Applied Science Department (ASD) Centre for Foundation Studies and Extension Education (FOSEE)

PPH 0105 Modern Physics and Thermodynamics

Foundation in Engineering

ONLINE NOTES

Chapter 5 Radioactivity and Nuclear Energy

FOSEE , MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY (436821-T) MELAKA CAMPUS, JALAN AYER KEROH LAMA, 75450 MELAKA, MALAYSIA. Tel 606 252 3594 Fax 606 231 8799 URL: http://fosee.mmu.edu.my/~asd/

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Course Outline 5.1 5.2 Atomic and Mass Number 5.1.1 Isotopes Radioactivity 5.2.1 Type of Radioactivity 5.2.2 Exponential Decay Equation 5.2.3 Decay Rate 5.2.4 Half-life Decay Process 5.3.1 Alpha Decay 5.3.2 Beta Decay 5.3.3 Gamma Decay Application 5.4.1 Carbon Dating 5.4.2 Medicine Nucleus 5.5.1 Rutherfords Alpha Scattering Experiment 5.5.2 Proton 5.5.3 Neutron Nuclear Reaction 5.6.1 Einsteins Equation 5.6.2 Binding Energy 5.6.3 Fission 5.6.4 Fusion 5.6.5 Chain Reaction

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define and differentiate proton, electron, neutron and nucleon 2. Describe radioactivity and its characteristics such as half life and decay rate 3. Apply and solve day life problem regarding to half life and rate of decay of radioactive source 4. Understand the application of radioactivity such as carbon dating and medicine 5. Understand the basic idea of Nuclei Physics 6. Describe nuclear reactions and differentiate all of it

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Mind Map

Alpha decay Beta decay Decay process Gamma decay

Exponential decay equation Decay rate Type of radiation Isotopes Radioactivity Atomic and mass number Radioactivity and Nuclear Energy

Carbon dating Application Medicine

Chain reaction

Nuclear reaction Proton Nucleus Neutron Binding energy Rutherfords Alpha Scattering Experiment

Fusion

Fission Einsteins equation

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5.1

Atomic and Mass Number

All nuclei are composed of two types of particles: protons and neutrons. (Except for ordinary hydrogen nucleus since it has only a single proton). Atoms Nucleus Electrons Neutron

Figure 1: Atomic Structure

Figure 2: Symbol of

14

C element in Periodic Table

Atomic number, Z This equals the number of protons in the nucleus. Sometimes it is called the charge number. Mass number, A This equals the number of nucleus (neutrons + protons) in the nucleus.
A Z This symbol used to shows the number of protons and neutrons present, where X represents the chemical symbol of the element. (When no confusion is likely to arise, we omit the subscript Z because the chemical symbol can always be used to determine Z).

Example 1: Element: Iron

56 26

Fe

Mass number, A = 56 Atomic number, Z = 26. Therefore, it contains 26 protons and 30 neutrons.

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5.1.1 Isotopes The isotopes of an element have the same Z value but different N & A values. Where Z is Atomic number, N neutrons number (no. of neutron) and A is Mass number Even the simplest element, hydrogen, has isotopes:
1 1

2 1

3 1

a) ordinary hydrogen nucleus

b) deuterium

c) tritium

5.2

Radioactivity

5.2.1 Type of Radioactivity In 1896, Henry Becquerel found that a uranium compound (uranyl potassium sulfate crystal) affected a photographic plate wrapped in light-proof paper. This process of spontaneous emission of radiation was soon to be called radioactivity. When an unstable or radioactive nucleus disintegrates spontaneously, certain kind of particles and/or high energy photons are released in a collectively called, ray. Three types of radiation that can be emitted by a radioactive substance: Alpha () decay ( the emitted particles are 4He nuclei ) Beta () decay ( the emitted particles are either electrons or positrons ) Gamma () decay ( the emitted rays are high-energy photons )

In Figure 5.1, it shows the experiment to shows the existence of these three different rays. The radiation from radioactive samples is directed into two different regions in where there are a magnetic field and electric field.

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Magnetic Field

Electric Field

Radioactive Source

Radioactive Source

Figure 5.1 The beam splits into three components i) Undeflected beam carries no charge (the gamma ray). ii) Component deflected leftward is the positively charged particles () iii) Component deflected rightward is the negatively charged particles (-). (If the beam includes a positron (+), it is deflected leftward). The three types of radiation have different penetrating powers: -particles barely penetrates a sheet of paper. -particles can penetrate a few millimeters of aluminum. -rays can penetrate several centimeters of lead. Summary of properties Alpha Particle 4u +2e 0.10c Several cm in air High Beta Gamma Particle E-M wave 1/1840 u 0u 0 -1e (+1e if +) 0.90c 1.0c Stopped by a few mm Stopped by few of aluminium cm of lead lower Very low

Nature Mass Charge Typical speed Penetrating ability Ionizing power

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5.2.2 Exponential Decay Equation The rate at which a particular decay process occurs in a radioactive sample is proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei present (those nuclei that have not yet decayed).
dN dt = N

