
2
8.
219
, , . , , -
. 1955 .
() 7. , ; 12 , .
, .
.
, .8 :
. , ,
.9 , ,
. .
.10
.
. , .11
:
. , ,
, ..,
.12

. , ,
. , .
, .13 : , . . .

, .14
. : , .
.
7
Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic, 1960, p.4344.

Smith, 1996, p.404.
9
Trikamdas, 4 June 1959.
10
11
12
13
Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic, 1960, p.196
14
Samsara: personal testimony...
8
220
.. .
, ,
, , .
1956 . .
: .
. . . <...>
,
. , ,
, . , , .
<...> , , . ,
. , , ,
. <...> ,
, , .
1.
, , .2 .
.
. , , , , , , , , , ,
( ), ,
, .3 . , .4
, , -
.. .
, . , , , .. ,
1959 . 250 ,
.
- , ,
, .5 , 1
, 2004, . 187188.
Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic, 1960, p. 87; -, 2000.
3
Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic, 1960; -, 1992, 2000; . .
.
4
-, 1992, 2000.
5
His Holiness the Panchen Lama...
2
8.
221
-15 , 2004 . (Creative Common License/

uploaded on 7 May 2008 by nathanialfreitas)
, .
. .
. .
1020 . . -,
34 . . 8001000 .,
.
. , , , , , .6
- 28
-15, .7
.
130 . 1956 . 60 . .
1963 .8 1986 . -
, . . -, , .9
-
. , ,
, , :
6
7
8
9
Panchen Lama, 1997, p.67.

Ardley, 2002, p.31.
China Spring, 1986, June, . : : , 1993.
222
.. .
, ... ,
.1 ,
, , : , .2
, , , , :
, ,
. , , . ,
.
, 3.
, , . , .4
,
, . . , : ,
. ,
. 195657
5.
,
. , , , , .6
. .
.
.
, .
, ,
1
2
3
4
5
6

. : Tibet: 19501967. 1968, p.326.
, 2000, . 319.
Ling, 1964, p.192194.
8.
223
, ,
,
; ,
, . <...>
,
.7 , , ,
. , . ,
. ,
.

. 1 1956 .

1956 1957 ., , .8 46 . .,
2400 .,
4060 . ., 2030 .
3050 . , 6 .
.
- . , ,
. , , , .
.
.
20 1956 . VIII ,
.
, - , , . ,
, : 1) , ; 2)
,
- ; 3) .9 ,
.
, .
7
8
9
, 1966, . 4748, 51.

Dangdai zhongguo de xizang, p.225 . : Jian Ch. The Tibetan rebellion...
. : , , 2005, . 268269.
224
.. .
. , , , , .
, .
. (19051964),
.
. , , .
1956 . .. : , , .
. ,
, .
, , , , ,
. , , ,
.
, ,
, , 1. .
1956 .
.2 , ; , .
.
, ,
17 .
1956 . 2500- . : - . ,
, . -
, ,
.3
.
, - , 1
2
3

, 2003.
8.
225
.
15 1956 .:
,
... ,
. ,
? ,
, .4 , .
17
,
, - .5
27 1957 . : ,
17 , ,
, , ;
.6 -, . 1 1957 .
. 1957 . .
90%,
( , )
, .7 , .
- -.
: , .8
- , .
. .. . .9
- , .
,
, . .
4 1957 . XIV
4
5
6
7
8
9
, 1978.
, , 2005.
. ...
, 1978.
-, 1992.
Brief introduction of Chushi Gangdruk...
.. .
226
(DIIR Archive, Central Tibetan Administration)
.
, - , .
1958 . 15 . .1 - 1958 .
1500 ,
.2 .
. , .
23 .

( ). ,
, .
, ,
.
. .3 ,
.
, -,
1
2
3
Shakya, 1999, p.167.

Ardley, 2002, p.31.
8.
227
. . ,
,
.
.
,
.4 - . , ,
, , . .
. , 1957 . 150 .
. .
16 1958 .
.5 ,
, .
. 18
10 . , , , ()
.6 27 ,
.
. ,
, .7 , , . ,
, 50100
. 120 , 8. ,
, .
100 . , , .
, .
, .
. .
. , ( ) , .9
4
5
6
7
8
9

Andrugtsang, 1973, p.6266; National uprising...
., Wang et al., 1997, p.244.
228
.. .
(DIIR Archive,
Central Tibetan Administration)
8.
229
. , .
, : , .

,
.1 .
.
.
1958 . .2 , ,
, , . , .
. , , ,
. 200 .
. 40 . , 68 , 50
. .
17 , . ,
,
.3 50100 . . , . , .
.4
, ,
. - , -
, - . .
, .
,
. . .
.
.
, , , , ,
, , ,
1
2
3
4

-, 1992, . 127.
.. .
230
(Andrugtsang, 1973)
, , .1 , , , 15 .
550 , 20 .
. , 176, 700 200 . , . , , , ,
. , .
,
, 2 . . .2 , . .
.3
.
, 1952 1958 . 996 , 10 . .4
1
2
3
4
Andrugtsang, 1973, p.7091 .

: , 1993.
8.
231
- . ,
1957 . - 15 .
.5 , 1957 .
.6
1958 . . ( ,
) ,
. : , - ..7 :
15 ,
: 10 . !
.
, . , : 1958 . . <...> ,
, ,
, . .
, ,
, .
, . <...>
50 50
, , 10 . , ,
. [] -11
26- , ,
. 2 . ,
.
, , . <...> -11 ,
, , 8.
250- . , ,
, ..
1958 . .9
,
5
6
7
8
9
Dunham, 2004, p.256.

, 1958, . 24.
, 1958, . 915.
Jiang D. Popular history...
Ling, 1964, p.248251.
232
.. .
,
, , .
, , .

, . , , ,
, . 1958 .
.1 . 1500 , 1200
, 2200 26 .
.
.
1958 . . , 1958 .
90% ,
.2 , ,
, . () .
- , .
. .
.3 , . ,
. , . , .
, 600
.
1958 . ,
() .4 , .
, -. ,
, . . , , ,
.
1
2
3
4
Ling, 1964, p.322, 332.

. : Tibet: 19501967. 1968, p.322323.
Smith, 1996, p. 442443.
8.
233
,
.5 ,
. 2 .
.
.
,
. . 50 . , . ( 1675 .)
.
. 1958 . , , , ,
.6 , (
) 18 1958 . : ,
. ()
,
. <...> 390
. .
, -,
, . , 7.
22
-,
, . :
, , , , , . , , :
, ,
,
.8 ,
, .
, , .. :
, , .
5
Kolas, Thowsen, 2005, p.47.

, 2003.
7
8
Trikamdas, 5 June 1959; The Question of Tibet, 1959, p.43;
.: Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic, 1960, p.21, 5963.
6
234
.. .
1958 . 80 . . .
.1
, . . .
.2 .
1959 . ,
. .
.3 16
- .
,
,
.
.4 , .5
. 1959 .
3- 200 .6 1959 .
.7 500 . , . . ,
.
- , .
22 1959 . :

. , 3 4 , 5 6
7 8 . . ,
, ,
10 . , .
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Shakya, 1999, p.185.
, 1976, . 263.
Shakya, 1999, p.488.
, 2000.
, 1978.
8.
235
. ; ,
, 8.
, ,
. , : , , , ,
,
.9
1959 . 23 ,
16, , , 100200 . .10
,
, 6575 .11
, 1959 .,
, . ,
100 . . .
. , -
, . , -, .12
- 10 . ,
.13
. , - 9 , , - 7 .14
, , ,
.
, , , : , - . : ,
,
.
;
8
. : Jian Ch. The Tibetan rebellion...

. : Jian Ch. The Tibetan rebellion...
10
Patterson, 1965 .: , 1978.
11
Shakya, 1999, p.489.
12
-, 2000.
13
, 2003
14
Jian Ch. The Tibetan rebellion...
9
.. .
236
10 1959 .
, .1 , , . 1958 . , -.
1959 . , .
-, 9 . , ,
10 . .,2 30 .3
, , .4
1
2
3
4

, , 2004.
, 2003.
8.
237
- .
. ,
- .
.5 - , , ,
, , .6
.
, .
. ,
, .

.
10 -, , , ,
.7 , - -
. , , .8 .

70 . , ,
-, . 17
,
.9 . 10
,
.
12 , ,
.
.
.
, , 1 . . , . .
5
6
7
8
9
Jiang Ch. The Tibetan rebellion...

.: , 1959, . 187190.
, , 2005.
Shakya, 1999, p.194.
, 1978.
238
.. .
- 10 16 .
, , , - .1
600700 .2 . ,
. , , . .
.
. . 11 : , , , ,
, .3 ,

. ,
, , .
- . .
.
, , .

.4 12 .

.5
12 1959 .
.6 ,
. .
. , - ,
. , . 14
, .7 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
.: , 1959, . 3035.
Wang et al., 1997.
, 1978.
Tenpa Soepa, 2008, p.21.
8.
239
. , , .
, ,
.8
-
. -, , , , , , 17 1959 .
.
, - .9
- . ,
. , , :
, , . ,
-, ,
.
- 19 .

.10
17 .
, , , , ,
.11 :

. ,
.
18
60 .12 : , ,
,13 ,
,
14.
(),
300 ., - 8

, 2003.
10
Liu M. When heaven shed blood...
11
12
13
.
.
14
9
240
.. .
,
.1 , -.
.
.2
, , , , , ,
. , 19
,3
, . 2 20 , -, .4 , , .5 20
, -. 23
.
20
. . 9.30 .
.
.6
, ,
, ,
. , .7
. , . ,
, , . ,
,
, ,
..
.8
.9

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

, , 2005.
-, 1992, 2000.
Shakya, 1999, p.203204.
Phuntsok, 1992.
8.
241
.
,
.10 ,
. 22
.
. , , : , .11
23 .
: , ;
. .
, ...
.
, . ,
, : ,
.
, , - . ,
. , . ,
, : 12.
. 30
1959 . :
, , , .13
, . , . , , .
. . 45
, , .
,
.14 , 1015 . 20 . .
, .15
. -
, , . 10
11
12
13
14
15

, 2005, . 178.
. : Smith, 1996, p.451.
Khetsun, 2008.
Smith, 1996, p.452.
242
.. .
, 23 4 . ,
8 . , 81 , 27 , 6 , 10 . .1 , , , .2
.
( ), ( 7 ., ).3
25 .
. , 8
17 , , ,
.4 :
.
, 28 , , ,
, , , .
, - . . - ,
. : , . - . .

.5
, -.6 ,
, . (300
) .7 . . 12 . .
, , ,

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
, 1959.
Shakya, 1999, p.204.
Wang et al., 1997, p.246247.
Shakya, 1999, p.201202.
8.
243
.8 1959 . .
, ,
.
.9 , .
28
.10 :
,
, , , -, , 17 ,
19
- .11
, 18 ,
, 16 . ( ) .
,
, . , .
, .12 ,
, .
1957 . ,
.
, ..
1958 .
, .
, . ,
, 10 17 .
- .13
.
8
Ji Youcuan, 1993, p.87 . : Jian Ch. The Tibetan rebellion.., p.91.

Smith, 1996, p.480482.
10
.: , 1959, . 13.
11
, 1959, . 1
12
, 1959, . 417.
13
., , 2004, . 83; ...
9
244
.. .
- .
, ,
,
,
. ,
, . <...>
, . <...> , . <...> ... ,
. <...>
() .1
, , , ,
. ,
17 , . . .

.
, 28 1959 .
, :
. ,
, , .
, 2009 . 28 , .
17 . 8 1959 . 28 . .

.
,
.2
1- 2- 28 1959 . ,

1
2
, 1978, . 7583.
, 1959, . 60.
8.
245
- XIV (DIIR Archive, Central Tibetan Administration)
.3
,
. . .4
29 , - XIV .5
. 31
. - -, :
, ,
6.
.
8 1959 .
. , .
, 10 , 3
4
5
6
, 1959, . 195197.
, 2000, . 323.
, 2003.
Van Walt, 1987, p.163.
246
.. .
2 . .1 , , 1959 .
87 . .2 25 . .3
, 20 .4 87 .
, , , , , , .. .
;
.5
, 19591961 . ,
93 . , 19591960 . 81 .6
1959 . , , , 80
. .7 . 18 1959 .
- () ,
8. , 17 , . .
. ,
.
.
- , . - ,

.9 20 -
- ,
,
, 1950 .10 5 , .
XIV .
- . ( ) , ,
, 1959.
, 2001.
3
-, 1992.
4
, 1959, . 10.
5
6
Ji Youquan, 1993; Knaus, 1999 . : Blondeau, Buetrille, 2008, p.89.
7
, 1978.
8
.: , 1959, . 8084.
9
His Holiness's Middle Way Approach...
10
, 2003.
2
8.
247
.11
21 1959 . 1353.
, : 1) , ,
,
, ; 2)
, 12. 45 9 () 26 .
, , , , ,
..13 . .
. , , .14
, . ,
, , .
. , , .
, . , , ,
.
. . 1960 . 4 . .15
100200 . 19611962 .
100 , , .
1960 .
, :

. , ,

, 16.
, 1960 .
, 1962 . 11
(2000)
.
12
...
13
Norbu, 1999, p.156157.
14
Butt, 1994, p.89.
15
16
Ling, 1964, p. 449450.
248
.. .
. , 70% ,
, , 1551 1987 .1
, :
, , , .. . ,
, . - : 2

. . ,
, , ,
, , . <...> .
. ,
, , . . ,
, .3
3 . .
. (
), , ,
.
. .
1960 . , -
57 . .4
, , , , , .
, .
1959 1960 . , .
.5
,
.
1959 . . . , , , , . .
1
2
3
4
5
Wang et al., 1997, p.249.

, 2004.
Norbu, 2006.
Sonam, 2007.
8.
249
18 .
- ,
. .
, ,
-1, , , .
, , , ,

. .
, . .
( 16 .) . , . ,
, .
.
:
. ,
,
. . , 34
. 1520 . , .
. 6.
, . ,
, .
1960 . .7 ,
, . .
: . ,
. : ! :
! , ?
. , , , . , , ,
. .
, .
, , ,
. 20 .
1960- . .
6
7
Sonam, 2007.
Sonam, 2007.
250
.. .
.1
, , .
. , 1960 .
, . .
. 2 . , , , . . ,

. 1961 . - .
40 19581962 . .
550800 . (250363 ) .2 , -1 -2, , , , ..
, , ,
(. 7), , .
, ,
.
1965 .,
. 1960- .3
. 3040 . .4
. 1962
1976 . ,
44 .5 ,
.6
,
, , ,
. , ,
, , , 1
2
3
4
5
6
, 1984.
Sonam, 2007.
., 1975.
Van Walt, 1987.
Wang et al., 1997.
8.
251
, , . .7 ,
, . 1954 .
().
- - . 1959 . .
,
, 29 1954 ., 1954 . 1948 .
. .8 , , ,
.
. 1959, 1961 1962 . , , 90 . . 2 . .9 .
,
, . ,
,
.
.
1959 ., .. .
, , .
. 13 1959 .
,
, - , -
.10
.. 1959 .
. , , . 2 .
, , - ,
7
...
Shakya, 1999, p.2324.
9
- , 1962.
10
, 2001 (1), . 106107.
8
252
.. .
- . ,
, ,
. : , -.
. :
.1 . 18 1959 .
.. , ,
, , .2
, . . . 1965 .
.
, . ,
, .
,
, . 1950- . .
, .. -
.. .. . , . 1960 .
, , , , 30%, 50%,
80%, 90%, 25% ..3
-
10824 . . (
125,5 .).4 . , .
, , : ,
. 29 1959 .
, , , , , ,
, .5 15
,
1
2
3
4
5
, 2001 (2), . 99.

, 1980, . 48.
, 1980, . 121.
, 1959.
8.
253
.6 , . . 18
1959 . 1- 2- :
, , , , , ,
1100 . .7
1200 . . , , 1953 . ,
,
( . 9)? , , ,
. , .
29 1959 . -
, 30 .8 , ,
17 ,
, .9 , .
, , .
31 1959 . :
, , ,
. -
-
,
, .
<...> , , ;
,

.10 :
, - ,
11.
. 6
Shakya, 1999, p.244245.

, 1959, . 67.
8
, 1959.
9
, , 2005.
10
, 1959, . 2425.
11
7
254
.. .
2- 1959 .,
.1 : -, - . , , . -
.
, . , , .
1959 . : , , , ,
.2
. , .
. , ,
. ,
, , , .
.3 . , , ,
.
: , . .
, , .4 , .
, , . ,
.5
. .
:
. ,
, 1958 .6
. . , .
1959 . .7 , 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Tibet: 19501967. 1968, p.388389.

Shakya, 1999, p.245.
.. ...
Shakya, 1999, p.256.
Shakya, 1999, p.250253.
Smith, 1996, p.472473.
8.
255
, . . ,
, . , . , , , , .8
. ,

.
- , , ( ), ( ).
1300 .9 . , , ,
..10 , .11
, . .
.12 . , . . . , 1959 .
, . . , .
1960- . , .13 ,
- , . , .
,
, : ,
, ..14
: ,
8
, 1978.
, 1978.
10
Knuth, 2003, p.220.
11
, 2006, . 97.
12
13
Smith, 1996, p.477478.
14
., ., , , 2007.
9
256
.. .
, . :
.
. 1960 . , , .1
1960 . . ,
.2 4 1960 . . , .
,
.

. , .
, 1960 .
.3 .
. , .
:
, ?
1960 . ,
.
. ,
( 5% ), , . .4
, . ,
.5 ,
: . , .6
.
. ? , , . , , .
: :
, ,
1
2
3
4
5
6

Shakya, 1999, p.248, 257.
Tibet: 19501967. 1968, p.396.
, 1978.
Goldstein et al., 2009, p.74.
, 2000, . 327.
8.
257
.7
.
.8 . , . . 1961 .
90% .9 75% , ,
.
, . 19591961 . . ( 33 )
19591961 . 20 . . ( 1988 . , )
43 .10 , . 1959 . .
19611964 . .
.
, , , , .
, , .11
,
, .12
, , . ,
.13
- :14 , , ,
.
,
, , . <...> 1959 1960 .,
, ,
, ... ,
7

, 1978.
9
., 1975.
10
. . ...
11
., Palden Gyatso, 1997, p.84, 94.
12
Smith, 1996, p.488.
13
Sautman, 2008, p.239.
14
Panchen Lama, 1997, p.2627, 30, 112113.
8
258
.. .
. <...> , , , , , ,
. <...>
, . , ,
.
; , , , . ,
, , .
, . <...>
, , , ,
, .
. , ,
, - , , , , . , ,
.
.
[] ,
, , . ,
. , -
.
. <...> ,

, . , ,
: 1959 1961 .
. . , : ,
, ,
.
, . ,
,
.
8.
259
. ,
.1 ( ) 150 . ., 1957 .
, . ,
.2 ,
.
1950 . .
.3 , . ,
.4 , , . 710
, , .5 ,
, , , .
, . . .
20 1961 .
1723 (XVI),
. , : 1) ,
,
, , ; 2)
,
; 3) , -
, , , .
2079 (XX) 18 1965 .
, ,
1) ; 2) ,
, , ,
; 3) ,
1
2
3
4
5
Yang, 1996 . : Blondeau, Buetrille, 2008, p.143.

Tibet, 2007.
Panchen Lama, 1997.
Smith, 1996, p.472473.
260
.. .
,
; 4)
; 5)
- , , , . - .
19591961 .
-
70 . . .
18 1962 .
. - 1960
1961 ., , .
1961 . .
.
1962 . , . , .
, , ,
, ().1
- , . , . . -
,

.
- . . , 1 . , ,
,
. 1962 . , ,
- . - , . 1992 .
- , , . 1987 . -
1
Barnett, 1997, p.xvii.
8.
261
.2 - , -
.
-,
.
, .
, .
. , , ,
,
..
- . ,
. , , , : ,
, .3 ,
.4 , , ,
.
-,
. . ,
, , . . ,
- 1957
1958 .5 , .
, , 33
, , ,
, .6 1946 .,
.
, .
, , .
. 2
3
4
5
6

Tenpa Soepa, 2008, p.9092; Khetsun, 2008.
262
.. .
. ,
. -, .
,
. . , .
.
, .
, . ,
, 5 . . , 3
. 8 . .
.
. , .
, , .
. .1
, . ,
, . .
, , .
- :2 , ,
, ,
.
, ,
, .
, ,
, , , ,
, .
,
, ,
. ,
.
,
1
2
Shakya, 1999.
8.
263
. . , .
, - . 5060 ,
, .
, , 1960- . .3
, . , . ,
, . ,
,
. . ,
, , , ,
.. 1962 ., . :
.4
. , . 1943 . :
, , [ ],
... ,
.5 .
; ;
;
; ;
,
;
.6 , ;
; , ,
; ;
; ( );
, ;
; .
, , , ,
3
4
5
6
, 2004.
. : , , 2007, . 255.
.: Samsara, a Tibetan human rights archive...
264
.. .
, .1
. ;
. , .
. ,
1959 .2 . . , . . , , .
-.
, . , . , .
. 1 2 . ,
.
1959 . 79
38 . . 10- . ,
. , .
22 . 1960 .
16,5 8,5 . .
. .
. ,
, . , . 1962 . 79 21. , .
, . 13 : 17 . : ,
. , , . 1980 . -.
, 20 ,
.3 . , . ,
, ,
1
2
3

Victim of Chinese torture...
8.
265
. . . .
c 23 . , ,
.
. , . : ,
1 .

10 . ., .4 ,
, 1030 .,
8 .
( )
34 .
, 1959 .
, .5 1960 .
. ,
. ,
. , 1960
1963 . 12019 . 76 -
1959 1962 . 53 ,
.6 . 1979 .,
, 76 .
. 2/3 .7 .
, .
- ,
,
. 1962 . , 5%
. 1987 ., 18 , - :8
, 1015%. ,
, .
- ,
( . ).
.
, , ..
, 4
5
6
7
8
: , 1993.
Behind bars...
Khetsun, 2008.
266
.. .
.
:
. , , , , .
. ,
. ,
.
.
( ), , , , . . . ,
, ,
.1
, .2 ,
- , ..
. .
1927 .,
,
, :3 ... [. .] .
. <...>
. .
: -
. <...> .
. <...>
.
<...> . <...>

. <...> ,
, , , ,
.. 1927 . 336 . .,
45% , 32% .4 ,
48,4 .
1
Shakya, 2002.
3 , 1952, .4459, 70, 72.
4
- , 1977.
2
8.
267
1959 .
.5 , -
, .
. .
.
, :
.6
( ).7 ,
,
.
, , , ..
, , , . ,
. . , .8
1959 .
. ,
.9 , . , . ,
,
.
, , , .
. . .
. ,
. , .10 .
: .
, .
- . :
.
5
Panchen Lama, 1997.

7
Norbu, 1999, p. 186187.
8
., Parenti M. Friendly feudalism...
9
Tibet Under Chinese..., 1976, p.56, 88.
10
, 1962, . 4143.
6
268
.. .

.1 . , .
. , , ,
. , . , ,
,
, , ,
, , ... ,
: . .
, , , ... : ,
, , .

. .2
, . , .
. , . , 1959 . , - . , -. ? ,
. ,
. . . ,
. . ,
. .
. . , . : , . . : , , , ,
, , , , , , ! .
, , . .
. .
: !
.
: . 1965 .
, . 1983 . ,
1
2
, 1962, . 5053.
, 1962, . 5564.
8.
269
. (, 1962)
.
, , , .
, .-. . , . , , , ..3
.
- . , ,
, ..
1963 .
. . -
Strong, 1959.
270
.. .
.
. , .1
- : 1959 . , , , ...
, , , , ,
, .2 .
, -,
10% . , 1959 . 2467
110 . .3 ,
2711 1958 . 370
1960 .4 : 6259
.5 ,
1958 . 722 57647 , 2500
1240 .6
11 . , 1958 .
369 . , 16900 571. 922 , 24.
, 4748. ,
,
.
.-. , 2136 - (
) .7 . - 114100
. 1958 . 18104 . 1960 .
. , 810 .
700, 1200 400.
1980 ., - .8
, , ,
..9
- :10
1
Shakya Ts. Tibet and China...

3
Ling, 1964.
4
. : Smith, 1996, p.474.
5
., Brieng paper...
6
Harris, . : Kolas, Thowsen, 2005, p.46.
7
Strong, 1959.
8
2001 . 800 (, , 2005).
9
Palden Gyatso, 1997, p.7275; Puntshok, 1998, p.24.
10
2
8.
271
2500 , . 70 .
97%. , , .
, ,
. 110 . . 10 . , 100 .
7 . .,
93%. , , ,
,
. <...> .
. ,
.11
,
, , . .12
: ,
,
, , .

