Brake

Design

and

Safety

Second Edition

Other SAE books

on

this

topic:

Electronic

Braking, Traction, and Stability Control Edited by Ronald K. Jrgen

(Order No. PT-76)
VDC Where Will the
Edited

ABS

TCS

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by Josef Mack (Order No. PT-57)

For more information or to order this book, contact SAE at 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 (724) 776-4970; fax (724) 776-0790 e-mail: publications@sae.org web site: www.sae.org/BOOKSTORE

Brake

Design

and

Safety

Second Edition

Rudolf Limpert

Society

of Automotive

Warrendale, Pa.

Engineers,

Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication

Data

Limpert, Rudolf Brake design and safety / Rudolf Limpert.

2nd ed.

p. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56091-915-9 1. AutomobilesBrakesDesign and construction. I. Title.

cm.

TL269.L56 1999

629.2'46dc21

98-53284 CIP

Copyright

1999

Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

ISBN 1-56091-915-9 All

rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.

Permission to photocopy for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by SAE for libraries and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), provided that the base fee of $.50 per page is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rosewood Dr., Danvers, MA 01923. Special requests should be addressed to the SAE Publications Group. l-56091-915-9/99-$.50.
SAE Order No. R-198

Preface to the Second Edition

The Second Edition continues to provide a systems approach to designing safer brakes. Consulting experts will find it a single reference in determining the involvement of brakes in accident causation. Brakes system technology has attained a high standard of quality over the last decades. Nearly all automobiles are now equipped with antilock brakes. Federal braking standards require commercial vehicles to use antilock brakes. Revolutionary innovative brake designs are not expected. Improvements in brake systems will only be achieved through basic research, the application of sound engineering concepts, and testing resulting in small yet important design
two

changes.
objective of the Second Edition is to assist the brake engineer in accomplishing his task to design safer brakes that can be operated and maintained safely. The brake expert will find all the analytical tools to study and determine the potential causes of brake failures. The Second Edition is expanded to cover all essential subjects including the mechanical and thermal analysis
The

of disk brakes. Mistakes found in the First Edition

were

corrected.

I thank all those who have made valuable suggestions and comments and helped me to understand brakes better, in particular the many individuals who attended my Brake Design and Safety seminars.

Rudy Limpert

Preface to the First Edition

The purpose of this book is to provide a systems approach to designing safer brakes. Much of the material presented was developed during my work as a brake design engineer, conducting automotive research, consulting as a brake expert, and teaching brake design. The book is written for automotive engineers, technical consultants, accident reconstruction experts, and lawyers involved with the design of brake systems, the analysis of braking performance, and product liability issues. Junior engineers will benefit from the book by finding in one single source all essential concepts, guidelines, and design checks required for designing safer brakes.

Chapter 1 reviews basic stopping distance performance, design rules, and product liability factors.
In Chapter 2, drum and disc brakes are discussed. Brake torque computations are shown for different drum and disc brake designs.

Temperature and thermal stresses are analyzed in Chapter 3. Practical temperature equations are shown whenever possible.

Chapter 4 briefly reviews basic concepts involved in analyzing mechanical brake systems.
The

operation and design of hydraulic brakes are discussed in Chapter 5.

are

Air brake systems and their components Chapter 6.

discussed and

analyzed in

Brake force distribution, braking efficiency, optimum brake force distribution, and vehicle stability during braking for the single vehicle are analyzed in Chapter 7.

Vll

Brake

Design and Safety

Car-trailer and commercial truck-trailer braking is discussed in

Chapter 8.

Important elements of anti-lock braking performance and design are

introduced in Chapter 9.
are

Brake failures

discussed in

Chapter

10.

Table of Contents
Chapter
1 1.1 1.2

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

1.9

Elements of Braking Performance, Design, and Safety.1 Functions of aBraking System.1 Brake System Overview.2 Pedal Force and Pedal Travel.7 Vehicle Deceleration and Stopping Distance.8 Elements of Engineering Design.18 Basic Safety Considerations.23 Elements of Product Liability.25 Elements of Braking Safety Standards.28 Basic Brake System Design Considerations.31

Chapter 2 Design and Analysis of Friction Brakes.37 2.1 Different Brake Designs.37 2.2 Brake Shoe Adjustment.46 2.3 Lining Wear and Pressure Distribution.49 2.4 Parking Brake Design.63
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 Disc Brake Installation.65 Disc and Drum Brake Comparison.66 Brake Lining Materials.68 Brake Torque Analysis.73 Effect of Shoe and Drum Stiffness on Brake Torque.92 Analysis of External Band Brakes.96

Auxiliary Brakes.100 Analysis of Sealed Brakes.105

Thermal Analysis of Friction Brakes. Ill

Chapter 3

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

Temperature Analysis.Ill Thermal Stress Analysis.151 Thermal Design Measures.157

Test Results.162 Design of Heavy Equipment Disc Brakes.164

IX

Brake

Design

and

Safety

Chapter 4 Analysis of Mechanical Brake Systems.173

4.1 4.2 4.3

General Observations.173 Wheel Brakes.174 Driveshaft-Mounted Brake.176

Chapter 5
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

Brake Line Pressure Control Devices.199 Brake Fluid Volume Analysis.213 Dynamic Response of Hydraulic Brake Systems.243

Analysis of Hydraulic Brake Systems.179 Manual Hydraulic Brakes .179 Boost System Analysis.181

Chapter 6 Analysis of Air Brake Systems.249 6.1 Basic Concepts.249 6.2 Brake System Plumbing Schematics.250 6.3 Brake System Components.257 6.4 Air-Over-Hydraulic Brake Systems.277 6.5 Brake Torque.278
6.6 6.7 6.8 Vehicle Deceleration.283 Response Time of Air Brake Systems.284 Braking by Wire .290

Chapter 7
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

Single Vehicle Braking Dynamics .293

Static Axle Loads.293 Dynamic Axle Loads.295

7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

Tire-Road Friction Utilization.311

Optimum Braking Forces.297 Actual Braking Forces Developed by Brakes.307 Comparison of Optimum and Actual Braking Forces.308 Braking Efficiency.313

Fixed Brake Force Distribution Analysis.315 7.9 Variable Brake Force Distribution Analysis.323 7.10 Vehicle Stability Analysis.334 7.11 Braking Dynamics for Three-Axle Vehicle.341 7.12 Braking Dynamics While Turning .350

Table of Contents

Chapter 8 Braking Dynamics of Combination Vehicles.361

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

Car-TrailerNo Brakes on Trailer.361 Braking Dynamics for Trailer with Surge Brakes.364 Braking ofThree-Axle Tractor-Trailer Combination (2-S1) ....367 Braking Dynamics of Combination Vehicle Equipped with Tandem Axles.399

Chapter 9
9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6

Anti-Lock Brake Systems (ABS).425 Historical Overview .425 Fundamentals of ABS Analysis.428

ABS System Components.456 ABS Systems for Air Brakes.462 In-Use Factors and Operation of ABS Systems.466

Hydraulic Systems.446

Chapter

Basic Considerations.471 Development of Brake Failure.472 Analysis of Partial Brake Failure.473 Comparison of Dual Brake Systems.491 Vacuum Assist Failure.494 Full Power Brake Failure.494 Degraded Braking Due to Air Inclusion.495 Brake Fluid Considerations in Design and Failure Analysis.496 10.9 Seal and Rubber Materials.499 10.10 Failure of Air Brake Systems.500

10. 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8

Analysis of Brake Failure.471

Appendix A.

Conversion of Units.503

References.505
Index.509
About the Author.525

ISBN:978-0-7680-2710-5 Copyright 1999 SAE International

XI