(5.1)

N is the number of radioactive nuclei present at some instant, is called the decay constant (probability of decay per nucleus per second). If we write Equation 5.1 above in the form
dN N = dt

(5.2)

We can integrate the expression to give

N

No

dN N

dt

N ln = t No
N = Noe-t No represents the number of radioactive nuclei at t = 0. 5.2.3 Decay Rate The decay rate R (the number of decays per second), can be obtained by differentiating the last equation above with respect of time: (5.3)

R=

dN dt

= N0e-t = R0e-t

(5.4)

where Ro = N0 is the decay rate at t = 0 and R = N. Note that both N and R decrease exponentially with time

The decay rate of a sample often referred to as its activity

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5.2.3 Half-life T1/2, time it takes half of a given number of radioactive nuclei to decay Half-life is another useful parameter in characterizing the decay of a particular nucleus. N = N0/2, t = T1/2 N = Noe-t N0 = N0e-T1/2 ; eT1/2 = 2 2 Taking the natural logarithm of both sides, we get
T1 2 = ln2

0.693

(5.5)

This is a convenient expression relating half-life to decay constant. Note that: After an elapsed time of one half-life, there are N0/2 radioactive nuclei remaining. After two half-lives, half of these have decayed and N0/4 radioactive nuclei left. After three half-lives, half of before have decayed and N0/8 are left. In general, after n half-lives, the number of radioactive nuclei remaining is N0/2n. Thus, the nuclear decay is independent of the past history of a sample.

A frequently used unit of activity is the curie (Ci), defined as 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decay/s
The SI unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq):

1 Bq = 1 decay/s
Therefore,

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq Example 2: The isotope carbon-14 14C is radioactive and has a half-life of 5730 years. If you start with a 6 sample of 1000 carbon-14 nuclei, how many will still be around in 22 920 years? Solution: In 5730 years, half the sample will have decayed, leaving 500 carbon-14 nuclei remaining. In another 5730 years (for a total elapsed time of 11 460 years), the number will be reduced to 250 nuclei. After another 5730 years (total time 17 190 years), 125 remain. Finally, after four half-lives (22 920 years), only about 62 remain. These numbers represent ideal circumstances. Radioactive decay is an averaging process over a very large number of atoms, and the actual outcome depends on statistics. Our original sample in this example contained only 1000 nuclei, certainly not a very large number. Thus if we were actually to count the number remaining after one half-life for this small sample, it probably would not be 500.

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Example 3:
The half-life of the radioactive nucleus (a) (b) (c)
226 88

Ra is 1.6 x 103 years.

What is the decay constant of 226 Ra ? 88 If a sample contains 3.0 x 1016 such nuclei at t = 0, determine its activity at this time. What is the decay rate after the sample is 2.0 x 103 years old.

Solution:
(a) Calculate the decay constant using Equation 5.5 and the fact that T1/2 = 1.6 x 103 years = (1.6 x 103 years) (3.16 x 107 s/year) = 5.0 x 1010 s Therefore,

0.693 0.693 = = 1.4 10 11 s 1 T1 5.0 1010

2 226 88

Note that this result is also the probability that any single one second. (b)

Ra nucleus will decay in

We can calculate the activity of the sample at t = 0 using R0 = N0, where R0 is the decay rate at t = 0 and N0 is the number of radioactive nuclei present at t = 0. Since N0 = 3.0 x 1016, we have R0 = N0 = (1.4 x 10-11s-1) (3.0 x 1016) = 4.1 x 105 decays/s Since 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decays/s, the activity, or decay rate, at t = 0 is R0 = 11.1 Ci

(c)

We can use the Equation 5.4 as well as the fact that 2.0 x 103 year = (2.0 x 103 year) (3.15 x 107 s/year) = 6.3 x 1010 s R = R0e-t = (4.2 x 105 decay/s) exp((-1.4 x 10-11s-1)(6.3 x 1010s)) = 1.7 x 105 decays/s

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Example 4:
A radioactive sample contains 3.50 g of pure 11C , which has a half-life of 20.4 min. 6 (a) Determine the number of nuclei in the sample at t = 0 What is the activity of the sample initially and after 8.00 h? (b)

Solution:
(a) The atomic mass of 11C is approximately 11.0, and therefore 11.0 g contains 6 Avogadros number (6.02 x 1023) of nuclei. Therefore, 3.50 g contains N nuclei, where 3.50 10-6 g 17 23 N = 11.0g/mol 6.02 10 nuclei/mol = 1.92 x 10 nuclei Since T1/2 = 20.4 min = 1224 s, the decay constant is 0.693 0.693 = = = 5.66 x 10-4 s-1 1224 T1
2

(b)

Therefore, the initial activity of the sample is R0 = N0 = (5.66 x 10-4 s-1) (1.92 x 1017) = 1.08 x 1014 decays/s We can use Equation 5.4 to find the activity at any time t. For t = 8.00 h = 2.88 x 104 s, we see that t = 16.3 and so R = R0e-t = (1.09 x 1014 decays/s) e-16.3 = 8.96 x 106 decays/s

Example 5:
A sample of the isotope 131I, which has a half-life of 80.4 days, has an activity of 5 mCi at the time of shipment. Upon receipt in a medical laboratory, the activity is 4.2 mCi. How much time has elapsed between the two measurements?

