Biotic Contributions to Soil Formation and Classification Judy Kirkbride ENVL3432 Ray Mueller

Introduction Soil is described as a living body because it is not static but constantly changing. These changes are a result of processes of five factors of soil formation: climate, biota, parent material, topography, and time. These factors are closely intertwined and influential and commonly dependent upon each other.The single most important factor is climate because it dictates the amount of rainfall and temperature of which is the basis for chemical reactions and mechanical and physical weathering (Mueller, Ray 2011). Topography controls rates of erosion, runoff and accumulation of sediments. Soil is thickest in valley bottoms and thinnest on steep slopes. Topography can also influence climatic factors such as in the case of the rain shadow effect. Biota, which will be discussed in more detail, is the effect of living organisms on soil formation. Soil forms as a result of the additions, removals, transformations, and translocations of these factors.Time is the independent variable. Soil formation is a function of the other factors, which can be simply considered change, over time. There are young soils and old soils. Horizonation is the development of horizons or visible horizontal layers within the soil profile. This is an overt result of soil formation.Distinct horizons are manifested because of chemical and physical properties thatexemplify color, texture and structural differences (Hausenbuiller, 1980). Older soils have developed over longer periods of time and display defined

horizons. Young soils in the early stages of formation lack distinct horizons. The worlds soils are classified mostly based on their defining soil horizons. General Biotic Contributions to Soil Formation The biota factor holds such a great influence on soil formation because it is colossal group of many agents. Members from every kingdom play a role at all stages of soil formation. If we were to start with the birth of new soils from parent material we could begin with lichens and algae. Lichens are among the first inhabitants of bare rock (Paul and Clark, 1989). Through their biological processes lichens secrete acids that decompose or weather rock, thus starting the soil formation process. Algae can also inhabit rock surfaces as well as the inside of rocks in pores and cracks. Algae are able to expand these crevasses by secreting acids, like lichens, that contribute to the degradation of the rock (Sylvia, Fuhrman, Hartel, and Zuberer, 1998). Tree roots also enhance weathering in this manner as well by releasing carbon dioxide that turns to carbonic acidin the presence of water (Muller, Ray 2011). Biotic agents such as plant roots and worms release gums or slimes that attract clay particles which dry out,creating water stable aggregates. When clay clumps together it acts like sand (Mueller, Ray, 2011). This allows water to move more freely through the soil. Water-stable aggregates also contribute to soil structure. Animals such as worms, moles, and other

burrowing animals mix the soil by digging holes, creating whats called the cultivation effect (Tan,1994). Plant roots also have this affect, particularly plants such grasses that have extensive root systems. Generally plants preserve soil by preventing erosion. Organic Matter Content The most influential biotic contribution to soil is dead organic matter or DOM. The organic fraction is the main food source for the soil microbial populations that decompose and recycle the matter and replenish the soil with carbon, nitrogen and other important plant nutrients. Nematodes, protozoa, and earthworms also feed on this material (Paul and Clark, 1989). One form of DOM is only slightly decomposed, to the point to where its identity can still be determined. Organic matter that is completely decomposed no longer displays physical characteristics of its parent material and exists as organic compounds in the soil. This group can be divided into humified and nonhumified organic matter, collectively called soil humus (Tan, 1994). Nonhumified compounds are unaltered or only slightly changed organic compounds directly from the decay of plant, animal, or microbial parts. These compounds include proteins, organic acids, lingins, hormones etc. Humified compounds form in the soil through reactions involving nonhumified compounds also known as humification (Tan, 1994). Such substances include humic and fulvic acids. Humus is an essential part of plant nutrition and a signifier of soil health.

Soil humus has the highest cation exchange capacity (CEC) of all soil colloids. These large complex compounds have numerous OH groups that will gain and loose hydrogen ions creating charged sites for both cations and anions (Brady and Weil, 2004). A majority of plant nutrients exist in nature as cations such as Ca+ and Mg+ and NH4+. Humus is particularly important to plant nutrition because of its anion exchange capacity (AEC). Phosphorus, a macronutrient, is only found in anion form, H2PO4-. Plant nutrients attach to charged sites and are held within the soil rather than being leached out by percolating water. The accumulation of DOM also contributes to physical qualities of soils. Organic matter is dark brown to black and tends to have darkening effect on the soil, contributing to horizonation (Brady and Weil 2004).Soils water-holding capacity is increased by organic matter content. Generally this factor contributes to further chemical and physical weathering. Organic residues can alsoact as cementing agents, conferring stable soil structure (Tan, 1994). The Relevance of Biota in Soil Classification Soil classification is largely based on characteristic horizons and other visible properties that signify development (Brady and Weil, 2004). There are 12 soil orders. These large bodies of soils are a reflection of environmental

conditions, most importantly, climate but biota as well. Soils with extensive vegetation tend to be mature and well formed. The dominant plant species most suited for the environment that holds the most influence over the variation of soil formation.Temperate to cold climates with moderate to heavy rainfall provide conditions ideal for tree growth, forming vast luscious forests of deciduous and coniferous trees. Spodosols are one type of forest soil, forming mostly under coniferous or mixed deciduous-conifer vegetation (Tan, 1994). In a forest most of the organic materials are found on the surface of the soil in the form of leaf and needle litter forming an O or organic horizon.Percolating water leaches organic residues from the upper O and A horizons to the deeper B horizons.This class is named for the spodic or organic accumulation in subsurface layers. This layer also tends to contain accumulations of aluminum and iron oxides (Brady and Weil, 2004). Acid leaching from coniferous litters is the dominant soil-forming agent. The acids bind with iron and aluminum in the upper profile, leach downward and precipitate in the spodic layer, usually resulting in reddish tint to the soil (Brady and Weil, 2004). Also characteristic of this soil is the leached E horizon, usually light and dull in color, below the A horizon and overlying the enriched spodic horizon. Spodosols are found in Canada, Russia, Siberia and the northeastern United States but can also form in tropical and subtropical areas (Tan, 1994). These are acidic soils and not particularly fertile.