, .13
,
.14
.15
, ,
. ,
, , . ,
, , , ,
11
12
13
14
15
, 1976, . 272.
, 1962, . 14.
., 1975.
272
.. .
. , , ,
, , :
, . , .
, , , . , 6070-
.
, . ,
. . , , , , .
, .
: , ,
- . , ,

. ,
.
,
, ,
, .
. ,
.
, . , .
. ,
.

, .
, , .
, , . , ,
, , .
, , , .1 , -,
8.
273
, .
1960 . . ,
.2 , . ,
, . 1960 . ( 37 )
( )
, , 14011472 .
. 1- . .
. , , ,
.
.3 . ,
, , .. . ,
, .

, .4
, , (
).5
. , , . .
- :6 , , ,
, .
,

,
.
2
3
4
5
6

Ely M. The true story...
Puntshok, 1998, p.2226.
Smith, 2008.
274
.. .
, , , . , , ,
, . , ,
,
.
, ,
, , ,
.

,
, . , , ,
. .
, ,
, .
: .. ,
, ,
, ,
. , .

.1 ,
.
, . , .
. .
, ,
. , .2
, ,
. 1970- .
.
, .
1
2
: , 1993.
Tibet Under Chinese, 1976, p.80; Smith, 2008, p.116; Smith W. Congressional panel...
8.
275
1960- . , , -.3
. - 4:
, , , , .
, , ,
, ,
, , , ,
, , , , .
,
.
,
, , , . . .
,
, , , [] . ,
, 5
, - ,
, , . : , :
, ,
: ,
.6
,
. . :
? . , 3
, 1978.
5
: chaodu
bar do thos sgrol ( ). .
6
4
276
.. .
: . ,
: !, .1
, , , , ,
:
, . [
. .] , , ... ,
...
, - . , ,
,
,
, -
. <...>
. , :
,
, , . .2

, .3
, , , , ..
, , ,
.
.4
,
. : , , , , .5
,
.6 , : ,
, ,
Panchen Lama, 1997.

3
Puntshok, 1998.
4
: , 1993.
5
,
.
6
Puntshok, 1998, p.24.
2
8.
277
- (DIIR Archive, Central Tibetan Administration): 1 ; 2
,7 -, , , .. .
- :8 , . <...> ,

, , ,
, ,
, ,
, , , . ,
, ,
. ,
, , , .
, , , . ,
(., , 1970, . 40, 41, 47,

70, 96). .
.
8
278
.. .
, , ,
. , ,
, .
.
. ,
.1 , , , 2% , 95% .2 .
.
600 . 1959 . ,
. ,
. ,
. , 4 . ., 1,2 . (. 9),
5%. :
, .. ...
, , .

,
.3 .
- .

, .4 1962 .
, . , , 1959 .
- ,
. .5
, -, .
.
. ,
.
. ,
- 1
2
3
4
5
: , 1993.
...
, 1978.
Barnett, 1997, p.xix-xx.
Shakya, 1999, p.290.
8.
279
,
, .
, .6 ,
: , . <...>
, ,
, ;
.7 ,
. :
: . .
, - .
- . . , ,
. ,
1959 . ,
.8 , ()
. , . , 1962 1966 .
137 , 107,
4 .9 .
. 1960- .

, . , .10
,
, . 1964 . .
. 1963 . 5070%
, .11 , .
6
, 1966, . 269.
. ...
8
, 1978.
9
Kolas, Thowsen, 2005, p.47.
10
, 1996, . 275.
11
, 1978.
7
280
.. .
. 1964 . 1682
60 . ,
.
1964 . : , . .1
.
. , , . , , , .
.
, ,
. .
.
. . 50%, ,
25% . ,
. .
. , . , .
1964 . -
. , ,
, , - ,
, : -!2
1964 . . ,
, - .3 ,
, .4
. , , , . - .
1964 . 17
: , ,
, . .
1
2
3
4
Shakya, 1999, p.294296.

-, 1992, . 234.
Norbu, 1999.
Shakya, 1999, p.298299.
8.
281
, ,
. , . -
, .
- -
,
, . - . - .
1965 . .5
90% . ,
. 16 , . 1965 . (), .
.
,
.6
:
, .7
1965 . , .8 -
. ,
. , , .
.9 1965 . , 130150 . .10
17 , 1959 .11
.
. ,
. . 5
, 1978.
...
7
. : Tibet: 19501967. 1968, p.512.
8
Shakya, 1999, p.300.
9
, 1978.
10
, , 2005.
11
Shakya, 1999, p.306.
6
282
.. .
. , 1965 . 20 .
16 .
.1 , ,
, .2 , .
.
.
, , ,
,
.
, , , , .
.3
.
,
, .4

. - XIV, ,
,
. ,
. ,
.
. ,
,
, : .
, ,
.5
-. ,
.6 ,
.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Tibet: 19501967. 1968, p.493, 518.

Shakya, 1999, p.304.
: , 1993.
., ., , 2008, . 200208.
-, 1995, . 24.
, 1978.
8.
283
1960- . (DIIR Archive, Central Tibetan Administration)
- , ,
. 1960 . ( ,
). ,
, .
, . 1970 . 38
60- , 10 45 .7 , . ,
, .
:8 .
,
, . ,
, ; . -
. , . .
7
8
Van Walt, 1987.

Taklha, 2001, p.92.
.. .
284
.
,
. ,
, .
. - :
() , .
, ,
, , .
1960 .1 1961 . - , . 1963 .
,
.2 . , - XIV,
.
* * *

, , .3 !
,
.
1959 . , , , ,
. . :
. - ,4
, , .
.
, .
, ,
, . ,
1
2
3
4
Van Walt, 1987.

-, 1992, . 182.
, 1976, 1978.
8.
285
, , .
- .
,
.
,
1950- 1960- .
,
. <...>

, , ,
..5

.6
, .7 ,
5% , ,
, .8 ,
1959 . 17 , ,
, ,9 -
, ,
.10
. ,
, - .
. ,
, . ,
, ,
. .11 20 . ., , :
,
(4 . .) , , 100 . .12
5
, , 2005, . 278.
...
7
Ran, 1991.
8
, 1959.
9
, 2004, 2007.
10
, 2006, . 95.
11
, 2000, . 323.
12
, 1978, . 82.
6
286
.. .
, .
.
. , . 17 , .
. ,
, ,
1951 .1 ,
. :2 ,
. <...>
. <...> ,
. 17
, .
, 18 1959 .,
1- 2- : , , ,
, , .3 .
,
1955 1961 ., 19661976 . , - , - 17 1987 .4
, .
. , , . . ,
. ,
. , . , . , , ..
, , .
, . , . ,
, 1
2
3
4
, 1968, . 72.
, , 2007, . 481.
, 1959, . 67.
: , 1993.
8.
287
. , .
, ,
.5 ,
, , . 1977 . :
, ,
. ,
, .6
.
.
: ,
. ,
, . ,
. , , .7 , , , , , ,
.. .
. .
1965 .
(, ), , ,
. .
1965 . ,
.8 .9
, 1978.
10 1957 . . : , 1972, . 31.
7
., , 1974.
8
, 2008, . 144.
9
, 1978.
6
1966 .
: .1 .
, , . ,
: . ,
... ,
.2 , , . 16 1966 . , ,
. , .
.
, .
, , ,
1966 .3 , ,
. , , .
: ,
, , .4
1
25 . : , 1972, . 55.
2
, 1970, . 108.
3
. : - , 1977.
4
Shakya, 1999, p.316.
9.
289
. .
,
..
. .
,
,
, ,

.
,
- , - , 1966 .:
,

(http://www.oldposters.ru/)
.5 ,
(
) ().6 .
1966 .,
, ,
1409 . .7 ,
.
1966 . 500 , .8
, .
,
. ,
.
- -,
: . ..9
1966 .
5
6
7
8
9
, 1978.
, , 2005.
Shakya, 1999, p.317.
, 1978.
.: Woeser, 2006, p.196.
290
.. .
, 1951 .
.
21 1966 .

.1 , , .
(.: ), , , . 1966 . 90 . ,
, , , , .
10 . . .
.

, .2

,
.
, , .
18 1966 .
.3 . , 16 .
, ,

.
.
, . 18 26
, . 11 . .
,
.
23 1966 . .4 : , ,
.
1
2
3
4
, 2008, . 145.
Ho, 2006, p.67.
, 2006, . 5052.
, , 2007.
9.
291
.5
:
. ,

( , , ).6
. : , .7
,
.8
.
. 25 1966 .
( 640 .).9
.10 ,
, .
, -, . ,
. , : -
, .
. ,
.
, ,
.11 , -. : , .
. . ,
. ,
, ,
.
, -
, 1980, . 202.
- , 1977.
7
. : ...
8
Tibet: 19501967. 1968, p.606.
9
Smith, 2008, p.123125.
10
Smith, 2008, p.125131.
11
, 2004, . 273285.
6
.. .
292
9.
293
4
(Woeser, 2006/permission from Woeser):
1 ; 2 , ; 3
; 4 , .
: ! .
294
.. .
. , :
.
. .
. ,
,
. .
. . . .
, .
,
, . . , (
), , , . , .
: .
.
, - , . , -
, .
. . .

, , ,
.1 , ,

, VII . :
, . . . ,
.
, .
- IV.2

.3 , , : .
, .
. 1
2
3
Smith, 2008, p.131.

Laird, 2006, p.4041.
, 2004, . 283.
9.
295
. ,
- . , ,
. .
, , .
. ,
; VII . . , . .
: 1980- .
, .4
.
,
. ,
( , ).5
. VIII . - . ,
...
.
.
, , . , , .
, , .6
,
20 . 27 ( ) . :
1) .
2) .
3) .
4) .
5) , .
4
5
6
Wren, 1983.
Smith, 2008, p.129132.
Laird, 2006, p.346.
296
.. .
6) ,
.
7) , []
. .
8) .
9) , , .
10) , , .
11) . .
12) .
13) , , .
14) .
.
15) , .
16) .
17) , ,
[ . .] .
18) , , , ,
.
19) .
, .
20) ,
1.
, . . . , ,
. , . .2 ,
,
.
1
2
. : Shakya, 1999, p.320321.

Shakya, 1999, p.512.
9.
297
15 1966 . (, ) , , , , , . ,
;
, , .3 , -
,
.
, , . : ,
, , ,
..
, . 16
1967 . ,
.4 . 4 . 14
, . , ,
.. -
,
, .
, .
. . ,
, 1966 .
:
. , ,
... ,
.5
, , , ... ,
. .6
. ,
. , .7
3
4
5
6
7
Ho, 2006, p.68.

Ho, 2006, p.6971.
. : , 1980, . 203204.
, 1970, . 3031.
. : ...
.. .
298
3
1 (Woeser, 2006/permission
from Woeser); 2 3 (Woeser,
2006/permission from Woeser)
9.
299
(Woeser, 2006/permission from Woeser). : !
, , .
, , , ,
; .1 , , , (. 8).

, , ,
. . : , , .., , .
. , .2 ,
, .
. , .
, -
1
2
, 1966, . 54.
Smith, 2008, p.129130.
.. .
300

(Woeser, 2006/permission from Woeser)
. .1
, .2 , , .

.3 .
1967 . 350 . .

. 1966 .
. :
.. .
. , ,
- .4
1
2
3
4
, 2004.
Kalovski I. The true face...
9.
301
- (Thinley, 1996)
. . , , .
. ,
,
, , .. , .5 1980- .

, ,
.6
. ,
. .
: ,
.
, . , ( ); (
5
6
, 1996.
, 2004.
.. .
302

(Woeser, 2006/permission from Woeser). : , ,
).1 (
5), ( ),
( ). .
() .
. , ,
, , , . , , . , ,
, -
Norbu, 1999, p. 275; Tibet: 19501967. 1968, p.607.
9.
303
1966 . (Woeser, 2006/permission from Woeser).

: , .
4- , .
, . , . ,

, .2 , , , ..3
. . - ,
.4
(. 8). 1966 . ,
, , ,
,
, ,
, .5
2
3
4
5
, 2004.
Shakya, 1999, p.322.
His Holiness the Panchen Lama....
Hilton, 1999, p.162 . : ( ).
.. .
304
4- 5-
- , . 1968 .
.1
-, 10 . , .
.
, , . , ,
-
, .2 ,
: ,
. . . ,
,
, ,
1
2
Thinley, 1996, p.2124.

, 2004.
9.
305
, , .
. . ,
.
.
. , ,
, ,
.
, , .3
, , :
, . .
. ,
, . ,
. :
, , ,
. : ,
, , ,
.
.4
. , ( ) , ..
, . , ,
13 . .
, ,

.5
, . 1966 . , . : ,
5 10 . ,
. .
.
.
,
,
3
4
5
, 2004.
Palden Gyatso, 1997, p.135137; Tenpa Soepa, 2008, p.117120.
Tenpa Soepa, 2008, p.112116.
306
.. .
1966 . (Woeser, 2006/permission from Woeser). , ,

. 1966 .,
,
.1 , , , ; , ( );
( ) .. - ( ) , ( ).
, IX 1969 .,2 .
.

, ,
.
1
2

, 1970, . 40.
9.
307
, , (Woeser, 2006/permission from Woeser). : , , , . 1959 . , ,

, , . . 1979 .
,
.
, - 1966 .,
. 1970- . . 6259
1 . ,3
3
Smith, 1996, p.561.
.. .
308
, 1993 .
13.1 . ,
, , , , ..

, . 1951 1979 .
592558 , , () (
) 110 . ,
250 . .2

: ( 775 .); : ( 1409 .), ( 1073 .), ( 1189 .), ( 1676 .;
), ( 1405 .) ..
1969 .
3 , . , ,
. ,
. , 1
2
3
Tsering, 1985, p.1415.

: , 1993.
Buttereld, 1979.
9.
309
1
2
(Woeser, 2006/
permission from Woeser):
1 ,
. :
,
.

,
. 2
:

( -)
.. .
310
, ,
. 84 , .1 , . , ,
. ,

.2 ,
. , , .
108 .
1968 . .3
. . , . . , .
, .
- . ,
, . 1
2
3
, 1981, . 166.
Tibet 2002.
Norbu, 1999.
9.
311

312
.. .
. , .
, ,
.
( 1755 .).
.1 (II .
..). ( 1447 .)
, XV .2
- . - - ( V IX), . -
1989 . , .3
, - . 77
, 1418 ., .
, .
. .
. ,
.
,
. , , , .
,
, : !
!4
(
1416 .), (1418 .), (1179 .), (, 1057 .),
(XII .) ,
(1709 .), (1477 .) (. 1300 .) . (1614 .),
, . ,
1917 .
1912 .
(5100 ). (1648 .)
- (1360 .), 1958 .
(1754 .).
. ,
1
2
3
4
.. ...
, 1995, p.14.
Panchen Lama X. The Panchen Lama's Last Speech...
Tibet: 19501967. 1968, p.609.
9.
313
2
: 1 1938 . (Bundesarchiv, Bild 135-S-1810-22/: Ernst Schaefer/License CC-BY-SA 3.0); 2 2008 . (: .. )
314
.. .
. ( ) , . ( )
1959 1980 .
13 ( ) 10 . . ,
1630- ., .
. 50 -, .

.
.
. -, ,
. . .
, .
.
:
.1 1948 .
.2 , .
, 1960- 1970- .
.
.
. . . .
, , -, ,
. . . .
.
. . ,
, .
. .

. ,
, ; . , , , . ,
1
2
The lost kingdom of Guge...

Govinda, 2002, p.153183.
9.
315
.3 ,
.
60% , , 85% .4 ,
, .

. .
.
, . . .
, 227 ,
(12901364).
95% , 500- .
, . 1980 ., ,
, .
. ,
: , .
.

(). . , ,
, () .
, ,
.5

, 1950- . ,
-. .
, ,
. ,
:
3
Patt, 1992 . : Knuth, 2003, p.219.

Knuth, 2003, p.220 .. Kewley, 1990, Aldridge, 1999, Harrer, 1985 .;
...
5
Smith, 2008, p.126.
4
316
.. .
9.
317
, (permitted by Jose Ignacio Cabezon). 1 (: Alex Catanese); 2 (: Alex Catanese); 3

(: Alex Catanese); 4 (: Jose Ignacio Cabezon); 5 (:
Alex Catanese); 6 (: Alex Catanese).
318
.. .
, , .1 , .2 : , .
, ,
.
. ,
. .3
, .4 .
40 , ,
. , .

. 19821983 .
, .5 - . ,

. , 1972 . . , ,
, . 26 463 .
, .

, 100 .
, , ,
.
. ,
, , , .., (- ).
.
, , , .. .6
1
2
3
4
5
6
Smith, 2008.
Smith, 2008.
...
Smith, 2008, p.114, 545.
Ribhur Tulku, 1988, p.112.
Smith, 2008, p.116117.
9.
319
( .: Shiyou Ching Rhru Thea

) 5 600 . .7 1973 .
-
( ) ,

. .
12 . .
,
600 50.
. 20 .
. 30 .
.
, . 1983 .
600 13537 . .

, 100 ( )
. , (- ) 2
, .
. , , . . ,
. . .
, , , , - .8
. ( ).
, ,
. ,
.
. ,
, .
, .
. , . .
7
8
Ribhur Tulku, 1988.

Smith, 2008, p.116117.
320
.. .
,
.
3 . .1
1986 . , ,
.2
.. ,

.3
, .
, . , , . ,
.
. -, , .
. , ,
,
.4
2000- . .
.
1969 . : , , .
(
), , .5
. , XII . ,
, , -.
, ,
. .
: , . ,
, .
.
.
1 1966 .
1
2
3
4
5
Wren, 1983.
Laird, 2006.
Smith, 2008, p.116.
...
, 2004.
9.
321
, , .6
, . 1966 . ,
.7 .
, , .
19 .
22 1966 .
, : (.: ), (.: ).8
35 , . 51 .
: . ,
, -
.9 26 ,
.
, , XI 12
1966 .: . ,

, . ,
.10 . : .11
. 28 1966 .
. 1967 .
, , ,
, , .12 , ,
. 19
, , , 6
, 1970, . 245.
Goldstein et al., 2009.
8
9
Founding of Tibet's Revolutionary Rebels Red Guards, December 1966 . :
Kalovski I. The true face...
10
, 1970, . 149150.
11
, 1978.
12
, 1978; Goldstein et al., 2009.
7
322
.. .
. ,
19611962 .
. 1967 . . .1
(- , ).
:
. : , ,
, . , . . ,
: .
1967 . ,
.
. ,
, .2
. . 19671968 .
45 . , , ,
, .. , . 1967 .
. 21
, .
,
. , , . .
.3 , .
, .
,
, , .
. , , ,
1
2
3
Shakya, 1999, p.328.

, 1978.
9.
323
.4 . , 1966 . 1967 .
15 3 . .5
38 .
1967 . ,
, .6
. 1 1967 . , : . 6 ,
,
. .
, .
, . 29
, .
1967 . . ,

. 1968 . . 10 , .7 , .. , . .
1967 . ,
1967 .8
1968 . . , ,
. ,
.9 , 140,
165 .10
, 6 - . 4
, 1978.
6
Shakya, 1999, p.336337.
7
, 1978.
8
Shakya, 1999, p.341.
9
10
5
324
.. .
.
: . ,
, .
. .
: . , ,
60 , ,
.1 6 . ,
20, .
.
, , , .
1968 . ,
, . 11 1968 . .2
,
. 1968 .

, , .
, ,
.3 , :
, . .
, , .
. .
,
.
.
5 .
12 .
. . 1
2
3

, 1978.
.: Goldstein et al., 2009, p. 5257.
9.
325

. .
.4 , , , . 1969 . - , , .
19681970 . , .
, 2 1968 .
.5
3 1969 . 3 .
. , . , 10 .
.
, . .
, , , .
. ,
, , .6 ,
,
.7 , , ( ).
.
.
, , .
, .8
1968 . 20 51 ,
. -
. ,
( ) 1969 . .
, , ,
4
5
6
7
8
Van Walt, 1987.

, 1978.
Goldstein et al., 2009, p.9091.
Goldstein et al., 2009, p.64, 172181.
Smith, 1994, p.68.
326
.. .
, , .1 , 1959 . .

. 1981 .
. , ,
.
,
. . , . 30 .
, .2 , .
(. ), ,
, . ,
...
, . ,
1965 . 19681969 .3
, , , .4
, .
,
: . , , : ,
.
, .5
. , , .
,
. - , .
, .6 . , ,
. ,
. . , ,
1
2
3
4
5
6

...
, 1978.
Shakya, 1999, p.308310.
Tenpa Soepa, 2008, p.132133.
9.
327
, . 1968 . . . .

. 1968 1973 .7 ,
- ,
. ,
, . . . ,
- , , ,
.8
, . , .
1959 . ,
(, , , , .) 4 ,
.9
55 .
. .
.
1968 . 45% ,
86%.10 1970- . 666 ,
34% . 1974 . 93%
.
.11 ,
, , , , ; , .12
, , , .. .
.
,
, , 7
: , 1993.
Shakya, 1999, p.311.
9
, 1962, . 168170.
10
, 1978.
11
1974 ., 1977.
12
, 1996; Tenpa Soepa, 2008, p.133134.
8
328
.. .
.
, 1.
.
.2 , , ,
, , ,
, .. .
, , , , .
.3 , 1969 . .
.
. , . 60
. .
: ,
, ,
, ,
,
, , , , , . , .4
. ( ),
,
.5
,
, . -
. <...>
, , , -
1
2
3
4
5
Tibet Under Chinese, 1976.

, 1978.
, 1978.
- ...
, 2001.
9.
329
. <...> ! -
!6
1960- .
- . . 1969 ., 60 100
.7 1991 . . .
,
. -.
:
, .8
, ,
. 1970- .
.9
.10
1976 . , 1-
, 1977 .: ... . ,
,
... ,
.11
, 712 1971 .,
I .12 56 16 , 16 . ,
, , 1-
, .
, , . 1972 . , , .13
. , 1972
1974 . 11 . ( )
.
1970- . .
1975 . 4300 , 30 .
19711975 . 1200 6
!...
, 1969; ...; http://www.damanski-zhenbao.ru/.
8
9
Shakya, 1999, p.376.
10
., 1975.
11
, 16.11.1977 . : , 1996, . 8.
12
, , 2005.
13
, , 2005.
7
330
.. .
. .
,
- .1
.
.2 . , .., , 1975 . 16 . . :
, ..3 , 10 . .
. , .4
. , , , , , , ..; . . .

. 1970- . 100 . . , ,
.
.5

, . . ,
, . , , ,
- ,
. ,
.6
, , . 1970- .
, 1971 . ,
. 1973 . .
, , , .. 1
2
3
4
5
6
Smith, 2008.
., 1975; , 1978.
Hsin, 1972, p.22.
1975 ., 1978.
, , 1971, . 142148.
9.
331
, 1980 .
.
. , , , .
.7 , 1973 .
( , . 259210 . ..), , .8 ,
. ,
, ,
.. ,
.9 , ,
. ,
.

. - , ,
.10 : ,
, 1981, . 4.
, 1975.
9
, 1979, . 196198.
10
1974 ., 1977.
8
332
.. .
.1 - XIV
, - .
, - .
.
. . , , , .. .
, 1966 1967 . , 7 . .2
1968 . , , 3 .
. 200 . 300 .
, 250 . . 100 .
,
, . 1968 . 2 .
.
100 .
1969 . ,
, .
, . .
18 . , ,
. ,
, . , . . ,
. .
15 .
.3 ,
- , , ,
.
. , . .
1 1970 . 200
.4
1
2
3
4
Shakya, 1999.
, 1978.
p.: Goldstein et al., 2009; Shakya, 1999; Shakya Ts. Blood in the snows...
, , 2005.
9.
333

. . 1970 . 800 . 150 .
12 . , 1962
1970 . . , 20 .
1970 . - ,
.5 ,
124 .
. . ,
.
1969 1970 . ,
.6 - .
, 1970 .
, 25 .7 20
30 .
13 ., 20. 1970 .
20 .8 ,
.

: ,
, ..9 , 100-
, . . 1970- .
400 . .10
,
, - . , , , , ,
. : , . ,
. <...> 11.
5
, 1978.
, 1978.
7
. 1975.
8
Khetsun, 2008.
9
., 1975.
10
, , 2005.
11
, 1980, . 218.
6
334
.. .
.