Solution:
Given: T =80.4 days, R0 = 5 mCi, R = 4.2 mCi We can make use of Equation 5.4 in the form R = R0e-t 4.2 mCi = 5 mCi e t
e
0.693 t T1 2

5 4. 2 80.4 5 t= ln 0.693 4.2 = 20.2 days

=

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5.3

Decay Process

A radioactive nucleus spontaneously decays by means of one of three process: alpha () decay, beta () decay, or gamma () decay.

5.3.1 Alpha Decay

Nucleus of Helium

Emission
4 If a nucleus emit an alpha particle ( 2 He ), it loses Two protons Two neutrons

Therefore, Z decreases by 2 and A decreases by 4. The decay is written as:

A Z

A 2 Z 2

Y +

4 2

He

(5.6)

where X is called the parent nucleus and Y is the daughter nucleus. Example :
238 92

U
222 86

234 90

Th + 24 He

(5.7) (5.8)

226 88

Ra

Th + 24 He

General rule : 1) The sum of the mass number A and atomic numbers Z must be the same on both sides of the equation. Relativistic energy and momentum must be conserved. 2)

The Disintegration Energy Q :

Q = (M X MY M ) c2

(5.9)

MX is the mass of parent nucleus, MY is the mass of the daughter nucleus MO is the mass of the alpha particle.

Q is in joules when the masses are in kilograms and c is 3.00 x 108 m/s. However, when the nuclear masses are expressed in the more convenient unit u, the value of Q can be calculate in MeV using the expression

Q = (M X M Y M ) 931 494MeV / u

(5.10)

The disintegration energy Q appears in the form of kinetic energy in the daughter nucleus and the alpha particle.
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Example 6:
The 226Ra undergoes alpha decay according to Equation 226 Ra 222 Rn + 4 He . Calculate the Q 88 86 2 value for this process. Take the masses to be 226.025 406 u for 226Ra, 222.017 574 u for 222 4 Rn, and 4.002 603 for 2 He .

Solution:
Using Equation 5.10, we see that Q = (226.025 406 u 222.017 574 u 4.002 603 u) x 931.494 MeV/u = (0.005 229 u) x (931.494 MeV/u) = 4.87 MeV It is left as a problem to show that the kinetic energy of the alpha particles is about 4.8 MeV, whereas the recoiling daughter nucleus has only about 0.1 MeV of kinetic energy.

5.3.2 Beta Decay

e- electron

Emission When a radioactive nucleus undergoes beta decay the daughter nucleus has the same number of nucleons as the parent nucleus the atomic number is changed by 1
A Z A Z

X X

A Z +1 A Z 1

Y + Y + +

(5.11) (5.12)

Note the nucleon number total and charge are both conserved in these decays. Later we shall notice that these processes are not described completely by these expressions. Two typical beta decay processes are: 14 6 12 7

14 7

N +

N 12 C + 6

Note that in beta decay, A neutron changes to a proton and vice versa. The electron or positron is not present beforehand in the nucleus (but is created at the moment of decay from the rest energy of decaying nucleus).
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Experimentally, it is found that the beta particles are emitted over a continuous range of energies. The kinetic energy of particles must be balanced by the decrease in mass of the system (the Q value). However, because all decaying nuclei have the same initial mass, the Q value must be the same for each decay. Law of conservation of energy seems to be violated? Principles of conservation of both angular momentum and linear momentum are also violated? After a great deal of experimental and theoretical study, Pauli in 1930 proposed that a third particle must be present to carry away the missing energy and momentum. Later, Fermi named this particle the neutrino (little neutral one) because it had to be electrically neutral and have little or no rest mass. In 1956, the neutrino (v) was finally detected. It has the following properties: zero electric charge there is increasing evidence that its rest mass is zero and that it travels with the speed of light a spin of , which satisfies the law of conservation of angular momentum interacts very weakly with matter and is very difficult to detect Now, we can write the correct form of beta decay processes: 14 14 6 7 A A + Z Z 1

N +

+ v

(5.13) (5.14) (5.15)

Y +

+ v

p +

+ v

The symbol v represents the antineutrino, the antiparticle to the neutrino. A neutrino is emitted in positron decay and an antineutrino is emitted in electron decay. Relativistic expressions must be used for beta particles because their energy is large (typically 1 MeV). A process that competes with + decay is called the electron capture. This occurs when a parent nucleus captures one of its own orbital electrons and emits a neutrino. The final product after decay is a nucleus whose charges is Z-1:
A Z

0 X + 1 e

A Z 1

X + v

(5.16)

7 7 One example of this process is the capture of an electron by 4 Be to become 4 Li :