Alifisols are another soil class associated with forest vegetation, specifically deciduous trees. Alfisols are weathered soils forming in humid regions with cool to hot temperatures (Brady and Weil, 2004). Clay enriched subsurface layers and a leached E layer is characteristic of this class. These soils have moderate cation exchange capacity and are highly productive (Tan, 1994). Alfisols are most associated with deciduous forests but have formed in grass savannahs in Africa and California and in Mediterranean and semiarid tropical climates (Brady and Weil, 2004). In the tropical rain forests of South America and Africa oxisol soils develop. These soils are classified by having a deep subsurface oxic horizon where hydrous oxides of aluminum and iron have accumulated. Oxisols are highly weathered due to year-round heavy rainfall (Tan, 1994). As a result of the intense weathering these soils lack distinct horizons. Deep-rooted trees are a key agent in nutrient cycling in these soils(Brady and Weil, 2004). Because of year-round productivity oxisols are poor in organic matter content and have low fertility. Ultisol soils also form under tropical conditions. Like oxisols, these soils are also highly weathered. Ultisols are most associated with forest vegetation but also commonly form under savannahs and even swamps (Brady and Weil, 2004). More common to swampy, wet land regions are histisol soils. These soils only form in such environments and are characterized by having an O/C profile (Tan, 1994). Histisol soils primarily consist of parental organic

materials that make up a majority of the upper 80 cm of the profile (Brady and Weil, 2004). The organic accumulations are a result of the wet, reducing environment where decay of plant materials is inhibited. The high organic content gives the soil very dark color and high water holding capacity. These soils occur in a wide range of climatic conditions from tropical regions to tundra (Tan, 1994). In semi aridtemperate climates, like the mid US,grasses tend to dominate the landscape, forming mollisol soils. Grasses have deep roots that penetrate deep into the profile, aerating the soil and contributing organic matter rich in calcium and magnesium ions. This soil order is classified by its mollic, or soft, epipedon thats dark in color from humus enrichment (Buol, Hole and McCracken, 1980). The mollic epipedon typically extends 60-80 cm into the profile and holds high cation exchange capacity (Brady and Weil, 2004). Mollisols are mostly associated with grassland vegetation but have formed under forests in few cases. These soils are found in the great plains regions of Canada, Ukraine, and the United States (Tan, 1994). In even more arid regions ardisol soils form, these are desert soils. The climate does not provide adequate water for higher-level plant growth; as a result the vegetation consists of sparse shrubs and bunch grasses (Brady and Weil, 2004). Ardisols have low organic content and tend to have salt accumulations making them generally infertile.

To conclude, the last four orders are young soils and show little signs of development. Entisols show little progress insoil formation mainly because they are very young or in some cases the climate is simply too dry. The lack of water and vegetation leaves little for reaction with parental material (Brady and Weil, 2004). Inceptisols are soils, which show slightly more development than entisols but still lack properties of a mature soil. Gelisols are another young soil. These are soils of cold regions such as Canada and Russia where the ground is frozen most of the year. This is the primary cause for the lack of development. These soils have a characteristic permafrost layer and are rich in organic materials. Despite a short growing season vegetation such as grasses and shrubs are able to grow in gelisols (Brady and Weil, 2004). The final soil order, andisols, form on volcanic ash thats been deposited in the last 5,000-10,000 years (Brady and Weil, 2004). These soils are young but commonly have profiles with A, B and C horizons (Tan, 1994).Andisols have a dark A horizon thats rich in organic matter giving the soil high water holding capacity and fertility. These soils are found in the presence of volcanoes all over the world (Tan, 1994). Conclusion Soils link the biotic and aboitic elements of the environment. Biotic factors are paramount to soil health, fertility, conservation and formation. The relationship between soils and living organisms is symbiotic.Soils need

plants and organisms for formation and maturity. Plants are the basis of the worlds food chainsand are dependent on soils for vital nutrients and a medium in which to grow. For this reason soils and more specifically soil health and fertility are critically important to all other living organisms. Without soils we would not have food and life on this planet would not have evolved so extensively.

References Brady, N. Weil, R. 2002. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soil Second Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Buol, S. W., Hole, F. D., & McCracken, R. J. 1980. Soil genesis and

classification. Ames: Iowa State University Press.

Hausenbuiller, R. L. 1972. Soil science: Principles and practices. Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. Brown CO.

Mueller, Ray. 2011. Soil Science course notes. Paul, E. A., & Clark, F. E. 1989.Soil microbiology and biochemistry. San Diego: Academic Press. Sylvia, D. M. 1998. Principles and applications of soil microbiology. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Tan, K. H.1994. Environmental soil science. New York: Dekker.