. 19701980- . , , .1
,
- .
, , , . , . 43 (1)
I 12
1949 ., , ,
, , ,
, , .2 ,
, .
, . ,
,
, . 1971 . . ,
. . 8 1972 . . . , ,
: ,
.3
, ,
. ,
, .4 .
. 1974 . - 20- ,
.5 . . .
1970- . -
1
2
3
4
5
Shakya, 1999, p.516.

...
, 1977, . 210.
Questions pertaining to Tibet...
. ...
9.
335

.6

,
.7 , ,

.8 ,
,
,
.. ,
. , 1980- . ,
. . : 66-
1950- . , .-. , .
.. , . - 20 . - ,
, , , ,
, , .9
.
, , .
, 1959
1992 . 1,5 .
.10 65%
. . ,
.
6
Smith, 1996.
Great Changes, 1972, ..; , 2004, . 373.
8
, 1978.
9
Schrei J.M. A lie repeated...
10
: , 1993.
7
336
.. .
, ,
.1 , , ,
- .
. ,
, , .
.
, , . , . 1970- .
- ,
,
.2
, . , : 70% , 30% .
, 1949 ., ,
: , 30
70%? , .3 1956 1957 .
70% , 30% .4 31
1958 . :
10 .5 15 1973 .
70% 30.6
70% ,
30 . ... ,
? ,
?
, . , 1949 1979 .
,
1,2 . ,
. .7
, 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
., Baker M. 2007.
...
, 1966, . 121.
, 2005, . 118119.
, 2001 (1), . 118.
. ...
., Sautman B. How repressive...; The myth of Tibet...
9.
337
1 .
., 2,3 . ,
1,2 .8 :
, 1,2 . .
, , , . 1959 .
1273969 ,
, . ,
, 3381064 .
, ( ),
1675534 . 6330567 9. 1959 .
1953 . (
1964 .). .
1953 ., 1954 .10
2775622 . ( ) ,
( ) 1273969 ., 11
3381064 ., 1676534 .12
, 6331567 .13
.
, .
? ,
. , . 1953 .
, . , ,
47 . ,
.
2000 ., 92,8%.
1959 . . 1953 . 1273969 . (22,5%) , 8
...
, 10.11.1959 . : : , 1993.
10
People's Republic of China State...
11
1955 . .
12
1676534, 1675534, .
13
6330567.
9
338
.. .
(65,22%),
2000 .1 , 1953 . (. ), ,
2205130 377220 .
. 500 . .2 1993 . , 1957 . 513415 , 1996 .
486269.3 -, :
2000 . .
.
1273969, 3479099 . , 2775622 ., 1953 .,
. ,
, 2000 . . , ,
1953 . 3479099 .
(. 6), . 4
.. 5 , .
45 . ., .
6
1950 . 1,52 . .,
2 .6 3,54 . . ,
.,7 :
,
1953 . : . 1950 .
.
, , 1953 .
4 .
,
(1953, 1964 1982 .) .
.8 ,
,
, , 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Department of Population...
, 1923, . 413.
Sautman, 2008, p.240.
Bell, 1992.
, 2004, . 35.
. : Yan Hao, 2000, p.14.
Yan Hao, 2000.
9.
339
.9
, .
. , 1953 ., 1,274 . , 1959 .
1,18 .,10 1991 . 1,05 .11
, 1959 .?
19491979 . :12

93560
64877
14784
173221
28267
32266
96225
156758
143253
240410
49042
432705
131072
89916
121982
342970
3375
3952
1675
9002
27951
48840
15940
92731
427478
480261
299648
1207387
, , - ;
, .
, .
. , ,

.13 ,
. ,
? ,
: , ,
.. ,
. , XX .
.
. 14 , ,
9
: 2005...
Shakya, 1999, p.504.
11
Sautman, 2008, p.240.
12
: , 1993.
13
. : Sautman, 2008, p.238.
14
, 2004, . 408414; French, 2008.
10
340
.. .
, 1,2 .: , ,
,
.
,
. , , , , ,
.
, . , ; , ( ) ;
(
, ,
..). 1982 . - (
).1
( ), 20 .
, . , 500 . (
). ( 2,5 .). ,
20% .
102 .
600 .2
. , ,
10%.3
.4 .
, 1,2 . . , .
, 19531964 .
, ,5
19531964 . (19531990 .) : 9,87%, 2,775 2,501 . ., 274 . 1982 .
1
2
3
4
5
The population atlas of China, 1987 . : Norbu, 2003, p.612.

. : Source list...
, 1978.
Yan Hao, 2000.
, , 1993 . : Yan Hao, 2000.
9.
341
3,848 . ( 53,86%). , ,
. ,
,
.
, 1964 ., 1968
1973 .
1964 1982 .: 18 . ,
1973
1982 . ,
( , 1982 .) . ,
.
1953 . 4 . ., 30% . , ,
(
),
1953 . 2,8 .
, . ,
477994 . 1959 . 408132
1963 ., 14,6%.6 , , . 20
. ( ). . ,
20 ., , (. ). ,
, -: , , ( ) .

. , . , 1959, 1953 .; 1963 .
(. ). , 1958, 1959, 1962 1969 .: 1953 1964 .
, () 900 . ., ( ) 9 .,
.7 - ,
, ,
1015% ,8 6
7
8
Sautman, 2008, p.241242.

Becker, 1996, . : Blondeau, Buetrille, 2008, p.89.
342
.. .
( . 8). 1959 1962 .

6496 . . , (. ).
- .
1961 . , .1
.
, . . , ,
.2 ,
,
. . 3 ,
175 . , . . , ,
, . ( ?
, , . , .
,
. .) 5% 10
. , 174 . , 1959
1979 116 . , 34% .
, 50% , , 450 ., 10%
, .
( ,
?) , ,
. ( .
.)
, ,
75100 . ( ?)
, , . . ,
.
.
, , .
1953 1959 .,
, -, , .
1
2
3
Panchen Lama, 1997, p.xv-xvi.

Sautman, 2008, p.245246.
9.
343
,
, .
. , , ,
, , , , ,
, ,
, .
4922
6843 .4 2 . 357
. , 185 . , ..5 , (
-, 15631620 .).
,
. .
728 14 .
. .6
.

1966 .7 , .

.
. , ,
.
,
, ,
.8
( ) . .
68 . 18 , , , , 2 . , .
( , ), 1500 , .
, .
, , .9
4
5
6
7
8
9
, , 2007.
, 2006, . 65.
, 2006, . 57.
, 2006.
, 2006, . 150.
. . ...
344
.. .
.1 1975 .:
, , .
, .
, 2500
. ,
. , ,
, .2
, , ,
. .
.
. ,
, , .
. .
, , , :
, , ..3
5155 , 17260 ,
55,5 . , 600
. 1966 1976 . 520 .
. 1966 . 397 .
400 ., .
, , , , , ,
..4 , , , , .5
, ..
50 , .
50 100 .

.6 1
2
3
4
5
6
, 2008, . 148.
, , 2007.
, 2006.
, 2006, . 6064; , 2005, . 32.
, 2004.
9.
345
,
.7 ,
346 . ., 16 . .8 10% .9 , .
XXI . 18% .
,
, ,
.. 1966 . , 700 -
.10 , ,
, .
,
.
, , 30 80 . .,11 27 .12 50 .13 , 100 .
, , ,
.14
, .
.
,
.
* * *
9 1976 . , .
,
.15 .
-, , , , -
7
Bache. 50 years of turmoil...

, 2006, . 147.
9
The Eight White Ordon...
10
The Eight White Ordon...
11
. ...
12
, , 2007.
13
. . ...
14
, 2003.
15
. ...
8
346
.. .
, , .
,
.
, ,
, .1
.2
, , ,
. , , , . . ,
.
, 1951
1976 . , , , .
3 30% .
. , .3
.

, 9 1948 . 12 1961 ., , , , - , , :
) ; b) ; ) - ,

; d) ,
; e)
.4

, , :
,
, -
1
2
3
4
Norbu, 1999, p.189.

, , 2007.
, , 2007, . 576 .
...
9.
347
.5 : () ; ()
;
()
, ; ()
, .

. ,
, .

, , . , ,
.
, , .
- . , 1966 . , .
. -
, .
.
Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic, 1960, p. 3, 1314.
10
: 50
,
.1 .
, .

. - , ,
: , , . ,
... 1978 . ,
.
, ...
, ,
, .2 , , ...
, .3
.4
.
.
.
1
2
3
4
Hu Jintao Full Text of Speech...

XIII , 1988, . 63.
, 1970, . 20.
. ...
10.
349
. ,
.
,
() , .5
1979 . ,
, . , XX .
( ),
.
. 2005 . 50%.
. , . ,
.
1981 . , , ,
-, .6
, , . <...> , .
, .
.
, .
, . ,

. :
. , .7
, .
. . , ,
-, , .8
. , .9
- 5
...; - ...; ...

6
, 1981, . 34, 5859.
7
, , 2007, . 631.
8
...
9
...
350
.. .
,
,
. <...> , ,
-, .1
10 2001 . : ,
, -, , ,
, ,
, , .
2. , .
.
.
1977 . , . 90%
, . .3
, . , .4
1979 . - XIV. 1978 .
- . 1979 .
, .5 1980 . 1-
. - . , , 70 . .
. - ,
. , . ,
.
1- . : .
1
2
3
4
5
...
, 2004, . 567.
( ).
-, 2000; Shakya, 1999, p.382.
10.
351
2231 1980 . . ,
, .
,
( ).6
, : ,
; ; ;
, 30%.7
, , 85%,
, , (
). ,
, , ,
.
, .

. , ,
,
, .8
. ,
1970 . .
, . , , , . ,
.
. , 1975 . ,
, .
, , .
,
, ,
-.9
: ( ) ( ).
6
7
8
9
Smith, 1996, p.568.

Smith, 1996, p.569.
, 1996.
...
352
.. .
.
-
. , , , ,
, .1
, , ..
. . ,
.
1980- . ,
. : .
, .
, ,
.. 19831984 . .
,
. 1984 . ,
.2 .
. - ,
,
, ,
. ,
.
1985 1988 . .
, .3
,
, ..
1987 . . ,
.4 28 1987 . -

. ,
, - . ,
.5
1
2
3
4
5
Smith, 1996, p.582583.

Shakya, 2002.
Karmel S.M. Ethnic tension...
Shakya, 1999.
His Holiness the Panchen Lamas Warning to China...
10.
353
1959 . , . ,
,
. .
1988 .
, .
, , .6 . 1992 .
. . , .7
,8 19591961 .
(), 1961 . , 1962 1966 .
, 19661968 .
, 19681979 .
, . 1982 . .
. 1993 . , 2003 .
, 2008 . .
( . ).
, ,
. . .

, .9 ,

.
1988 . , ,
,
-.10 3- 1994 . :
,
.11 2002 .
6
Tibet 2002.
Tibet 2002.
8
ChinaVitae: Raidi...
9
...
10
, 2001.
11
, 2006, . 398.
7
354
.. .
, 2003 . . , . 1991/10
23 1991 ., , ,
, ,
.
, -
1977 . , - XIV , .1 1979 .
, -,
. ,
, .2 , 2008 .,
, , .
2 1979 . ,
-, .3
. , ,
. ,
, , .4
, :
20 .5 ,
, .
19791980 . -. .6 6 1980 . ,
. 1985 .
- . . , 2002 .
, .
1
2
3
4
5
6
, , 2005.
Gyalo Thondup reconrms Deng Xiaopings oer...
-, 1992, . 230231.
Smith, 1996, p.567.
-, 1992, . 230231.
: , 1993; Tibet 2002.
10.
355
1982 . - , ,
.7 , . . 1984 .
- .
, - 17 .8
(. 7 11).
: -
, .
. , ,
- ,
. 1959 . .
- ? , .
. -,
, . ?
,
.9
. : , , , .
, - XIV 10 (. 6),
(. ). ,

, .
. ,
, .11
1980- . - XIV . .
,
7
, , 2005.
Song, 2007, p.41.
9
...
10
-?
, .
11
Song, 2007, p.42.
8
356
.. .
, ,
.. .1 , , , .
, -, , , , . .
,
: , , , , , (
; , ).
, - . 21 1987 .
-
5 . : 1. . 2. , . 3.
. 4.
. 5.
2.

- 15 1988 . :
, ,
, , , . .

, ,
, , , ,
. .
. ... ,
,
. <...>
, ,
, , 1
2
.: Worldwide Tibet Movement...

-, 1992, . 248.
10.
357
.
, ,
.
, ,
. -
. -
, ,
.
,
.
. , , ,
, . . ,
.

. ...
3.
, -
. , , , , ,
.. , .
- XIV .
, . 10 1989 .
- ,
. -
, :
; ,
;
.
;

, ; -
. : -. ...
358
.. .

;
, ;
.
, ;
, 1.

. - ,
1991 .2
- ,
. -
1991 . -
, . - 1993 .
. . .
, 1992 1993 . -.
, .
, , .3
. - ,
. 2006 ., ,
, ( - )
, ,
.

, . 1992 . - ,
1
2
3
-, 1991.
-...
...
10.
359
, - 4. ,
.
,
,
.
, -
. .
2002 . - .
. : (), ( .: ) (
). , . 46 43 ,
-. : , , , ,
, .
-
, . ,
, .; , ,
, . -
, , .
, 2007 .
145 . . ,
, , 58
. 200
, 20 . .5 , 84 ,
. .
7,5%, 0,85%,
4,3 0,7%.6 40
4
5
6
: , 1993.
Tibetan exile monasteries...
Decision of History, 2008, p.3.
360
.. .
, 10 .
, .
. -. 1991 .
. , , . ,
.
, 1970 .
30 . .,
.1 .
, , . ,
, .
, -, ,
. : 1.
,
- ,
. 2.
. 3.
. , . 4.
, , . 5. ,
,
. 6.

,
, , , , , ,
. 7.
. 8.
-
2.
1
2
Tibetan Youth Congress...

, 2007.
10.
361
2007 . -
. , .
.
, , . 1982 . 115 ,
.3 .
1983 . 750 .
1986 .
.
- , . 27
1 1987 .
, .4 , ,
, 2500 .5 1988 .
6. , .
. 5 . , . 10
1988 . . , , , : ! 15 , 150
, 2500 .7
5 1989 . ,
. , ,
, 3 . .8
, 100 ., 900 , 24 ,
, 20 .9 ,
, . , .
- XIV, . 7 1989 . 1 1990 .
3
: , 1993.
, , 2005.
5
: , 1993.
6
The New Times, 2008.
7
: , 1993; Smith, 1996, p.617.
8
Events in Lhasa March 2nd-10th 1989, Tang Daxian, London: TIN, 1990, June 15 .
: : , 1993.
9
...
4
362
.. .
10 1991 ., 40- ,
146 ,
.1
. 1992 . .
10 . , : -,
, . 200 .
, 1987
1995 . 200 . 1993 1998 .
19871992 . ,
130%,
15%, 250%.2
, 1987 2007 .
5 . ,
, 88 .
.
19901991 1998 . .3
40- 1959 . ,
. , , .
,
.4 20002007 .
, , , , , ,
CD, - XIV, ..
, . , 1 2007 . .5 ,
-, - I6 . -
,
. ,
8 . 5 10 , 1
2
3
4
5
6
: , 1993.
Marshall, 1999, p.6 . : , 2001.
Behind bars: prison conditions in Tibet...
Atmosphere of martial law ...
A Tibetan arrested in Lithang...
. .
10.
363
: .7

310 .
2008 . ,
1959 .8

.
. , 49-
1959 .
2008 .
. -
. ,

(TCHRD)
.
10 . 300
. , , , -, . 15
. , .
. . ,
. 12 , ,
. 13
, , .
14 . . ,

-.9
, 19 , 623.10
120 , 84 , , , ,
..
7
Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2007; . ...

8
.: Uprising in Tibet 2008...
9
Memorandum from the Tibetan Muslim...
10
. ...
364
.. .
. , 200 . .
.
( ), , : .1 , .2
, ...
60 , . , .
, 10 25
, , 150 ,
, , ,
, .3 , ,
. . , , .4 , ,
.5
.
. : , , .6
, 7.
, ,
. 15 , 1, 17 .8
. ,
. ,9
,
10 . , .
. 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Chinese regime...
., Tibet riots orchestrated...
...
...
Woeser Ts. A record...
...
Uprising in Tibet 2008, p.103.
Chinas midnight deadline...
...
10.
2008 . ( . )
365
366
.. .
, (, ) 572
.1 8 ., .
, .
, , . 38- ,
, ,
.
, . . , ,
.
. 22 . .
, , , ,
, -.2 : , , , ,
..3 2 ()
, , , ,
, ,
,

.4
3 , , ,
185 2139 , 14367 3862
.5 ,
. 2200 , 500 .6
, (
) ? ,
.7 ,
4 8 . ,
...
1
China arrest over 572 monks...; . ...

Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2008, p.2130.
3
.: Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2008, p.102104.
4
.: Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2008, p.117118.
5
... (www.phayul.com)
: 176 , 13013 , 19000 , 7725 , 350 .
6
...
7
. ...
2
10.
367
, 120 , 6500 ., .8 1157 . .9

2 .
, . , . 2008 . .10 20 .
27 .11
, CD,
, ,
..
( ).12 , 2009 .
953 . , 2009 . 70 ; 6500 . 5 . .
,
. , ,
.
2008 . .
: -;
; - ; ; ; ;
.13 .
, , ,14
, .15
, -
. ,
. 4 2008 . -
.16 8
Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2008.

...
10
. ...
11
. TCHRD...
12
...
13
Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report, 2008, p. 92.
14
, 2008; ...
15
. ...
16
-...
9
368
.. .
40 . . , 5 .
. -, . 2 2009 . . 2 2009 .
.1
,
, .
, , .2
30 ,

.3 (. 8), 1991 . . ,
, ,
. , ,
,
. 1959 . . ? ,
.4 ,
, ,
.5 ,
. , , . .6
,
,
. .7 ,
-. , .
( . 4), -.8 , - -, . , 1990- .
, .
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
. ...
...
-...
, 1962, . 44.
...
China: 20th Century...
., .: ...
: ...
10.
369
,
-,
.9 .
- 2008 . 127 .10 PR- .
. , , , . ,
, . , .
.
: ,
-;
, (, ,
). , . , ,
. , ,
. ,
. , , ! ,
,
, ,
.
, , . , , ,
, , , ,
- . . . - CNN.
, .
,
.11
,
9
Nichols S. Malware writers target...; Cyber attacks target...

...
11
, ...
10
370
.. .
. . 10
, 8 2008 .,
-. . . . 2009 .
.1
2008 . -, . , .
. -
, :2
; , ;
, , . , , , , ,
, .3

, : ,
.
, -... , .
,
.4 . -
. 2008 .
, . ,
-,
, ,
. , , .
: .
1
2
3
4
...
...
...
...
10.
371
2008 .
.
, ,
. , 2008 . , . ,
500 . -,
. , .5
2009 . ,
. -, .. .6
( ) 25 50- 10 .
: , .
, , . ,
, . .
.7
, . ,
. .8
. , ,
; ,
, . .
. , ,
.
, ,
(
), , ,
5
6
7
8
. ...
. ...
. ...
. ...; . SCMP...
372
.. .
.1 , ,
. ,
- . , .
50-
. 28

(. 8).
.2 : , , ..
, .
.

.3 , .4
- 50- 1959 .,

.5
(XZ TV)
.6 -
(.: ). .
- .

XX . 57,
.
23 . :
. : , ;
; 1
2
3
4
5
6
.. ...
. 28 ...
...
. ...
- 50- ...
.. ...
10.
373
, , .
:
78 .
: ,
, . ? , , , ,
,
. , , .
:7
: ( ) ; 19752003 .
( . ). ( ):
; 2008 .
. :
(. ); 19712003 . , 2008 . .
( ) ( ) ; 2008 . . ( ):
; 2008 .
. ( ):
; 2008 . . : ;
2008 . . : ; 2008 .
. ( ): ; 2008 .
.
( ): 1969 1970 . ; 2008 .
, ,
. ( ):
( ), ;
2008 . .
,
-, . ,
Woeser, 2008.
374
.. .
-. , , - , , , .
, .
? ,
.
, . ,
. :
, , ,
. , , , , .1
. , , ,
, ,
.., , .
:
, , ,
- . ,
.
: , , , , , ..2

. ,
,
.3
-.
2009 . 2 .
, , . . , .. , , , .
.. , . ,
,
1
. ...
.: , 1952; , 1959, . 205
246.
3
, , 2009.
2
10.
375
, ,
.4 , .
, . .
;
. , , . ,
,
, ,
.

. 6 , , .
( 79). ,
.
. , ,
, . ,
.5 , ...
.
: , ,
. , , . , . ,
, , .
, ,
, ( , ), ,
.. - .
, .
,
. , ,
4
5
.. ...
, 2004.
376
.. .
1 . 2 , ; 3
( AFP).
10.
377
3
1 ; 2 2008 .; 3 ,
, - . ,
, 20 2009 . ( . ).
378
.. .
, 1.
: , , ,
:
.
7 ., , . ,
, , .
.2
, .
.3
.
, . -, ,
. , , , .
. ,
.4 , 100% , ,
, ,
, .5
.
33 .6
. , (, , , ,
.), , , ,
, ,
( ), ,
, , ..
, -
..., 1998.
Prisoners of Tibet, 2006.
3
Torture in Tibet, 2000.
4
Behind bars... : , . . : , 1970, . 51.
5
Torture in Tibet, 2000.
6
: , 1993.
2
10.
379
(TCHRD): 1
(TCHRD); 2
(TCHRD); 3
(Kuxing... p.50)
380
.. .
, .1
, , , ,
, ,
.
(86% ), (86%), (69%), (50%).2 ,
, . , ,
, ..
. . 12 ,
22 .3 . 2 1 .
,
, , .4 , , .., .
, . :
4 , ; ..5
,
.6 ,
, , , , , .
. , .7 - , .

, . . ,
,
. , .
.
1
Kuxing: Torture in Tibet...

3
4
: , 1993.
5
6
7
. .,
(Tibetan Envoy, 2003, no. 7, p.5).
2
10.
381
. ,
.
.8
, .
,
, .
. ,
.
,
.9 , . 1900
1987 2001 . ( 2%)
. , 19872007 . 88 .
( 2009 .), ,
. (. ), . . ,
, .
,
, , ,
.10
,
, -
.11 ,
. , 2008 ., ,
.12
. 2001 .13 ( ) . ,
. , . ( ) .
( ) 3
. . ( )
8
Tales on terror, 1999.

Torture in Tibet, 2000; Tibet 2002.
10
25.03.2008...
11
, 2004.
12
. ...
13
Annual Report 2001.
9
.. .
382
3
, (TCHRD):
1 ; 2 ; 3
10.
383
10 . . 500
. ( ).
11
.
10 . , . ,
, ,
. .
, 2001 ., 1 12 13 ,
32, . .
. ,
.
, .
. , , ,
, .2
. ,
16 , , .3
, ,
.
16 . , ,

.
, , , , , ..
.
.
.
, .
. .4
. . , 1
2
3
4
Tibet: a human development...; Behind bars...

: , 1993.
Tibet 2002.
Annual Report 2001.
384

(Dangerous crossing, 2005)
.. .
, .
.
,
,
.
, .
, (
1 2002 .) 2 .
- ,
.1
2002 .
-
, , , .
,
, -
.
, . , , . C 1991
2002 . 2500 .2 . .
: ,
.
4 .
. , ,
,
.3 , , , , ,
. 40
, .
.
, . , 6 . 2001 . 2500 , .4 30
2006 . -
.5
1
2
3
4
5
Tibet 2002.
Dangerous Crossing, 2003.
Annual Report 2001.
Annual Report 2001.
Dangerous Crossing, 2006; Chinas massacre in Tibet...; ...
10.
385
, -, (Dangerous Crossing, 2006)
, . 70 ,
, . , .
17- , 13 . 36 ., . . ,
, .
2003 . , .
. , 35 .6 10 . 13 . .7 ,
. . .
17005000 ,
.
, . , , :
,
.8 2001 . ,
.9
6
7
8
9

Annual Report 2001.
Annual Report 2001.
.. .
386
,
-
(Dangerous Crossing, 2006/: . )
. . ,
. , 2001 .
15 . , , .
,
, ,
.
.1 . ,
. , 2006 . 45%
, 30% , , 20% 5% .2
, , .
. , . : , 1
2

Dangerous rossing, 2006.
10.
387
, , ,
, , , ; - ..3
, , , , 915 ,4
( ).
. , . . , ,
.5 ,
. , ,
.6 , , .
2008 . .
. ,
.7
,
, , .8 . .
, , .
.
(combatant)9
, -.
. .10 15 2009 . ,
.11
. 2009 . , ; ,
3
., Roy, 2008; http://www.cpnm.org.