7 4

0 7 Be + 1 e 3 Li + v

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5.3.3 Gamma Decay

e- electron Radiation gamma

Emission

Emission

A nucleus that undergoes radioactive decay often left in an excited state. The nucleus can then undergo a second decay to a lower energy state (perhaps to the ground state), by emitting a high-energy photon:

A Z

X * ZA X +

(5.17)

where X* indicates a nucleus in an excited state. The typical half-life of an excited nuclear state is 10-10s. Photons emitted in such a de-excitation process are called gamma rays. A gamma ray photon has an energy hf that equals the energy difference E between two nuclear energy levels. When a nucleus decays by emitting gamma ray, the nucleus doesnt change, but will only ends up in a lower energy state. A violent collision with another particle may cause the nucleus to reach an excited state. It is more common for a nucleus to be in an excited state after it has undergone a previous alpha or beta decay. The following sequence of events represents a typical situation in which gamma decay occurs: 12 12 0 (5.18) 5 6 1

C *+

e + v

12 6

C * 12 C + 6

(5.19)

For example, 12B undergo beta decay to either of two levels of 12C. It could either (i) (ii) decay directly to the ground state of 12C by emitting a 13.4-MeV electron undergo - decay to an excited state of 12C* followed by gamma decay to the ground state.

5.4

Application
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5.4.1 Carbon Dating

The beta decay of 14C given by Equation 5.13, is commonly used to date organic samples. Cosmic rays in the upper atmosphere cause nuclear reactions that create 14C, 14 1 14 C + 1H . All living organisms have the same ratio of 14C to 12C (1.3 x 107 N + 0n 6 1 12 ) because they continuously exchange carbon dioxide with their surroundings. When an organism dies, it no longer absorbs 14C from the atmosphere. So the 14C/12C ratio decreases as the result of the beta decay of 14C (T1/2 is 5730 years). It is possible to measure the age of a material by measuring its activity per unit mass caused by the decay of 14C. Using this technique, scientists have been able to identify samples of wood, charcoal, bone and shell as having lived from 1000 to 25 000 years ago.

Example 7: A 25.0-g piece of charcoal is found in some ruins of an ancient city. The sample shows a 14C activity of 250 decays/min. How long has the three that this charcoal came from been dead? Solution: First, calculate the decay constant for 14C, which has a half-life of 5730 years. 0.693 0.693 = 3.83 x 10-12 s-1 = = (5730 years) 3.16 107 s/years T1
2

The number of 14C nuclei can be calculated in two steps. First, the number of 12C nuclei in 25.0 g of carbon is 25.0 g 24 23 N(12C) = 12.0 g/mol 6.02 10 nuclei/mol = 1.26 x 10 nuclei

Ratio of 14C to 12C is 1.3 x 10-12 N0(14C) = (1.3 x 10-12) (1.26 x 1024) = 1.6 x 1012 nuclei
Therefore, the initial activity of the sample is R0 = N0 = (1.6 x 1012 nuclei) (3.83 x 10-12 s-1) = 6.13 decays/s = 370 decays/min Now calculate the age of the charcoal using Equation 5.4, which relates the activity R at any time t to the initial activity R0: R = R0e-t Given that R = 250 decays/min. We found that R0 = 370 decays/min. Calculate t by taking the natural logarithm of both sides of the last equation: 1 250 t = ln 12 3.83 10 370 = 1.0 x 1011 s = 3.2 x 103 years 5.4.2 Medicine

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Radiation Therapy is the treatment of disease (mainly cancer). Radiation can cause cancer. It can also be used to treat it. Rapidly growing cancer cells are especially susceptible to destruction by radiation. Therefore, large doses are needed to kill the cancer cells, and some of the surrounding normal cells are inevitably killed as well. It is for this reason that cancer patients receiving radiation therapy often suffer side effects characteristic of radiation sickness.

Outside view of modern CT system showing the patient table and CT scanning patient aperture

Inside view of modern CT system, the x-ray tube is on the top at the 1 o'clock position and the arc-shaped CT detector is on the bottom at the 7 o'clock position. The frame holding the x-ray tube and detector rotate around the patient as the data is gathered. Figure 5.2: Computed Tomography Scan

Figure 5.3: Diagram showing relationship of xray tube, patient, detector, and image reconstruction computer and display monitor

To minimize the destruction of normal cells, a narrow beam of or X-rays is often used when the cancerous tumor is well localized. The beam is directed at the tumor. The source (or body) is rotated so that the beam passes through various parts of the body so that the dose at any one place is as low as possible (except at the tumor or its immediate surroundings where the beams passes at all times).

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60 The radiation may be from a radioactive source such as 27 Co or it maybe from an X-ray machine that produces photons in the range 200 keV to 5 MeV.