.: ...
5
...
6
Prachanda defends Chinese crackdown...
7
...
8
...
9
., ., The Himalayan 2009 .
10
. -...
11
. ...
4
388
.. .

; 15 .
, 7 . (APF) 7 .
.1 , :
.
, . ,
, . ,
, ,
. , ,

.2
, .
, .
. , ,
, - .
. : ,
, , ,
.3
.
1979 . .4
. . - .
. ,
1983 . ,
, : 18 . 1982 . 900 .
.5
1980- . , ( . 9).
1983 . , VII . . 1
2
3
4
5
. ...
Struggling for inuence in Nepal...
, 1966, . 72.
Buttereld, 1979.
, 1995, . 14.
10.
389

.6 , . , , : . ,
.
300 . , ,
,
.7 1989 . . 2001 . 330 . ,
. 2008 .
22 ,
15 .8 570
. . .
,
, .. ,
- XIV, , 2009 .
.9 63- , . , ,
.
,
. .10

. ,
1 1992 . , .11
,
, . .

. . , , , ..
6
Ribhur Tulku, 1988.

...
8
2008 ...
9
. - XIV...
10
: , 1993.
11
A Sea of Bitterness, 1999, p.4145.
7
390
.. .
, ,
, ( . 10).
( , )
.1 .
: .
, , .
. ,
.
2000 . , , 1700 . , 1535.2
, ,
(. 9).
6259
. , . . 2000- . 120 . , 46 . .3 . ,
180 . ., .
, 88 , 3 . ; , 2 . ; 700 .4 , 1990- .
3 . 20 . .5 , 2006 . , 45 . 560 .6 1986 . 1967 .
.
1984 . .
10 1987 . - : .
. , , , ,
7. ,
1
: , 1993.
China-Tibet...
3
Shakya Ts. Tibetan questions...
4
: ...; :
2006...
5
Butt, 1994.
6
Fifth International Conference, 2008, p.195.
7
...
2
10.
391
, ,
, . ,
. 28 1988 . -
.
1990 . ,
, , , , .8
. 1991 .
, , . 1993 .
,
. , ; ;
. .
3- 1994 . ,
.9
, , .
1996 . .10 , , ,
.
.
, . . . 2030 . ,
, .
.
, . , , . 19961997 . 2827
, 165 , ;
1998 . 327
7156, 1999 . 42 1432.11 8
, 2004, . 274283.
, 2000, . 12; , 2006-, . 398.
10
: , 1993; , 2001; China
launches education...
11
: , 1993.
9
392
.. .
, .1 . ,
.2 , 2000 2008 .
: 1700
46 .3

.
.4 1997 1998 .,
.
, ,
. - . . ,
,
, , ,
. <...> , , , ,
(.31). .
,
. <...> ... , (.3435).

(.40).
2 :
, .5 2:
, .
3: ..
, , .6 9 13 , 15 18.30. 1
Religious persecution...
Annual Report 2001.
3
.: China's Tibet, 2000 . : , , 2005, . 301; :
...
4
A Sea of Bitterness, 1999.
5
. : Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2008, p.95.
6
Religious persecution...
2
10.
393
. ; ;
- I;
; , - . -
, . 12 .
.7
1 2000 . 30
.
-. . , . .
,
-. .
.
, ,
. , -
.
20 .
, , . ,
. 610, , , , .8
.

: ,
, , , , .
- XIV.
, ,
20 1997 .: 1.
, , . 2.
, , ,
. 3.
, ;
7
8
Patriotic Re-education...
...
394
.. .
, - , . 4. ,
( ); ,
. 5.
. 6.
, . 7.

. , , .
8.
. 9. , . 10.
. , ,
1.
.
, 16 .
, , ,
, ,
;
; , , ..2 1983 . ,
, 2006 . 3 .3 . , .
, . ,
.4 , , . 1998 .
.5
XIV ., , .
1
2
3
4
5
Nationalities and Religious Bureau...

: , 1993.
: 2006...
Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual report 2001.
Kumbum's Song, 1998, p.1.
10.
395
. ,
, . 1990- . ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ),
( ).6 2007 . .7 2006 .
-
; ,
; 853 , 1100 ; , .8
2001 . .9 . 1980 . .
, , ,
, , , . ,
, , . 1990- .
. -. 1994 .
.
,
.
. 1998 . 8 . 150, 1400.
1999 . ,
, , ,
16 . . ,
. 2001 . . , ,
-. 2 .
. , , .
,
3 . , .

.

6
7
8
9
, 2000.
Chinese authorities closes down Pangsa...
Destruction of Serthar Institute...
396
.. .
: 1875, 2 . , 40 50 .
130350 . , .
. .
, . . , :
, , .
- , .
, , , 6 2004 .
.1 , , .
2002 . , .

: ;
, ; , ,
..;
; -
;
, ; , .
, ,
,
.
2007 . ,
(): .2

. . , , , .
,
,
.3 , ,
: , .
, 1
2
3
Khenpo Jigme Phuntsok...

...
...
10.
397
. 1988 . , , .
2001 . , - VII , .4 2000- .
. , ,
,
, ,
.5

.
.6 ,
. 1990 . . ,
, .

. .
, 1970 ., ,
. - , ,
, , ,
, , , .7 . , , .
,
, , .
, ; , , .8
.
.
. , ,
1999 . ,
Potala palace desecrated, p.6.

Mass transportation, 2003, p. 24.
6
...
7
Fifty years in Tibet...
8
: 2006...;
...
5
398
.. .
:
, ..1 , -
. . -. ,
, .
XVI - . -,
. XVI (19241981) . , 17 1985 . .
, , , XVII. -. 1992 . XVII .
: ,
- XIV ,
.2 .
1999 . .
, . . , ,
.
2008 ., ,
. XVII
,
, -.3
- (19381989)
. . ,
- , ,
... ,
.
, 1
Severe religious restrictions...

XVII , 2000, . 5057.
3
- , (. 3).
2
10.
399
, , , ,
,
.4 ,
, -
, ,
,
(.:
), , .
13 1989 . -
,
-
V IX. 22
-
.5
. 24 ,
, , , ,
-
: , -,
. <...> ,
,
6. . ,
- , . - -
,
, , .
28 1989 . - . , .7 , , -,
,
, , .
4
5
6
7
...
: Panchen Lama X. The Panchen Lama's Last Speech...
...
...
400
.. .

X. ,
, : 1. .
-
.

.
. 2.
, X, .
. . 3. , -
- ,
, .
.
-
77 . 410 .
.1 -
.
. : ,
, , ,
.2
: , ,
, ,
, -
, - ,
..
- -.
, , , , . - XIV , .
1
2
...
...
10.
401
, - , .
- I
.3 , 25 1989 . , : , ,
. - (
, )
-, .
, -
14 . - . 17
.
, 28 1996 ., ,
, .
. ,
12 2002 ., , , , .4
,
. .
17 18 1997 .
-,
-.5 21

. ,
. 17 (
)
( ).
, - I - . .6
, ,
,
3
4
5
6
XI -, 1999.
Tibet 2002...
XI -, 1999.
...
402
.. .
,
.
- .
: .
, XIX . XIV
, . XVII .1
,
. , , , ,
.
, , ,
, , -. ,
-,
, , , .

, - . ,
-?
,
? ,
, -. - ,
.
, - IX - -, , , - .
- III - IX, -
(. ). ,
. - XIV, . ,
-
- XIV (. ). . 1955 .
- , .2 , 1985 . ,
- , - , .3 -,
- .
, ,
1
2
3
Sperling, 2004.
, 2006, . 80.
XI -...
10.
403
- .4 ,
. , ,
: , , , , , , . , ,
- 23 ,
- VII,
:
.
- XIV . -
- . 16 1995 .
- ,
, ,
-, .
, :
, ,
,
, ,
. .5 .
8 11 1995 . , . ,
, -
. : 1. . 2.
. 3.
. 4. . 5. ,
, .
6. - -
. ,

4
5
...
...
404
.. .
. ,
.1
, -,
. ,
, ,
.
29 1995 .
- I .2
.3
- I.
.4 . ,
.
, : .5 -
.
, . , .
, 1999 .
- I 80 .6 ,
,
-. , . , , - .7
,
.

. ,
. , ,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
...
...
., .: 2425, 19951996.
XI...
Tibet 2002...
XI -...
, 2004.
10.
405
- I, .
, , . , -
, , . , , .8
.9 : 1996 . ,
.10
, - I
, - XIV.
.11
.
. 1 2007 . 5 .12
, . , . 2 : :

, ... .
.
. , .
4(2) , , , ,
, ,
. 5:
, .
,
,
.

(. 7). ,
8
. ...
Re-education in Kan Lho, 1996, p.2.
10
1996: The year in Tibet...
11
Tibetan religious leaders, 1995, p.10.
12
5...
9
406
.. .
(. 8).
, (. 9). (. 11).
(. 12). (. 13).
,
,
- , .
- ,
, , .
.
, . , , , . ,
: (), , , - .1
,
1960- . , .
.
, , , .
, , .
, - ,
.2
, .
, , 4% , 12% (
). , ,
(, .-, .), , , .
- IV.
1
2

, 1986.
10.
407
60 , , . , , , .
, - , , .3 ,
,
. , -
, , .
, . (,
Tibet: Story of a Tragedy ..).
/ (2007 .).
- XIV
, . VI
1973 ., II 1980, 1982, 1990, 1996 1999 .; . 1981 . . - ,
. . - . 2008 . -
,
.
, , ,
. , .
- , ,
, . , , , ,
. -, ,
, .
.
50 ,
: . , . , . , . , . , . . : 1979,
1982, 1986, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1996 2004 . 1994 . - . . . :
-
.
-, 2001.
408
.. .
, - XIV , .
. , .
. . , ..
.1
. 4 2001 ., ,
.2 , . , , - ?
, , ...
,
. ,
, : - .
?
.3
, .
, .
-
. , 2001 .
.
.
( 2004 . ) , - .
. 2009 . ,
.. , , -: .
.4
. -
, ,
1
2
3
4
, 1987, c.6171.
...
...
- ...
10.
409
- . , - . , .
.
-, .
. , 1921 .
, , .
- VIII -. 1924 .
, ,
. 1936 . -
. .
1999 . - IX
, .5
. ,
.
24 .6 .
,
.
,
,
.. .
, - ,

, .7
(1982 ., . 36), :
. ,
.

. . . , , , ,
.
- . . . 19(2)
,
, , , 5
6
7
2009 .
, 2004, . 6668.
, 2006, . 303.
410
.. .
. ,
.

,
, , .1
,
.

, .
, , .2 , ,
.
, : ,
, ,
, , ,
, ,3
.4
, . ?
, , ,
, .. , .
.

. , ,
. .
.. 5 .
. 1970- .
1980- .
: (1) , (2) ,
1
2
3
4
5
, 2007.
, 2005.
, 2005.
, 2008; ...; ...
, 1994.
10.
411
, , . 1980- .
, . 19781980- .
.6
,
. ,
, , .7
, , 60 ?
,
.8 . ,
,
.9 - . -
, ; ,
; ,

.10

().11 , ,
.12 ,
. , 2008 .
.
.13 -
, 1994.
, 2008, . 207; .. ...
8
.. ...; . ...
9
, 2003.
10
.. ...
11
, 2007.
12
...
13
, 2008.
7
412
.. .

.
,
. . 2% , 6,5% .1
10 , 9 , 8 , 6
.2 - , , .
.

.3 .
, , , , .
, : , , ,
..4
- ,
.
, . :
;
, . ,
; , ; ,
, .5 , . ,
-, .6
( ),
, , .7
.8 ,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2006 .: , 2007, c. 7292.

, 2006.
, 2007.
, 2005.
...
, 2005, . 264265.
Fan, 2009.
...
10.
413
,
, . .
,
. , .
: ,
. ,
, , , ..
.9

, . ,
. , .10
, 2006 . . ,
, : ,
.11

,
(),
,
. <...>
1965 . ,
, . <...>

. <...> -
,
9
.: , 2006.
Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2008, p.84.
11
. - ...
10
414
.. .
. <...> ...
,
. ,
, ,

, , . ,
,
....1
, 1970- .
.
.
, , . .
. .2 2000- .

87,5%, 69,2%,
90,4%
89,4%; 78% : ,
() ; 70% 82,3 %
.3 19 , 12 .
- XIV, - ,
, .
. , , .
.
1965 1990- . 220
, , ,
, , : ,
, , 1
2
3
...
: , 1993.
...
10.
415
, , ,
,
, ,
, .4
, ,
, ,

.
. ,
. , XIV ,
, .
1990- . , .5
, ,
, , - ,
. , 1990- . , ,
.
- . ,

.6
, ,
( )
, , .
.
, ,
. : 40 , , , , ,
, , 4
5
6
...
.: , 2004.
. : , 2004, . 278.
416
.. .
, .
,
, .1
.
1983 .
. 14 1984 . :
60 .
. 1985 . 60 . .2
1987 . : . <...> ,
-, ,
,
.3 1991 . ,
, 300 . .
1993 ., .4
2000 .
.5 5416021 ., 2427168 ., 1269120
., 1086592 ., 443228 ., 128432 .,
61481 . 1,5%, 95%;
(, ) 22,5% 54%; () 1,8
91,2%; () 0,3 66,6%; 92,8 6,1%. , , , .
2003 ., 1951 . 1,1409
. 2,7017 . ., 1,2087 . 1964 .
2,5072 . . 2003 .; 92% .6
.
, .
, , .7
. .
400 . . ,
, , 20%.8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
, 2004, . 212.
China's Population, 1988.
. : , 2001, . 27.
Strangers, 1997.
Tibet 2002.
...
Strangers, 1997.
Tibet 2002.
10.
417
2006 . . 1981
1987 . 1,5 . 43 . ;9
1998 2000 . 95,6 . 500 .,10 2007 . 4,03 .11
.
2 2008 . ,
- .12
. , 1,5 . .,
, 900 . : , , - .13 : 1
2006 31 2007 . 659 . .,
642 .14 , 10 .
17 ., . .
2,8 . ./, .15

, , , .
.
, 10%
. , . , . 1960- .
(.: ), .
,16 .
, , .
, . ,
.
2001 ., , . ,
9
-, 1992.
, 2001.
11
...
12
Chinese migrants...
13
China's Train, 2009, p.6061.
14
...
15
2 ...
16
10
418
.. .

. , 19911992 . 20% , 75% .
, 2003 . 10 . .
.
, -,
. , 60 , .1
2003 .
100 .2 1980- .
-, .
-. . ,
,
. . . , ,
. , ,
, .

. , . . ()
3 ., , , .3
, , .
, .
, .
, ,
, ,
.4 :
, . ,
(.: )
200 .,
2%.
.5 1996 2000 . 112 140.
2000 . 100 ,
, . 2010 .
440 . 780 .
1
2
3
4
5

: ...
, 1962, . 11.
10.
419
1988 ., 72 . 52,5%
.6 , ,
. , , , , .7
, .8 , .9 ,
3 . , 30 . . 2000 . 53 . , 2005 . 70 . c 257400 .;
2015 . 272 . ,
300 ..10 ,
.
.11
, . .
, .
. 1993
1998 . 35 .12 3- (. ), 1996 . 350 600 .13
,
. 1998 .
, 76 . 2002 . , .14
, .
, , . -
.15 13-
, . 2002 . .16
.
: , ,
-.
6
Ma Rong, 1993, p.268277.

Jarrah, 2002, p.1317.
8
Tibetan blasts...
9
. ...
10
11
Ma Rong, 1993, p.268277.
12
13
, 2000, . 16.
14
Tibet 2002.
15
...
16
Tibet 2002.
7
420
.. .
, 2008 . (: .. )
, , 2008 .
(: .. )
10.
421
: 20092020 .
6,47 . .1 15 ,
, , .
, . , , .
. -
,
, 1984 . , .2
, .
( 80% )

, .
,
, . , 45 , 78. ,
.3
. 1980- .
, ,
.4
, , . . ,
1983 . 2415 , 82% .
1987 . 764 , 660 . 1996 .
. 2958 , 86,13 85,73%5. ,6 1996 . 22
308 , .
. 1997 . 883
. 1984 . , 12% ( ) ,
1,53 . .7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
...
: ...
Yan Hao, 2000.
, 2001.
Birth control, 1996, p.2.
Strangers, 1997.
, 2001.
.. .
422
,
50% 36 . .
.1 - 90% .2
, , . , . 5 . (588 .).
2001 . ,
7- 8- . .3 (
) 5060 700. ,
, 1600 (188 .).
. ,
, , ( 20 ).

.4
. , . , ,
. , . ,
(. ).5
.
, - , ,
.
, , .
1
2
3
4
5
, %
1991
51700
2,35
35400
1,61
1993
48800
2,13
32000
1,4
1995
48200
2,06
30500
1,3
1997
44300
1,84
26200
1,09
1999
36000
1,45
19900
0,8
Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2001; Chinese birth control, 2001, p.5.
The status of Tibetan women...
Chinese birth control...
Tibet Statistical Yearbook 2002 . : Tibet: the gap...
10.
423
,
,
...
,
, , , , .6 ,
.
.
19651985 ., , : ,
, .
,
.
.
.7
. , 1960 .,
, - ,
, , .8

1988 ., - : , , , 1300 , .
,
. ,
: , , , , , , . <...>
, 9.
. , 6044
991
-.10
. 1987 1988 . ,

, .11
6
: ...
: , 1993.
8
, 1978.
9
: , 1993.
10
, 2000, . 20.
11
: 2006...
7
424
.. .
. - .
, . , ,
,
. .
, , , , ,
- , , , , , , , ,
, ,
. .
,1 , ;
-- .
, .
, , .
, -,
- .2 , , , .3
.
, , -; ,
, , .4 - . , .
,
.5 .6 ,
3040% .
1
2
3
4
5
6
...
. ...
, 2003.
. ...
. Shakya Ts. Tibetan questions...
10.
425
, .
.
1985 . 21
. 10 . .7 2003 .
1011 2020 . 453,4 . , 91,8% , 30%. , , 2005 . 55%
, 31
20%.8
2008 ., 15523 ,
; 10927
. 181 , 122 16 16
.9 ,
, ? ,
, , .

. ,
-, .10 , , , . ,
, . 2008 . .11

. ,
. .. ,
, ,
, .., .12
- , : ,
7
...
9
: ...
10
. ...
11
...
12
, 2004.
8
426
.. .
.1
(612 ) , , , ,
, .. .
.
, .2
, 3 . . : , .
, 2008 . 2,5 . ,
1,5 .3 , ,
, . .
, , .. 2000 . ,
160 ,4 ..
.
1979 . .5
. 1980- . 40 .6 (, .), , .
, . , , .
, - . , , , . , 1999 .,
.7
. . , , ,
, - , - , , , .
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Rreport 2001.

2,5 . ...
, , 2005.
...
: ...
Powers, 2004, p. 93.
10.
427
- . , 2008 .
(: .. )
. ,
. , , , . , 2000 .
20% , - .8 .
, , -, , . 1990 .
18 658 , 60; 1990- . 15, 4.9
- , . , , ,
,
, .10 , .
. .

8

Political veteran, 1998, p.2.
10
Prostitution, 1995, p.19, 21.
9
.. .
428
, 2008 . (: .. )
, ,
. , .1
? ? , , .
?
: ,
, , ,
- .2

.3 ,
. 18
.
1
2
3
...
...
10.
429
, . , , . ,
, , ,

, ,
.4 , 1993 . 325 . . .
,
. , , .
. . , , -, ,
.5
. .
,
4
5
...
430
.. .
. 1949 . 221800 . ,
1985 . 134 .1
, , , .2 ,
, . 1987 . - :
,
3. 1981 .
. ,
. 140 . ,
.4 , ,
:
.5
150 . . .6
, . .
. .
. , , .7
,
. 2008 . ,
: 2007 .
120 .8 ,
,
.
(68,1%)
, , .
, .9
, ,
.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
: , 1993.
International Commission of Jurists Report on Tibet 1997.
...
Ecological improvement...
, 23.06.2008.
: , 1993.
10.
431
67 . .10 . , 1996 . 20,47 . , 1,36 .

. ,
, .
, ,
, ,
, .11 , ,
.

. : ,
, .

, .
. , .12 . (.: ) - :
85% , , .13
, .
(WWF),
, , : ,
, .14 ,
, . ,
.
. .
, . : , , , , .
, .
, .
-.15
, ,
10
11
12
13
14
15

International Commission...
Tibet 2002.
432
.. .
, . , .
, .1
. . ( ).
, .
, . - .
, .
,
.
, , ,
,

.2
,
.
- . ,
.
, , . ,
. , . ,

, . ,
, . , ,
, .3 - .
1
2
3
: , 1993.
Tibet: a hHuman Development, 2007.
10.
433
80% .
.
. 1977 . 90120
. 30 .
.4 , . , ..
, .
. .
.
, , . : , , .5
1979 .
. .
1979 . ,
3- ( 1978 .).
.6 ,
, .
. 1980 . ,
30% , 1960- ., 30%
. , 150 . . .
300350 .
. , 20
. ,
. , .
: 1979 .
; () , (19791987 .); , ,
(1984 .). 1 1984 .
:

1990 ., , (3050 ),
.7
4
5
6
7
, 1996.
, 25.01.1977 . : , 1996, . 8.
, 1996.
, 1996.
434
.. .
,
,
, , .
,
.1 .
,
.
1984 .
, .
.2 , . . 19971999 . 27 .

: , ,
;
; ,
.
, . ,
.
.
, ,
.3. .
,
. .4
.
-
, .

.5 , -
(9 ., 126 .).6 1
2
3
4
5
6

. ...
Pirie F. Segmentation...
10.
435
( 35 ).
, , , , , , .
. . 1970-
1980- . .
. ,
.7
. () ()
, .8
40% . 38%
.
. ,
.
1990- . ,
.9 593 . . 182,9 . 1959 938,6
. 2007 .; (15 = 1 )
355 .10 ,
.
, . , . 2006 .
.11
. , , .
,
.
1,2 . .12 2000- . 260 , 51 . .13
7
Horlemann B. Modernization eorts...

9
, , 2005.
10
...
11
...
12
...
13
...
8
436
.. .
, . , , , , .
. , 2007 .
34,22 . ,
1959 . 174 .1 , ,
,
- .
, . 2008 . 500 , 1,85 . ,
66% .2 , . , , . -
. -
: .
. 1990- . 1500
. . 2007 . ,

.3
1995 1996 .
, 1994 . , 2006 . .4
. 10
.
. . 1980- .,
- , . , .
. 1997 .

.5
1860 . 1216 . . : , , , 8 18
, 15- .
1
2
3
4
5
: ...
...
Compulsory unpaid labour...
10.
437
, . , , .
, . ,
300 . . ,
. ,
. ,
, .
2000 . 22 . ,
2008 . 48,6 . . . ,
. , , , . .

. 2006 . .
, ,
.
: 960 4 . ,
5072 , 550 .
,
.6 , . .
. 28 2007 .
. , .7
2002 ., , 81,7%
80,1% .
100. 2002 . -
, .8 -.
, ,
. 2002 . - .
9 17 .
, .
, .
. 6
7
8
China's Train, 2009, p.12.

...
Tibet 2002.
.. .
438

(2009 TibetInfoNet / permission of the photographer)
, .
.
.
.1 1986 . 11 , .2 1986 . , : -
- - .
, , , .
, . , 1990- . 500 .
. ,
40394 . 1990- . .
, ,
, , , , , ,
, , , ,
1
2
, 1968.
: , 1993.
10.
439
, ,
, , ,
.
,
(.: ). .3
, , , .. , - .
,
(.: ), , (.: ) .

1960- .4 ,
(),
. .
- , 9- . 1970- . . .
,
1971 . .
.
2007 . ,
.5
, , .
1986 . , -
- , . .
. ,
. 2006 . , - .6 ,
,
, , , ,
.7 , 1956 . , , 3
4
5
6
7
: , 1993.
: , 1993.
...
...
Krishnatry, 2005, p.155.
440
.. .
, . -.

: (), (, )
().1
, -,
.
,
, , . . , , , . :

, .

, . , , , , ,
. .
1978 . 565 , 1986 . 1 . 2007 . 1131 .
2300 .
.2
19,25%.3
, 16,01 . .
: ,
, , .. , , 1992
2001 . 97%, 69%.4 ,
. , . ,
1980- .,

, .5 , 1970-
1980- . 128 .,
4,5. , 1
2
3
4
5
Another Chinese 'incursion'...

Shkya, 1999.
...
Tibet 2002.
: , 1993.
10.
441
. 2007 . . ,
800 , 230 . ,
.6 .
, . ,
, . , , .
2006 . .
570 .
. , 2010 . 80%
.7 . . 2007 ., ,
, ,
.8 ,
. . 1987 . ,
, .9
; , .
, , .10
, . 2006 . , , 623 . , .11 2008 . 10
18 ,
, 1400 .12. 360
. -
...
Tibet to provide housing...
8
26--08 ...
9
10
...
11
: ...
12
...
7
442
.. .
. 1300 , 6700, 10 .1
35,5 ,
2000 . 67 .2
43% 1959 . 3,1%.3 , .
, .4 , .

!
.5 , ,
, .
.
, .6
; ,
.7 ,
, , , . , ,
, .8 .
, , -, . , , 20%. .9 2006 . -
40 , ,
.10
.
...
...
3
...
4
5
: , 1993.
6
., Display of Tibetan ag...
7
8
9
...
10
...
2
10.
443
* * *
: 40 - ,
,
, . <...>
- , .11
, : () .
, ? , 40 , , . ,
, , .
, -, , . , .
. .
, ,
.12

: , ,
. . ,
, .
, , ,
.
, .
, .13 ,
, .
11
12
13
...
-: ...
. 2000, . 94.
11

.
( ), .

.. .
: .1

, , ,
.
. ,
, ,
, .
, ( ) . .
, ,
, ,
.

Van Walt, 1987, p.93110.
11. ?
445
. , , , .
:
. , , , ; . ,
. ,
,
.
.
. ,
, . ,
,
.
, .
, . , ,

.
,

. 19171918 . ,
19411946 . , .
, ,
.
.
, , .
.
. ,
, , . . -
446
.. .
.
. :
.
, ,
. , ,
.
,
, , ,
, . .
, , . ,

.
.
, . , ,
.
. ,
,
.
. , ,
,
.
, XIX ., , , .
. :
, .
XVIII ., .

, . , .
. , , .
, , : -
11. ?
447
,
.
,
.
. , .
: ( ) .
, , . ,
.
, .

, ,
, .
, , . ,
. , 1648 .
.
.

.
. , .
,
. , . ,
. , , , .
,
.
, . XIX . ,
, .
, .
,
448
.. .
. , , .
, . , .

, . . ,
.
, . .

.
, .
. XIX .
- 1842 .
(1122 . . 249 . .) (, ) .1
. ,
. -.
,
. , , .
, . , ,
, , ,
.
,
.
. ,
.2
, .
.
1
2
, 2009, . 163.
, 2006, . 100110.
11. ?
449
. , , , .. , ,
..
, ,
.3
.. ( ).4 : 1)
; 2) ; 3)
.
(
) , .. , .
.
,
( , ). <...> :
. <...> . <...>

, .
, . : ,
.
- ,
:
() () ().
,
, , .5
: . ,
.6
3
4
5
6
, 2009, . 162.
, 2001, . 3840.
, 2009, . 163.
, 2003.
450
.. .
. , ,
(206 . .. 220 . ..). ,
, , , ( ).1 , ,
. ( ).
, . , . ,
, .
. - , . ,
, .
, .
. ,
XIX .:
. ,
: , ..
,

.
, , XIX . 2.
, ,
. , 166 . - ,
. :
, ,
.3 ,
.
: (-) ().4
1
2
3
4
, 2006, . 120121.
...
, 1961, . 1, . 434435.
, 2003.
11. ?
451
- , ,
. -
, ,
,
.
(.: )
.5 : ; , ;
, ().
, ,
(), .
: , , .
, .6
. ; , , .
, . , , ,
-
. , - , , ,
.
,
. ,
( ). ( ), ( )
-.
,
,
.7 .. : , , , ..
.
, . , 5
6
7
, 2009, . 119.
. (16, 1) . : , 2005.
.: , 1978.
452
.. .
. .. :
(, , ),
.
, ,
.
,
. , -
. . XIX . ,
1899 1907 . , .
.. :
-, , .
, ,
, . ,
, , . , ,
,
. . .. :
, , ..
.
, - ; , , ,
. .. ..
-,
1.
:
, , ( )

1
, 2001, . 41.
11. ?
453
, .
,
( , ,
).
1 1912 . , [ ] .2
. , ,
.. ,
. 1945 . . , .. 1971 .,
, 1984 . .
, .
, , .
, . , .
. . , ,
1933 .,
, ,
.
, . , .

: ,
. . , .
. ,
1840- 1940- . .
.
, , 2
. : Van Walt, 1987, p.113.
454
.. .
.
, . ,
,
,
.
, , , , , , . ,
, , . <...> ,
, , .1
, . ,
. ,
.
,
.
,
.2
. 3 , ,
. ,

. 1945 .
.

. , ,
-.
. - (
1
2
3
. : Van Walt, 1987, p.117.

Van Walt, 1987, p.177.
() , .
11. ?
455
) ,
. , . (
) . , ,

.
, , , , . , ,
, - .4
() ().
,
, ,
. .
,
.

, . , , .
. -
, - . . , , ,
. . .
, , .
, ( -
), (, )
.
. , , ( , ,
).
- . . , (386564 .),
. -
Van Walt, 1987, p.183.
456
.. .
(-) - ( ).1 (.: ),

, - ( ).
,
.2 , (221206 . ..), ( ).
, ,
( ), () ,
( ).3 , Sina
. .4 (,
, .) Serica, Seres ( , , ). ,
, Serica , .
Sina
. , , ,
Sina.
(, .) , ,
. , .
. , ,
(.: Hunni), .5 , ,
. .
, China ,
, . -
( ) , , , ,
, .
.
, , China ..
. , -
1
2
3
4
5
, 2007, . 111123.
, 1955, . 173.
. : Pelliot, 1912; Wade, 1999.
., ., , 19611963.
.., .. ()...
11. ?
457
XIX . , .6
, , . .
,
. -, , - .7
,
,
, ,
.8
? , . , ,
: ( .
dynasteia , ), . -
(),
(, , , .). ,
, .
.
, , .. , , . , , ?
.
.9
.
, , ,
. - : , ( ), , ,
, ,
( ),
( ) ,
- . ,
: (, )
. , ,
, , - ,
-.
6
7
8
9
., , 1805; , 1824.
. : Vembu, 2007.
3...
458
.. .
.
, ,
(, ). . , , , - . ,
. ,
: (, ).
, ,
(). ,
(- ).
. , ( ), : -
- . , ,
-, . -, .
,
. .
, ,
, , . , - - (
-), -. , , , .1
.
,
( -).
, ( ):
, .
, , , . ()
(), , ,
.2 1
2
Gang Zhao, 2006 . : Esherick, 2006, p.232, 254.

.. ...
11. ?
459
, ,
, .
, - , , ,
, ,
. :
. , I .
( ),
, , , , ,
, , ..
,
. I .
, ( , .:
romanus , ). , , .
.
, . ( ) 618907 . ,
,
.3 ,
,
(. 2). , 2,
.
. : 1271 . , , 1279 . . <...>
. XIII .
4. -. , . , ( ) .
(.: ),
. , -. , . (.: ).
- (.: , ,
). -.
3
4
Laird, 2006, p.45.

: ...
460
.. .
- . ,
. ()
-, , ( .: -), .1
. (),
. ( ,
..) , , , , , ..
, .
, -, ,
.2
.
, (
).3 .
. ,
, , ,
- . , , .
. ( ),4 1264 . . (, ).
, .
( ) ,
.
. 1236 .
( ), 1251 . - . 1258 .
.
- (1259 .). , -,
.
. (, )
, 1260 . .
1
, 1973, . 4953.
...
3
, ,
. , -
. - . , , .
4
.: , 2009.
2
11. ?
461
, (.:
) ,
. - -.
, .
, :
-, .5 ,
. - ,
: , , , ,
, .6 , -. 12611264 . . -
.
. .
1264 .
( ). (
), ( ). . , ,
().
- -.
(, ..): , .
1271 . . ,
(-)
: .7 , : (.: ),
, .
. , . ,
, , , , .
.
-.
, .8
5
6
7
8
, 1977, . 325.
., 2006.
., 2006, . 2021.
, 1977, . 324.
462
.. .
. , , .
, -,
. ,
, , . - - (
), -
-, - ( , - ).1
.
, ,
. , .
1279 . - .
. (, ) , , , :
.
(, .) . , ,
(, ). , .2
, . ,
-. .3 , .4
.
, , . .
, ,
, , .
.5
, ,
. 13431345 .
, .6 ,
1
2
3
4
5
6
, 2004.
Farquhar, 1981.
Langlois J.D., Jr., 1981, p.137185.
, 2000.
, 2009, . 684685.
Chan, 1981, p.56106.
11. ?
463
: ,
.
. ,
.
, ,
. ,
.
, -. :

? ,
, .
: .
,
,
.7 - , ?

. ,
. , , .
, , ,
. ,
. (.:
) ( )
.
. ,
, . , .
, 1368 . .
:
, 40 ( 400 . , ..) ,
.8 - .
.
. , , .
7
8
, 1973, . 243246.
...
464
.. .
: , , , .1
.
, , .
, , .2 ,
13681370 . .
.
, .
. ( ); 13701377 . -, 1378
1387 . -.3 , , ,
. 1388 . - .
, - (13881392)
.4

- (
-, 14031424 .) --.5 , - -,
.
, ,
.
( ), - (15921634) ,
-
(.: , ), (-)
(.: ,
). , ,
.
1
2
3
4
5
, 2002, . 122.
. ...
.. ...
...
, 1963.
11. ?
465
, ,
. . , , .6
(,
) ? , , ?
, .
1421 . .
.
, . ,
.7 .
, , , .8
,
. (
-) . , , :
[] [] 100 . ,
? <...>
. ( ).9
, :
,
.10
,
(. 2). , ,
, . .
, 117 , : ,
, , , , , , , 6
. ...
Kolmas, 1967.
8
, 2006, . 136137.
9
, 1978, . 48
10
...
7
466
.. .
, .1 , ,
, .. 1408 .
. ,
.
.2 . ,
.
,
.3
: .
.
.
( ), . .
, , ,
.4 , , , , .

.
, ( ) ,
(
). .
(15591626),
, . 1589 . (, ), 1596 . .5 ,
, , .
, ,
.
.
: .6 , . 1616 .
() ,
- ( ).
1
2
3
4
5
6
List of tributaries...
. : , 1979, . 166.
, 2006, . 136137.
, 1979, . 206.
, 2005, . 32.
, 1978.
11. ?
467
(.: ).
, (.: ).

. ,
-,
,
-. , 1644 . .
1618 . - ().
,
, .7 1622 .
. ,
.
, , , 1623 .,
19 , .
: , . , , []
: [] ,
, [] , , .8
, .
1625 . . .
1626 . .9 ,
.
. , .10 5 1636 . (), 11 ().
1643 . . ,
( -) . . .
( -). ,
, . 1644 .
,
. .12 7
.. ...
, 2007, . 20.
9
, 1978.
10
, 2005, . 35.
11
.. ...
12
.. ...
8
468
.. .
, , .
- ( ) : 1662 . ( ); 16731678 .
( . 3); ,
1683 .
- () , .1 , , 1668 .
. . 1623 1660 .
10 . ., ,
,2 . . 18 100 .3
1850 . : . ,
. - ( , ). , .
, , ,
.4
, .. - ( ).
.
. 1852 .: , . , . , , .5

. 1864 . , , .
().

.6
1
2
3
4
5
6
.. ...
, 2005, . 7778.
, 1981.
.. ...
. : , 1966, . 29.
, 2005.
11. ?
469
. ( - , ). . 1599 .
, -. , .
, ,
. ,
, .7
. , .

.
, . .8 1662 1792 .
,
5:2:1.
,
. 1720- . , .
1911 . .9 , . , .
,
.
. . , .
- .
XIX . (!) ( -)
, - , .
, , . .
. : ,
,
7
8
9
, 1966, . 575.
, 1966.
, 2005, . 5859, 102104.
470
.. .
. . ,
, . , .
, , . .
- .
.
. , :
, ,
.
, - - (
). , , , , ,
, , , , ,
.1 XVII . , XVIII . , .
. 1662 1875 .
18 .2 , , , . ? ?
. ,
1653 .
( -) : - ,
.3 .
, ,
. , .
.
( )
4- , .
.4 . ,
. 1
2
3
4
Van Walt, 1987.

List of tributaries of Imperial China...
, 1912.
Esherick, 2006, p.232.
11. ?
471
, , . , ,
, .
.
. : ,
,
, , , , , , -
.5 - ,
.6 , , .

, .7
, 1793 .,
. ( -) ,
III:
, , ,
,
, , . , , , .

,
. ,
, , , , ,
,
.
, . , .
. , ,
8.
5
6
7
8
, 1912.
., ., , 1978, . 146.
, 1888.
. : , 1974, . 188189.
472
.. .
, .
, ,
, , , .1 , ,
, .
.
,
. . , ... ,
() . , 1795 .
()2 -. , ,
, ,
.3

. ( 18211850)
: -
. , -4.

, XIX .
.5 , , .
, ,
. ,
.
, . 1860 . ,
, -.
.
1
2
3
4
5
, 1828.
. : , 2001, . 277.
. : , 2000, . 604.
, 2009, . 166167.
11. ?
473
, ,
. ,
. , , . , ,
, . ,

.6 , . ,
, , , .7
, .
, . , , ,
, , ,
, .
( ) , .
, , , , .. (-)
, ,
. , . ,
: . , ,
,
.
, .
. , .

, . 6
7
, 2003.
, 2006, . 137.
474
.. .
. . , :
, 5 .
. ? . , .
, , ,
. :

;
. <...>
1.
,
-,
.2 ,
-, .3
, . , ,
, .
, , , 900
, , , ,
, .
. .
(. 4),
. . , ,
. , ,
, . <...>
, . <...> ,
, , , , .4
1905 . -
.
1905 . :
1
( ), , 1923, 12. . :
- , 1977.
2
, 2009, . 19.
3
, 2005.
4
: , 1968, . 38, 53.
11. ?
475
, , , , ,
. . <...> , ,
, .
. , ,
, ,
, , .
. <...> ,
. 5. ,
1906 ., ,
, ,
, <...>
, .6
.
. , ,
, - . .
, , . , .

, .7
. . : .
, . ,
, .
1911 .
. , .
-
5
6
7
, 1961, . 113117.
, 1985, . 110.
Rhoads, 2001, p.68119.
476
.. .
.1 26
1911 ., . 1 1912 . .
. .
,
, -.
, .
, , , ,
.2 ,
, , ,
.
. -, , ,
: , , , . .
1
1912 . : ,
.3 2 . 3 -,
1912 ., : .4 10 17 ,
22 , , (. 3). . 1 ,
,
. 1 1912 . ,
- , , ,
.5
, ,
, . , , . 12 1912 . ,
1
2
3
4
5
, 2005.
, 2005.
, 1985, . 121122.
, 2009, . 22.
, 2005.
11. ?
477
. -
, , .
, .
, , , .6
. - ,
. ,
:
. -.
(.: ), 37 .
.
.7
,
.
, .8
,

, . , ,
, . :
, .
. ( - -) (-
-).9 1912 . . , , .
,
. . , ,
, , , .
. .
6
7
8
9
, 2005.
, 1985, . 288289.
, 1985, . 112.
Esherick, 2006, p.244.
478
.. .

.
1920- . ,
. , ,
, . ,
, .1
. , , . 1920- .
(.: - ), (.: - ).2
, 45 , , .
, , 1924 .
.3
... .
. 2-
(1922 .) , ( ).4
,
. 3-
(1923 .)
, , .
().
1931 .
.5 6- 1938 .
: ,
. .
. 1940- .
,
1
2
3
4
5
. : , 2005, . 81.
, 2009, . 21.
, 1985, . 637.
, 2005, . 94.
Shakya, 1999, p.123.
11. ?
479
- .6
1938 . ,
. 1930- ., , 1- ,
.
,
1930- . . (: - -): 1924 .
, 1926 . .7
, , . .
, ( ). ,
(.: - -),
: -. , , . (.: - ).
,
, - . , . , , , :
30 . . , 6% , 5061%
. . .
, 8.
,
. . 1958 . ,
:9 94%, 6%.
?
? , , ,
. .
6
7
8
9
, 2005.
Jin, 1987.
. ...
. : Smith, 1996, p.433434.
480
.. .
, , , , .
, 1960- .
.1
, ,
, . , . , .
:
, .2 , .

, .
, :
,
:
-, ; -,
; -, , ,
.3 .
, . ? . ,

, .4 : .
, ,
.
. ,
,
.5
, , .
1
2
3
4
5
.. ...
Smith, 1996, p.2223, 438, 439.
, 2004, . 205.
, 2000, . 31.
.. ...
11. ?
481
: -
.
8 1969 .: 2 .
.
, 6. : ,
, ;
XIX
7.
, (, ,
.) ,
. , , -
.8
. ,
, ,
. , , ? , . ,
( .)

. ( )
.9
1916
1932 . ,
: ,
, , ..10 1939 . :
,

. , ,
-, ; , ,
; , ,
, 11. 1965 . : - ,
, , , , . <...>
6
. : , 1979, . 238.
...
8
, 10.09.1979 . : , 1981, . 13.
9
, 2004.
10
, 1979, . 234235.
11
, 1948.
7
482
.. .
, - , ,
, , . .
, . ,
- , ; , 1.
: ... -, , .2 : , , , , , , , , , ,
, 300 -, -
, , , , , .3
10 . . .
(9,6 . . ). .4 -

.
. . , . 5
5 (618907):
. ( 3233), ( 5051).
. ( 6364) - , . -
(.: - ).
,

, , , . , , ,
(
1
2
3
4
5
. : , 1979, . 165166.
, 1967 . : , 1981, . 3.
. ...
, 1981, . 10.
, 1996.
11. ?
483

).
8283 , 10 (943 .)
, . ,
( ) :
, . 8
34 1820 .
, , ,
. , , . ,
( , , ).
.
. ,
, , , ,
,
, .6
1990- . . ,
.7
, , .
.

. . ,
. , ,
.
, .
. 1980- . 100 , 40
. .8
, ?
-,
.
6
7
8
, 1981, . 12.
Zhao Suisheng, 2004, p.215240.
, 2005.
484
.. .
, ,
(, ) ,
. ,
,
. , ...
:
. , . .1 ,
( , ) ;
.2
- , (, , , ). ,
, .
, . , . ,
, (. ).
, . , . (1680 .), . ' (1700), .
(1785), . (1827), .. - (1860). 1908 .
, 18 , . , 1942 . , , , . 2008 . .3
.
, , , . <...>

, .4
1
2
3
4
Sperling, 2004.
, 2003.
Maps of Tibet, 2008.
: ...
11. ?
485
, . .
, .
. . , ,
- VIII ., , .5
. , .6

,
, , . .
, . .7
, , 8
. , ,
.., ,
..
.9 ,
, , ,
, . , , ,
. ,
, . (. 2).
, , . -
. 988 . ,

.10 , . ,
, .
,
.
5
, 2001, . 47.
. Vembu, 2007.
7
Ngapo, 1988.
8
II . ..
9
., .: , 2007.
10
, 1989.
6
486
.. .
821 . ( . 2) . .
.
. .

.1 300-

. XIII . , .
,
. : ,
, .
,
-.

. ,
-
.
, .
, .2
( , ).
.3 : .
, , ; , ;
,
.4 , - - 1254 .,
, (1279 .).
,
.
. ,
1
2
3
4
Van Walt, 1987.

Van Walt, 1987.
Sperling, 2004; The Mongols and Tibet, 2009.
11. ?
487
- - . , .
.. ,
, .
, ,

. .
, .
, .
, .
.
(. 2). .
,
.5
, , . .6
. , , - , , .
.
, .
, . , , , 1594 . .7
, .
, .
- V - .
-.
, .8 , .
, . :
.
, , .
5
6
7
8
: ...
The Mongols and Tibet, 2009, p.34 and map.
Van Walt, 1987.
488
.. .
. -, , ,
.
. 1636 .
, . ( ) . ,
, :
, .
, .
- .
-.
- . , - , - V,
.1 : - , , . -
. ,
- .
, -: , ;
, ,
, .2
, ,
.
- V 1653 . ( . 3)
: ;
;
.
: ()
, .3 ,
. , - III II:
, 1
2
3
. : , 2003.
, 2001, . 116, 299 .
, , 2005.
11. ?
489
, .4
, .
- XIV ,
.5
- V , .
.
- , .
. - V
, .
, . .
,
- VII - II , , ()
.6
. ,
:
- ,
.7 , .
:
( ) , -.

: . 1718 1719 .
. : , ,
[ ]. , - . , ,
-8. ,
- , : 4-
4 , , -
; ,
, 4
5
6
7
8
. : , 2005, . 82.
.: Laird, 2006, p.170.
, 2001, . 171.
. : , 2001, . 171.
. : , 2001, . 167.
490
.. .
, . :
,
. ,
.
. . ,
.1 , , ..
.
,
, .
.
.
, , , ..
, . , , -
, .2 -
, .
- VII :
. ,

.
: ,
, XVIII . , ().3
, .
. .
,
. 1793 . , .
, .
. () ,
.
1
2
3
, 2005, . 114116.
, , 2005.
11. ?
491
.. , 1793 .
( 1792 .), , .4
, : , ,
, . .
, - , . .
,
, , . ,
,
.
,
.
. .
. . ,
, . .
, ,
.

. , ,
. ,
:
5. , -,
.6
, , , .7
. ,
, ,
4
5
6
7
, 2008, . 4146.
, 2003, . 125.
A 60 point commentary...
.: A 60-point commentary...
492
.. .
, ,
. , . ,
. , ,
, . , 1980- .
.
.
, , .
( ), , .
, , : , , , . 1906 .
-
( ). ,

, , .1
,
, .2

.
, ,3
- . , , .
,
.4 , , . ,
,
.
-, ,
, 1
2
3
4
, 2003.
Van Walt, 1987.
Van Walt, 1987.
11. ?
493
. . , III
. 5
,
. 1903 . .. , -
, , - , . 8 1903 . :
: , .6 , , . ,
XIX .,
,
.7 :
, .
1904 .
. ,
, , .8

. 1906 .
( ).
. , , . .
- XIX .
. . , .9
, ,
. . 10 , 5
Bell, 1992, p.215.

Van Walt, 1987, p.32.
7
...
8
Van Walt, 1987.
9
Van Walt, 1987.
10
Ran, 1991.
6
494
.. .
,
1907 . , . , , .
, , .1 . ,
, .
, . .
.2
.
, , , ,
1856 1904 . ,
.
. : ,
. - ,
.
. , ,
, .
, 1911 ., . 1911 .
, ,
, , , . , , , ,
.3 .
, .
.
. ,

. , 1
2
3
...
Van Walt, 1987.
...
11. ?
495
.
, , - . , -,
1934 .4 , -, ,
. , , 1945 .
, .
.
, .
, .
, , .
- ,
. ,
. 8 1912 .
,
: . ,
.
, ,
, .
, . ,
, ,
. , , .
. , ,
, . , () (), ()
(). , -
(, ). ,
, .
, , ..,
, , . ,
. ,
.. ...
496
.. .
. - , : .
. ,
, .

, ..
. 4 1776 ., . , :
,
, .1
, ? ,
- . .

: ,
.2
, - III . 1913 . , 40 .
1913 . . 1913 . - III,
.
, : , , , ,
, , . ,
. .. ,
1947 ., ,
, . ,
.
: 1947 .
,
, .
,
3. - 1
2
3
...
Van Walt, 1987.
...
11. ?
497
, ,
.

. ,
, ,
.4
(. 6).
1947 . , , . . .
, (.
4). ,
. , , ,
, .
: ,
,
.
:
. , , .
, : ,

. 19111951 . .5 1913 .
, -
, ;
, .

, . 1 . 38
, ,
1914 . 1954 .6 ,
. , . , 4
5
6
, 2000, . 31.
, 2008, . 4146.
, 2000, . 450.
498
.. .

29 1954 .
. , ,
.
. , . -
11 1913 . .
, , , . ,
.1 , 3 1912 ., - ( ),
, ,
(. 3). ,
( ) ,
.
( )
.
, , . .
,
.
. . -
. ,
. 1915 .
, , .
1949 . , .2 , ,
.
, ,
1
2
, , 2008, . 6886; Kuzmin, in press.

Van Walt, 1987.
11. ?
499
.
(. ),
.
, 1950 . . ,
.3 ,
. , , , ,
. 1950 .
,
,
.
1928 ., ,
.4 ,
, .
. . 4
. 2 . 1 ,
, - ,
.5 24 1945 .,
.
, , ,
, .
,
( -),
, .6 ,
. 2(2) 1933 . 6
5 .7 11 , .
23 1951 .
3
4
5
6
7
Van Walt, 1987.