In some cases, a tiny radioactive source may be inserted directly inside a tumor, which will eventually kill the majority of the cells. A similar technique is used to treat cancer of the thyroid with the radioactive isotope 131I . The thyroid gland tends to concentrate any iodine 53 present in the bloodstream; so when 131I is injected into the blood, it becomes concentrated in 53 the thyroid, particularly in any area where abnormal growth is taking the place. The intense radioactivity emitted can then destroy the defective cells. Although radiation can increase the lifespan of many patients, it is not always completely effective. It may not be possible to kill all the diseased cancer cells, so a recurrence of the disease is possible. Many cases, especially when the cancerous cells are not well localized in one are, are difficult to treat at all without damaging the rest of the organism. Another application of radiation is for sterilizing bandages, surgical equipment, and even packaged foods, since bacteria and viruses can be killed and deactivated by large doses of radiation.

5.5

NUCLEUS

5.5.1 Rutherfords Alpha Scattering Experiment

A typical model of the atom in the 1890s visualised the atom as a homogeneous sphere of positive charge inside of which there were tiny negatively charged electrons. J.J Thomson, soon after his discovery of the electron in 1897, argued that the electrons in this model should be moving. Around 1911, Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues performed experiments whose results contradicted Thomsons model of the atom. In these experiments a beam of positively charged alpha () particles was directed at a thin sheet of metal foil such as gold.

Figure 5.4: Rutherfords Alpha Scattering Experiment Set up

Fluorescent
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Figure 5.5: Analysis Diagram of Alpha Scattering Process It was expected from Thomsons model that the alpha particles would not be deflected significantly since electrons are so much lighter than alpha particles, and the alpha particles should not have encountered any massive concentration of positive charge in that model to strongly repel them. The experimental results completely contradicted these predictions. It was found that most of the alpha particles passed through the foil unaffected, as if the foil were mostly empty space. And of those deflected, a few were deflected at very large angles. Some even nearly back in the direction from which they had come. This could happen, Rutherford reasoned, only if the positively charged alpha particles were being repelled by a massive positive charge concentrated in a very small region of space. He theorised that the atom must consist of a tiny but massive positively charged nucleus, containing over 99.9 percent of the mass of the atom, surrounded by electrons some distance away. The electrons would be moving in orbits about the nucleus (much as the planets move around the Sun). Rutherfords experiments suggested that the nucleus must have a radius of about 10-15 to 10-14 m. (From kinetic theory and Einsteins analysis of Brownian movement, the radius of atoms was estimated to be about 10-10m). If the nucleus were the size of a baseball, the atom would have the diameter of a big city several kilometres across. So an atom would be mostly empty space.

5.5.2 Proton
In 1919 Rutherford found that energetic particles could penetrate nitrogen atoms and that protons were thrown out after the collision. Proton is also obtained with the gas fluorine, and with other elements such as the metal sodium and aluminium. It is clear that nucleus of all elements contain protons. The number of protons must equal the number of electrons surrounding nucleus, so that each number is equal to the atomic number, Z, of the element. A proton is represented by this symbol:

1 1

5.5.3 Neutron

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In 1932, Chadwick found a new particle inside a nucleus, in addition to the proton. It had about the same mass of the proton but carry no charge. So Chadwick call the new particle a neutron. Its mass, which is almost identical to that of the proton, is mn = 1.6749 x 1027 kg

5.6

Nuclear Reaction

5.6.1 Einsteins Equation

In 1905, Einstein showed from his Theory of Relativity that mass (m) and energy (E) can be changed from one form to the other. The energy E produced by a change of mass m is given by the relation:

E = mc2
c = value of the velocity of light (3 x 108 m/s), E is in joules and m is in kg.
Nuclear masses are specified in unified atomic mass unit (u) 1u = 1.6605410-27kg (1.6610-27kg) Masses are often specified using the electron-volt (eV) 1eV = (1.602210-19C)(1V) =1.602210-19J 1MeV =1.602210-13J From Einsteins Equation E for 1u mass

E = mc2
= 1.6605410-27kg(2.9979108m/s)2 = 1.492410-11J = 1.492410-11J/(1.6022110-13J/MeV) = 931.5 MeV

E = (u)(931.5MeV/u)

Example 8: Change of mass, m = 1 g = 9 x 1013 J Energy produced, E = 10-3 x (3 x 108)2 2.5 x 107 kilowatt-hours Consequently a change in mass of 1 g could be sufficient to keep the electrical lamps in a million houses burning for a bout a week in winter, on the basis of about seven hours use per day. Exercise:
An all-electric home uses approximately 2 000 kWh of electric energy per month. How much uranium-235 would be required to provide this house with its energy needs for 1 year? (Assume 100% conversion efficiency and 208 MeV released per fission.) Note; 1 kWh = 3.6 x 10-6 J and 1 MeV = 1.6 x 10-13 J. 5.6.2 Binding Energy

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The total mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of its nucleons. Because mass is a measure of energy;

Total energy (the bound system) < Combined energy (the separated nucleons)

This difference in energy is called BINDING ENERGY (mass of N neutrons + mass of Z protons mass of nucleus N+ZX) This energy can be thought of as the energy that must be added to a nucleus to BREAK it apart into its components. Therefore, in order to separate a nucleus into protons and neutrons, energy must be delivered to the system. Conservation of energy and the Einstein mass-energy equivalence relationship show that the binding energy of any nucleus of mass MA is

Eb(MeV) = (Zmp + Nmn MA) x 931.5 MeV/u where mp is the mass of the proton, and mn is the mass of the neutron.
The binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus is binding energy divided by the total number of nucleon. Figure 6.4 shows the variation of the binding energy per nucleon among the elements. Excluding the nuclei than 12C, we can see from Figure 5.6 that the average binding energy per nucleon, E/A, is fairly constant for the great majority of nuclei. The average value is about 8 MeV per nucleon.

Greatest Stability

Figure 5.6: Binding energy per nucleon graph

Notice that the peak occurs at approximately the iron nucleus 56Fe (A=56), which is therefore one of the most stable nuclei, and E/A is smaller for nuclei with lower and higher values of A. Figure 5.6 can thus be interpreted as an indicator of nuclear stability. A higher value of E/A implies that it is difficult to remove a nucleon or break up nucleus, therefore the nucleus has higher stability.

Example 9:

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Calculate the binding energy of the deuteron (the nucleus of a deuterium atom), which consists of a proton and a neutron, given that the mass of the deuteron is 2.013553 u.

Solution: Proton masses, mp = 1.007 276 u

mp + mn = 2.015 941 u

Neutron masses, mn = 1.008 665 u

To calculate the mass difference, we subtract the deuteron mass from this value:

m = (mp + mn) md = 2.015 941 u 2.013 553 u = 0.002 388 u

Using the equation above, we find that the binding energy is Eb = mc2 = (0.002 388 u) (931.494 MeV/u) = 2.224 MeV Therefore, to separate a deuteron into its constituent proton and neutron, 2.224 MeV of energy should be added. One way of supplying the deuteron with this energy is by bombarding it with energetic particles. If the binding energy of a nucleus were zero, the nucleus would separate into its constituent protons and neutrons without the addition of any energy; that is, it would spontaneously break apart.

Exercise:
The peak of the stability curve occurs at 56Fe. Elements up to iron are produced in the cores of massive stars by exothermic fusion reactions. This is the fundamental reason that iron and lighter elements are much more common in the Universe than elements with higher mass numbers. By using information in table below, show that 56Fe has a higher binding energy per nucleon than its neighbors 55Mn and 59Co. Compare your results with Figure 5.6. Nucleus
55 25

Mn
Fe

56 26 59 27

Co

Z 25 26 27

(A Z) 30 30 32

n ( i u)

54.938 048 55.934 940 58.933 198

5.6.3 Fission

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Large nucleus splits, or fissions, into two smaller nuclei.

Neutrons are not subject to Coulomb forces because of their charge neutrality. In general it is found that the rate of neutron-induced reactions increases as the neutron kinetic energy decreases. There are two things that happen to the neutrons; i) Free neutrons undergo beta decay with a mean lifetime of about 10 minutes. ii) Neutrons travelling through matter are absorbed by nuclei before they decay. A fast neutron (energy greater than about 1 MeV) travelling through matter undergoes many scattering events with the nuclei. In such event, the neutron gives up some of its kinetic energy to a nucleus. The neutron continues to undergo collisions until its energy is of the order of the thermal energy kBT, where kB is Boltzmanns constant and T is the absolute temperature. A neutron having this amount of energy is called a thermal neutron. Their average kinetic energy at room temperature is Kav = 1.5kbT 0.04 eV A high-energy neutron, one whose energy is several MeV, thermalizes (reaches Kav) in less that 1 ms. At this low energy, there is a high probability that that neutron will be captured by a nucleus, an event that is accompanied by the emission of a gamma ray. This neutron capture can be written as:
1 0

n + ZAX > A +1X + Z

The neutron-capture rate depends on i) the nature of the target nucleus ii) the energy of the incident neutron Elastic collision For some materials and for fast neutrons, elastic collisions are dominant. Materials for which this occurs are called moderators because they slow down (moderate) the originally energetic neutrons very effectively. A good moderator should be a nucleus of low mass and should not tend to capture neutrons. Boron, water, and graphite are a few examples of moderator materials. During an elastic collision between two particles, the maximum kinetic energy is transferred from one particle to the other when they have the same mass. Consequently, a neutron loses all of its kinetic energy when it collides head-on with a proton (in analogy to the collision between a moving and a stationary billiard ball). If the collision is oblique, the neutron loses only part of its kinetic energy. Paraffin and water are some example of good moderators.