Van Walt, 1987.
...
Van Walt, 1987, p.154.
Van Walt, 1987, p.153155.
500
.. .
(
17 ). 1954 . 1- , , -, - ;
-
, - . . , 1951 .
, (. 7).
, -, , , .1
. 52 ,
,
, .2 ,
, .3
17 , , . ,
, , , ,
. -
.
. -,
, , 1969 .
. , , . , 1951 .
. . -, - , .
- 17 . ,
.4 - 1
Van Walt, 1987.

U.N. Doc. A/CONF. 39/27 (1969), 8.I.L.M. 679 (1969). Done at Vienna on 23 May 1969,
entered into force on 27 January 1980 . : Van Walt, 2007, p.98.
3
. : Van Walt, 1987, p.153.
4
Van Walt, 1987.
2
11. ?
501
, , .
, -
. ,
. -
.5 ,
, -
1952 .6
, 17
.
1950- ., , .
.7 , (1856 .)
(1904 .), .
. 1945 . (. )
XIX . , 17 .

. , . 12
1938 . , . 22
1938 . . ,
. 11
,
. . 13
.
( ). .
1940 .
. : ,
, .

. . , , ,
5
6
7
His Holiness's Middle Way Approach...

Smith, 1996, p.320.
Song, 2007, p.3940.
502
.. .
1. 9 1940 .
, . . ,
,
, .
.
, .
, . .
, ,
. - , .
.
- ( ), . . ,
.
, 17 . 1959 .
, 28 1959 . ( .
8). .
,
. .
, ,
, . , .
, ,
17 , , 1959 .
.
.
. , :
, ,
, .. , . ,
.: . ...
11. ?
503
. ,
- .
, ,
: . .

.. , . . .
, . . -
, . . , , .

. .2
1723
(XVI) 20 1961 . ,
: , .
1990- . ,
.3 , 1992 ., ,
,

. ,
, 1950 .
.4
, , 30
, , , ,
, , , :5 1) ,
;
, -
2
Van Walt, 1987.

: , 1993.
4
Session on Tibet: Verdict. Permanent Tribunal of Peoples. Strasbourg. 1992. 20 Nov., p.15,
23 . : : , 1993.
5
International Lawyers' Statement on Tibet. London, 1993, 10 Jan., . 68 . : :
, 1993.
3
.. .
504
. 2)
194950 .
;
3) ,
, , ,
.
,
. - ,
, , , . ,
17 ,
, ,
, ,
. , , , , .
<...> ... , ,
. ,

, .1
, , ,
.. ,
: .
(.
4, 7, 10).
* * *
. , . :
1
Van Walt, 1987, p.188.
11. ?
505
,
, . -
-, ,
, , .
. , , , , . . , ,
, ,
. , . ,
. , ,
.
, , , , . ,
- . , , .2
, .
, .
,
.3 .
, . , , , , , ..
, .
- .
,
.
. -.
.
, .4
.
, ,
2
3
4
, 2009, . 36.
Van Walt, 1987.
506
.. .
.
. .
. . , .
, ,
-. .
. ,
.1
.. : , 2 (.259).
,
- , , , , (.263).
, ,
, (.286). , ,

(. 286). : (.18)3. ,
, -, , .4
, 1959 .
, .
, -. -
. , . . . , .
.
.
.
1
2
3
4
, 1965, . 317.
, 1961, . 255320.
, 1962, . 1822.
...
11. ?
507
: . . 25
.5 . , ? , .
.
, ?
(, , , ,
..) , ?
- , ?
, ?
. :
.
.
, .
, ,
. .
, .: Van Walt, 1987; Johnston C.

Tibet: the international mistake...
12
-
?
, - ,
.
,
. : , ,
, .. , , . . ,

( ) . , .
-, - ,
, . , , (,
). ,
, , , .1
,
, , , ..
, , , . ,
.
,
, () . ,
,
(, , ) . .
, . . . . , ,
, 1966, . 62.
12. - ?
509
. : , , .
, , XXI . -
.
, , -
,
,
(1921 .), ,
, , , ..
,
. ,
, . ,
1951 ., - . , . , . .

. ,
, . .
,
, , ,
.2 ,
, . : .
, .3 ,
; , ; , , ;
, , ,
; , -;
, ;
, ;
, , ..
, . , -
. , , 2
3

Norbu, 1998, p.2426.
510
.. .
,
.
. , , - .
, ( - )
.1 , ,
. , ,
( ).
, , .
. .
, .
- . , , ,
. , .
XVIIXIX . - , ,
.
, - , , , .. , . : -
,
. ,

, , .
XIX . .
,
. , ,
, :
. , ,
, 2006.
12. - ?
511
. , , .
. ,
.
,
. ,
, .
.
- . ,
, .
.
.
. .
, .. - .
.
, ,
. , .
, , , . . ,
.
. . ,
, .
, , .
.
..
. , , . 27
1967 . : , ,
-, ,
.2 , , .
2
. : , 2005, . 110.
512
.. .
,
. : () ,
, ,
,
.
, , ,
. -
. , ,
, , .
?
: . . . ,
, . !
. ,
. . , .
? .
, , . .
.
. .
, , : , , - .
.
, ,
, , . <...> ,
, ,
, , , .1
Panchen Lama, 1997, p. 6970, 52.
12. - ?
513
- , , . . :
.
, .
, .
, .
, ,
, .
.2 ,
, .
<...>
. ,

.
, , . ,
,
, . <...>
, , , (.221225).
. ,
, , , , , , . <...> ,
,
- (.241).
,
:
( ) , .
. -, .
, 2004.
514
.. .
, , , .
( ),
( ).
,
.
, . ,
. .
.
, , , , , . ,
. .
.
? . , .
-
, , . ,
.
( ).
,
.
-
. , ,
(
, -), . .
-
.
XI - : . 1999. .
XIII . 1988. .: .
1996: The year in Tibet. http://www.tchrd.org/publications/hr_updates/1996/hr19961230.
html#year_in_tibet. 14.12.2008.
2,5 . . http://www.km.ru/news/view.asp?id=7A7F03
8CB0CE4FD4AF6AD1EFE1EC996B. 06.10.2008.
26--08 2008 52
. http://www.tibet.spb.ru/tibet-news/41/. 28.07.2008.
.. . http://pressa.irk.ru/number1/2009/16 /029001.
html. 26.04.2009.
. http://russian.china.org.cn/china/archive/Tibet06/200705/16/content_8263222_2.htm. 28.07.2008.
. http://russian.people.com.cn/31516/6639590.html. 17.04.2009.
.. 1995. . Canberra: Austral.
National Univ. http://grachev62.narod.ru/alexandrov/chapt02.htm. 21.07.2009.
- . 1891. . , , . 47.
.. 2006. , .
.: . -.
.. 2006. ( ). , 40.
.. 2008. : . .: .
-.
.. 2006. . .: . .
.. 2004. . . . .:
+.
.. .
http://www.sunhome.ru/journal/1986.
.. 1997. . , 4.
.. . http://board.buddhist.ru/
showpost.php?p=151404&postcount=130. 31.03.2007.
.., .. 2000. .
: .
. 2008. VIII 1911
. : .
., .. 2008. . , 2.
: . http://russian.people.com.
cn/31521/6506503.html. 09.11.2008.
516
.. .
: . http://russian.people.com.cn/31521/6506193.html. 25.09.2008.
: - . http://russian.
northeast.cn/system/2008/09/26/000081640.shtml. 15.12.2008.
.. (.) 2005. . .: . .
.. 1996. -
1906 . , 4.
.. 1999. (19111919 .). .: .
.. 2001. - XVIIXVIII . : - . . -. http://window.edu.ru/
window_catalog/les/r25629/volsu196.pdf. 13.06.2009.
.. 2005. - XVIIXVIII . :
- . . -. http://window.edu.ru/window_catalog/les/r25904/
volsu488.pdf. 13.06.2009.
-. http://savetibet.ru/dalaj-lama/2005/dalajlama-bio.php. 07.06.2009.
. 1833. 2282 . .. 1227 . .., . 1.
.: . .
.. 1962. (
). .
.. 1976. .
.: : . .
.. 1978. (19491976). .: .
.. 1996. . .
.. 2002. XIII - . .: - .
.
.. . 1975.
. .: .
.., .. 1984. (19111949).
.: .
.., .. 1972. - 19451970. . .: .
. 1974. (19321939). .: .
. 2007. . 1 1881 . .: .
. 1999. . .: .
.. .
http://www.analitika.org/article.php?story=20080702064346733. 02.07.2008.

. http://russian.people.com.cn/31516/6518243.html.
09.11.2008.
-. http://news.
mail.ru/politics/1600483/. 25.10.2008.
. http://
russian.people.com.cn/31521/6610161.html. 10.03.2009.
. http://newsonchina.ru/
china/134. 08.10.2008.
517
- . http://russian.
people.com.cn/31521/6402468.html. 27.07.2008.
4 . . http://www.businessrest.ru/
NewsAMShow.asp?ID=428609. 28.07.2008.
- . . http://russian.people.com.cn/31516/6393877.html. 01.11.2008.
: -, . http://russian.people.com.cn/95181/6568166.html. 06.01.2009.
2008 . 22 . http://www.vsesmi.ru/
news/1358048/. 27.07.2008
. http://www.ntv.ru/text/news/index.
jsp?nid=68425. 07.12.2008.
2- . http://russian.people.com.cn/200209/28/rus20020928_66248.html. 04.11.2008.
. http://savetibet.ru/2007/06/05/guru_
rinpoche_statue.html. 09.06.2009.
. http://russian.
people.com.cn/31516/5108054.html. 07.10.2008.
. http://
.. 1958. . .: . . .
.
. 1975. . .: .
( ). 1970. :
. . . .
.. 2000. : . .: .
. http://russian.people.com.
cn/31521/6577728.html. 11.03.2009.
.. 1994. -
- (8090 . XX .). .:
. . .

. http://ru.china-embassy.org/rus/ztbd/xzzt/dllm/t69968.htm, 27.07.2008.
. http://
. 2008. . , 59(3876).
. . http://www.kommersant.ua/doc.
html?docId=885571. 22.04.2008.
.. 2005. . .: .
., ., ., . 2006. . .
.. ( ) (II XX
XXI .).
. 1899. . .: . .. .
., . . Der Spiegel, 14 (617), 20.04.2009.
http://www.prole.ru/items/?item=28363. 26.04.2009.
518
.. .
.. 2008. . .: .
.. 2006. . . : .
.. 2008. : . . .: .
- .
http://russian.people.com.cn/31513/6406041.html;
http://russian.people.com.
cn/31513/6405150.html. 30.10.2008.
.., .. (.) 2005. . .:
. .
.., .. (). . http://feb-web.ru/feb/slovenc/es/es5/es51791.htm.
04.01.2008.
.. 1968. . , . 5. .
.. 1958. . .: . .
. 2004. Kalmuk Road. .: .
. 1977. . .:
- . .
- XIV. 1991. . .: .
- XIV. 1992. . .: .
[- XIV.] 1995. - 10 1959 . , 23.
- XIV. 2000. . .: Corvus.
[- XIV.] - XIV. 2001. . .: . .
- XIV. 2007. 365 . .: .
- XIV . 2008. : . :
.
- XIV. . http://savetibet.ru/2007/08/11/psp3.
html. 07.06.2009.
- XIV: . http://savetibet.ru/2009/01/13/
dalajjlama_tovarishh__jeto_bylo_licemerie.html. 13.01.2009.
. 7. ,
2005.
. http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/indpndnc.htm. 04.05.
2009.
.. 2009. . .: ,
. 39, . 76100.
, . http://2002.kremlin.ru/events/260.html.
10.11.2008.
! (4 1969 .), .
http://www.coldwar.ru/conicts/china/statya.php. 16.03.2009.
. 1962. . .: .
I 12 1949 , -
519
8 1977
. http://www.icrc.org/Web/rus/siterus0.nsf/iwpList133/4A1B0FBA8B5AE3CEC
3257107002A11CC. 03.01.2008.
. 2003. . .: . .
. . http://savetibet.ru/2008/07/18/tibet.html.
. , .
2009. .: . .
( .. .). 1998. : .
.. 2006.
VIIXIX . . . . .
. http://ru.china-embassy.org/rus/ztbd/xzzt/bczs/t69963.
htm. 28.07.2008.
. - .
http://savetibet.ru/2006/08/30/mongolia_dalai_lama.html. 28.07.2008.
. : - XIV c . http://www.savetibet.ru/1128697243.html. 16.11.2008.
2 / -
2,8 . /. http://russian.people.com.cn/31516/6440620.html.
07.05.2009.
2,8 . http://russian.china.org.cn/china/
txt/200805/05/content_15063519.htm. 03.01.2009.
. ? . http://savetibet.
ru/2008/03/24/tibet_today.html. 07.06.2009.
, . 2. 2002. .: . .
- . http://russian.people.com.cn/31521/6387771.html. 07.04.2008.
. http://savetibet.
ru/1160660940.html. 04.11.2008.
: . http://savetibet.ru/img/2008/tibet-travel-guide-en.
pdf. 04.11.2008.
- 50- . http://savetibet.ru/2009/03/10/dalai_lama_address.html. 10.03.2009.
.. (.) 2001. .. 31 3
1958 . 2 1959 . , 1 2.
.. 1999. .
, 3.
.. 1888. . , . 3, . 12. . http://www.vostlit.info/
Texts/Dokumenty/China/XVII/16601680/Posolstvo_Spafari/text.htm. 04.01.2009.
.. . http://www.beregrus.
ru/artmon/txt/?news_id=666. 04.11.2008.
- . 1977. .: . http://socialistica.lenin.ru/
txt/m/maoism.htm. 03.05.2009.
. 1978. . (), 29 (4679), 19.
07.1978.
520
.. .
. 2007. : .-. ., 3. .
XI. http://ru.china-embassy.org/rus/ztbd/xzzt/bczs/t69962.htm.
06.10.2008.
. 1974. .: . .
: (17) http://russian.people.com.
cn/31513/6406191.html; http://russian.people.com.cn/31513/6406186.html. 05.06.2009.
- . 1962. : . . . .
. http://ru.china-embassy.org/rus/ztbd/xzzt/bczs/t69959.
htm. 28.07.2008.
.. 1989. , . 1. .: .
XVII . 2000. , 33.
. 1987. : . Pro et contra, .
. 28 . . http://
savetibet.ru/2009/03/27/tibet.html. 27.03.2009.
. . . http://
savetibet.ru/2009/03/09/tibet.html. 07.06.2009.
. : . http://savetibet.ru/2008/04/12/
tibet_facts_and_propaganda.html. 07.06.2009.
. . http://savetibet.
ru/2009/02/16/independence_of_tibet_in_historical_retrospective.html. 07.06.2009.
: . 2005. : .-. ., 13. .
cn/31521/6430414.html. 16.06.2008.
.
http://www.newsland.ru/News/Detail/id/255933/cat/42/. 06.11.2008.
: 2005. http://russian.china.org.cn/russian/233808.htm.
07.05.2009.
: 2006. . http://russian.china.
org.cn/china/archive/Tibet-06/200705/15/content_8254856.htm. 30.10.2008.
: 2006. http://russian.china.org.cn/china/archive/Tibet06/200705/16/content_8263181.htm.
: 2005. 6.
. http://russian.china.org.cn/russian/248118.htm.
18.10.2008.
, . http://
www.rian.ru/world/20070503/64838400.html. 03.05.2007.
1974 . 1977. .: .
1975 . 1978. .: .
. http://www.gorodfm.ru/dn_archive/
date.20050531/news.67928/
. 2006. :
.-. ., 13. .
521
. http://www.gazetanv.ru/archive/ 2008/
88/5326/.
: . . http://www.chinastar.ru/rus/1/5/6/.
31.01.2009.
: . http://russian.people.com.cn/31516/6382675.html. 28.03.2008.
. http://savetibet.ru/2008/12/17/
china_to_teach_children_ethnic_unity.html. 17.12.2008.
.. 2000. (1914 .
.). : - , . .
.. 2008. - . ,
. 2, 2, . 4146. http://e-lib.gasu.ru/Evrazia/arhiv/2008/mire_2.pdf. 05.08.2009.
.. 1923. -. .-: .
.. 1947. . .: .
.. 2004. -. .: .
. 1977. 19691976. . .: .
: - . http://russian.people.com.cn/31521/6377482.html.
20.03.2008.
[ 25.03.2008] http://savetibet.ru/2008/03/19/petition_to_support_dalai_
lama.html.
( ). 25.09.1992 . http://chinaconsulate.khb.ru/rus/ziliao/zt/zfbps/
t25315.htm. 28.07.2008.
. http://
savetibet.ru/1131096480.html. 11.12.2008.
. http://ru.china-embassy.org/
rus/ztbd/xzzt/bczs/t69965.htm.
: . http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/rus/about/zgxz/xajk/
t1997.htm. 01.11.2008.
: . http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/rus/about/zgxz/
xajk/t1998.htm. 28.07.2008.
: . http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/rus/about/
zgxz/xajk/t1999.htm, 01.11.2008.
40-
. http://www.epochtimes.com.ua/ru/articles/view/4/856.
html. 28.05.2006.
.. 2001. . .
.. 2006. . .: -
.
.., . 2009. . , 1.
.. 1992. XX . .: .
522
.. .
. http://ru.wikipedia.org/.
., ., .-., ., ., .-.
. http://blackrotbook.narod.ru/. 07.06.2009.
. 1977. . .: - . .
.., .. 2005. . .: . .
.., .. 1975. :
. .: . .
. -. http://lankov.oriental.ru/
d27.shtml. 01.07.2002.
.. 2005. - (80-
XX XXI ). .: -.
.. . http://www.kyrgyz.ru/?page=38. 24.12.2008.
.. . http://www.levking.ru/izms.htm. 30.10.2008.
.. ? http://www.levking.ru/man2.
htm. 30.10.2008.
.. . http://www.levking.ru/gb1.htm.
14.10.2009.
.. , (). http://www.levking.ru/mists.htm. 30.10.2008.
.. 2005. , 1946
1949. .: - .
.. . .: .. 1961. , 5, . 25. .
.. . .: .. 1962.
, 5, . 30. .
.. 1956. 18881919 . .: .
. . http://www.vremya.ru/2003/192/13/82362.html.
14.10.2009.
: .
http://oldtradition.org/teachers/tibetskii-khudozhnik-dugu-chedzhel-rinpoche-mastertraditsii-drukpa-kagyu. 24.12.2008.
. 1828. . .: . . .
.
. 1973. ( ). .: .
. 2007. : ? Pro et contra,
.
. : . , 28.03.2008, 56 (2078).
http://www.vedomosti.ru/newspaper/index.shtml?2008/03/28.
.. 2005. . .
: , 11(111). http://www.gazetamim.ru/culture/dialog/lukjanov.
htm. 04.01.2009.
. . http://www.bbratstvo.org/index.
php3?path=_jornal/2002/02&source=neizvoin. 10.12.2008.
523
. 2000. . .: , , .
. 1948. ( ). : 211. http://mx.esc.
ru/~assur/ocr/maoism/ref.html#ref_215. 30.04.2009.
. 1952. , . 1. .: - . .
. 1966. . : - . . .
. 1967. . : - . . .
. 2008. . . .: XXI .
. ,
27 1957 . http://www.maoism.ru/library/on_the_correct_handling.htm.
22.05.2009.
. - , , . 6. 1976. . http://www.maoism.ru/library/Mao_set.htm.
06.11.2008.
. (
15 1973 .). http://www.maoism.ru/library/
remark-15121973.htm. 22.05.2009.
. 1980. .: .
. http://www.maoism.ru/library/index.htm. 06.11.2008.
. http://www.kommentator.ru/
accent/2005/a062912.html. 01.05.2009.
.. 1969. . .: .
[ ]. . 1955. .: .
.. 1978. XVIIXVIII . .: .
( )
. 1994. .:
, XIVXIX . . http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/China/XVII/16801700/
Kit_ist_Sr_az/2140/frametext21.htm. 12.06.2009.
. . . 3339,
06.11.2003 http://www.rg.ru/2003/11/06/tibet.html. 03.12.2008.
. http://www.lenta.ru/
news/2009/03/27/torch/. 27.03.2009.
. ., 1952.
.. 2004. . .:
. .
.. 2005. . .:
.
.. 2008. ? .: .
, ! , 39.
.. 1979. . .: : . .
[ ] . 2004. . .: . .: .
[ ] . 2008.
- . .: .
524
.. .
.. 2003.
XVIII . . .: - . .
. http://russian.china.org.cn/russian/115293.
htm. 27.07.2008.
. http://
www.russian.xinhuanet.com/russian/200709/29/content_497801.htm. 28.07.2008 .
- VII-
. . . . . . 1912, . XXI, .
23. . http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/China/XVII/16801700/
Manc_rus_kit/text.htm. 26.10.2008.
.. 2005. : . XVII . .: . ..
. 2005. . http://www.vodyanoyznak.
ru/magazine/2122/432.htm. 06.02.2009.
. SCMP: '' . http://savetibet.ru/2009/02/28/tibet.html. 16.03.2009.
. TCHRD:
14 . http://savetibet.
ru/2008/12/19/tchrd_sem_tibetcev_prigovoreny_k_tjuremnomu_zakljuchenu_vplot_
do_pozhiznennogo_v_svjazi_s_besporjadkami_14_marta_v_lkhase.html. 19.12.2008.
. . http://savetibet.ru/2008/08/30/activist.html. 30.08.2008.
.
. http://savetibet.ru/2009/01/12/tibetans_in_new_kardze_protests.html.
12.01.2009.
. .
http://savetibet.ru/2009/02/05/tibet_new_year.html. 05.02.2009.
. 25 . http://savetibet.ru/2009/08/18/nepal_tibet.html. 06.10.2009.
.
. http://savetibet.ru/2008/07/19/tibetans.html. 04.11.2008.
. .
http://savetibet.ru/2009/03/28/tibet_today.html. 28.03.2009.
. . http://savetibet.ru/2008/05/09/tibetan_
dead.html. 09.05.2008.
. - 5 . http://savetibet.ru/2009/02/24/nepal.html. 16.03.2009.
. :
. http://savetibet.ru/2009/10/06/tibet_nepal.html. 06.10.2009.
. - XIV
. http://savetibet.ru/2009/03/03/dalai_lama.html. 03.03.2009.
. :
. http://savetibet.ru/2009/06/25/tibet.html. 25.06.2009.
.
. http://savetibet.ru/2009/02/22/lhasa.html. 16.03.2009.
.
525
tibetan_children.html. 28.07.2008.
. ,
. http://savetibet.ru/2009/06/03/humanrights.html. 03.06.2009.
. : .
http://savetibet.ru/2008/10/21/tibetan_nomads.html. 21.10.2008.
. . http://savetibet.ru/2008/11/23/tibet.html. 23.11.2008.
.
. http://savetibet.ru/2008/11/02/tibetans.html. 03.11.2008.
( ). 1998. http://
chinaconsulate.khb.ru/rus/ziliao/zt/zfbps/t25323.htm. 13.07.2008.
. http://community.livejournal.com/ru_free_tibet/6258.
html. 01.11.2008.
. 1959. : . . . .
( ). http://russian.china.org.cn/
russian/32943.htm. 03.05.2009.
- . http://www.
chinaconsulate.khb.ru/rus/xwdt/2002x/t117755.htm. 03.05.2009.
. 1972. .: .
. http://
www.interfax.ru/society/news.asp?id=75953. 23.04.2009.
. 2004. - .
? , 3643, 01.12.2004.
. 2006. : . .: .
. 2007. , -:
. : 4502 25 2007 . http://
www.rg.ru/2007/10/25/tibet.html. 30.10.2008.
. 2009. . : 5061(237) 10 2009 . http://www.rg.ru/2009/12/10/tibet.
html.12.12.2009.
. 2005. . . : .
. . . A/RES/260 A (III).
. , . 260 (III).
. http://www.un.org/russian/documen/convents/genocide.
htm. 07.10.2008.
. http://www.lenta.ru/
news/2008/06/21/release/. 21.06.2008.
.. 2007. .
, . 2, . 7.
.. 1999. . http://bookz.ru/authors/pandaev-p/
antikura/1-antikura.html. 14.11.2008.
- 1,3 . /.
http://russian.people.com.cn/31518/6201208.html. 07.05.2009.
.. 1981. -
526
.. .
( XIX .). . .:
- . .
. http://
ru.china-embassy.org/rus/ztbd/xzzt/dllm/t69969.htm. 08.02.2009.
. http://www.chinafactory.ru/xinwen_
content.asp?newsid=1822. 28.07.2008.
.. 2003. . : . .: +.
.. 2007. . .:
, . 2. -.
. . http://www.epochtimes.ru/content/
view/12032/17/. 03.08.2007.
, . http://savetibet.ru/2008/05/08/lhasa_tibet.html. 08.05.2008.
. http://ru.china-embassy.org/rus/ztbd/
xzzt/dllm/t69970.htm. 01.11.2008.
. http://www.chinastar.ru/rus/1/5/5/. 14.10.2009.
.. . http://russian.people.
com.cn/31521/6393021.html.
. -
. 2007. : .
-. 2004. , 38.
. http://russian.cpc.people.com.cn/84091/6649135.
html. 01.05.2009.
,
- ,
(19461991 .). http://www.soldat.ru/doc/casualties/book/
chapter6.html#6_11. 06.06.2009.
. http://russian.people.com.cn/31516/6386904.
html. 05.04.2008.
- . http://www.rian.ru/
politics/20090128/160322940.html. 28.01.2009.
.. 1875. , . 1. .: . .. .
.. 1883. .
.: . .. .
5 .
http://www.sara.gov.cn/GB//zcfg/895227409d-11dc-bafe-93180af1bb1a.html; : http://radiowarhait.livejournal.com/15390.html. 27.07.2008.
. http://savetibet.ru/2009/01/30/r233cit_du_p233riple_
dun_fran231ais_224_travers_le_tibet.html. 16.03.2009.
.. 1963. XVII XIX . .: . 25- . . , . 5. .
cn/31515/6394888.html. 06.10.2008.
. 1968. -.
.: .
527
., . 1971. -.
.: , . 2.
.. 2005. . .: .
religion_and_national_identity.html. 04.10.2009.
.. 1958. . , 4.
3-
- . http://ru.china-embassy.org/rus/ztbd/xzzt/
bczs/t69961.htm. 28.07.2008.
. 1981.
: . . . .
. 1903. . .: .
. , . http://
www.otechestvo.org.ua/hronika/2004_08/h_9_01.htm. 07.07.2008.
.. 1901. . . .: . .. .
. . 1957. . .: . .
. . . . .
. http://www.newsru.com/nance/16jun2009/shos2.html. 16.06.2009.
.. 1984. - . .: .
. http://ru.china-embassy.org/rus/ztbd/xzzt/xzjj/default.htm.
.. 1985. . .: .
19111913 . . 1968. .:
.
. . http://savetibet.ru/2008/11/06/tibet.html. 06.11.2008.
.. 1979.
, . .: : . .
(19461950 .). http://www.rustrana.ru/article.
php?nid=20588. 26.11.2008.
. http://www.kremlin.ru/events/articles/ 2004/ 10/
77866/161384.shtml. 01.11.2008.
. 2000. ..
. http://www.tibet.spb.ru/tibet-situation/13/. 26.10.2008
: ? . , . 9 (21), 2004. http://www.situation.ru/app/j_art_534.htm. 03.01.2009.
.. 1948. . .: , . 8, . 357374. http://grachev62.
narod.ru/stalin/t8/t8_23.html. 04.05.2009.
50 .
http://russian.people.com.cn/31517/3931103.html. 04.05.2009.
. 1958. . .: - .
. 18041805. , . 3. .: .
. .
. . http://www.religare.ru/article14152.htm. 02.02.2005.
528
.. .
. 1985. . .: .
. 1961. . . http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/China/XX/19001920/Sinhaj_rev/120/1.htm. 28.04.2009.
- II. http://russian.people.com.
cn/31521/6397759.html. 01.11.2008.
( ). http://paper.people.com.
cn/rmrb/html/200903/10/content_208316.htm. 06.06.2009.