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Nuclear fission Nuclear fission was first observed in 1938 by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman, following some basic studies by Fermi. After bombarding uranium (Z = 92) with neutrons, Hahn and Strassman discovered among the reaction products two medium-mass elements, barium and lanthanum. Shortly thereafter, Lisa Meitner and Otto Frisch explained what had happened. The uranium nucleus had split into two nearly equal fragments after absorbing a neutron. Nuclear fission occurs when a heavy nucleus splits/fissions into two smaller nuclei. In such a reaction, the combined rest mass of the daughter nuclei is less than the rest mass of the parent nucleus. It is initiated by the capture of a thermal neutron by a heavy nucleus and involves the energy release of about 200 MeV per fission. The fission of 235U by slow neutrons can be represented by the equation
1 0

n + 235 U > 92
235 92

236 92

U > X + Y + neutrons
141 56

1 0

n+

U >

Ba +

92 36

Kr + 3 ( 01 n )

Where 236U* is an intermediate excited state that lasts only for about 10-12 seconds before splitting into X and Y. The resulting nuclei, X and Y, are called fission fragments. Fission also results in the production of several neutrons, typically two or three. About 2.5 neutrons are released per event. A typical reaction for uranium is

Of the 200 MeV or so released in this reaction, most goes into the kinetic energy of the heavy fragments barium and krypton.
The breakup of the uranium nucleus can be compared to what happens to a drop of water when excess energy is added to it. All the atoms in the drop have energy, but this energy is not great enough to break up the drop. However, if enough energy is added top set the drop into vibration, it elongates and compresses until the amplitude of vibration becomes large enough to cause the drop to break. In the uranium nucleus, a similar process occurs: The 235U nucleus captures a thermal neutron. This capture results in the formation of 236U*, and the excess energy of this nucleus causes it to undergo violent oscillations. The 236U* nucleus becomes highly distorted, and the force of repulsion between protons in the two halves of the dumbbell shape tends to increase the distortion The nucleus splits into two fragments, emitting several neutrons in the process.

Example 10:
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In addition to the barium-lanthanum reaction observed by Meitner and Frisch and the bariumkrypton reaction of
1 0 92 n+ 235U >141Ba + 36 Kr + 3( 01n) 92 56

Two other ways 235U can fission when bombarded with a neutron are 1) By forming 140Xe and 94Sr By forming 132Sn and 101Mo 2) In each case, neutrons are also released. Find the number of neutrons released in each event.

Solution: By balancing mass number and atomic number we find that these reactions can be written
Thus, two neutrons are released in the first event and three in the second.
1 0 94 n + 235 U > 140 Xe + 38 Sr + 2 ( 01 n ) 92 54

1 0

n + 235 U > 132 Sn + 101Mo + 3( 01 n ) 92 50 42

Example 11: Calculate the total energy if 1.00 kg of 235U undergoes fission, taking the disintegration energy per event to be Q = 208 MeV. Solution: We need to know the number of nuclei in 1.00 kg of uranium. Since A = 235, the number of nuclei is 1.00 103 g 23 N = 235 g/mol 6.02 10 nuclei/mol = 2.56 x 1024 nuclei

Hence the total disintegration energy is E = NQ = (2.56 x 1024 nuclei) ( 208 MeV/nucleus ) = 5.32 x 1026 MeV Since MeV is equivalent to 4.45 x 10-20 kWh, E = 2.37 x 107 kWh. This is enough energy to keep a 100 W lightbulb burning for about 30 000 years. Thus, 1 kg of 235U is a relatively large amount of fissionable material.

Exercise:
1. Identify the unknown particles X and X in the following nuclear reactions: 1 (a) X + 4 He 24 Mg + 0 n 2 12 (b)
235 92 1 U + 0n 90 38 1 Sr + X + 2 0 n

(c) 2 1 H 2 H + X + X' 1 1

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2.

Construct the decay equation and find the energy released in the alpha decay of The following mass value will be useful: Th has a mass of 234.043 583 u, a mass of 238.050784 u and alpha particle has a mass of 4.002602 u.
234 90 238 92

238 92

U.

U has

5.6.4 Fusion

Two small nuclei fuse to form a larger one.

We know that the binding energy for light nuclei (those having a mass number of less than 20) is much smaller than the binding energy for heavier nuclei. Because the mass of the final nucleus is less than the combined rest masses of the original nuclei, there is a loss of mass accompanied by a release of energy. The following are examples of such energy-liberating fusion reactions:
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 2

H + 11 H >
2 H + 1 H >

2 1 3 2

H + + He +
4 2

H + 23 He >

He + +
He + 11 H + 11 H

He + 23 He >

4 2

This second reaction is followed by one of the following reactions: These are the basic reactions in proton-proton cycle, believed to be one of the basic cycles by which energy is generated in the Sun and other stars that have an abundance of hydrogen. Most of the energy production takes place at the Suns interior, where the temperature is approximately 1.5 x 107. Such a high temperature is required to drive these reactions. The hydrogen (fusion) bomb first exploded in 1952, is an example of an uncontrolled thermonuclear fusion reaction. All of the reactions in the proton-proton cycle are exothermic. An overall view of the protonproton cycle is that four protons combine to form an alpha particle and two positrons, with the release of 25 MeV of energy.