//. http://russian.people.com.cn/31520/6421912.html. 01.11.2008.
. 1958. . , 3.
. http://www.glubinnaya.info/science/lama/
lama.htm. 14.06.2009.
2006 13,2 . http://russian.people.com.
cn/31518/5443541.html. 28.07.2008.
. . ( 9 2008 .). http://www.
buddhisminkalmykia.ru/?page=shownews&newsid=478&PHPSESSID=32d7a15b...04.1
1.2008.
: ? http://savetibet.
ru/1129838880.html. 21.10.2005.
( ). 1995. : -
.
: 50 . 2001. : . .
. .
: 60 . http://russian.people.com.cn/31518/6389274.html. 28.07.2008.
: , . 1993. : . . . ., 1994. . 2-: Tibet:
Proving Truth from Facts. http://www.tibet.net/en/index.php?id=142&rmenuid=11.
07.06.2009.
. http://
,
. http://www.epochtimes.ru/content/view/23312/4/. 28.03.2009.
. http://www.religare.ru/article52772.htm. 28.07.2008 09.04.2008.
. http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/rus/about/zgxz/xajk/t2000.htm. 27.07.2008
cn/31521/6401152.html. 28.07.2008.
18 .
http://savetibet.ru/2008/10/07/tibetan_lama.html. 07.10.2008.
. 1824. 1820 1821 . .: .
. . . . .
.. 1966. . .:
. .
529
.. 1979. .
.: : . .
.. . http://buddhism.org.ru/buddhism_08.
html. 05.12.2008.
(. .. ). 2000. .: .
. http://www.chas-daily.com/win/2008/04/04/v_014.
html?r=31.
. http://www.indostan.ru/forum/24_162_2.html. 04.05.2009.
. 2004. . .: .
12481388. http://www.wirade.ru/history.
21.12.2008.
. 1906. . 19031904 . .:
. .. .
.. 2003. (19061967). .: -.
.. 2006. , . 2. .: -.
.. 2007. . 30- . .: .
.. 1996. : - -. ,
4.
, 21 2007 . http://russian.china.org.
cn/china/archive/shiqida/200710/26/content_9128399.htm. 06.11.2008.
. http://www.un.org/russian/documen/
basicdoc/charter. 20.02.2009.
. 1975. M.: .
[-] http://russian.people.com.cn/95460/6495971.html. 06.10.2008.
.. 1992. .. . .
56.
.. 1980. -
19491966. .: .
. 2004. , . .: .
. 2002. . .: . http://www.lhasa.ru/
sevenyearsintibet/tibet6.html. 30.10.2008.
. 19611963. , . 14. .: - .
.. ? http://www.epochtimes.com.ua/ru/
articles/view/5/10120.html. 28.11.2008.
.. , . . http://nvo.ng.ru/concepts/20080222/2_ugroza.
html. 06.11.2008.
.. .
. http://nvo.ng.ru/forces/20091009/1_china.html. 09.10.2009.
.. 2004. . .: .
3. http://oriental.ru/cgi-bin/forum/YaBB.pl?board=china;action=dis
play;num=1024834869. 30.10.2008.
. http://dazan.spb.ru/teachers/kings-tibet/561/. 25.11.2008.
.. 2006. . .: . .
: . http://www.anctc.
ru/inform/textnews/20080422/113756/?site=3. 28.07.2008.
530
.. .
. 2004. , . 23. .:
.
. 1986. . -:
.
.. 1981. , . 1: - . : .
. 2003. .
, 23.
. 2007. , . 1 2. .:
- . .
( . ), . 5, 8. 1996. .
.. 2003. : . .: .
. . http://www.rusk.ru/st.php?idar=112247.
07.11.2008.
.. . http://eastlib.narod.ru/modern/mao.
htm. 22.06.2009.
- . http://ru.china-embassy.
org/rus/ztbd/xzzt/bczs/t69964.htm.
. . http://navycollection.narod.ru/library/Krah_
nacist_imper/part_1/15.html. 12.03.2009.
. , 27.08.2008.
.. 1958. . , 3.
( ).
http://russian.china.org.cn/russian/65188.htm. 28.07.2008.
. .. , 3 1890 . .: . , . 1965.
., . 37. .
, ... (23.03.2008). http://www.buddhismofrussia.ru/news/164/. 06.02.2009.
. 2007. . . . . . .: . . .
, . 2007. . .: .
.. 1981. . .: .
[ ..] 1893. , . . ., . . . , . 53.
A 60-point commentary on the Chinese Government Publication: A Collection of
Historical Archives of Tibet. 2008. Diir Publications. http://www.tibet.net/en/index.
php?id=346&rmenuid=11. 27.01.2009.
A Sea of Bitterness. Patriotic Education in Qinhai Monasteries. 1999. London: Tibet Information
Network.
A Tibetan arrested in Lithang for political demonstration. http://tchrd.org/press/2007/
pr20070802.html . 04.11.2008.
Aldenderfer M.S. 2003. Moving up in the world. American Scientist, v. 91.
Andrugtsang G.T. 1973. Four Rivers, Six Ranges. Reminiscences of the Resistance Movement
in Tibet. Dharamsala: Information and Publicity Oce of H.H. the Dalai Lama.
Another Chinese 'incursion' at Sikkim border. www.phayul.com. 19.06.2008.
531
Ardley J. 2002. The Tibetan Independence Movement. NY: Routledge.

Arpi C. 2007. The 17-point Agreement: context and consequences. .: Facts About the
17-point Agreement Between Tibet and China. Dharamsala.
Atmosphere of martial law in Lhasa on 5 and 10 March 1999. http://www.tchrd.org/
publications/hr_updates/1999/hr19990315.html#atmosphere. 14.12.2008.
Bache. 50 years of turmoil in Inner Mongolia. http://www.hunmagyar.org/turan/
mongol/50yrs.html. 03.01.2009.
Baker M. 2007. Democratic imperialism: Tibet, China, and the national endowment for
democracy. Global Research, August 13. http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.
php?context=va&aid=6530. 25.01.2009.
Barnett R. 1997. Preface. .: [Panchen Lama X] 1997. A Poisoned Arrow. The Secret
Report of the 10th Panchen Lama. The Full Text of the Panchen Lama's 70,000 Character
Petition of 1962, Together with a Selection of Supporting Historical Documents. London:
Tibetan Information Network.
Beall C.M. 2006. Andean, Tibetan and Ethiopean patterns of adaptation to high-altitude
hypoxia. Integr. and Comp. Biol., v. 46, no. 1
Beall C.M., Laskowski D., Strohl K.P., Soria R., Villena M., Vargas E., Alarcon A.M., Gonzales
C., Erzurum S.C. 2001. Pulmonary nitric oxide in mountain dwellers. Nature, v. 414.
Behind bars: prison conditions in Tibet. 1998. http://www.tchrd.org/publications/topical_
reports/behind_bars-prison_conditions-1998/. 07.11.2008.
Bell Ch. [1924] 1992. Tibet: Past and Present. New Delhi Madras: Asian Education
Services.
Bell Ch. [1928] 1991. The People of Tibet. New Delhi Madras: Asian Educational Services.
Berzin A. 2000. Relating to a Spiritual Teacher: Building a Healthy Relationships. Ithaca: Snow
Lion. http://www.berzinarchives.com/web/en/archives/e-books/published_books/
spiritual_teacher/pt1/spiritual_teacher_02.html?query=Manchu+Manjushri. 06.02.2009.
Biello D. 2007. How Tibetans enjoy the high life. Scientic American, 29.10.2007.
Birth control policy in Amdo. 1996. Human Rights Update: TCHRD, v. 2, no. 23.
Blondeau A.-M., Buetrille K. (eds.) 2008. Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100
Questions. Berkeley Los Angeles London: Univ. of California Press.
Brief introduction of Chushi Gangdruk Defend Tibet Volunteer Force. http://www.
chushigangdruk.org/history/index.html. 25.01.2009.
Brieng paper for travellers to Tibet 1999. http://www.tchrd.org/publications/topical_
reports/travellers_to_tibet-1999. 28.01.2009.
Butt M. 1994. Muslims of Tibet. Tibetan Bull., JanuaryFebruary.
Buttereld F. 1979. Buddhism's inuence stays strong in Tibet. New York Times,
19.06.1979.
Cao Ch. 2007. Tibetan tragedy began with a farce. .: Facts About the 17-point
Agreement between Tibet and China. Dharamsala.
Chan H. 1981. Chinese ocial historiography at the Yuan court: the composition of the Liao,
Chin, and Sung histories. In: China under Mongol Rule. Princeton.
Chandra L. 1999. Buddhist Iconography. New Delhi: Intern. Acad. of Indian Culture Aditya
Prakashan.
Chhodak T. 2003. The 1901 Proclamation of the H.H. Dalai Lama XIII. .: The History
of Tibet (McKay A. ed.), v. 3. London New York.
Childs G. 2003. Polyandry and population growth in a historical Tibet society. History of
.. .
532
Family, v. 8. http://www.case.edu/al/tibet/booksAndPapers/childs.polyandry.and.
population.growth.pdf. 27.01.2009.
China: 20th Century China incident and Nanking incident, 1938. http://www.jiyuu-shikan.
org/e/archives.html. 14.08.2009.
China arrest over 572 monks from Kirti Monastery in two-day raid. http://www.phayul.com/
news/article.aspx?article=China+arrest+over+572+monks+from+Kirti+Monastery+in
+two-day+raid&id=20227. 01.04.2008.
China can not have Tibet, says Britain. New York Times, 30.08.1912.
China launches education drive in Lhasa. www.phayul.com. 21.04.2008.
China, Tibet and Chinese nation. Facts and gures on Tibet in 1999. http://www.indexchina.com/index-english/Tibet-s.html. 08.11.2008.
Chinas midnight deadline for Tibetans to surrender. http://beingwideopen.org/.
17.03.2008.
Chinas massacre in Tibet. Shooting at Tibetan pilgrims. http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=BkMcj4vQtRU, 27.07.2008.
China's Population. 1988. Being.
China's Tibet exhibit toes the party line. http://alkima.newsvine.com/_
news/2008/07/10/1653485-chinas-tibet-exhibit-toes-the-party-line. 05.11.2008.
China's Train, Tibet's Tragedy. 2009. Dharamsala: DIIR.
China-Tibet: religious demography. http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/
Country_51_2.asp. 18.01.2009.
ChinaVitae: Raidi. http://chinavitae.com/biography/Raidi_/full. 03.11.2008.
Chinese authorities closes down Pangsa Monastery in Tibet. http://www.tchrd.org/publications/hr_updates/2007/hr200711.html#Pangsa. 14.12.2008.
Chinese birth control policy aects Tibetan women. 2001. Human Rights: TCHRD, December.
Chinese migrants, a cause for Tibet protest: China. www.phayul.com/news/tools/print.
aspx?id=22816&t=0. 18.09.2008.
Chinese regime implicated in staging violence in Lhasa. www.phayul.com. 25.03.2008.
Compulsory unpaid labour in Drayab County. http://www.tchrd.org/publications/hr_
updates/2001/hr200108.html#unpaid. 13.12.2008.
Curran L.S., Zhuang J., Shin F., Moore L.G. 1997. Ventilation and hypoxic ventilatory responsiveness in Chinese-Tibetan residents at 3,658 m. Journal of Appl. Physiol., v. 83, no. 6.
Dangerous Crossing: Conditions impacting the ight of Tibetan refugees 2002 update. 2003.
International Campaign for Tibet www.savetibet.org.
International Campaign for Tibet. www.savetibet.org.
International Campaign for Tibet www.savetibet.org.
Dangerous Crossing: Conditions impacting the ight of Tibetan refugees report 2006. International Campaign for Tibet www.savetibet.org.
Decision of history and choice of people. 2008. Tibetan Envoy, no. 12.
Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics of the National Bureau
of Statistics of China and Department of Economic Development of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of China, eds. Tabulation on Nationalities of 2000 Population Census
533
of China. 2 vols. Being: Nationalities Publishing House, 2003 [ . .]. . :

Tibet. http://articles.industrialsoft.org/wp/t/Tibet.htm. 26.01.2009.
Destruction of Serthar Institute: A special report. http://www.tchrd.org/publications/topical_reports/destruction_of_serthar-2002/. 07.10.2008.
Display of Tibetan ag leads to death of detainee: an account of imprisonment after rare
1990s rural protest. http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=17012&t=1&c=1.
28.07.2008.
Dunham M. 2004. Buddha's Warriors: the Story of the CIA-backed Tibetan Freedom Fighters,
the Chinese Invasion, and the Ultimate Fall of Tibet. New York: J.P. Tarcher Penguin.
Ecological improvement and environmental protection in Tibet. Ocial publication. 2003
www.gov.cn.
Ely M. The true story of Maoist revolution in Tibet. http://rwor.org/a/rstvol/tibet/tib-in.
htm. 08.11.2008.
Esherick J.W. 2006. How the Qing became China. .: Empire to Nation. Historical
Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World (eds. J.W. Esherick, H. Kayali, E. van
Young). Lanham, Maryland.
Ethnic repression in Tibet masterminded by faceless Chinese trio. www_phayul_com.htm.
23.03.2008.
Fan M. In China, a dierent brand of Buddhism. Ethnic Han turning to Tibetan doctrine for
guidance. Washington Post, Friday, February 20, 2009.
Farquhar D.M. 1981. Structure and function in the Yuan Imperial Government. .: China under Mongol Rule. Princeton.
Fifth International Conference of Tibet Support Groups Brussels, 1114 May, 2007. Dharamsala, 2008.
Fifty years in Tibet: media. http://www.tibet.cn/tibetzt/tibet50-en/gure/doc/023.htm.
01.11.2008.
Forney M. China falls for Tibet chic. http://www.time.com/time/world/
article/0,8599,96835,00.html. 05.11.2008.
Franke H. 1981. Tibetans in Yuan China. : China Under Mongol Rule. Princeton.
French P. He may be a God, but hes no politician. New York Times, 22.03.2008. http://
www.nytimes.com/2008/03/22/opinion/22french.html?ex=1363924800&en=17894010eb
93d018&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink. 26.01.2009.
Gantenbein D. 1993. The high life. http://discovermagazine.com/1993/oct/thehighlife286/.
17.03.2009.
Gelek. A Brief Description of the historical relations between ancient Tibetan culture and the
Chinese Culture. China Tibetology, no. 2. http://www.tibet.cn/english/zt/Tibetolog
yMagazine/200312004421152145.htm. 03.11.2008.
Ginsburgs G., Mathos M. 1964. Communist China and Tibet. The First Dozen Years. Hague.
Goldstein M. 1994. Change, conict and continuity among a community of momadic pastoralists: a case study from Western Tibet, 19501990. .: Resistance and Reform in Tibet
(ed. R. Barnett, Sh. Akiner). Bloomington.
Goldstein M.C. 2003. The demise of the Lamaist state. .: The History of Tibet (ed.A.
McKay), v. 3. London New York.
Goldstein M.C. 2007. A History of Modern Tibet, v. 2. The Calm Before the Storm: 19511955.
Berkeley Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press.
Goldstein M.C., Jiao B., Lhundrup T. 2009. On the Cultural Revolution in Tibet: the Nyemo
Incident of 1969. Berkeley Los Angeles London: Univ. of Los Angeles Press.
534
.. .
Govinda L.G. 2002. Tibet in Pictures. A Journey into the Past. Berkeley (CA): Dharma Publ.
Graham-Harrison E. Chinese migrants may ee Tibet as tourism stalls. Reuters, Thursday,
Feb. 12, 2009.
Great Changes in Tibet. 1972. Peking: Foreign Language Press.
Grunfeld A.T. 1996. The Making of Modern Tibet. Armonk (NY): M.E. Sharpe.
Gyalo Thondup reconrms Deng Xiaopings oer on Tibet talks. http://www.phayul.com/
news/article.aspx?id=23254&article=Gyalo+Thondup+reconrms+Deng+Xiaoping%e2
%80%99s+oer+on+Tibet+talks&t=1&c=1. 21.11.2008.
Halperin B. D., Sun S. et al. 1998. ECG observations in Tibetan and Han residents of Lhasa.
J. Electrocardiol., v. 31, no. 3.
Herold K. Tibet Justice Center, an annotated chronology of relations in the 20th Century, 2nd
ed., 1994. http://www.tibetjustice.org/reports/chron.html. 21.07.2009.
His Holiness the Panchen Lama. The Panchen Lamas warning to China. http://www.
friends-of-tibet.org.nz/panchen-lama.html. 08.10.2008.
His Holiness's Middle Way Approach for resolving the issue of Tibet. http://www.dalailama.
com/page.225.htm. 11.03.2009.
Ho D.D. 2006. To protect and preserve: resisting the Destroy of Four Olds campaign, 1966
1967. .: The Chinese Cultural Revolution as History (J.W. Esherick, P.G. Pickowicz, A.G. Walder eds.). Stanford.
Horlemann B. Modernization eorts in Mgo log: a chronicle, 19702000. http://www.cwru.
edu/al/tibet/booksAndPapers/horlemann.pdf/ 08.11.2008.
Hsin M. 1972. Lhasa's new look. .: Great Changes in Tibet. Peking.
[Hu Jintao] Full Text of Speech by Hu Jintao at Tibet's Peaceful Liberation. http://english.
peopledaily.com.cn/english/200107/19/eng20010719_75376.html, 27.07.2001.
Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2001. Dharamsala: TCHRD.
Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2007. http://www.tchrd.org/publications/
annual_reports/2007/ar_2007.pdf. 14.12.2008.
Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2008. Dharamsala: TCHRD.
International Commission of Jurists Report on Tibet 1997.
Jarrah W. 2002. Gyelthang and Tsethang a traveller's impression. Tibetan Bull., July
September.
Jian Ch. The Tibetan rebellion of 1959 and China's changing relations with India and the Soviet Union. .: Cold War Studies at Harvard University. http://www.fas.harvard.
edu/~hpcws/jcws.2006.8.3.pdf. 25.01.2009.
Jiang D. Popular history: the suppression of rebellion in Tibet (posted by Zh. Li). http://
chinadigitaltimes.net/2008/03/popular-history-the-suppression-of-a-rebellion-in-tibet.
21.12.2008.
Jin B. 1987. When does the word minority nationality [shaoshu minzu] [rst] appear in our
country? Nationality Solidarity (Minzu Tuanjie), v. 6. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/
ealac/barnett/pdfs/link21-jinbanggao.pdf. 16.05.2009.
Johnston C. Tibet: the international mistake of the Century. http://www.friends-of-tibet.org.
nz/mistake-of-the-century.html/ 03.11.2008.
Jong L. DNA proles of Han Taiwanese. http://www.taiwandna.com/ProleJong.html.
17.02.2009.
Kalovski I. The true face of the Dalai Lama. http://kalovski.blog.com/763351/. 15.05.2009.
Karmel S.M. Ethnic tension and the struggle for order: China's policies in Tibet. http://www.
535
thefreelibrary.com/Ethnic+tension+and+the+struggle+for+order%3a+China's+policies
+in+Tibet.-a018280032. 03.11.2008.
Kauner P. Was human sacrice practiced in old Tibet? http://stason.org/TULARC/travel/
tibet/B4-Was-human-sacrice-practiced-in-old-Tibet.html/ 21.11.2008.
Khenpo Jigme Phuntsok. Abbot of Serthar Buddhist Institute dies. http://www.phayul.com/
news/article.aspx?id=5791&t=1. 07.10.2008.
Khetsun T. 2008. Memoirs on Life in Lhasa Under Chinese Rule. Univ. of Columbia Press.
Knuth R. 2003. Libricide: The Regime-sponsored Destruction of Books and Libraries in the
Twentieth Century. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.
Kolas A., Thowsen M.P. 2005. On the Margins of Tibet: Cultural Survival on the Sino-Tibetan
Frontier. Washington: Univ. of Washington Press.
Kolmas J. 1967. Tibet and Imperial China. Canberra: Austral. National Univ.
Krishnatry S.M. 2005. Border Tagins of Arunachal Pradesh. Unarmed Expedition 1956. New
Delhi: National Book Trust.
Kumbum's song of sadness. 1998. Human Rights Update: TCHRD, v. 3, no. 17.
Kuxing: Torture in Tibet. A Special Report. TCHRD. http://www.tchrd.org/publications/
topical_reports/torture/torture.pdf. 07.06.2009.
Kuzmin S.L. (in press). The Treaty of 1913 between Mongolia and Tibet and Its Validity.
La magie du Bouddha. http://magiedubouddha.com/p_tib-os1.php. 08.11.2008.
Laird Th. 2006. The Story of Tibet. Conversations with the Dalai Lama. New York: Grove
Press.
Langlois J.D., Jr. 1981. Political thought in Chin-hua under Mongol rule. .: China Under Mongol Rule. Princeton.
Ling N. 1964. Tibetan Sourcebook. Hong Kong: Union Research Inst.
List of tributaries of Imperial China. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tributaries_of_
Imperial_China. 21.12.2008.
Liu M. When heaven shed blood. Details of the CIA's secret war in Tibet are only now leaking
out, a tale of daring espionage, violence and nally betrayal. http://www.buddhistview.
com/site/epage/31552_225.htm. 17.02.2009.
Ma Rong. 1993. Residential patterns and their impact on Han-Tibetan relations in Lhasa City,
the Tibet Autionomous Region. .: Urban Anthropology in China (Gulden G.,
Southall A. eds.). Boston.
Macdonald D. 1932. Twenty Years in Tibet. London: Seely, Service & Co.
Mao Tse-tung. 1977. On the policies for our work in Tibet. Directive of the Central Committee
of the Communist party of China. .: Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung. Peking: Foreign Languages Press. http://www.marx2mao.com/Mao/WT52.html. 08.11.2008.
Maps of Tibet. Historic Images of the High Plateau. 2008 Calendar. International Campaign
for Tibet.
Mass transportation of objects of Tibetan historical and cultural value to China. 2003. Tibetan Envoy, no. 7.
McCarthy R.E. 1997. Tears on Lotus: Accounts of Tibetan Resistance to the Chinese invasion
1950 1962. Jeerson (N Carolina) London: McFarland & Co.
Memorandum from the Tibetan Muslim Youth Federation. www_phayul_com.htm.
21.03.2008.
Mind and Life Institute. http://www.mindandlife.org. 06.06.2009.
536
.. .
Movement westward. 1985. Reference Material (2). Embassy of the PRC, New Delhi, 4 February.
National uprising. http://www.tibet.com/WhitePaper/white3.html. 14.03.2009.
Nationalities and Religious Bureau of Lhasa Municipality, 20.7.1997 . : New temple
and monastic rules. http://www.tchrd.org/publications/hr_updates/1997/hr19971215.
html#reeducation. 14.12.2008.
Ngapo Ngawang Jigme. 1988. When did Tibet come within the sovereignty of China? Bull.
Hist. Tibet Communist Party, v. 3 (General Series, no. 21, translation by Tibet Information
Network, London (TIN Ref: Doc 22(ZY)): Background Papers on Tibet, September 1992,
pt. 2. London: Tibet Information Network.
Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme. 1991. On Tibetan Issues. Being: New Star.
Nichols S. Malware writers target pro-Tibet groups. http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/
news/2212635/malware-writers-aim-pro-tibet. 27.07.2008; Cyber attacks target pro-Tibet
groups. www.phayul.com. 23.03.2008.
Niermeyer S., Yang Ping, Sganmina, Drolkar, Janguo Zhuang, Moore L.G. 1995. Arterial oxygen saturation in Tibetan and Han infants born in Lhasa, Tibet. New England J. Medicine, v. 333, no. 19.
Norbu D. 1998. Self-determination: the satisfactory solution. Tibetan Bull., MayJune.
Norbu D. 1999. Tibet: the Road Ahead. New Delhi: HarperCollins.
Norbu D. 2001. China's Tibet Policy. Surrey: RoutledgeCurzon Press.
Norbu J. 2003. The Tibetan resistance movement and the role of the CIA. .: The History
of Tibet (McKay A. ed.), v. 3. London New York.
Norbu J. 2006. The forgotten anniversary remembering the great Khampa uprising of 1956.
http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?c=4&t=1&id=14993&article=The+Forgotten
+Anniversary+-+Remembering+the+Great+Khampa+Uprising+of+1956. 25.01.2009.
Norbu J. March winds. http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?article= MARCH+
WINDS+-+Jamyang+Norbu&id=24032. 07.03.2009.
Origin of the title of Dalai Lama and its related backgrounder. http://news.xinhuanet.com/
english/200903/01/content_10921943_3.htm. 09.03.2009.
Palden Gyatso. 1997. Fire Under Snow. Testimony of a Tibetan Prisoner. London: The Harvill
Press.
[Panchen Lama X] 1997. A Poisoned Arrow. The Secret Report of the 10th Panchen Lama.
The Full Text of the Panchen Lama's 70,000 Character Petition of 1962, Together with a
Selection of Supporting Historical Documents. London: Tibetan Information Network,
.
http://www.asianest.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=22841. 10.10.2008.
[Panchen Lama X] The Panchen Lama's Last Speech: Full Text. http://www.columbia.edu/
itc/ealac/barnett/pdfs/link5-Panchenspeech.pdf. 16.05.2009.
Parenti M. Friendly feudalism: the Tibetan myth. http://www.swans.com/library/art9/mparen01.html; c : .
: . http://left.ru/2008/6/parenti175.phtml.
Patriotic Re-education campaign results in one death and 25 arrests. http://www.tchrd.
org/publications/hr_updates/2000/hr200006.html#reeducation. 14.12.2008.
Pelliot P. 1912. L'origine du nom de Chine. T'uong Pao, v. 18.
[People's Republic of China State Statistical Bureau. Registers the result about the rst national
537
census the bulletin on November 1, 1954 ( . .)]. http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/

rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16767.htm. 26.01.2009.
Phuntsok Tashi Taklha. 1992. Historical Sino-Tibetan relations, 19491951 and the Seventeenpoint Agreement. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/area/tibet-potomac/historical/taklha.html. 27.01.2009.
Pirie F. Segmentation within the state: the reconguration of Tibetan tribes in Chinese reform
period. Nomads 9_1_11_04_05. www.case.edu/al/tibet/tibetanNomads/documents/NPpaper.pdf. 27.09.2008.
Political veteran speaks... 1998. Human rights update: TCHRD, v. 3, no. 11.
Potala palace desecrated. 2001. Tibetan Bull., MarchJune.
Powers J. 2004. History as Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles Versus the People's Republic of China.
New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
Prachanda defends Chinese crackdown on Tibetans. http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/
holnus/003200803232124.htm. 15.05.2009.
Prisoners of Tibet: Special Report. 2006. TCHRD.
Promises and lies: The 17-point Agreement. The full story as revealed by the Tibetans and
Chinese who were involved. 2001. Tibetan Bull., MarchJune.
Prostitution abounds in Lhasa. 1995. Tibetan Bull., MayJune.
Protection and development of Tibetan culture (2008). Information Oce of the State Council of the People's Republic of China September 2008, Being. http://english.gov.cn/
ocial/200810/16/content_1123105.htm. 16.10.2008.
Puntshok J. 1998. Testimony of political prisoner. Tibetan Envoy, v. 3.
Qin Yongzhang. A secret history of Japan coveting Tibet during the anti-Japanese aggression
war. China Tibetology, no. 6. http://www.tibet.cn/english/zt/TibetologyMagazine/2
0031200691161216.htm. 03.11.2008
Questions pertaining to Tibet, 19691972. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/
70146.pdf. 03.01.2008.
Ran Ch. 1991. The origin and truth of the Independence of Tibet. Being: New Star.
Re-education in Kan Lho. 1996. Human Rights Update: TCHRD, v. 2, no. 23.
Religious persecution through patriotic re-education. http://www.tibet.com/Humanrights/HumanRights97/hr971.html. 03.11.2008.
Rhoads E.J.M. 2001. Manchu and Han. Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and
Early Republican China 18611928. Seattle London: Univ. of Washington Press.
Ribhur Tulku. 1988. Search for Jowo Mikyoe Dorjee. Dharamsala: Oce for Inform. & Intern.
Relations, Central Tibetan Secretariat.
Roy A. 2008. Prachanda, the Unknown Revolutionary. Katmandu: Mandala Book Point.
Samsara, a Tibetan human rights archive. personal testimony. http://www.subliminal.org/
tibet/testimony. 27.07.2008.
Samsara: personal testimony: Statement No. 11. http://www.subliminal.org/tibet/testimony/
icj60-stmt11.html. 03.11.2008.
Sautman B. 2008. Demographic annihilation and Tibet. .: Contemporary Tibet: Politics, Development and Society in a Disputed Region (eds. B. Sautman, J.T. Dreyer). New
Delhi.
Sautman B. How repressive is the Chinese Government in Tibet? http://www.international.
ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=2732. 26.01.2009.
Sautman B., Dreyer J.T. 2005. The Tibet question in contemporary perspective. .:
.. .
538
Contemporary Tibet: Politics, Development, and Society in a Disputed Region. New

York.
Schrei J.M. A lie repeated the far left's awed history of Tibet. http://www.
studentsforafreetibet.org/article.php?id=425. 15.03.2009.
[Secret: CTC releases documents from Canadas Tibet le]. http://tibet.ca/_media/PDF/
secret_canada_tibet_le.pdf. 30.01.2009.
Seres. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seres. 04.01.2009.
Severe religious restrictions in Nyemo County. http://www.tchrd.org/publications/hr_
updates/2000/hr200005.html#restrictions. 14.12.2008.
Shakya Ts. 1997. Historical introduction. In: Leaders of Tibet: a Directory. London,
Tibet Information Network. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/barnett/pdfs/link6shakyaintro.pdf. 25.01.2009.
Shakya Ts. 1999. The Dragon in the Land of Snows. A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947.
London: Pimlico.
Shakya Ts. 2002. Blood in the snows. Reply to Wang Lixiong. New Left Review, v. 15, May
June. http://www.newleftreview.org/?view=2388; http://www.tibetwrites.org/?Bloodin-the-Snows. 04.03.2009.
Shakya Ts. 2003. The genesis of the Sino-Tibetan Agreement of 1951. .: The History of
Tibet (ed. A. McKay), v. 3. London New York.
Shakya Ts. 2005. The prisoner. New Left Review 34. http://newleftreview.org/A2576.
25.01.2009.
Shakya Ts. Tibet and China: the past in the present. http://www.phayul.com/news/article.a
spx?c=4&t=1&id=24245&article=Tibet+and+China%3a+the+past+in+the+present++By+Tsering+Shakya. 21.03.2009.
Shakya Ts. Tibetan questions. http://www.newleftreview.org/?page= article&view= 2720;
http://newleftreview.org/?getpdf=NLR28501&pdang=en. 04.11.2008)
Shaumian T. 2000. Tibet: the Great Game and Tsarist Russia. New Delhi: Oxford Univ. Press.
Smith W. Congressional panel to probe Chinese theft of Tibetan treasures. http://www.rfa.
org/english/commentaries/cambodia_cullumoped-04042008160706.html/tibet_smith04042008160846.html. 20.09.2005.
Smith W.W.1994. The nationalities policy of the Chinese Communist Party and the Socialist
transformation of Tibet. .: Resistance and Reform in Tibet (eds. R. Barnett, Sh.
Akiner). Bloomington.
Smith W.W. 1996. Tibetan Nation. A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan
Relations. Boulder: Westview.
Smith W.W. 2008. China's Tibet? Autonomy or Assimilation. Lahman etc.: Rowman & Littleeld.
Sonam T. 2007. A Cold War in Shangri La the CIA in Tibet. http://www.tibetwrites.
org/?A-Cold-War-in-Shangri-La-The-CIA. 17.02.2009.
Song L. 2007. Reections on the 17-point Agreement of 1951. .: Facts About the 17point Agreement Between Tibet and China. Dharamsala.
Source list and detailed death tolls for the twentieth century hemoclysm. http://users.erols.
com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm. 26.01.2009.
Sperling E. 2003. The Chinese venture in K'am, 190411, and the role of Chao Erh-Feng.
.: The History of Tibet (ed. A. McKay), v. 3. London New York.
Sperling E. 2004. The TibetChina conict: history and polemics. Policy Studies, v. 7
539
(Washington, EastWest Center). http://www.eastwestcenterwashington.org/

publications/publications.htm. 15.12.2008.
Ssanang Ssetsen. 1829. Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen und Ihres Fuerstenhauses. St.
Petersburg.
Strangers in their own country: Chinese population transfer in Tibet and its impacts (a report by
Tibetan Youth Congress). 1997. Dharamsala.
Strong A.-L. 1959. When Serfs Stood Up in Tibet. Peiking: New World Press. http://www.
marx.org/reference/archive/strong-anna-louise/1959/tibet/index.htm. 21.07.2009.
Struggling for inuence in Nepal. TibetInfoNet, 31.10.2008.
Taklha N.L. 2001. Born in Lhasa. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lions Publ.
Tales on terror: torture in Tibet (1999). http://www.tchrd.org/publications/topical_reports/
tales_of_terror-torture-1999// 08.11.2008.
Tenpa Soepa. 2008. 20 Years of My Life in China's Death Camp. Bloomington (India): Author
House.
The Eight White Ordon, the oering ceremonies of Genghis Khan and the Mausoleum of
Genghis Khan. http://members.tripod.com/Mongolian_Page/white.txt. 08.10.2008.
The lost kingdom of Guge. http://www.himmies.com/h1/tales_guge.html. 09.06.2009.
The Mongols and Tibet. A Historical Assessment of Relations Between the Mongol Empire and
Tibet. 2009. Dharamsala: DIIR.
The myth of Tibet genocide. http://thenewvoice.wordpress.com/2008/04/17/the-myth-oftibet-genocide/. 26.01.2009.
The New Times : , -. 58 24 2008. http://
lightbreeze.beon.ru/2181230-the-new-times-tri-tochki-zrena-na-situacu-v-tibete.
zhtml. 07.06.2009.
The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law. 1959. Geneva: International Commission of
Jurists.
The rebel Dalai Lama. http://www.friendsoftibet.org/main/songs.html. 17.02.2009.
The Sino-Tibetan etymological dictionary and thesaurus. http://stedt.berkeley.edu/html/
STfamily.html#TBlg. 17.02.2009.
The status of Tibetan women in Tibet (19952000). http://www.tibetanwomen.org/
publications/books/status_of_women_in_tibet-un-2000.html. 28.04.2009.
Thinley P. 1996. The tragedy and courage of the late Panchen Lama. Tibetan Bull., Jan.
Feb.
Tiang J. The Administrative System in Tibet during the Tang and Yuan Dynasties. China
Tibetology, no. 1. http://www.tibet.cn/english/zt/TibetologyMagazine/200312003121
6142213.htm. 03.11.2008.
Tibet 2002 a Yearbook: Reports from Tibet. London: Tibet Inform. Network.
Tibet and Manchu. An Assessment of Tibet-Manchu Relations in Five Phases of Historical
Development. 2008. Dharamsala: DIIR.
Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic. A Report of the International Commission of Jurists
by Its Legal Inquiry Committee on Tibet. 1960. Geneva: International Commission of
Jurists.
Tibet riots orchestrated? http://www.watbowon.org/Joomla1011/index.php?option=com_c
ontent&task=view&id=229&Itemid=85. 29.03.2008.
Tibet: the gap between fact and fabrication: III. Developments: The economic and social development. http://www.tibetanyouthcongress.org/development_part3.htm. 14.12. 2008.
540
.. .
Tibet to provide housing for 52,000 farmers, herders in 2008. http://english.peopledaily.com.

cn/90001/90776/6340343.html. 28.07.2008.
Tibet Under Chinese Communist Rule. A Compilation of Refuge Statements, 19581975.
1976. Dharamsala: Information and Publicity Oce of H.H. the Dalai Lama.
Tibet: 19501967. 1968. Hong Kong: Union Research Inst.
Tibet: a Human Development and Environment Report. 2007. Dharamsala: Central Tibetan
Administration.
Tibetan blasts 'demographic aggression'. www.phayul.com.
Tibetan exile monasteries. http://www.khawakarpo.org/tibet_monasteries.htm. 20.09.2008.
Tibetan Plateau under the mercy of climate change and modernization. 2009. Tibetan Bull.,
v. 13, no. 1.
Tibetan religious leaders not to accept Chinese imposed Panchen Lama. 1995. Tibetan Bull.,
SeptemberDecember.
Tibetan Youth Congress. http://www.tibetanyouthcongress.org. 27.07.2008.
Torture in Tibet. A Report Submitted to the United Nation Committee Against Torture. 2000.
Dharamsala.
Trikamdas P. 4 June 1959; 5 June 1959. Tibet Summary of a Report on Tibet: Submitted to
the International Commission of Jurists by Shri Purshottam Trikamdas, Senior Advocate,
Supreme Court of India. http://www.icj.org/news.php3?id_article=3415&lang=en&pr
int=true. 04.05.2009.
Tsering B.K. 1985. Religion in Tibet today. Tibetan Bull., v. 16, no. 1.
Uprising in Tibet 2008. Documentation of Protests in Tibet. Dharamsala: TCHRD.
Van Walt van Praag M.C. 1987. The Status of Tibet: History, Rights, and Prospects in
International Law. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Van Walt van Praag M. 2007. The relevance of 17-point Agreement today. Facts About the
17-point Agreement Between Tibet and China. Dharamsala.
Vembu V. 2007. Tibet wasn't ours, says Chinese scholar. http://www.dnaindia.com/report.
asp?newsid=1081523&pageid=0. 22.12.2008.
Victim of Chinese torture in Tibet. http://www.subliminal.org/tibet/testimony/ChoedrakCongress.html. 03.11.2008.
Wade G. 1999. The polity of Yelang and the origins of the name China. Sino-Platonic
Papers, no. 118, May. http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp188_yelang_china.
pdf.
Wang Jiawei, Nimajianzan, Nyima Gyaincain. 1997. The Historical Status of China's Tibet.
China Intercontinental Press.
Wiley A.S. 2004. An Ecology of High-Altitude Infancy. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Woeser Ts. A record of the Tibetan unrest: March 10 March 25. http://www.phayul.com/
news/article.aspx?id=20170&article=A+Record+of+the+Tibetan+Unrest%3a+March+
10%e2%80%94March+25#. 01.11.2008.
[Woeser] Diagnosing the Current Situation in Tibet. Interview with the Tibetan author
Woeser. 1 May 2008. http://www.tibetwrites.org/?Diagnosing-the-Current-Situation.
21.02.2009.
Woeser (Wei Se). 2006. Sha jie. Sishi nian de jiyi jinqu. Jingtou xia de Xizang wenhua. Di yi
ci gongkai (Forbidden memory. Tibet during the Cultural Revolution), Taipei: Dakuai
Wenhua, 296 c.
Worldwide Tibet Movement. http://www.tibet.net/en/diir/wwtm/index.html. 07.06.2009.
541
Wren C.S. 1983. Life and death in Tibet: the past clings ercely. New York Times,
24.05.1983.
Wright A.R. 1904. Tibetan drum and trumpet. Folklore, v. 15, no. 3 (Sep.: 29, 1904).
Wu T., Wang X., Wei C., Cheng H., Wang X., Li Y., Dong G., Zhao H., Young P., Li G.,
Wang Z. Hemoglobin levels in Qinghai-Tibet: dierent eects of gender for Tibetans vs.
Hans.. J. Appl. Physiol., v. 98.
Wu Keliang, Wu Changxin. Documentation and mining of yak culture to promote a sustainable
yak husbandry. .: Proceedings of the International Congress on Yak, Chengdu,
Sichuan, P.R. China 2004. http://www.ivis.org/proceedings/yaks/2004/session7/
Keliang.pdf.
Yan Hao. 2000. Tibetan population in China: myths and facts re-examined. Asian Ethnicity,
v. 1, no. 1. http://www.case.edu/al/tibet/booksAndPapers/tibetan.population.in.
china.pdf. 25.01.2009.
Yeh E.T. 2003. Tibetan range wars: spatial politics and authority of the grasslands of Amdo.
Development and Change, v. 34, no. 3.
Zhao Suisheng. 2004. Nation-state by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism.
Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press
SUMMARY
Hidden Tibet. History of Independence and Occupation. Sergius L. Kuzmin. 2010.
St. Petersburg, Narthang. Tibet is a land of mysteries. They are not only in religion
and occultism: its history remains hidden in a large part. This book disproves some
erroneous views on history and religion of the Tibetans. Tibet has never been a
part of any other state. At the time when China was an inseparable part of Mongolian Yuan Empire and Manchu Qing Empire, Tibet was a separate country but
not a part of these empires. It was not a part of Chinese Tang and Ming empires.
Statements that Tibet was a part of neighboring empires is related to ancient Chinese conception of the emperor's global power. Its principles are being wrongfully
transferred onto a nation state model in post-revolution China. Inclusion of Tibet
into the People's Republic of China was not legitimate. Tibet is an occupied country. The book traces history of the Tibetan statehood from ancient times to our
days, describes life of the Tibetans at the times of Feudalism and Socialism, coercive inclusion of Tibet into People's Republic of China, suppression of national
liberation movement, destruction of civilization of the Tibetans, Cultural Revolution and subsequent reforms. Many pictures and data concerning these events are
published for the rst time.
HIDDEN TIBET
HISTORY OF INDEPENDENCE AND OCCUPATION
Sergius L. Kuzmin
CONTENTS
Introduction .................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 1. Geography and Origin of the Tibetans .............................................. 7
Chapter 2. Antiquity and Middle Ages ..............................................................14
Chapter 3. Epoch of the Qing Empire ...............................................................45
Chapter 4. Last Years of Independence ............................................................ 86
Chapter 5. Religion and Culture .................................................................... 113
Chapter 6. State, Society and Economy .......................................................... 135
Chapter 7. Peaceful Liberation and Its Consequences .................................. 163
Chapter 8. From the People's Uprising to the Cultural Revolution ................... 211
Chapter 9. Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Results of the Mao Period ..288
Chapter 10. Reconstruction and Modernization .............................................348
Tibetan People's Struggle, the Dalai Lama and Tibetan Refugees ................ 354
Religion................................................................................................... 388
Autonomy and Demography ...................................................................... 413
Language, Education, and Culture............................................................ 423
Condition of Natural Environment ............................................................ 428
Economy ................................................................................................. 433
Militarization .......................................................................................... 438
Living Standard and Health Care ............................................................. 440
Chapter 11. Tibet, an Inseparable Part of China? ...........................................444
Statehood in International Law and in Chinese Tradition ........................... 444
On China and Chinese Dynasties .......................................................... 455
Solution of Ethnic Problem in China.......................................................... 473
Status of Tibet: a Historical Retrospective .................................................. 484
Chapter 12. Decline of Tibetan and Mongolian Civilization? ..........................508
References ................................................................................................... 515
Summary .....................................................................................................543
..
..
.
. 21.XII.2009
701001/16. . . .
. . . 34.
1000 .

105005, , . . , 46

Tibet Book

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tibet Book

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

..

Tibetan Plateau, 2009, p.7.

The Sino-Tibetan etymological dictionary...

Jong L. DNA proles...

716, 718 719 . . 724 . , 729 .

The Mongols, 2009, p.17.

Parenti M. Friendly feudalism...

Franke, 1981, p.186328.

The Mongols, 2009, p.2122.

-, 1999 . : , , 2005, . 107.

Dukula'i Gozang .: Tibet and Manchu, 2008, p.8.

Ya Hanzhang, 1994, p. 73 . : , , 2005.

., .: The rebel Dalai Lama...

Tibet and Manchu, 2008, p.45.

Ya Han Chang, 1991 . : : , 1993.

Yeh, 2003, p.499523.

Tibet and Manchu, 2008, p.65.

Van Walt, 1987.

Van Walt, 1987.

Van Walt, 1987, p.35.

Lamb, 1966, p.301 . : Van Walt, 1987, p.38.

Sperling, 2003, p.7375.

Smith, 1996, p.166; , 2006.

China can not have Tibet, 1912.

Van Walt, 1987.

. : Van Walt, 1987, p.88.

Shakya, 1999, p.6.

Smith, 1996; , , 2005; A 60-point commentary, 2008; http://reting.

Parenti M. Friendly feudalism...

1939 . (Bundesarchiv Bild 135-S-16-01-17, 135-S-11-07-17/:

Van Walt, 1987, p.83.

, 1938 ., (Bundesarchiv, Bild 135-S05-10-04/: Ernst Schaefer/License CC-BY-SA 3.0)

China's Tibet exhibit...

Bell, 1991, p.289.

Van Walt, 1987.

Parenti M. Friendly feudalism...

Norbu, 1999, p.174175.

. : Tibet: a Human Development, 2007, p.70.

Bell, 1991; Govinda, 2002, p.100.

Palden Gyatso, 1997, p.27.

Tibet: a Human Development, 2007.

, 1938 . (Bundesarchiv, Bild 135-KB-10-096/License

Shakya, 1999, p.79.

Goldstein, 2003, p.535.

Van Walt, 1987.

Shakya, 1999, p.38; Smith, 1996, p.274; Herold K. An annotated...

Herold K. An annotated chronology...

Ling, 1964, p.13.

Goldstein, 2003, p.536.

. : Goldstein, 2007, p.85.

.: Shakya, 2003, p.589606.

Promises and lies, 2001.

A 60-point commentary, 2008.

Promises and lies, 2001

Secret: CTC releases documents...

Promises and lies, 2001.

Promises and lies, 2001.

Goldstein, 2007, p.244.

Goldstein, 2007, p.302303.

Shakya, 1999, p.106107.

Andrugzang, 1973, p.3335.

Palden Gyatso, 1997, p.37.

Goldstein, 2007, p.430438.

Goldstein, 2007, p.417418.