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Fusion Reactions
The enormous amount of energy released in fusion reactions suggests the possibility of harnessing this energy for useful purpose here on Earth. A great deal of effort is currently under the way to develop a sustained and controllable thermonuclear reactor a fusion power reactor. Some of its advantages are: i) Controlled fusion is often called the ultimate energy source because of the availability of its fuel source: water. For example, if deuterium were used as the fuel, 0.12 g of it could be extracted from 1 gal of water at a cost of four cents. Comparatively few radioactive by-products are formed. For the proton-proton cycle, the end product of the fusion of hydrogen nuclei is safe, nonradioactive helium.

ii)

Unfortunately, a thermonuclear reactor that can deliver a net power output spread out over a reasonable time interval is not yet a reality, and many difficulties must be resolved before a successful device is constructed. The fusion reactions that appear most promising for a fusion power reactor involve deuterium (2H) and tritium (3H):
2 1
2 1
2 1

2 3 H + 1 H > 1 He + 11 H > Q = 4 . 03 MeV

2 H + 1 H > 23 He + 01 n > Q = 3 . 27 MeV
3 H + 1 H > 24 He + 01 n > Q = 17 . 59 MeV

One of the major problems in obtaining energy from nuclear fusion is the fact that the Coulumb repulsion force between two charged nuclei must be overcome before they can fuse. The fundamental problem is to give the two nuclei enough kinetic energy to overcome this repulsive force. This can be accomplished by heating the fuel to extremely high temperatures (to about 108 K, far greater than the interior temperature of the Sun). At these temperatures, the atoms are ionised and the system consists of a collection of electrons and nuclei commonly referred to as plasma.

Example 12:
The separation between two deuterons must be about 10-14 m for the attractive nuclear force to overcome the repulsive Coulumb force. (a) (b) Calculate the height of the potential barrier due to the repulsive force. Estimate the effective temperature required for a deuteron to overcome the potential barrier, assuming an energy of 3/2kBT per deuteron (where kB is Boltzmanns constant)

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Solution:
(a) The potential energy associated with two charges separated by a distance r is qq U = ke 1 2 r where ke is the Coulumb constant. For the case of two deuterons, q1 = q2 = +e, so that 1.60 10 19 C e2 U = ke = 8.99 10 9 N.m 2 r 1.0 10 14 m = 2.3 10-14 J = 0.14 MeV

)(

) )

(b)

Since the total Coulomb energy of the part of deuterons is 0.14 MeV, the Coulomb energy per deuteron is 0.07 MeV = 1.1 10-14 J. Setting this equal to the average thermal energy per deuteron gives 3/2kBT = 1.1 10-14 J where kB is equal to 1.38 10-23 J/K. Solving for T gives 2 1.1 10 14 J = 5.3 10-8 K T= 23 3 1.38 10 J/K

Exercise: (a) Determine the product of the reaction 7 Li + 4 He ? + n 3 2 (b) What is the Q value of the reaction? [mass of lithium = 7.016003u, mass of alpha = 4.002602u, mass of boron = 10.012936u and mass of neutron = 1.008665u]

5.6.5 Chain Reaction

In the 5.6.4 (fission) section, we saw that, when 235U fission, an average of 2.5 neutron are emitted per event. These neutrons can in turn trigger other nuclei to fission with the possibility of a chain reaction. Calculations show that if the chain reaction is not controlled (if it doesnt proceed slowly), it could result in a violent explosion, with the release of an enormous amount of energy.
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For example, if the energy in 1 kg of 235U were released, it would be equivalent to denoting about 20 000 tons of TNT! This is the principle behind the first nuclear bomb, an uncontrolled fission reaction. A nuclear reactor is a system designed to maintain what is called a self-sustained chain reaction. Fermi first achieved this important process in 1942 at the University of Chicago, with natural uranium as the fuel. In order to achieve a self-sustained chain reaction, one of the neutrons emitted in 235U fission, on the average, must be captured by another 235U nucleus and cause it to undergo fission. A useful parameter for describing the level of reactor operation is the reproduction constant K, defined as the average number of neutrons from each fission event that cause another fission event. K can have a maximum value of 2.5 in the fission of uranium. However, in practice K is less than this.

K K=1 K<1 K >> 1

REACTION A self-sustained chain reaction is achieved Run-reaction dies out Run-away reaction occurs

REACTOR Critical Subcritical Supercritical

To understand how neutrons are slowed, consider a collision between a lightweight object and a very massive one. In such an event, the lightweight object rebounds from the collision with most of its original kinetic energy. However, if the collision is between objects whose masses are nearly the same, the incoming object transfer a large percentage of its kinetic energy to the target object. Most of the modern reactors use water as the moderator. In the process of being slowed down, neutrons may be captured by nuclei that do not fission. The most common event of this type is neutron capture by 238U, which constitutes over 90% of the uranium in the fuel elements. The probability of neutron capture by 238U is very high when the neutrons have high kinetic energies and vice versa. Thus, the slowing down of the neutrons by the moderator serves the secondary purpose of making them available for reaction with 238U and decreasing their chances of being captured by 238U.

END OF CHAPTER 5
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